Table of Contents

I. A Brief Overview of Astrology

-

Introduction
Different Genres
Methodology of Astrology
Geocentric Model vs. Heliocentric Model

2
2
2
3

II. Formalism of Astrology

-

Basic Terminology
Great Circles on the Celestial Sphere

III. The Planets

-

4
5
7
9

Retrograde Movement of the Planets

IV. The Zodiac

-

Constellations
Zodiac
Astrological Meaning of the Zodiac
Problems With the Zodiac

10
10
11
12

V. The Houses
-

Terminology of House Division

Astrological Meaning of the Houses
Different Systems of House Division

14
15
16

1. Equal House System

2. System of Campanus
3. System of Regiomontanus
4. System of Placidus

Differences in Sizes of Houses During Course of Day

Uneven Probability Density of Ascendant at Different Latitudes

20
21

1.
2.
3.
4.

Theory
Derivation of V, the Speed of the Ecliptic When it Crosses the Horizon
Derivation of the Exact Form of the General Formula
Analysis of the + and Roots
5. Graphs of V at Different Latitudes

The Polar Problem in House Division

27

1. Ill-defined Ascendant and Descendant

2. No Ascendant / Stationary Ascendant
3. Ill-defined MC
4. Discontinuous Ascendant

VI. References

36

I. A Brief Overview of Astrology

Introduction
Astrology is the belief that there exists a meaningful relationship between the positions of
celestial bodies and human experience, and that we can systematically determine this
relationship.
A common misconception is to confuse astronomy with astrology. Astronomy is the
scientific study of the universe. Astrology is astromancy, or divination by the stars.
An astronomer studies the stars using the scientific method. An astrologer casts
horoscopes to predict earthly events, like the fates of nations and individuals.
The only possible method to test the validity of astrological influences or predictions is
using statistical studies. This means gathering large samples of individuals, tabulating
their character traits, and checking if there exists a correlation between these and their
horoscopes. This is not the focus of the project. Instead, the aim is to highlight some
mathematical problems in the formalism of astrology. The focus is specifically on
geometric problems encountered in house division.

Different Genres
Astrology has many faces. There is popular astrology, commonly found in newspapers.
There is also serious astrology, which is the casting and interpretation of horoscopes of
individuals. Serious astrology is itself sub-categorized. Natal astrology deals with the
horoscope calculated at the moment of birth. Horary astrology determines the auspicious
moments to make personal decisions. Mundane or world astrology studies the fates of
countries or nations.

Methodology of Astrology
The input data an astrologer needs are the date, place and exact time of birth. These will
provide the material for the calculations needed to construct the individuals horoscope.
A horoscope is nothing more than a map or diagram of the various planets positions at
any one point in time, with respect to the earth. The word horoscope is derived from
the Greek word horoskopos, meaning hour watcher. Basic ingredients of the
horoscope include the sun-sign, the Ascendant, information on the Houses, the Aspects,
etc. The astrologer will then proceed to interpret the horoscope, and hence offer advice.

 Geocentric Model vs. Heliocentric Model

The heliocentric model places the Sun at the centre of the solar system. The geocentric
model places the Earth at the centre of the solar system.
Technically, it is not wrong to adopt the geocentric model, as we would be merely
considering different frames of references. We live in a geocentric world. Astrology is
preoccupied with how the planets relate to an individual on Earth, and hence their relative
positions. Generally, the heliocentric model is good for explaining how things work in
the solar system, in accordance with the laws of physics. By contrast, the geocentric
model is suitable for descriptive purposes.

II. Formalism of Astrology

Basic Terminology
Astrology deals with projective geometry, meaning distances to celestial bodies are
inconsequential. Only their relative positions on the celestial sphere are important. In
other words, only the angular differences from the Earth matter. We need to define
certain key terms to obtain a graphical idea of the celestial sphere.
North Celestial Pole
Zenith

Celestial Equator

Observer

Earth
Horizon

South Celestial Pole

A schematic view of the celestial sphere

1. Celestial Sphere
The celestial sphere is an imaginary dome around an observer on Earth. The observer is
at the centre of the dome, with all the visible celestial bodies on its surface. It is a model
of how the sky appears to us. In reality, the various celestial bodies are not the same
distance from the Earth.

2. Celestial Poles
The celestial poles are the centres of rotation of the celestial sphere. They are called the
north and south celestial poles (NCP and SCP).

3. Zenith
The zenith is the point on the celestial sphere straight overhead of an observer on the
Earth.

4. Nadir
The nadir is the point on the celestial sphere that is directly opposite the zenith.

Great Circles on the Celestial Sphere

A great circle is a circle on a sphere obtained by intersecting the sphere with a plane that
passes through the center of the sphere. There are certain important great circles on the
celestial sphere.

1. Celestial Equator
The celestial equator is a circle that cuts the celestial sphere into two equal halves, with
respect to the poles. It lies above the terrestrial equator.

2. Horizon
The horizon is a circle that cuts the celestial sphere into two halves: one which is visible,
and one which is not. It is the ground level of the observer. The plane of this great
circle is perpendicular to a line joining the point of an observer on the Earth and the
zenith, and cuts through the centre of the Earth.

3. Ecliptic
The ecliptic is the annual path of the Sun, with respect to the stars, as seen from a
geocentric perspective. The plane of this great circle always makes an angle of 23.5
with the plane of the celestial equator. This tilt is of great importance, as it is responsible
for the seasons on Earth.

4. Central Meridan
The central meridan is an imaginary arc which cuts through the north point on the
horizon, the zenith, and the south point on the horizon.

5. Prime Vertical
The prime vertical is an imaginary arc which cuts through the east point on the horizon,
the zenith and the west point on the horizon.

6. Equinoxes and Solstices

Two great circles intersect at two points diametrically opposite each other. For the
celestial equator and the ecliptic, these are the equinoxes. The solstices are the highest
and lowest points on the ecliptic, with respect to the celestial equator. We will also use
these terms for the times when the Sun is at these points. The spring or vernal equinox
falls on March 21, while the autumnal equinox is on September 23. At the equinoxes, the
days and nights are of equal length. The highest point, the summer solstice, falls on June
21, and is the longest day of the year for the northern hemisphere. The lowest point, the
winter solstice, is on December 22, and coincides with the shortest day of the year for the
northern hemisphere.
Summer Solstice

Ecliptic

Autumnal Equinox
Celestial Equator

Winter Solstice

Vernal Equinox
Earth

Much of observational astronomy reduces to the analysis of these three great circles:
ecliptic, horizon and celestial equator.

III. The Planets

The planets in our solar system play an important role in astrology. Analysis of them
involves tracking their movement across the sky. This is not a simple task, as their
motions are varied some take days or even weeks to record any changes in position.
Furthermore, only five of the planets are visible to the naked eye: Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter and Saturn. Uranus, Neptune and Pluto were discovered after the invention of the
telescope, in 1781, 1846, and 1930, respectively. Together with Earth, they make up the
nine planets of our solar system. It is interesting to note that when astrologers use the
term planets, they include the Sun and Moon as well. Specifically, the Sun and Moon
are referred to as luminaries.
Listed below is a table of the planets, their astrological symbols and the corresponding
meanings, as claimed by astrologers.

Table of Astrological Characteristics of the Planets

(From Making Sense Of Astrology)

Life force, self-esteem, power and ambition, authority

(the father); heart, circulation, eyes.

Sun

Sensitivity, inspiration, confusion, exaggeration;

chaos, psychology.

Moon

Mercury

Venus

Mars

Intellect, ability to adapt; nervous system, brain,

speech organs.

Emotions, eroticism, artistic ability, relationships,

world of art; organs of smell and touch.

Energy, desire, choleric temperament, courage, force,

military and technical world; muscular system, blood,
genitals.

Force

Subconscious

Communication

Harmony

Energy

Jupiter Philosophical and religious thought, nomadic nature,

Expansion

financial and judicial world; liver, lungs.

Saturn Concentration, melancholic temperament, earth, soil, Concentration

lonely places; bones, skin.

Uranus

Intuition, independence, engineering, revolution,

occultism.

Neptune Fertility, metabolism, subconscious,

Crisis

Inspiration

consciousness, emotions (the mother);

stomach, belly, uterus.

Pluto

Turning points, crisis, death.

Turning Point

Unfortunately, the astrological meanings of the planets are derived from analogy, not
from scientific study. It is clear that the names of the planets coincide with the names of
Greco-Roman gods from antiquity, and each of these gods possessed their own attributes
and ruled certain domains of life. The striking thing is that the attributes of the planets
agree with the characteristics and attributes of the Greco-Roman gods.
For example, Mercury was commonly known as the god of commerce, and hence the
planet Mercury rules commerce in astrology. It is the same with Venus, the goddess of
love. The other analogies are derived similarly.
Another interesting point to note is that classical astrology worked with only five planets
(besides the Sun and the Moon). Only after the invention of the telescope did astrologers
assimilate the other three planets into their works.

 Retrograde Movement of the Planets

Most of the time, the planets in our solar system move eastwards across the sky.
However, they sometimes move westwards. This is known as retrograde or backwards
motion. Take for example, Mars. This is illustrated in the diagram below.

orbit of Mars

d
b

c
a

Path of Mars as seen from Earth

orbit of Earth

As the orbit of Mars around the Sun is much larger than the orbit of the Earth, the relative
movement of Mars appears to be largely tangential. The relative movement of the Earth
can vary from being tangential to being normal to the orbit of Mars. The tangential vs.
normal movement results in retrograde motion.
a. At point a, movement of the Earth is largely normal to Mars. Hence, it moves
towards Mars. In turn, Mars seems to be moving forward (eastwards) across
the sky.
b. At point b, movement of Earth becomes more tangential, with respect to Mars. It
hence catches up with Mars. The forward motion of Mars is retarded at this
stage.
c. At point c, Earth moves in a tangential path parallel to Mars. Since the Earth has
a higher orbital speed, it out-races Mars. Hence, from the Earth, Mars appears
to move backwards (westwards) across the sky at this stage.
d. At point d, Earth starts to resume normal movement, and moves away from
Mars. Retrograde movement hence begins to diminish.
e. At point e, Earth resumes normal movement, while Mars continues its tangential
motion. This creates the illusion from a geocentric view that Mars resumes its
forward movement across the sky.
This entire process, for Mars, takes about 4 months. In the same way, other planets in the
solar system exhibit retrograde behaviour, when seen from Earth. The entire period for
retrograde motion to occur also differs from planet to planet.
The seemingly arbitrary movements of the planets in the sky led the ancients to believe
that they were directly influenced by the gods. Hence the role of the planets as
determiners of fate was not an incredible notion in ancient times.

IV. The Zodiac

Constellations
A constellation is a collection of stars, grouped together to form a recognizable figure.
Constellations are formed so that when seen from our position in space, the individual
stars seem to be in each others vicinity. For example, a bright star which is far away and
a dim star which is much nearer to Earth can appear to be situated just next to each other.
In all, there are 88 constellations, according to the official division developed by the
Belgian astronomer Eugene Delporte. Examples include the Big Dipper, Ursa Major
(Big Bear) and the Serpent.

Zodiac
The zodiac is a twelve-part division of the sky in the neighbourhood of the ecliptic. We
can imagine this as a wide band stretched around the celestial sphere, and cut in half by
the orbit of the Sun, as shown in the diagram below. In astrology, these twelve parts are
called signs. Each of these parts has a size of 30.
Cancer
Gem

ini

Ecliptic

Gemini

Leo

Taurus

Celestial Equator

90
s
Arie

ric
Cap

Tau

Virgo

rus

The Zodiac & their

astrological symbols

180

orn
Pisc

es

Aries

Libra

Pisces

270

s
ariu
Aqu

Scorpio

Aquarius
Sagittarius

Capricorn

The zodiac on the celestial sphere

A common misconception is to term the signs as constellations. The twelve signs used
by the astrologers are not the same as the 88 constellations in observational astronomy.
The constellations are by definition a pattern of stars, and their sizes differ greatly. The
signs, on the other hand, are pure geometrical constructs.

10

As the Sun makes its annual path around the ecliptic, it resides in each of the twelve
signs, in turn. An individual born during a certain time would take on the sign the Sun is
in at that moment. This is called the sun sign of the horoscope. The individual is then
supposed to take on the characteristics associated with the sign.

Astrological Meaning of the Zodiac

Each of the signs in the zodiac is supposed to have certain astrological properties. Listed
below is a table of the characteristics of the signs, according to the astrologers:
Latin Name
Aries
Taurus
Gemini
Cancer
Leo
Virgo
Libra
Scorpio
Sagittarius
Capricorn
Aquarius
Pisces

English Name
Characteristics
Ram
Energy, activity, entrepreneurship.
Bull
Materialism, practical sense, perseverance.
Twins
Communication, social activities.
Crab
Social work, caring professions.
Lion
Authority, leadership, vitality.
Virgin
Scientific, analytical ability.
Scales
Artistic, sense of equilibrium, mediation.
Scorpion
Sex, medicine, science, intensity.
Archer
Sports, idealism, religion, philosophy.
Goat
Ambition, politics.
Water Bearer Humane, intuitive.
Fishes
Dreamer, altruistic.
Short survey of the characteristics of the signs
(Taken from Making Sense of Astrology)

There also exist further divisions of the Zodiac. Using perhaps a smart play of geometry,
the ecliptic is further divided using a triangle, a square and a hexagon, as shown
below:

+
Cancer
Gemini
+

Leo

Taurus

Virgo

Aries

Libra

Pisces

fire = Aries + Leo + Sagittarius

earth = Taurus + Virgo + Capricorn
air = Gemini + Libra + Aquarius
water = Cancer + Scorpio + Pisces

Scorpio

Aquarius
Sagittarius

Capricorn

11

cardinal = Aries + Cancer + Libra + Capricorn

fixed = Taurus + Leo + Scorpio + Aquarius
mutable = Gemini + Virgo + Sagittarius + Pisces

The signs located on a triangle are connected with the ancient Greek natural elements of
fire, earth, air and water. The division according to the squares are the cardinal signs, the
fixed signs, and the mutable signs. The geometrical group formed by the inscribed
hexagon are either positive or negative signs. The positives signs are supposed to be
masculine, while the negative signs are feminine. Astrologers also use the positive and
negative divisions as interpretation of introversion and extroversion, respectively.
Again, like the planets, the characteristics of the signs are based on analogy. It is not
hard to see that there is a clear connection between the characteristics and the image of
the sign that is supposed to symbolize them. Take for example, Aries, the Ram. The sign
is, according to astrology, energetic, active, impulsive, sprightly and violent. These traits
are clearly copied from the characteristics of the animal. Another example is the sign
Taurus, which is supposed to be slow, persistent, fertile. It is like its earthly counterpart,
the Bull.
The principle of analogy is connected to magical thinking in ancient times. The
assumption is made that in some sense an image has the characteristics of whatever it
pictures. This type of thinking was known as cosmic sympathy, a relation that
connected strongly divergent things together. However, analogy cannot be accepted by
science as a justification for a claim.

Problems with the Zodiac

Two systems of the zodiac developed. The tropical zodiac is a division of the ecliptic,
and uses the vernal equinox as its starting point. Each subsequent division of 30 then
makes a sign. The sidereal zodiac is firmly connected with the constellations. Western
astrologers favour the tropical zodiac, while their Indian counterparts prefer the sidereal
zodiac.
When the ancients first formulated the astrological zodiac, the constellations probably
coincided with the twelve-part divisions in the sky. This meant the tropical and sidereal
zodiacs were in agreement. However, a very slow process called precession shifts the
vernal equinox between the stars. This is because precession causes the Earths axis of
rotation to wobble.
Since the celestial equator is perpendicular to this axis, it follows that the celestial
equator shifts along with it. The ecliptic is unaffected by precession. Hence, the overall
effect is that the points where the celestial equator and ecliptic intersect will change. This
ultimately causes the vernal equinox to shift. Since the starting point of the tropical
zodiac is the vernal equinox, it follows that the tropical zodiac will start shifting
westwards. This means the tropical and sidereal zodiacs will not agree with each other.
The effect of precession is not very noticeable, and amounts to a full sign every 2,000
years.

12

The Sun and the Moon both produce gravitational

pulls on the Earths equatorial bulge.

This is an attempt to reduce the tilt of the Earths

axis.

Hence, Earths rotation axis wobbles, and the

vernal equinox shifts westward.

Precession has a cycle of 26,000 years

It is logical to deduce that astrology can only be as old as when the constellations
coincided exactly with the zodiac (eg. when the constellation Gemini was in the sign
Gemini, etc). Specifically, this means the time when the vernal equinox was situated in
the constellation of Aries. The vernal equinox is now in Taurus, which means the zodiac
is about 2,500 years old. In fact, the oldest horoscope in existence dates back to about
400 B.C.

13

V. The Houses
Due to the slow movement of the zodiac, a horoscope drawn up during a certain time
would be valid for all people born around that time. The unique character of it would be
absent. Hence, in order to make astrology more personal, a local element was introduced
in addition to the cosmic elements. This local element is called house division.
Basically, the sky around an observer is divided into twelve parts, and these are termed
houses. Usually, the horizon will further divide these houses: half of them will be above
the horizon, and the other half will be below. The lines separating the houses are called
cusps. Each house covers a specific area of life, called spheres of life.
There are many different schools of thought on house division. One way of dividing the
sky is to use each of these great circles as a reference: celestial equator, prime vertical
and ecliptic. Another method of division is the use of semiarcs. For simplicity, we shall
consider the terminology associated with house division using the equal house system.

Terminology of House Division

The horizon divides the ecliptic, and hence the zodiac, into two parts: a visible part above
the horizon and an invisible part below the horizon. Due to the daily movement of the
Earth on its axis, the signs of the zodiac rise one by one above the eastern horizon. Just
like the Sun, each sign rises from the eastern horizon, reaches its highest point, and
eventually sets in the western horizon.
According to the astrologers, there are four signs in each horoscope that play a very
important role. The point that rises at the eastern horizon is termed the Ascendant (Asc).
The point that sets in the western horizon is termed the Descendant (Desc). Right in
between them, is the Medium Caeli (MC), or literally the point in the middle of the
heavens. The counterpart of the MC under the Horizon is the Imum Caeli (IC) or the
lowest part of the heavens. At any moment, these four points will each reside in a sign,
and the sign is given the corresponding term. For example, if the Ascendant is in the sign
Aries, then we say that Aries is the Ascendant.
The Asc, MC, Desc and IC form the basic corners of house division, and divide the sky
into four sectors. These four sectors are then trisected, creating twelve sectors, which are
the houses.

14

S
MC

VI V I I

III

Asc

W
Desc

II

XII

E
Asc

Ecliptic / Zodiac

Desc

IX X

MC

II
I

Ecliptic / Zodiac

IV
IC

IC
Methodology of house division

Astrological Meaning of the Houses

First, an astrologer will determine whether each of the houses contain a planet or a sign.
The characteristics of these planets and signs are then transferred to the spheres of life
indicated by each of the houses.
Number of the House
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII

Characteristics
Personality, body type, the person, the ego.
Financial means, possessions, economics, wages.
Next of kin, brothers, sisters, neighbours.
Parents, the home, ancestors, real estate, agriculture.
Ones own children, education, love life.
Wage labour, military service, health.
Social relations, marriage, politics, partners, enemies.
Death, burial and things connected with it, legacies, occultism
and mysticism.
Spiritual life, religions, philosophy, long travels.
Social status, profession, honour, fame.
Friends, social life.
Confinement, illness, seclusion, loneliness, secrets, crime.
Table of the astrological meanings of houses
(Taken from Making Sense of Astrology)

For example, suppose the tenth house contains the planet Mercury and the sign Aries.
Mercury, the planet of the intellect, and Aries, the tempestuous sign, together indicates a
sharp and militant mind. Since they are both in the tenth house, this means the individual
concerned will possess this characteristic in his profession or social status.

15

It is interesting to note that there is a connection between the houses and the signs. For
example, House II is oriented towards economics, like Taurus, the second sign of the
zodiac. House IX is concerned with spirituality, like the sign of Sagittarius. The
principle of the houses is partly copied from the signs, which perhaps explains why there
are twelve houses.
In addition, three groups of four houses are distinguished: the cardinal houses (I, IV, VII,
X), the succedent houses (II, V, VIII, XI), and the cadent houses (III, VI, IX, XII). The
houses in a group are presumed to have common characteristics.
Also, there exists a distinction between houses under the horizon (I through VI) and those
above it (VII through XII). The first six symbolize private life, the last six represent
social life. More planets in the first six houses mean the subject of the horoscope will be
more extroverted. Conversely, more planets in the last six houses point towards an
increasing degree of introversion.
Furthermore, the location does not have to be the same in order to obtain an identical
horoscope. Horoscopes are extremely sensitive to differences in geographical longitude.
At 50 latitude for example, in order to have a longitudinal difference of one degree, it is
necessary to travel about 70 kilometres east- or westwards. At lower latitudes, the
distances involved are larger, becoming 111 kilometres at the equator. In the course of a
day, the Ascendant undergoes a displacement of about one degree longitude in four
minutes. Due to this movement, the house configuration in Brussels is the same as that
an hour before in Prague. This means that the same horoscopes can be found in places
that are a few thousand kilometres apart.

Different Systems of House Division

A great difference of opinion exists between astrologers, when it comes to house
division. This is an important astrological problem. As stated earlier, one way is to
divide the sky using each of these great circles: celestial equator, prime vertical, and
ecliptic. These circles are divided into twelve equal parts, always starting in the east. For
divisions by the celestial equator and prime vertical, the points obtained are then
projected onto the ecliptic, and the cusps are determined. There is also the division using
the semiarcs. Here are a few important systems:

1. Equal House System

This is a system based on a division of the ecliptic, and was used earlier to introduce the
terminology of house division. It is simple to calculate: just determine the Ascendent,
and take exactly 30 for each house. It is commonly used by astrologers in Great Britain,
India and the United States of America.

16

2. System of Campanus
This is a system based on the division of the prime vertical, named after the Italian
astronomer/astrologer Giovanni Campano (who died in 1296). The prime vertical is first
divided into twelve equal parts, each of 30. The starting point is in the east, where
celestial equator, horizon and prime vertical intersect. These twelve points are then
projected onto the ecliptic along great circles which start at the north point of the horizon.
The intersection of these circles with the ecliptic determine the cusps of the houses.
semi-circle formed by
the prime vertical

MC

great circle formed

by division of
prime vertical

Ecliptic

N
Asc
Horizon
Ecliptic

Division according to Campanus

3. System of Regiomontanus
This is a system based on a division of the celestial equator, named after the German
astronomer/astrologer Regiomontanus (1436 1476). The celestial equator is first
divided into twelve equal parts, each of 30. These twelve points are then projected onto
the ecliptic along great circles which start at the north point of the horizon. The
intersection of these circles with the ecliptic determine the cusps of the houses.
MC

great circle formed

by division of
celestial equator
Horizon

S
N

Asc

Celestial Equator
Ecliptic

Division according to Regiomontanus

17

4. System of Placidus
This is a system based on the division of the semiarcs, concocted by the Italian
Franciscan friar and astrologer, Placidus de Titus (1603 1668).
i. Semiarcs
A semiarc is a part of the arc along which a point travels during the day. In particular,
the part that is located between the horizon and central meridan is called a diurnal
semiarc. Semiarcs are formed by stars, planets or mathematical points that are sometimes
above and sometimes below the horizon (circles 2 and 3), throughout the course of a day.
Points that are always above the horizon (circle 1) are termed circumpolar points. No
semiarcs can be formed using these and points always below the horizon (circle 4). Note
that all semiarcs are parallel to the celestial equator.

1
1. Circumpolar point

2 and 3. Parts above horizon are semiarcs

3

4. Point always below the horizon

Horizon

ii. Division According to Placidus

Celestial
Equator

Ecliptic

Curve joining
2/3 division
points of
semiarcs

Example
of a diurnal
semiarc

circumpolar
point

1. Each diurnal semiarc is trisected.

2. These division points are joined by a
curve. There will be two curves for the
entire set of diurnal semiarcs.
3. The two curves intersect the ecliptic.
These intersection points form the cusps.

Horizon
Curve joining
1/3 division
points of
Example of
semiarcs
a cusp

Note: no semiarcs exist above the

circumpolar point shown in the
diagram.

18

iii. Problems With Systems Based on the Semiarcs

Other house systems based on a division of the semiarcs include the systems according to
Alcabitius and Koch, and the topocentric system. However, all the systems based on
semiarcs share one major problem: none of them can be used at latitudes within the
Arctic and Antarctic Circles. In fact, at the poles there would be no semiarcs at all, since
every point above the horizon would be a circumpolar point.
Portion of ecliptic
above this point
is circumpolar

this curve is not long

enough to intersect
the ecliptic

1. In the Arctic regions, a portion of the ecliptic is

circumpolar.
2. This means that the curves joining the divisions
of the semiarcs will not be able to intersect this
portion of the ecliptic.
3. Since these intersection points form the cusps,
this means not all the houses can be defined.

NCP

180 2L

Let latitude be L.
Let co-latitude be C.
Let angle between ecliptic and
celestial equator be = 23.5.
Hence, for divisions based on
semiarcs to work, the following
inequality must hold:

C+

180 2L

This reduces to L 66.5. Thus

the divisions based on semiarcs
are only valid outside the polar
regions

According to Recent Advances in Natal Astrology, compiled by Geoffrey Dean, about

80% of individuals who seek help from astrologers show a preference for the system of
Placidus. Another 10% favour the equal house system, while the rest choose from the
other house systems. In addition, 90% of individuals who refer to online horoscopes
prefer the system of Placidus. Another 8% favour the Koch system, while 2% prefer the
other house systems. An interesting point to note is that the popularity of the Placidus
system is due only to the easy availability of tables. A much-used table was drawn up in
about 1880, when astrology experienced a revival, and hence its success.
19

 Differences in Sizes of Houses During Course of the Day

Seen from Earth, the celestial sphere rotates once on its axis during the course of the day.
The ecliptic turns together with the celestial sphere. Therefore the sizes of the houses,
and how they are divided, changes throughout the day.
The following diagrams show the movement of the ecliptic throughout the day for a
latitude of 45. In the first and third segments, the ecliptic and celestial equator are
oriented in such a way that the Ascendant and the Descendant are not exactly in the east
and the west.
The second and fourth segments show the ecliptic and the celestial equator oriented in
such a way that the Ascendant and the Descendant are exactly in the east and the west
respectively. It is clear that how the four sectors of the ecliptic are divided varies
throughout the day. It follows that the sizes of the houses change during the course of a
day, for a given latitude.

MC

Summer Solstice (SS)

E
Celestial Equator

Vernal Equinox (VE)

Horizon

Ecliptic

Asc

The four sectors of the

Ecliptic are divided
unequally. Hence the
sizes of the houses will
differ from each other.

Winter Solstice (WS)

Celestial Equator
Autumnal Equniox (AE)

Ecliptic

SS

MC
23.5

AE

VE

Asc

WS

20

MC

AE
SS

Asc

WS
VE

E
MC
WS
VE

AE
SS

Asc

The four segments show the daily motion of the ecliptic at six-hour intervals.

Uneven Probability Density of Ascendant at

Different Latitudes
1. Theory
The problem of house division, at different latitudes, reduces to investigating the speed at
which the ecliptic crosses the horizon.
Angle = 23.5

Ecliptic

Angle = angle between

ecliptic and horizon
Vernal Equinox

Eastern Horizon
Angle L = 90 + lattitude

Celestial Equator

21

An analysis of the ecliptic can be made with the previous diagram. Since this is the
eastern horizon, the ecliptic is rising. The intersections of the ecliptic, horizon and
celestial equator form a spherical triangle. Hence, a formula for the speed at which the
ecliptic crosses the horizon can be derived, using spherical trigonometry.

Side c

I. Cosine law for spherical triangles:

cos B = - cos A cos C + sin A sin C cos b

Angle A
Side b

Angle B
Angle C

II. Sine law for spherical triangles:

sin B / sin b = sin C / sin c

Side a

The spherical cosine and sine laws, stated above, apply in general to any spherical
triangle.
Let be A. This is the angle between the ecliptic and celestial equator, and is always
23.5. Let be B, the angle between the ecliptic and horizon. Let L be C, which is 90
plus latitude. Let c be the distance along the ecliptic.

Radius R = 1

Angle

Arc Length = R
=

We can assume that great circles in spherical geometry have unit radius. Referring to the
diagram above, the arc length is simply , and the circumference of a great circle is 2.
When c goes from 0 to 2, we will cover the entire ecliptic. The point c = 0 coincides
with the vernal equinox.

22

2. Derivation of V, the Speed of the Ecliptic

When it Crosses the Horizon
Let the speed at which the celestial equator crosses the horizon be V0. This is the uniform
speed of rotation of the Earth on its own axis.
Let V be the speed at which the ecliptic crosses the horizon. This is illustrated in the
following diagram.

V = speed of ecliptic
V0 = speed of celestial equator

We will now derive a formula for V when the angle is . Since speed is defined locally,
we can use Euclidean geometry. We will then use spherical trigonometry to determine
how changes as the ecliptic moves along the horizon.
V
V0
sin L = sin

V
V0

V =

V0 sin L
sin

V0 and sin L are constants, and hence do not change the form of the equation. The
problem then reduces to deriving an expression for sin. This can be obtained using the
spherical cosine and sine laws, and eliminating b from the equations.

23

3. Derivation of the Exact Form of the General Formula

This is the exact form of the general formula for V, the speed of the ecliptic when it
crosses the horizon.
The spherical sine and cosine laws give us
sin sin c
, cos b = cos + cos cos L .
sin b =
sin L
sin sin L
To eliminate b, we use
sin 2b

cos2b + sin 2b = 1

sin 2 sin 2c

sin 2L

cos2b

cos2 + cos2 cos2L + 2 cos cos cos L

sin 2 sin 2L

Hence
cos2 + cos2 cos2L + 2 cos cos cos L + sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 c

sin 2 sin 2L

cos2 ( 1 sin 2 sin 2c ) + cos ( 2 cos cos L ) + sin 2 sin 2c + cos2 cos2L sin 2 sin 2L = 0

cos can then be expressed as

cos

=
=

2 cos

cos L

[ 4 cos2 cos2 L 4 ( 1 sin 2 sin 2c) ( sin2 sin2c + cos2 cos2 L sin2 sin2 L ) ]

{ cos

cos L

[ cos2 cos2 L ( 1 ( 1 cos2c ) sin2 ) ( sin 2 cos2c sin2 + cos2 L

2 ( 1 sin 2 sin 2c )

sin2 cos2 L sin 2 sin 2 L ) ]

} / ( 1 sin2 sin2c )

cos cos L [ cos2 cos2 L ( cos2 + cos2c sin2 ) ( cos2 L cos2c sin2 ) ]

( 1 sin 2 sin 2c )

{ cos cos L [ cos2 cos2 L cos2 cos2 L + cos2c sin2 cos2 cos2c cos2 L sin 2 +
4

sin

cos4c ) ] } / ( 1 sin sin c )

2

cos cos L sin cos c [ cos2 cos2 L + sin2 cos2c ) ]

( 1 sin 2 sin 2c )

Hence
cos

and
V

cos cos L sin cos c [ sin2L sin2 sin2c ) ]

( 1 sin2 sin2c )

V 0 sin L

sin [ cos-1 ( cos ) ]

Notice that there are two roots: + and . The next step is to determine which root
gives the correct graphical solution.
24

4. Analysis of the + and

Roots
Taking l as the latitude, it is easy to deduce that:
1. At the vernal equinox (c = 0), = 66.5 l
2. At the summer solstice (c = /2), = 90 l
3. At the autumnal equinox (c = ), = 113.5 l
4. At the winter solstice (c = 3/2), = 90 l
It follows that for any l, is monotonically increasing between c = 0 and c = , and we
must use this property to determine if the + or the root is the correct solution for V.
Lets consider the case of l = 45. A graphical plot of the + root reveals that , the
angle between the ecliptic and the horizon, is monotonically increasing, between c = 0
and c = .

Graph of vs. c (from c=0 to c=2), for + root

It follows that the graph of cos , for the + root is monotonically decreasing, between
c = 0 and c = .

Graph of cos vs. c (from c=0 to c=2), for + root

It is clear that only the + root satisfies the given condition.

25

The root yields a monotonically increasing graph for cos , between c = 0 and c = .

Graph of cos vs. c (from c=0 to c=2), for root

The + root is hence the desired solution, and the root is rejected.

5. Graphs of V at Various Latitudes

The speed of the ecliptic, when it crosses the horizon, varies at different latitudes. This
can be shown using graphs of V at different values of L.
For 45 latitude, the graph of 1/sin is:

Graph of 1/sin vs. c (from c=0 to c=2), for 45 latitude

For 0 latitude, the graph of 1/sin is:

Graph of 1/sin vs. c (from c=0 to c=2), for 0 latitude

26

For 52 latitude (London), the graph of 1/sin is:

Graph of 1/sin vs. c (from c=0 to c=2), for 52 latitude

Hence, the speed of the ecliptic, when it crosses the horizon, varies from place to place
on Earth. It follows that the probability density of the Ascendant is uneven at a given
latitude, no matter which system of house division we use. Assuming that the birth rate is
fairly even, we can conclude that at that latitude there will be more people born with a
certain Ascendant. Since the Ascendant is supposedly an important part of the
horoscope, the question to ask is do we really believe that character traits vary with
latitude?

The Polar Problem in House Division

The idea of a division of the zodiac in houses arose in the Greco-Roman world, where the
zodiac stands high in the sky. However, some serious problems arise when one considers
the Arctic and Antarctic regions (66.5 latitude onwards). They are collectively called
the polar regions.

1. Ill-Defined Ascendant and Descendant

Since each system is based on the Ascendant and the Descendant, house division
becomes a problem when these are ill-defined. On the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, the
ecliptic coincides with the horizon at a certain time of the day. This means that the
Ascendant and the Descendant are either everywhere or nowhere. There is also no MC or
IC. Since these four points form the basis of house division, it follows that houses cannot
be defined.

27

horizon

horizon coincides
with ecliptic

zenith

Dotted lines indicate the

maximum range of daily motion
by the ecliptic (23.5).
At a certain moment, the
ecliptic will coincide with the
horizon, as shown by the bold
circle.
celestial equator

Even when the ecliptic does not exactly coincide with the horizon, the situation becomes
critical if these circles almost coincide. The smallest inaccuracy in the time of birth can
lead to huge differences in house division.
Take for example 66.5 latitude. One minute before the ecliptic and horizon coincide,
Houses X, XI, XII, IV, V and VI take up less than one-fourth of a degree. Just two
minutes later, this changes drastically: they now fill up 359.75.

2. No Ascendant / Stationary Ascendant

Inside the polar regions, a part of the zodiac never rises above the horizon. Hence,
certain signs can never be Ascendant there. Examples are northern Alaska, northern
Norway or Siberia. In these two places, the signs of Sagittarius and Capricorn never rise
above the horizon, while the opposite signs, Gemini and Cancer, always remain below
the horizon. Therefore, people born there cannot have these four signs as their
Ascendant. One of the questions to ask is whether a noticeable number of people walk
around in these regions without the characteristics of the signs of these Ascendants.
In the extreme case, on the north pole, the two intersections of the zodiac with the
horizon remain forever the same (the vernal and autumnal equinoxes). This means that
the signs Aries through Virgo are permanently above and the signs Libra through Pisces
are permanently below the horizon. Not a single sign sets or rises, and the Ascendant is
forever stationary. The situation is similar at the south pole.

28

zenith
ecliptic

rota

tion

Ascendant
Observer is at the north pole.
The ecliptic makes its daily
rotation. Note that the horizon
and celestial equator coincide.

Notice that the

Ascendant neither rises
nor set, and is forever
stationary.

In fact, no part of the ecliptic sets

or rises. Part of the ecliptic is
permanently above the horizon, and
the other part is permanently below
the horizon.

3. Ill-Defined MC
Above the Arctic Circle, there is a problem in determining the Midheaven. If the MC is
defined as the southernmost point of the zodiac, then it is under the horizon part of the
time. If it is defined as the highest point of the zodiac, then it happens to be at the
northernmost point.
MC?

horizon

MC

23.5

ecliptic

W
Observer is very close to the
north pole, hence horizon
almost coincides with the
celestial equator. The bold
dotted circles indicate
maximum range of motion of
ecliptic.

When ecliptic is in this

position, MC follows the
conventional definition:
southernmost point of the
zodiac. It also happens to
be the highest point of the
zodiac.

29

celestial
equator

MC?

But when ecliptic is in this

position, the MC is ill-defined. Is
it the highest point of the zodiac,
which makes it the norther nmost
point? Or is it the southernmost
point, which is under the
horizon?

4. Discontinuous Ascendant
In the polar regions, there is a discontinuity of the Ascendant at a certain moment.
Initially, the Ascendant is in the east. In the course of the day, it will then move
southwards along the horizon, until it is eventually situated in the south. At the very next
moment, the Ascendant will then jump to the north. To understand this problem, we
have to first understand how the jump occurs, using the band theory shown below.
ecliptic
horizon

bands

band

strip
n
tio
mo

celestial
equator
The daily motion of portions of the ecliptic can basically be reduced to the
motion of strips on the celestial sphere. The motion of these strips are
confined to bands, as shown above.

The signs in the zodiac are divisions of the

ecliptic. It follows that the daily motion of the
signs are similar to the daily motion of the
strips.
sign
motion

Lets look at the situation in the polar regions. Consider

the band shown in the diagram on the left. Notice that
the band is never fully above or below the horizon. It
follows that two strips diametrically opposite each other
will have the following properties:
i. When one strip rises, the opposing one sets.
band

motion

ii. There will be a turning point when the rising strip

begins to set, and the setting strip begins to rise. This
happens to be the intersection points of the central
meridan with the horizon.
These two properties cause the a discontinuity: the
Ascendant can jump to the opposite part of the sky.
Note that the jump is instantaneous.

30

Notice that at any latitude, the highest and lowest

point of the celestial equator with respect to the
horizon is always in the north and the south. It
follows that the highest and lowest points of any
band is at these two points. This accounts for
the fact that the turning point of the strips is
along the central meridan.

The table below shows the motion of the Ascendant, at 70 N, during the course of a day.
Time is measured in hours. Distances are measured in degrees. At any moment, there
are two intersection points of the ecliptic with the horizon. East indicates the distance
between the vernal equinox and intersection of the ecliptic with the horizon (not
necessarily the Ascendant). We shall take the starting point of East as 42.5 east of
north. South indicates the distance between the vernal equinox and MC. Size means
the distance between the MC and the intersection point of the ecliptic and horizon we are
considering.
Time
0
3
6
9
12
14
14.5
15.0
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.75
15.8
15.85
15.90
15.95
16.0
16.5
17.0
18.0
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.05
20.10
20.15
20.20
20.25
20.30
20.4
20.5
21
22
23
24

East
137.5
157.9
180.0
202.1
222.5
233.8
236.0
237.8
239.03
239.16
239.24
239.26
239.27
239.27
239.24
239.21
239.15
237.3
231.3
180.0
128.7
122.7
120.85
120.80
120.76
120.74
120.73
120.74
120.76
120.84
120.97
122.2
126.2
131.5
137.5

Sign
Leo
Virgo
Libra
Libra
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Libra
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo
Leo

South
0.0
47.5
90.0
132.5
180.0
212.2
219.9
227.5
234.85
236.31
237.77
238.49
239.21
239.94
240.66
241.37
242.09
249.2
256.2
270.0
283.8
290.8
297.91
298.63
299.35
300.07
300.79
301.51
302.23
303.69
305.15
312.5
327.8
343.7
360.0

Sign
Aries
Taurus
Cancer
Leo
Libra
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Scorpio
Sagittarius
Sagittarius
Sagittarius
Sagittarius
Sagittarius
Capricorn
Capricorn
Capricorn
Capricorn
Capricorn
Capricorn
Aquarius
Aquarius
Aquarius
Aquarius
Aquarius
Aquarius
Aquarius
Aquarius
Pisces
Aries

Table of the ecliptic at 70 N during one sidereal day

(From Making Sense of Astrology)

31

Size
137.5
110.4
90.0
69.9
42.5
21.6
16.1
10.4
4.18
2.85
1.47
0.77
0.06
-0.67
-1.41
-2.17
-2.94
-11.9
-24.9
-90.0
-155.1
-168.1
-177.06
-177.83
-178.59
-179.33
179.94
179.23
178.53
177.15
175.82
169.7
158.4
147.8
137.5

A larger figure for the East column means more of the ecliptic is above the horizon. If
the East figure increases as time passes, more of the ecliptic goes above the horizon.
This means the intersection point of the ecliptic being considered is rising. If the East
figure decreases, more of the ecliptic goes below the horizon, and the point is setting.
At 0h, we consider the point in the northeast. From 0h to 15.80h, the East figure
increases monotonically, which means the intersection point of the ecliptic with the
horizon being considered is rising. We thus consider this point as the Ascendant.
Between 15.80h and 15.90h some problems begin to surface. Notice that at a certain
moment during this period, the East and West figures will be the same: 239.27.
This means that the Ascendant and MC will coincide. In other words, the ecliptic, the
horizon and the central meridan will intersect at the same point. Consequently, Houses X
to XII will be impossible to define.
Furthermore, the East figure starts to decrease between 15.80h and 15.90h. This means
the intersection point we have been considering will begin to set. This occurs at the point
where the ecliptic, the horizon and the central meridan intersect, which is in the south.
According to band theory, if the intersection point in the south begins to set, the
intersection point in the north will start to rise. Ultimately, this means the Ascendant has
jumped from the south to the north. Hence, there is a discontinuity of the Ascendant.
The situation can be further illustrated using schematic diagrams of the motion of the
ecliptic shown below. The range of motion of the ecliptic is confined between the bold
sectors. At 70 latitude, this means only eight signs can be Ascendant.

The cycle from Leo

to Scorpio takes
19.6 hours

6h

18h

jump

The course of the Ascendant at 70 N

(From Making Sense of Astrology)

32

The cycle from

Taurus to Aquarius
takes 4.4 hours

Notice that the Ascendant spends more time in the region from Leo to Scorpio. This ties
in perfectly with the earlier section where we proved that the probability density of the
Ascendant is uneven at any given latitude.
Recall that V is the speed of the ecliptic when it crosses the horizon. Let be the angle
between the planes of the ecliptic and the horizon. When is zero, it means that the
ecliptic and horizon coincide. When is at a minimum, V is at a maximum. A larger
value of V means that the signs in the zodiac will rise at a higher speed.

Celestial
equator

is the angle between the

Ecliptic

Winter solstice

planes of the ecliptic and the

horizon. When the winter
solstice is in the south, is at a
minimum. V will subsequently
be at a maximum. At this
moment, certain signs in the
zodiac will then rise at a very
high speed.

Horizon

motion

At any latitude, is a minimum at 18h. At this moment, the winter solstice is in the
south. In the polar regions, the ecliptic and horizon will almost coincide. Hence, in the
period slightly before and slightly after 18h, several signs will rise at a very high speed.
For the diagram The course of the Ascendant at 70 N, the fast signs are Taurus,
Aries, Pisces and Aquarius. Out of the eight signs that can be Ascendant at 70 N, the
Ascendant only spends 4.4 hours from Taurus through Aquarius. Furthermore, notice
that after the jump from Scorpio to Taurus, the zodiac rises in the reverse order, from
Taurus to Aquarius.

ecliptic

celestial
equator

S
horizon

motion

motion

Asc

Ascendant moves towards

the south.

After the jump occurs, the

Ascendant is situated in the
north. It then repeats its
motion towards the south.

33

motion

Notice that the zodiac rises in

the reverse order.

As we approach the Arctic Circle, the situation becomes critical. The Ascendant will
spend almost the entire 24 hours through one portion of the ecliptic (Cancer through
Sagittarius). The other portion (Gemini through Capricorn) is swept through almost
instantaneously.

gap

The cycle from

Cancer to
Sagittarius takes
almost 24 hours

The cycle from

Gemini to Capricorn
is almost
instantaneous

gap

The course of the Ascendant at the Arctic Circle (66.5 N)

The gaps shown in the diagram above are portions of the ecliptic that can never be
Ascendant. At the Arctic Circle, these gaps reduce to points.
As we approach the poles, the periods of the cycles even out. This is because has the
same value on both sides of the central meridan: 23.5. Due to this symmetry, the
period for each cycle, prior to the jump, will approach the same limit: 12 hours.

At the poles, the

horizon and the
celestial equator
coincide

Ecliptic

motion

N
At all times, = 23.5
due to symmetry.

34

motion

The range of motion of the ecliptic reduces to two points, and the Ascendant jumps
between these two points. The gaps also widen till they cover almost the entire zodiac.

gap
At higher latitudes, the range
of signs which can be
Ascendant decreases. In the
limiting case, there are only
two signs which can be
Ascendant.
gap

The course of the Ascendant near the poles

35

VI. Miscellaneous
References
1. David A. Brannan, Matthew F. Esplen and Jeremy J. Gray,
Geometry, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
2. Ronny Martens and Tim Trachet, Making Sense Of Astrology,
Prometheus Books, 1998.
3. Ove H. Sehested, The Basics Of Astrology Volume 1, Uranus
Publishing Co., 1973.
4. www.dyna.iperwtb.com/astrology/primer_7_1.html

36