UNIT - 1

Q1a) What is difference between heat and temperature.

b) What is the difference between heat transfer and Thermodynamics.
Answers:
(a) Difference Between Heat and Temperature

In heat transfer problems, we often interchangeably use the terms heat and temperature.
Actually there is a distinct difference between the two. The differences between the heat
and temperature is shown below.

(b) Difference Between Thermodynamcis and Heat Transfer

The fundamental differences between thermodynamics and heat transfer are given below.

Q2) Discuss about different modes of heat transfer.

Answer:
Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy from one region to another as
a result of temperature gradient or temperature difference takes place. Since the
differences in temperature exists all over the universe, the phenomena of heat flow are
as universal as those associated with gravitational attractions. The quantity of energy
transferred as heat is not governed by a single or unique relationship. The energy
transfer as heat takes place by three distinct modes. They are,
(i) Conduction
(ii) Convection
(iii) Radiation
These three modes are similar in that a temperature differential must exist and the heat
exchange is in the direction of decreasing temperature. Each method has however
different physical picture and different controlling laws. In most situations heat transfer
occurs by a combination of these modes.
Example: The water in a boiler shell receives its heat from the fire-bed by conducted,
convected and radiated heat.

(1)Conduction

Conduction is a mode of heat transfer from a high temperature region to low temperature
region with a solid, liquid or gas medium or between different mediums which are in
physical contact with each other. Heat transfer by conduction is due to the property of
matter and molecular transport of heat in bodies or between bodies resulting out of
temperature variation in the medium. The rate equation in this mode of heat transfer is
based on fourier law of heat conduction.
The thermal energy in solids may be conducted by two mechanisms ie., migration
of free electrons and lattice vibrations. In migration of free electrons, free electrons
provide an energy flux in the direction of decreasing temperature For metals, espacially
good electrical conductors, the electronic mechanisms is responsible for the major
portion of the heat flux except at low temperature. In lattice vibration, the faster moving
molecules or atoms in the hottest part of the body transfer heat by impacts some their
energy to adjacent molecules.
The conduction heat transfer in liquids and gases occurs due to collisions and
diffusion of molecules during their random motion. Pure heat conduction is observed
only in solids.
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer through solid barriers and is encountered
extensively in heat transfer equipment design as well as in heating and cooling of various
materials as in the case of heat treatment.

(2) Convection

When a fluid flows inside a duct or over a solid body and the temperature of the fluid
and the solid surface are different heat transfer between the fluid and solid surface will
take place, this energycexchange is called convection and the heat transfer is called heat
transfer by convection. The heat transfer by convection is due to superposition of energy
transfer by random motion to the molecules and by the bulk motion of the fluid.
Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the

transport of medium itself. The heat flow in this mode is independent of the properties of
the material of the surface and depends only on the fluid properties. It consists of,
(a) Conduction from the surface to the adjacent layer of fluid.
(b) Energy transfer due to mass transfer.
(c) Conduction to the adjacent layer of fluid to the receiving surface.
Convection is not a pure mode of heat transfer as conduction or radiation and hence
involves several parameters. Depending upon the nature of the forces which cause the
material motion, convection heat transfer is classified as,
(i) Natural or free convection
(ii) Forced convection

If the force is due to a density gradient or buoyancy effects caused by the

temperature difference in the fluid, then the convection is said to be free or
natural convection.

If the force is due to a pressure difference generated by a pump or fan, then the
convection is said to be forced convection.

(3) Radiation

The mode of heat transfer from a body at high temperature to a body at low temperature,
when bodies are not in direct physical contact with each other or when the bodies are
seperated from each other in space, it is called as radiation. The radiation energy emitted
by a body is transmitted in space in the form of electromagnetic waves according to the
Maxwell wave theory or in the form of discrete photons according to Max Planks theory.
Conduction and convection require a medium to transfer heat, whereas in case of
radiation, heat transfer can take place through a region of perfect vacuum. Energy
emitted by all bodies due to their temperature is called thermal radiation. The energy
transferred by this mechanism is called radiant heat. The rate equation is due to StefanBoltzmann law which states that heat radiated is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperaute of the surface.
1.3

Q3) State laws of heat transfer.

Answer:
The foundation of heat transfer rest on a number of the fundamental and subsidiary
laws. To perform a quantitive analysis of heat transfer problems, it is essential to know
the physical laws and relations which govern the different mechanisms of heat transfer.
A fundamental law is the one of which validity rests on the fact that it has not
been proved to be wrong or false in the broad area of application of the subject under
consideration. Therefore, these laws must be satisfied in solving any problem. The
fundamental laws of heat transfer, which are used in a broad range of applications are,
(i) Law of conservation of mass
(ii) Newtons second law of motion
(iii) Laws of thermodynamics

A subsidiary law may be empirical in nature ie., a statement based on the experimental
evidence and intuition. These may be a consequence of and derivable from the
fundamental laws. The subsidiary laws, which are based on experimental facts are,
(I) Fouriers law of heat conduction
(II) Newtons law of cooling
(III) Stefan Boltzmanns law of thermal radiation
(i ) Law of Conservation of Mass
It states that the total mass of various components involved during an unit operation or
unit process remains constant or simply the total mass of the materials taking part in
any process is constant (mass is neither created nor destroyed during a process or mass
of the universe is constant).
The law is not valid for substances undergoing nuclear reactions as under this
circumstance, energy and mass are interconvertible. Conservation of mass requires that
the materials entering any process must either accumulate or leave the process. There
can be neither loss nor gain.
(ii) Newtons Second Law of Motion
This law states that the rate of change of momentum in any direction is always equal to
the sum of all external forces acting on the body in such direction.

(iii) Laws of Thermodynamics

In heat transfer analysis, the first and second laws of thermodynamics are useful.
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed but only its form can be changed.
(or)
When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied to the
system from the surroundings is equal to the net workdone by the system on its
surroundings.

The second law of thermodynamics states that heat energy cannot flow from a body at a
lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature. Thus the second law of
thermodynamics talks about the quality of energy, not the quantity as does the first law
of thermodynamics.
(I) FOURIERS LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION
Fouriers law of heat conduction is an emperical law based on observation. Joseph
fourier (1822), a french mathematical physics, made significant contribution to the

analytical treatment of conduction heat transfer. Fouriers law of heat conduction states
that,
The rate of flow of heat through a simple homogenous solid is directly
proportional to the area of the section at right angles to the direction of heat flow, and to
change of temperature with respect to the length of the path of the heat flow.
Mathematically, it can be represented by the equation.

Where,
K = Constant of proportionality called thermal conductivity, in W/mK
Q = Quantity of heat tranferred during a certain time interval and is called rate of
heat flow (Kcal/hr, J/s, Watts)
A = Area through which heat exchange occurs and is perpendicular to the
direction of heat flow, expressed units in m2.
dt = Temperature difference of the faces through which heat is passing, expressed
in degree centigrate or kelvin.
dx= Thickness of body along the path of heat flow, in metres m
The negative sign indicates that the temperature decreases with increasing thickenss of
material. The temperature gradient dt/dx is always negative along positive x direction
and therefore, the value as Q becomes +ve.
Therefore,

(II) NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING

Newtons law of cooling is the fundamental law for heat convection.
It states that The rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to the temperature
difference between a surface and fluid.
Mathematically it is expressed as,

Where,
h = Constant of proportionality, called the heat transfer coefficient. It is measured
in W/(m2.k) or W/(m2 C)

A = Area exposed to convection heat transfer, m2

Q = Rate of conductive heat transfer
ts = Surface temperature, C
tf = Fluid temperature, C
The coefficient of convective heat transfer h also known as film heat transfer
coefficient. It is defined as the amount of heat transmitted for a unit temperature
difference between the fluid and unit area of surface in unit time. The value of heat
transfer coefficient h depends on the properties of fluid as well as fluid flow conditions.
1.5.1
(III) STEFANBOLTZMANNS LAW OF THERMAL RADIATION
In conduction, energy transfers through a medium. In contrast to this mechanism heat
transfer also occurs by electromagnetic radiation through a region where perfect vacuum
exists. The Stefan- Boltzmanns law of thermal radiation for a black body or perfect
radiator states that.
The rate of the radiation heat transfer per unit area from a black surface is
directly proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the surface.
Mathematically expressed as,

Q4) Derive heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates.

Solution:

The energy balance for this element is obtained from the first law of thermodynamics as,
Net heat conducted into element dx dy dx per unit time + Internal heat generated per
unit time
= Energy stored in the element
. ... (A)

Q5) Derive heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates.

Solution:

UNIT 2
Q6) Discuss one dimensional steady state conduction through plane wall
or slab.
Solution:
There are many practical instances where the heat conduction may be considered to be
onedimentional.
Example, a plane slab whose thickness is small as compared to its length and breath
may be considered to have its temperature varying only along its thickness, temperature
in a long cylindrical shell may be considered to be varying only along its radius etc.
Solution of the governing differential equation along with the boundary conditions
gives the temperature field within the material and then, by applying Fouriers law, we
can calculate the heat flux at any point.
Consider a plane wall or slab of homogeneous material through which heat is
flowing only in x-direction.

Q7) Discuss about one dimensional steady state heat transfer through composite
slab.
Solution:
Heat transfer through a composite slab, consisting of number of layers of different
materials and different thermal conductivities. This is very common application e.g. in
case of insulation of furnace walls, insulation of walls of buildings, refrigerators, cold
storage plants, hot water tanks etc. Consider the transmission of heat through a
composite wall consisting of a number of slabs shown in figure.

Q8) Discuss overall heat transfer co-efficient.

Solution:

Consider the case of a furnace where heat is transferred by the hot gases to
the inside surface by convection, then by conduction through one, two or
three layers of brick and insulation and finally to ambient air by convection
at the outmost surface. Therefore, it is usual to adopt an overall heat
transfer coefficient U which gives the heat transmitted per unit area per
unit time per degree temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each
side of the metal.
Consider a composite slab consisting of three layers 1, 2 and 3 as
shown in figure. Let the thicknesses of the three layers be L 1, L2 and L3
respectively. And also respective thermal conductivities are k 1, k2 and k3,

Q9) Discuss critical radius of insulation.

Solution:

1.

Q10) Discuss one dimensional steady state heat transfer through

composite cylinder.
Solution:

UNIT 3
Q11) Define following Dimensionless number and give their physical
significance
1] Reynolds number
2] Nusselt number
3] Prandtl number
4] Grashoff number (Gr)
5] Stanton number (St)
6] Peclet no. (Pe)
7] Graetz number (G)
Answers:
1] Reynolds number: It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force. It is
denoted by Re.

Where g is the mass velocity = m/A

(1) Re is taken as an important criterion of dynamitic similarities in forced

convection heat transfer.
(2) Re is used to decides whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
2] Nusselt number :
It is defined as the ratio of heat flow rate by convection process under a unit temperature
gradient to the heat flow rate by conduction process under a unit temperature gradient
through a stationary thickness of L meters.

It is the ratio of characteristic length to the thickness of a stationary fluid layer

conducting the heat at the same rate as in the case of convection process under the
same temp. difference.

The Nusselt number is a measure of the convective heat transfer coefficient. For a given
value of the Nusselt no. the convective heat transfer coefficient is directly proportional to
thermal conductivity of the fluid and inversely proportional to the length.
3] Prandtl number (Pr): it is the ratio of kinematic viscosity to the thermal diffusivity .

Significance:
(1) (1)Prandtl no. provides a measures of the relative effectiveness of the energy and
momentum transport by diffusion.
(2) Prandtl no. is a link between the temperature field and velocity field, and its
value affects relative growth of velocity boundary layer and thermal boundary
layers.
4] Grashoff number (Gr) :. It is defined as the ratio of the product of inertia force and
buoyancy force to the square of viscous force .It is related with natural convection heat
transfer.

Significance:
(1) (1)It plays the same role as that of Reynold no.
(2) (2)Free convection is usually suppressed at sufficiently small Gr, begins at some
critical value of Gr depending upon the arrangement amd then becomes more
and more effective with increasing Gr.
5] Stanton number (St):

It is the ratio of Nussselt no. and product of Reynold no. and Prandtl no.
It also indicates the ratio of heat transfer coefficient to the flow of heat per unit
temperature rise due to the velocity of the fluid.

It is used only in correlating forced convection data.

6]Peclet no. (Pe) : It is the ratio of mass heat flow rate by convection to the flow rate by
conduction under a unit temperature gradient and through a thickness L.

It is a product of Reynold no. & Prandtl no. and a constant.

7] Graetz number (G):

It is defined as the ratio of heat capacity of fluid flowing through the pipe per unit length
of the pipe to the conductivity of the pipe.

Thus it is a product of Peclet no. and a constant.

It is related only for the heat flow to the fluid flowing through a circular pipe.

Q12) Explain
convection.
Answer:

the

concept

of

laminar

and

turbulent

flow

in

Q13) Explain velocity boundary layer and thermal boundary layer

concepts in convective heat transfer.
Solution: VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER:

THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER

Q14) Explain the concept flow over cylindrical surfaces.

Solution:

Q15) Explain laminar flow through pipes.

Solution:

UNIT 4

Q16) Explain emmisivity and emmisive power.

Answer:

Q17) Explain about radiation shields.

Answer:

Q18) Explain Re-radiation surfaces.

Answer:

Q19) Explain mechanism of thermal radiation.

Answer:

Q20) Explain: ABSORPTIVITY, REFLECTIVITY AND TRANSMISSIVITY

Answer:

Q21) Explain film wise and drop wise condensation.

Answer:
When a saturated vapour comes in contact with a cooler surface, the vapour condenses
into liquid. Condensation process is the reverse of boiling process. The vapour starts
condensing on a surface when the vapour saturation temperature is more than the
surface temperature. The temperatureof the condensate formed on the surface is less
than its saturation temperature and it becomes subcooled.
As the vapour condenses, latent heat is liberated and there is flow of heat to the surface.
Depending upon the condition of cool surface, condensation may occur in two possible
ways,
(i) Film condensation
(ii) Dropwise condensation.
(I) FILM CONDENSATION

If the liquid wets the surface, a smooth film is formed and the process is called film
condensation.
In this, a stable cohrent film of liquid condensate is formed on the surface through
which the heat released during condensation is conducted into the surface. Film
condensation takes places on a wettable cooling surface. In film condensation process
the surface is blanketed by the film, which grows in thickness as it moves down the
plate. A temperature gradient exists in the film, and the film represents a thermal
resistance to heat transfer.

In film condensation pro cess, the new condensate formed joins the liquid film formed on
the surface previously and this increase the film thickness. The heat is transfered from
the vapour to the condensate formed on the surface by convection and it is further
transferred from the condensate film to the cooling surface by the conduction. This
combined mode of heat transfer by conduction and convection reduces the rates of the
transfer considerably.
5
(ii) Dropwise Condensation
If the condensate does not tend to wet the surface, the condensate forms the
droplets on the surface and every time fresh surface is exposed to the vapour. This
process is called dropwise condensation. The drops on the surface in the form of cracks

and pits, grow in size, break away from the surface, knock off other droplets and
eventually run off the surface, without forming a film under the influence of gravity.

In dropwise condensation a large portion of the area of the plate is directly exposed to
the vapour, there is no film barrier to heat flow and higher heat transfer rates are
experienced. This type of condensation has been observed to occur either on highly
polished surfaces, or on surfaces contaminated with impurities like fatty acids and
organic compounds. The rate of heat transfer is many times larger than that is achieved
in film condensation. Dropwise condensation occurs on a nonwettable cooling surface
where the liquid condensate drops do not spread.
5.21

Q22. Explain the regimes of boiling on nucleate curve with neat sketch.

1.Interface Evaporation:
The first region is of interface evaporation, where evaporation takes place at liquid vapor
interface without formation of bubbles. In interface evaporation the liquid layer in
contact with heat surface get evaporated ,the convection current is developed which
moves the flow it and evaporation takes place at liquid surface. In this region the excess
temperature is up to 5 oC
2.Nucleate Boiling :

Nucleate boiling exist in regions II and III with increase in excess temperature , in region
II the nucleate boiling start. The bubbles starts forming at certain localized spot, travels
through the liquid and condense in the liquid without reaching the liquid surface. With
further increase in excess temperature the bubbles are formed more rapidly and rise to
the surface of the liquid resulting in rapid evaporation in region III. Thus the nucleate
boiling consist of formation of bubbles at specific location and that results in liquid
agitation. The bubble agitation causes fluid mixing and that promotes substantial
increase in heat transfer coefficient and heat flux.
Nucleate boiling exist up to te 50 oC
The maximum heat flux known as critical heat flux, occurs at point X.
3.Film boiling :
Film boiling comprises of regions IV, V and VI. In region IV the bubble formation is very
rapid and the bubbles covers the heating surface and prevent liquid from taking their
place. The bubble break down , forms film of vapor covering the heating e. Due to this
heat flux drops. Within the temperature range of 50 oC < te < 150 oC condition
oscillates between nucleate boiling film boiling and the phase is refused as transition
boiling, unstable boiling or partial boiling.
With further increase in te the vapour film is established and the heating surface is
completely covered by a vapour film and the heat flux is minimum in region V.
To maintain a stable film at surface , the surface temperature required to maintain is
high and due to this ,considerable amount of heat is lost by the surface due to radiation
as in region VI.

UNIT 5
Q23) Explain classification of boilers.
Answer:
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Many types of heat exchangers have been developed for diverse applications in
steam powerplants, chemical process plants, refrigerators and air-conditioners, radiators
in cars, space vehicles etc. Inorder to meet the widely varying applications, several types
of heat exchangers have been developed which are classified on the basis of the following
considerations.
(i) According to nature of heat exchanger process.
(ii) According to constructional features.
(iii) According to the state of the fluid in the heat exchanger.
(iv) According to flow arrangement.
Classification According to Nature of Heat Exchange Process
According to the nature of heat exchange process, heat exchangers are classified as,
(i) Direct contact or open type heat exchanger
(ii) Indirect contact or closed type heat exchanger,
(a) Recuperators (or) transfer type heat exchanger
(b) Regenerators (or) storage type heat exchanger.
(i ) Direct Contact or Open Type Heat Exchanger
In this type, two immisicible fluids come in direct contact with each other and exchange
heat.
Example, air and water exchanging heat in a cooling tower. The heat transfer is
usually5accompained by interphase mass transfer. The use of such units is made under
conditions where mixing of two fluids is either harmless or desirable. Cooling towers, jet
condensers, direct contact feed heaters, desuperheaters are some examples of direct or
open type heat exchangers. A typical direct contact heat exchanger is shown in below
figure which gives a section in whichsteam mixes with cold water, gives its latent heat to
water and gets condensed..

3.1

Classification According to Constructional Features

Classification According to State of the Fluid in Heat Exchangers

Classification According to Flow Arrangements

Q24) Explain overall heat transfer coefficient in heat exchangers.

Answers:

Q25) Explain fouling factors of heat exchangers.

Answers:

Q26) Explain EFFECTIVENESS NTU METHOD FOR THE ANALYSIS OF HEAT

EXCHANGER
Answer:

Q27(a). Discuss the design aspects of heat exchanger

Depending on the use of the heat exchanger there are various criterion for selection of a
particular type of heat exchanger. But in general following points to be considered while selecting
a heat exchanger
1) heat transfer requirement : The heat transfer requirement must be met in the selection or
design of any heat exchanger.
2) Fluid temperatures : The fluid temperature are also important while selecting a type of heat
exchanger, so due consideration must be given to inlet and outlet temperatures flowing fluids..
2) Physical size : Tube size, tube thickness, number of tubes all influence the heat transfer in
exchanger, so must be selected with care. With increasing the physical size of heat exchanger,
the surface area of the exchanger can be increased. But while selecting the dimensions of heat
exchanger consideration must be given to space available and cost.
3) Pressure drop characteristics: While aiming to increase heat transfer by increasing fluid
velocity, the pressure drop should be taken into consideration. scale formation, scale thickness
and resulting pressure drop must be considered while designing.
4) Type of fluid: fouling characteristics of fluid depends on type of fluid. It can be one of the
factors for selecting a type of heat exchanger.
5) Tube layouts: In tube layouts should be considered. Because insufficient tube pitch will
create hurdle in cleaning which reduces the heat transfer.
(b) Derive an expression for LMTD for counter flow heat exchanger :
Considering a single pass counter flow heat exchanger arrangement
Considering the rate flow of heat through an elementary area dA of the heat exchanger.

Integrating from A=o to A=A

LMTD for a counter flow unit is always greater than that for a parallel flow unit. Hence
counter flow heat exchange for transferring same amount of heat counter flow needs
smaller heat transfer area as compound to parallel flow.