International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)

ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 4 Issue01,January-2015

Braking Systems in Railway Vehicles

Rakesh Chandmal Sharma1 , Manish Dhingra2,
Rajeev Kumar Pathak3
1

Department of Mechanical Engineering, M. M. University, Mullana (Ambala) INDIA,

2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, T. M. University, Moradabad INDIA
3
Department of Mechanical Engg, Rakshpal Bahahur College of Engg. and Tech., Bareilly INDIA

Abstract Brake is an essential feature in order to retard and

stop the railway vehicle within minimum possible time. This
paper presents a discussion about the different braking
systems used in railway vehicles. This paper also considers
electrodynamic and electromagnetic braking of trains, which is
of particular importance in high-speed trains. The calculation
for stopping distance for railway vehicle is provided in this
study.
Keywords Air brake; Straight air brake system; Automatic air brake
system; Braking distance; Brake cylinder; Brake pipe; Vacuum brake;
Brake delay time

I.
INTRODUCTION
The brakes are used on the coaches of railway trains to
enable deceleration, control acceleration (downhill) or to
keep them standing when parked. While the basic principle
is similar from road vehicle, the usage and operational
features are more complex because of the need to control
multiple linked carriages and to be effective on vehicles left
without a prime mover. In the control of any braking system
the important factors that govern braking action in any
vehicle are pressure, surface area in contact, amount of heat
generation and braking material used. Keeping in view the
safety of human life and physical resources the basic
requirements of brake are:
The brake must be strong enough to stop the vehicle
during an emergency with in shortest possible distance.
There should be no skidding during brake application
and driver must have proper control over the vehicle
during emergency.
Effectiveness of brakes should remain constant even on
prolonged application or during descending on a down
gradient
Brake must keep the vehicle in a stationary position
even when the driver is not present.
The brake used in railway vehicles can be classified
according to the method of their activation into following
categories.
Pneumatic Brake
Electrodynamic Brake
Mechanical Brake
Electromagnetic Brake
Pneumatic Brake may be further classified into two types
Vacuum Brake
Compressed air brake

IJERTV4IS010360

Researchers in the past have investigated different

aspects of braking of railway vehicle. Bureika & Mikaliunas
[1] provided the calculations for Vehicle Braking Force
Fitted with UIC Air Brake for Passenger Trains, Wagon
Braking Force Fitted with a UIC Air Brake for Freight
Trains Wagon, Braking Distance. Liudvinavicius & Lingaitis
[2] studied different features and related mathematics of
electrodynamic braking in highspeed trains. Vernersson [3]
developed a dimensional finite element model of block and
wheel, which was coupled through a contact interface for the
purpose of control of heat generation and also the heat
partitioning at block-wheel surface through thermal contact
resistances. Influence of temperature in wheels and brake
block at rail tread braking was analyzed under brake rig
conditions in the later part of study by Vernersson [4].
Teimourimanesh et al. [5, 6] also investigated the influence
of temperature on railway tread braking in their study.
Author in the past evaluated the different performance
indices of railway vehicles [7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12], Author
also carried out a broad study of magnetically levitated [13]
and air cushion [14] vehicles in the recent past, presenting a
summary of different types of brakes used in railway
vehicles in this paper.
II.

VACUUM BRAKE & ITS LIMITATIONS

The vacuum brake system derives its brake force from the
atmospheric pressure acting on the lower side of the piston
in the vacuum brake cylinder while a vacuum is maintained
above the piston. The train pipe runs throughout the length
of the coach and connected with consecutive coaches by
hose coupling. The vacuum is created in the train pipe and
the vacuum cylinder by the ejector or exhauster mounted on
the locomotive.
Vacuum brake system has following limitations:
Brake cylinder piston takes longer time to release after
each application of brakes because of single train pipe. On
a very long train, a considerable volume of air has to be
admitted to the train pipe to make a full brake application,
and a considerable volume has to be exhausted to release
the brake.
Vacuum brakes are not suitable for high speed trains the
maximum pressure available for brake application is only
atmospheric. The brake power is inadequate for higher
loads and speed.
The practical limit on the degree of vacuum attainable
means that a very large brake piston and cylinder are
required to generate the force necessary on the brake
blocks.

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International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)

ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 4 Issue01,January-2015

The existence of vacuum in the train pipe can cause debris

to be sucked in.
III.

AIR BRAKE SYSTEMS

A. Automatic Air Brake System

An automatic air brake system is shown in Fig. 1. Air
compressors mounted every two to four coaches supply
compressed air to the air brakes. The air, which is
compressed
Fig. 2. Principle of straight air brake system

Fig. 1. Principle of automatic air brake system

to nearly 8 kg/sq cm, is piped below coach floors to main air

reservoirs. The air pressure is lowered to 5 kg/sq cm with
pressure regulator and air is fed via the brake valve, brake
pipes, and control valves to auxiliary air reservoirs. If the
compressed air in the brake pipes and auxiliary air
reservoirs of each coach is at 5 kg/sq cm, brakes are not
activated. The activated brake valve cuts the flow of air
from the pressure regulator and air pressure in the brake
pipes falls. The fall in air pressure is detected by the control
valves on each coach. The control valves then regulate the
flow of compressed air from auxiliary air reservoirs to brake
cylinders. The brake cylinders activate the basic braking
mechanisms to slow down and stop the coach. The control
valves regulate the flow of air from the auxiliary air
reservoirs to the brake cylinders at a pressure that is
proportional to pressure drop in the brake pipes.
B. Straight Air Brake System
A straight air brake system is shown in Fig. 2. The straight
air brake system does not have a control valve or auxiliary
air reservoir in each coach as in automatic air brake system.
Activation of brake valve forces compressed air from
straight air pipe to brake cylinders, activating the basic
braking mechanism. As the straight air pipes do not contain
compressed air during normal running conditions, the
brakes would fail if coaches became uncoupled. In order to
avoid this, the straight air brake system may be used in
conjunction with the automatic air brake system. It can also
be avoided by using another pipe, called a main air reservoir
pipe, from the first to the last coach. The air pressure in
main air reservoir pipe acts like the compressed air in the
brake pipes of the automatic air brake system. If compressed
air in this main air reservoir pipe falls, or if it leaks from air
pipes or from air hoses between coaches, etc., pressure drop
is detected and brakes are applied automatically.

IJERTV4IS010360

Air brake system may also be classified as follows:

Direct release air brake system
Graduated release air brake system
Direct release air brake system is most suitable for leveled
track or constant gradient route. Due to this reason it is not
suitable for Indian Railways. Graduated release air brake
system is most suitable for Indian Railways. In graduated
release air brake system the brake pressure is applied and
released such that the magnitude of braking force is
proportional to reduction in brake pipe pressure.
Graduated release air brake system can also be divided into
two categories.
Single pipe graduated release air brake system
Twin pipe graduated release air brake system
C. Single Pipe Graduated Release Air Brake System
Single Pipe Graduated Release Air Brake System is shown
in Fig. 3. The operation is same as that of the twin pipe
system except that the auxiliary reservoir is charged through
the D.V. instead of feed pipe, since there is no feed pipe in
single pipe system. As compared to single pipe graduated
release air brake system, twin pipe graduated release air
brake system is more suitable for passenger coaches.

Fig. 3. Single pipe graduated release air brake system

D. Twin Pipe Graduated Release Air Brake System

In twin pipe graduated release air brake system (Fig. 4), The
Brake pipe is charged to 5 kg/cm2 by the driver's brake
valve. The auxiliary reservoir is charged by the feed pipe at
6 kg/cm2 through check valve and choke. The brake
cylinder is connected to the atmosphere through a hole in
the D.V. when brakes are under fully released condition. To
apply brakes, the driver moves automatic brake valve handle

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International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)

ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 4 Issue01,January-2015

either in steps for a graduated application or in one stroke to

the extreme position for emergency application. By this
movement the brake pipe pressure is reduced and the
pressure differenced is sensed by the D.V. against the
reference pressure locked in the control reservoir. Air from
the auxiliary reservoir enters the brake cylinder and the
brakes are applied. At the time of release the air in the brake
cylinder is vented progressively depending upon the
increase in the brake pipe pressure. When the brake pipe
pressure reaches 4.8 kg/cm2 the brake cylinder is completely
exhausted and brakes are fully released.

IV.

ELECTRODYNAMIC BRAKING SYSTEM

Braking system used is electric trains is electrodynamic

braking that converts the motor into a braking generator
dissipating the kinetic energy in the form of heat.
Regenerative braking uses the generated electricity instead
of dissipating it as heat, and is becoming more common due
to its ability to save energy. Principle of the electrodynamic
traction, dynamic braking and regenerative braking systems
is shown in Fig. 5, 6 and 7 respectively.

Fig. 5. Principle of electrodynamic traction

Fig. 4. Twin pipe graduated release air brake system

E. Advantages of Air Brake over Vacuum Brake

The air brake is preferred in rail vehicles over vacuum brake
due to the reasons listed in Table 1.
TABLE I.
S.N.
1.

ADVANTAGE OF AIR BRAKE OVER VACUUM BRAKE

Parameters
Emergency braking
distance
(level track, 65
km/hr speed)

Air Brakes

Vacuum Brakes

632 m

1097 m

2.

Brake power fading

No fading

At least by 20%

3.

Weight of
Equipments per
wagon

275 kg (Approx)

700 kg (Approx)

4.

Pressure Gradient

No
appreciable
difference in air
pressure between
locomotive
and
brake van upto
2000 m.

Steep reduction in
vacuum in trains
longer than 600 m.

5.

Preparation time in
yards

Less than
minutes

Upto 4 Hrs

6.

Safety on
gradients

Very safe

Need
additional
precautions

7.

Overall reliability

Very good

Satisfactory

down

40

Fig. 6. Principle of dynamic braking

Fig. 7. Principle of regenerative braking

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Vol. 4 Issue01,January-2015

V.

MECHANICAL BRAKING SYSTEM

The basic braking devices used by mechanical braking

systems are: wheel tread brakes (Fig. 10), axle-mounted disc
brakes (Fig. 11), and wheel-mounted disc brakes (Fig. 12).
These brake mechanisms use a brake shoe that applies
friction force to the disc. The applied pressure is adjusted to
control the braking force. In wheel-tread brake, the brake
shoe applies friction force to the wheel tread, creating a
sliding effect. High-speed trains cannot use this type of
brake, because doing so may damage the wheel tread.
Therefore, they use axle- or wheel-mounted disc brakes.
Axle-mounted disc brakes require sufficient space to
accommodate therefore used in trailer bogies. Wheelmounted disc brakes are used on motor bogies because it
requires accommodating the traction motor only and having
insufficient space for an axle-mounted brake. In both
systems, compressed air or oil is applied to a brake cylinder
that pushes the brake lining against the disc. Brake discs are
dead weight that is useful only during braking, therefore
operators can install lighter discs. Carbon/carbon- composite
multi-discs and aluminium composite discs offer lighter
weights and are widely used. The carbon/carbon-composite
multi-disc has alternate sections of carbon-fiber rotors and
stators. During braking, they rub against each other to create
a frictional force that slows down the wheel or axle. The
disc is lighter in weight than conventional materials and has
good heat-resistant properties. (Fig. 13) Aluminiumcomposite brake discs may be made much lighter than
todays forged steel and cast-iron brake discs. Moreover
their structure is common for both axle- or wheel-mounted
discs, achieving a much lighter disc without design.

Fig. 8. Principle of recycled regenerated electric power

Fig. 9. Transmission of breaking force from traction motors to wheels

The traction motor drives and accelerates the train, during

braking and it acts as an electric generator instead, forming
part of a circuit that consists of a rheostat, armatures and a
field system. Electricity is consumed by the main resistor,
which converts kinetic energy of the train into heat and acts
as a brake. Regenerative braking uses the same type of
circuit; however the electricity generated by braking is not
consumed by rheostat. It is transmitted to the overhead
wire. The flow of this electricity is controlled by a controller
under the pantograph that opens and closes within fraction
of time. Electrodynamic brake systems are economical to
use because they do have friction elements, as in mechanical
brake systems. The regenerative braking system is even
more economical because the electricity regenerated from
the trains kinetic energy is transmitted to the overhead
wire, and becomes available to power other rolling stock
(Fig. 8)
However electrodynamic brake systems occasionally
malfunction because they have complex circuits. Therefore
they cannot be used as emergency brakes. In an
electrodynamic braking system, the braking force of the
traction motor is transmitted to the wheels via gears (Fig. 9).

Fig. 10. Principle of wheel tread brakes

Fig. 11. Principle of axle-mounted disc brakes

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Vol. 4 Issue01,January-2015

Fig. 14. Principle of electromagnetic brake

Fig. 12. Principle of wheel-mounted disc brakes

Fig. 13. Carbon/Carbon-composite multi-disc system

VI.

Fig. 15. An on field view of electromagnetic brake

ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM

VII. CALCULATION OF TRAIN STOPPING DISTANCE

Conventional train braking systems depend heavily on

adhesion between the wheel tread and the rail. In the case
high-speed trains, adhesion decreases as speeds increase,
making it necessary for the train to reduce braking force to
avoid wheel sliding. This result is longer braking distances.
To overcome this problem, a electromagnetic brake system
that does not depend on adhesion was developed. It produce
a braking force by using magnetic repulsion obtained from
eddy currents generated on the top surface of the rails.
Earlier it was not used because of assumption that the eddy
currents would heat small sections of the rail to such a
degree that the rail would bend sideways. This is solved by
development of a electromagnetic brake that uses eddy
currents and frictional force. Fig. 14 shows the principle of
electromagnetic brake. The electromagnetic brake on bogie
is connected to batteries that create alternating north and
south poles forming magnetic fields between the poles. The
magnetic fields generate eddy currents in the top surface of
the rails, creating a force acting in an opposite direction to
the movement of the train, in other words, a braking force.
An on field view of electromagnetic brake is shown in Fig.
15.

IJERTV4IS010360

For trains to safely travel on a railway, trains must be

provided with sufficient distance in which to stop. Allowing
too long a distance reduces the capacity of the line and has
an impact on rail infrastructure investment. Too short a
distance and collisions would occur, because the train would
not be able to stop within the available distance and would
therefore occupy a section of track that could be allocated to
another train. Consequently it is important that distance be
adequate. Train breaking distance is function of following
factors
Train speed when the brakes are applied.
The available friction at wheel-rail surface which
influences the retardation rate for complete brake
application.
Time from when the brakes are applied by the train
driver to when they are actually become effective i.e.
brake delay time.
The magnitude of wear of brake pads and the pressure
available in brake cylinders.
Track gradient when brakes are applied and mass
distribution of track.
In order to stop the train it requires the work. The required
work is the sum of change in the trains kinetic energy and
the change in its potential energy due to change in the height
due to the gradient of the track.

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Mathematically it may be expressed as:

mV 2
ma S
m g (h2 h1 ) 0
2
where

(1)

[4]

m = mass of train, V = Speed at which the retardation begins

S = Stopping distance, h1 = Height at which the retardation begins,
h2 = Height at which the train stops (h2 h1 )
a = Retardation provided by braking system,

The above equation suggests that mass has no direct effect

on the train stopping distance. However mass distribution
has influence on train stopping distance as trains centre of
gravity varies with the mass distribution. In case of freight
wagons where the mass varies from no load to full load
there are two levels of brake force used empty and
loaded. This influences the design of the brake system. For
calculating the braking distance calculations the lowest
deceleration rate is used to calculate the deceleration rate for
the complete train.
Eq. 1 may be written as
(V 2 )
(2)
, for a 0
S
2(a g tan )

[5]

[6]

[7]
[8]

[9]

[10]

= Angle of slope, for small values of , sin tan

Assuming constant gradient track and considering brake
delay time the stopping distance can be calculated using
following expression
(V b t d ) 2
bt 2
(3)
S
V t d
2(a b)

[13]

VIII. CONCLUSIONS

[14]

Vacuum brakes have extremely limited applications

because of longer longer to function and unsuitable
for high speed trains.
Air brakes are efficient as compared to vacuum
brakes; however they require considerable stopping
distance therefore cannot be used for emergency
braking.
Mechanical brakes should be kept in reserve in
parallel with another breaking technique and should
be used to completely stop the engine at low speed.
The required braking forces can be obtained in a
wide range, with regeneration braking used in a highspeed range and rheostat braking in low speed range.
Electrodynamic
brake
systems
occasionally
malfunction because they have complex circuits.
Therefore they cannot be used as emergency brakes.
Electromagnetic braking in high-speed train is
efficient method of breaking.
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