LOad On Bridge 2

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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT
Authors full name :
POH YANG ___________________

__GRACE
_________TAN
__________________
Date of birth
________________________________________________
Title
________________________________________________
05 NOVEMBER 1986
COMPUTERIZED DESIGN OF REINFORCED

CONCRETE BOX GIRDER BRIDGE
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Academic Session :
________________________________________________
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IR. MOHAMAD SALLEH YASSIN

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Date : 19 APRIL 2010
If the thesis is CONFIDENTAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from
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Signature
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Name of Supervisor : IR. MOHAMAD SALLEH YASSIN

Date
: 19 APRIL 2010
COMPUTERIZED DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX GIRDER

BRIDGE
GRACE TAN POH YANG
A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering (Civil)
Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malayisia
APRIL, 2010
ii
I declare that this thesis entitled Computerized Design of Reinforced Concrete Box
Girder Bridge is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The
thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in
candidature of any other degree.
Signature : ....................................................
Name
: GRACE TAN POH YANG
Date
: 19 APRIL 2010
iii
To my beloved father and mother
iv
ACKNOWLEGEDMENT
First of all, I would like to express my greatest and sincere appreciation to my

final year project supervisor, Ir. Mohamad Salleh Yassin for his guidance, critics,
encouragement, and advises throughout the process of this research. I am indebted to
him for his valuable instructions and guidance along the time of the research. I am
truly grateful to him also in the confidence and trust in me from the beginning of the
project until the stage of research accomplishment.
I am very grateful to have my family member with me during the period of

research preparation. Whenever I face any obstacles and problems, they always give
their moral support and encouragement to me throughout the process of research.
Last but not least, I also like to thank to my friends who always accompany
me and give their moral support when I need them especially those involved directly
or indirectly in my preparation of research. Their opinions and views are useful
indeed. May our friendship can last for forever.
ABSTRACT
Box girder bridge is the most widely used bridge type nowadays .This study presents
the development for preliminary analysis and design procedures of reinforced
concrete box girder bridge using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Branded new software
named BGB version 1.0 is well developed to assist designers in their works.
Feasibility of choosing number of cell (single, double or triple) for box girder is one
of the advantages of this software. The software focuses on box girder bridge
structural analysis and design. Orthotropic plate theory analysis method is adopted
and bending moments and deflection of longitudinal and transverse beam are the
concerns since the results are needed to prevent the structural failure. Box girder can
be designed according to whole structure or by section depends on the preference of
user. The output data of analysis part can be used to compute the suggestion of
reinforcement required in order to provide a fast, accurate, safe and economic design.
European code of practice EN 1992-1-1 and EN 1992-2 are applied and referred
throughout the analysis and design of the software. The accuracy of the software is
verified through the stress results comparison with LUSAS modeller software in the
analysis part while parametric study method is used in design part of software in
order to identify the relationship among the parameters used.
vi
ABSTRAK
Jambatan galang kekotak merupakan salah satu jenis jambatan yang paling banyak
digunakan kebelakangan ini. Kajian ini membentangkan hasil kerja pembangunan
perisian komputer yang berfungsi untuk menganalisis and mereka bentuk jambatan
galang kekotak konkrit bertelulang. Perisian komputer berjenama BGB version 1.0
merupakan aturcara komputer yang boleh mengurangkan kerja-kerja jurutera dari
segi analisis dan rekabentuk. Kebebasan kepada penguna untuk memilih pelbagai
jenis galang merupakan salah satu kebaikan perisian ini. Kaedah analisis yang
digunakan adalah berpandukan Teori Plat Ototropik .Focus utama analisis adalah
penentuan pesongan dan momen yang dihasilkan pada anggota jambatan kerana
kecuaian tentang dua aspek tersebut akan menyebabkan kegagalan atau keruntuhan.
Dalam bahagian rekabentuk, pengguna program menentukan dan memilih cara
rekabentuk, iaitu rekabentuk mengikut bahagian kekotak ataupun seluruh struktur.
Keputusan dalam bahagian analisis dapat dimanfaatkan dan digunakan dalam
bahagian rekabentuk supaya menyempurnakan seluruh proses dalam aturcara dan
menghasilkan cadangan rekabentuk yang memenuhi syarat seperti kejituan, selamat,
cepat dan ekonomi. Semua keadah pengiraan untuk analisis dan rekabentuk adalah
berpandukan kod amalan Eropah EN 1992-1-1 dan EN 1992-2. Kejituan program
telah disahkan melalui perbandingan keputusan dengan program yang terdapat dalam
pasaran bernama LUSAS Modeller. Kajian parameter dalam bahagian rekebentuk
juga telah dijalankan supaya kejituan pengiraan dapat disahkan.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xv
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Problem Statement
1.3
Objective
1.4
Scope of Study
1.5
Importance of Study
ANALYSIS OF BOX GIRDER BRIDGE
2.1
General
2.2
Introduction to Bridges
2.3
Types of Concrete Bridge Decks
2.3.1 Slab Decks
2.3.2 Voided Slab Deck
2.4
2.3.3 Pseudo Slab
2.3.4
Maunsell Top Hat Beam
2.3.5
Beam and Slab
2.3.6 Box Girders Deck
Box Girder Bridges
10
2.4.1 General
10
2.4.2
10
Basic Concept of Reinforced Concrete

Box Girder Bridge
2.4.3
Components of Reinforced Concrete Box
11
Girder Bridge
2.4.4
Evolution of Box Girder
12
2.4.5
Development of Reinforced Concrete
12
Box Girder
2.4.6 Types of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder
13
2.4.7
13
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Box

Girder Bridges
2.5
2.6
2.4.7.1 Relative Shallow Requirement
14
2.4.7.2 Aesthetic Value
14
2.4.7.3 Ideal Space for Utilities
15
2.4.7.4 High Torsional Stiffness
15
2.4.7.5 Cost Saving
15
Structural Action of Box girder
16
2.5.1
16
Longitudinal Bending
2.5.2 Shear Force
17
2.5.3 Torsion
17
2.5.4
Distortion
19
2.5.5 Shear Lag
20
2.5.6
20
Transverse Bending
Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder
21
2.6.1
Concept of Orthotropic Plate Theory
21
2.6.2
Flexural Rigidity of Box Girder
21
Bridge in Orthotropic Plate Analysis

2.6.2.1 Torsional Rigidity
23
2.6.2.2 Equivalent Plate Rigidity
23
2.6.3
Types of Cases in Orthotropic Plate Equation
25
2.6.3.1 Solution of Orthotropic Plate Equations
26
2.6.3.2 Torsionally Stiff and/or Flexural Soft
28
Bridge Deck (
2.6.3.3 Isotropic Bridge Decks
28
2.3.6.4 Torsional Soft and/or Flexural Stiff
29
Bridge Decks (H
D D
2.6.3.5 Articulated Bridge Decks (
29
BRIDGE LOADINGS
31
3.1
General
31
3.2
Models of Road Traffic Loads
31
3.3
Loading Classes
32
3.4
Divisions of Carriageway into Notional Lanes
32
3.5
Location and Numbering of Lanes for Design
33
3.6
Traffic Loadings
34
3.6.1 Load Model 1 (LM1)
34
35
36
37
3.7
37
Load Combinations
3.7.1 Design Situation
37
3.7.2
Ultimate Limit States (Loading)
38
3.7.3
Combinations of Actions for Persistent
40
or Transient Design Situations

(Fundamental Combinations)
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
41
4.1
General
41
4.2
Ultimate Limit State
41
4.3
General Design Considerations
42
4.3.1
Structural Behavior
42
4.3.2
Minimum Dimensions of Cross Section
43
4.4
4.5
4.3.3
Fillets
44
4.3.4
Diaphragms
44
Design Code
44
4.4.1 Introduction to Eurocode 2
45
Stress-strain Relationship for the Design
45
Sections
4.6
Design Procedures of Reinforced Concrete
47
Box Girder
4.6.1
Flanged Section (Depth of the stress
47
block within the flange)

4.6.2
Flanged Section (Depth of the stress
49
block extends below the flange)

4.6.3 Flanged Section with Compression
51
Reinforcement
4.6.4
Shear Check and Reinforcement Design
53
(Shear reinforcement is not required)

4.6.5
Shear Check and Reinforcement Design
54
(Shear reinforcement is required)
4.7
4.6.6
Deflection Check
56
4.6.7
Crack Control
58
Material Properties
60
4.7.1
Design Compressive Strength of Concrete
60
4.72
Design Tensile Strength
61
4.7.3
Reinforcing Steel
62
DEVELOPMENT OF SOFTWARE
63
5.1
Introduction
63
5.2
Application of Microsoft Excel in Design Stages
64
5.3
Flow Chart Establishment
64
5.3.1
Flow Chart of Research
65
5.3.2
Flow Chart of Analysis of Reinforced
66
Concrete Box Girder

5.3.3
Flow Chart of Reinforced Concrete

Box Girder Design
71
USER MANUAL
75
6.1
Introduction
75
6.2
Instruments Configuration
75
6.3
Operating Guidelines of Software
77
6.3.1
Operating Guidelines (Part I: Analysis)
77
6.3.2
Operating Guidelines (Part II: Design)
86
RESULTS VERIFICATION AND DISCUSSION
92
7.1
General
92
7.2
Verification Tool
92
7.3
Software Verification for Analysis
93
7.3.1
Deflection
94
7.3.1.1 Load Combination 1
94
95
96
Bending Moment
97
7.3.2
7.4
97
98
99
Parametric Study
100
7.4.1
101
Relationship between Amount of

Longitudinal Reinforcement Bar Required
Due to Different Values of Bending Moment
Applied
7.4.2 Relationship between Amount of Longitudinal
102
Reinforcement Bar Required Due to Different

Values of Section Width, bf
LIMITATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
104
AND CONCLUSION
8.1
Limitations of Software
104
8.2
Recommendations
105
8.3
Conclusion
106
REREFENCES
108
APPENDIX I
110
APPENDIX II
117
APPENDIX III
118
viii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Elements of a simple box girder bridge
11
2.2
Typical load functions
27
3.1
Number and width of notional lanes
32
3.2
Characteristic values for load model 1
34
3.3
Classes of special vehicles
36
3.4
Design values of actions (EQU) (Set A)
39
3.5
Design values of actions (STR/GEO) (Set B)
39
3.6
Design values of actions (STR/GEO) (Set C)
40
4.1
Minimum dimension of cross sectional units for box girder
43
4.2
Comparison of stress block idealizations for cc = 0.85
46
4.3
Recommended value for wmax (mm)
58
4.4
Maximum bar spacing for crack control
59
4.5
Maximum bar size for crack control
59
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
2.1
TITLE
Types of concrete bridge deck: (a) Slab
PAGE
(b) Pseudo slab (c) Beam and slab (d) Cellular

2.2
(a) Construction of single cell box girder bridge
10
(b) Single box girder bridge in Australia

2.3
Section through a typical box girder bridge
11
2.4
Development of the box girder cross section
12
2.5
Single cell box girder
13
2.6
Multi cell box girder
13
2.7
Aesthetic treatment on the side of box girder
14
2.8
Warping of rectangular box subjected to pure torsion
18
2.9
Separation of an eccentrically applied load into two
19
components
2.10
Separation of force couple into torsion and distortion
19
components
2.11
Shear lag with wide flanges (typical variation of stress
20
across top flange)

2.12
Multi cell box deck
22
2.13
Definition of parameters
27
3.1
Application for load model 1
35
3.2
Load Model 2
35
4.1
Sloped exterior webs of box girder
43
4.2
The Eurocodes
45
4.3
Idealized stress-strain distributions
46
4.4
Flanged section with stress block within the flange
47
4.5
Flanged section with stress block below the flange
49
with depth of neutral axis
0.45
4.6
Flanged section with compression reinforcement
51
4.7
Basic span to effective depth ratio
57
4.8
Stress-strain relationships for the design of concrete
61
sections
4.9
Stress-strain diagrams for reinforcing steel
62
5.1
65
5.2
Flow chart of analysis bridge deck types
66
5.3
Flow chart of torsionally stiff and/or flexural soft
67
bridge decks analysis

5.4
Flow chart of isotropic bridge decks analysis
68
5.5
Flow chart of torsionally soft and/or flexural stiff
69
bridge decks analysis

5.6
Flow chart of articulated decks analysis
70
5.7
Flow chart for box girder design (compression
71
reinforcement is required)
5.8
Flow chart of shear reinforcement design
72
5.9
Flow chart of deflection check
73
5.10
Flow chart of crack control
74
6.1
Front page interface of software with six
77
available command buttons

6.2
Product details
78
6.3
User Manual
78
6.4
Authors profile
79
6.5
Selection of box girder types in analysis part
79
6.6
Process of input required data
80
6.7
Calculation outputs of bridge loadings
80
6.8
Calculations of flexural rigidities
81
6.9
Determination of types for bridge decks
81
6.10
Computations of parameters and constants
82
6.11
Computations of coefficients, K1 and K2 according
83
to each load case
xi
6.12
Deflection of individual load case
83
6.13
Options for types of load combinations
84
6.14
Selection of design condition for load combination
85
6.15
Results of bending moment for load combination
85
in table form
6.16
Results of bending moment for load combination
86
in graph form
6.17
Interface control button
86
6.18
Selection of box girder types in design part
87
6.19
Selection of design options
87
6.20
Process of insert required data in design
88
6.21
Comparison between maximum bending moment
88
applied and moment of resistance

6.22
Shear check
89
6.23
Deflection check
89
6.24
Cracking control
90
6.25
Detailing diagram of box girder
90
6.26
91
7.1
Bridge model in LUSAS Modeller
93
7.2
Deflection graph of both analysis tools for
95
load combination 1
7.3
96
load combination 2
7.4
97
load combination 3
7.5
Bending moment graph of both analysis tools for
98
load combination 1
7.6
99
load combination 2
7.7
100
load combination 3
7.8
Constants of parametric study
101
7.9
Relationship between amount area of reinforcement
102
bar required and the bending moments applied
xii
7.10
102
7.11
Relationship between amount area of reinforcement
103
bar required and the width of box section, bf
xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Area of enclosed section where
Area enclosed by mid-line of wall of enclosed
Reinforcement required in compression part of flange
Coupling rigidity
Bending rigidity in x direction
Bending rigidity in y direction
Equivalent plate rigidity in x direction
Equivalent plate rigidity in y direction
Modulus of rigidity
Total torsional rigidity in x direction
Total torsional rigidity in y direction
Moments of inertia of the entire cross section about x axes

Moments of inertia of the entire cross section about y axes
Bending moment per unit width in x direction
Bending moment per unit width in y direction
Design moment
Mflange Z
Moment resistance of the concrete
Torsional moment applied on a section
Lever arm
Breadth of section
Depth of enclosed section between mid flange points
Concrete strength
xiv
, .
Characteristic axial tensile strength below which 5% of all the

strength test Results would be expected to fall for the specified
concrete
Normal longitudinal stress in beam bending
yk
Characteristic yield stress
Thickness of wall of closed portion of the section
Depth of flange
Second moments of area of section per unit width in x direction
Second moments of area of section per unit width in y direction
Number of cells
Thickness of end webs
Thickness of top and bottom flanges (
Thickness of internal web
Shear flow in St Venant Torsion
Shear stress in St Venant Torsion
Total deflection of deck
Deflection due to shear
Ultimate design uniform distributed load
Width of enclosed section
The change in the longitudinal force in the flange outstand
Half the distance between the section with zero moment and
where maximum moment occurs
The change in moment over the distance
Coefficient taking account of long term effects on the compressive

strength and of unfavorable effects resulting from the way the load is
applied, which the value is recommended to be 0.85 for bridges .
/ -
Summation of the length thickness ratio taken around the line.
Steel strain which is equal to
Strength reduction factor
Partial safety factor for concrete

-
Partial factor of safety for steel
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
Parameters of Orthotropic Plate Theory
110
II
Example calculation of bridge deck analysis
117
(single cell box girder)

III
Example calculation of reinforced concrete box

girder design (single cell box girder hogging
moment)
118
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
Bridge is a structure which provides passage over an obstacle without closing

the way beneath. Box girder bridge is one of the most widely used bridge type in
bridge construction especially for highway flyovers and modern elevated structures
of light rail transport. This modern bridge type uses box girders which are made of
concrete reinforced with steel bars.
As we know, computer technology is the most common tool to handle the

tasks which are given by the user in civil engineering field especially in bridge
structures design. However, there are many factors that needed to be taken into the
consideration in the analysis and design stages of reinforced concrete box girders
bridge, especially for the bridge loadings and the quantity of materials used to ensure
the safety of bridge structure for the usage of transportation. Meanwhile, there are a
lot of steps and procedures are involved in order to obtain the final results. In order
to decrease the repeated steps and minimize the work loads, civil engineers are wise
to utilize computer system which comprises of hardware and software during their
works.
2
In addition, with the introduction of Eurocode 2 as the new design standard
and guidelines for the concrete structure, bridge designers or civil engineers require
more time and effort to familiar themselves with the practice code of Eurocode 2.
Therefore, the work of bridges analysis and design will be easier, fast and accurate
with a development of software by using Microsoft Excel based on all of the criteria
that needed in bridge engineering.
1.2
Problem Statement
Reinforced concrete box girders are commonly used in curved bridges,

interchanges, and ramps due to the reason of unique qualities that make them suitable
for such applications. Design of box girder of the bridges are complicated by many
factors including torsional warping, distortional warping, interaction between
different kinds of cross-sectional forces, and the effect of horizontal bridge curvature
on both local and global behavior.
Besides that, the application of available analysis and design software mostly
are seen to be complicated and not user friendly to beginner. There are many input
data are required to be considered before proceeds to the analysis and design stages.
Certainly, a lot of mathematic equations and repeating calculations are involved.
Time consuming will be one of the disadvantages of manual calculations. On the
other hand, work load increment which due to different types of load combination
cases analysis will also become a burden to the designer.
Furthermore, the application of British Standard is no longer relevant in

future design. European code of practice is used to replace the design criteria of
reinforced concrete structure including box girder. Searching or referring processes
3
to guidelines of Eurocode 2 can be reduced in order to compute the results which
comprises of factors in term of time saving, accurate, economic and safety.
1.3
Objective
The objectives of the research are shown as below:
i.
To study and quantitatively evaluate the structural properties and behaviors of

reinforced concrete box girder bridge.
ii.
To analyze the structural actions of reinforced concrete box girder which are
under fifteen types of individual load cases and three types of load
combinations.
iii.
To develop and transform a series procedure of reinforced concrete box

girder analysis and design based on BS EN 1992 Part 2 by using Microsoft
Excel software.
iv.
To verify the results of software which comprises of advantages based on

safety, serviceability, reliability and economy in the real world situations.
1.4
Scope of Study
The scopes of the study are defined to achieve the objectives of the research
are shown as below:
4
i.
The research focuses on the concept study, analysis and design of

reinforced concrete box girder deck.
ii.
Box girder analysis is based on orthotropic plate theory.
iii.
Deflection and bending moment are the main concerns of study.
iv.
The procedures of reinforced concrete box girder analysis and design are
developed into software by using Microsoft Excel. The input data can be
easily manipulated by user and the design results can be obtained directly
from the software.
v.
All of the specifications and procedures of reinforced concrete box girder

analysis and design are based on the latest version of BS EN 1992 Part 2
(Eurocode 2).
1.5
Importance of Study
Generally, software of analysis and design for three typical types of

reinforced concrete box girder in the format of Microsoft Excel is developed in the
end of the study. The software contains several simple input data interfaces which
contribute to the internal calculation processes of the software in order to obtain the
results of the study based on European code of practice (Eurocode 2).
The benefits of this software developing are time saving and ease of use for
the beginners. Certainly, this software can perform well and provide accurate results
in the end of the process to ensure the safety, serviceability, reliability and optimum
sizes of the proposed reinforced concrete box girder design that relate to the real
situation of construction site.
5
Hence, developing of new software by using Microsoft Excel can solve the
problems which mentioned above. It will be more user friendly to the civil engineers
and all the results of analysis and design can be obtained in a meanwhile.
CHAPTER 2
ANALYSIS OF BOX GIRDER BRIDGE
2.1
General
Literature review of a research is a critical summary and an assessment of the

current state of knowledge for the research. The aim is to give researcher insights
into aspects of the topic which might be worthy of exploration and future research
based on the information collected. Behaviour and aspects of box girder bridge are
discussed in this chapter.
2.2
Introduction to Bridges
Bridge is a permanent raised structure which allows people or vehicles to

cross an obstacle such as river without blocking the way of traffic passing underneath.
Before a new bridge is built, the planners have to decide on the best location on it.
There are a lot of factors are taken into the considerations of bridge design and
7
construction such as bridge loadings, dimension of carriageway and lanes, amount of
headroom needed by traffic passing underneath and type of bridge deck.
2.3
Types of Concrete Bridge Decks
Basically, there are six types of concrete bridge decks that commonly used in
concrete bridge constructions depending on the location and loadings. According to
Hambly (2003), behaviours of different forms of decks for bridge loading may be
different, which depend on the structural forms and the elements forming the decks.
Hence, a few of them have been well described by him in Figure 2.1 in the following
sub chapter.
2.3.1 Slab Decks
The slab deck behaves like a flat plate, which is a structural continuum for
transferring moments, shears and torsion in all directions in the plane of the plate.
The slab deforms based on the support conditions. Two sides will be supported on
the bearing over the piers in a normal bridge deck and the remaining two sides will
be either free or stiffened by edge beams corresponding to elastic supports.
8
2.3.2 Voided Slab Deck
Voided slab deck is a reinforced concrete slab deck in which voids reduce the
amount of concrete.
In order to lighten the structure, void of cylindrical or
rectangular shapes are introduced at the middle height of the cross section and the
slab is not stressed at all.
2.3.3 Pseudo Slab
Pseudo slab are erected by means of standard beams closely packed with
shear connectors. The slabs are analyzed in longitudinal and transverse direction
directly ans separately. In filment of the portion in between the standard beams is
known as shear keys. The main application of this type of slab is for bridge erected
over busy roadways railway.
2.3.4
Maunsell Top Hat Beam
Maunsell top hat beam is referred to small hollow rectangular beams with
flanges extended on one side could be packed to form deck with a screed layers of
concrete on the top forming a cellular deck. The behaviour of this type of deck will
be very similar to the pseudo slabs.
9
2.3.5 Beam and Slab
Basically, a beam and slab deck consists of number of longitudinal beams

connected at the top with continuous structural slab. These beams could also be
transversely connected by a diaphragm or cross girder to give transverse stiffness for
the deck. These deck systems could be easily be adopted for bridge span up to 25m.
2.3.6
Box Girders Deck
Box girders deck system is referred to the bottom of the beam and slab deck
are to be tied together at the bottom to keep the geometry. It is structurally a more
efficient cross section for bridge spans with wide decks up to 150 m depending on
the type of construction methods. Normally prestressed box girder is resorted for
long spans bridge. Reinforced concrete box girders will be more suitable in term of
constructability for bridge which is in curved plan.
.
Figure 2.1
Types of concrete bridge deck: (a) Slab (b) Pseudo slab (c) Beam and
slab (d) Cellular
10
2.4
Box Girder Bridges
2.4.1 General
Since the construction of the first reinforced concrete bridge in the United
State in 1937, the popularity of concrete box girder bridges has steadily increased
generally in the western states and particularly in California, where nearly 90 percent
of all bridges were built on the state highway system are concrete box girder.
Nowadays, reinforced concrete box girder bridges are widely used in Malaysia
especially for highway interchange structures.
2.4.2
Basic Concept of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridge
Box girder bridges are commonly used for highway flyovers and modern
elevated structures of light rail transport. Main beams of box girder bridge comprise
girders in the shape of hollow and typically rectangular or trapezoidal in cross
section.
(a)
Figure 2.2
(b)
(a) Construction of single cell box girder bridge (b) Single box girder
bridge in Australia
11
2.4.3
Components of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridge
The main elements of a typical simple box girder bridge are the
superstructure, substructure and foundation. These main components are shown in
Figure 2.3 and classified Table 2.1.
Section through a typical box girder bridge
Figure 2.3
Table 2.1
Foundation
Elements of a simple box girder bridge

Substructure
Superstructure
Plate
Box Abutment
19
Transverse Diaphragm
Pile Plate
Spill-through Abutment
20
Box Girder Web
Bored Piles
Column, Piers
21
Top Slab (Area Between Webs)
Driven Piles
Breast Wall
22
Top Slabs
Wing Wall
23
Bottom Slab
10
Back Wall
24
Fascia Beam
11
Edge Beam
25
Guard Rail
12
End Diaphragm
26
Railing
13
Bridge Seat
27
Sealing Membrane
14
Support Walls
28
Wearing Surface
15
Bridge Seat Beam
29
Drain Inlet
16
Access Chamber
30
Cross Drain
17
Bearing
31
Longitudinal Drain
18
Expansion Joint
12
2.4.4
Evolution of Box Girder
The number of longitudinal beam are increased which leading to a reduction

of stiffness in the transverse direction and relatively high transverse curvature as the
width of the deck is increased. The webs of the beams get opened out spreading
from the top slab. At this critical stage, they could not further be in their original
position under the high transverse bending. In order to keep the webs in their
original position, the bottom bulbs of the webs are to be tied together and this lead to
the evolution of box girder.
2.4.5
Development of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder
The first box girder cross section possessed decks slabs that cantilevered out
only slightly from the box portion (Figure 2.4, a-e). The high formwork costs caused
a reduction in the number of cells (Figure 2.4, f-g).
In order to reduce the
construction loads to the minimum possible or to require only one longitudinal girder
in the working state even with multiple traffic lanes, the one cell built up cross
section constructed in modular fashion emerged as the last development (Figure
2.4h).
Figure 2.4
Development of the box girder cross section
13
2.4.6
Types of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder
Generally, there are two types of reinforced concrete box girder which are
single cell box girder and multi cells box girder. Each type of the box girder has its
own advantages and disadvantages during the construction stages.
2.4.7
Figure 2.5
Single cell box girder
Figure 2.6
Multi cell box girder
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Reinforced concrete box girder bridges have several advantages over other
types of bridges and this led to its popularity in bridge constructions. The following
sub chapter will cover the advantages of reinforced box girder bridge.
14
2.4.7.1 Relative Shallow Requirement
The relative shallow depth requirement of a box girder bridge is a definite

advantage where headroom is limited which is a condition frequently encountered in
urban areas.
2.4.7.2 Aesthetic Value
Monolithic construction of the superstructure and the substructure offers

structural advantages as well as enhanced aesthetics. In the case of continuous box
girder, the piers caps can be placed within the box and facilitate rigid connection to
the pier shaft to develop continuity. Box girder structures also lend themselves to
easy aesthetic treatment through smooth finishing of the soffit and the side as shown
in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7
Aesthetic treatment on the side of box girder
15
2.4.7.3 Ideal Space for Utilities
Reinforced concrete box girders provide ideal space for utilities such as gas
and water pipelines, power, telephone, cable ducts, storm drains and sewers. All of
the utilities can be easily and safely placed inside the large cells and completely
hidden from view (Degenkolb and Elliot, 1977). Normally, the cells of box girder
haven been used as culvert to carry large amounts of drainage. If necessary, the
spacing of webs can be easily adjusted to facilitate the placement of these utilities at
desired locations.
2.4.7.4 High Torsional Stiffness
A significantly important characteristic of box girder is their high torsional

stiffness which makes them ideally suited for bridges on curved alignments. This is
especially important for interchanges on freeways where the ramp structures
typically require sharp curved alignment. In state such as California, about 70 to 80
percent of all bridges are multi-cell concrete box girder bridges. Their high torsional
stiffness also makes it possible to design them as a unit rather than as individual
girders.
2.4.7.5 Cost Saving
Box girder structures lend themselves to easy aesthetic treatment through

smooth finishing of the soffit and the sides (Degenkolb and Elliot, 1977). Special
treated forms for the outer surfaces of the box girder have been used to obtain a
16
smooth high grade surface that does not require additional finishing. In box girders,
only the soffits and the faces of the exterior girders or webs need to be given a high
quality finish. Thus, a great savings result from the reduced costs of finishing can be
obtained.
2.5
Structural Action of Box girder
The structural action of the box girder bridge deck is complicated. Hence,
analysis of a box girder should take stresses into consideration due to:
i.
Longitudinal bending
ii.
Shear force
iii.
Torsion
iv.
Distortion
v.
Shear-lag
vi.
Transverse bending
2.5.1
Longitudinal Bending
Simple beam action in the longitudinal direction causes the longitudinal

bending. If Mx and My are bending moments acting on the section, the normal stress
in longitudinal bending of a thin walled beam whose cross section had a vertical axis
of symmetry is given by:
17
2.1
where
is normal longitudinal stress in beam bending

,
is moments of inertia of the entire cross section about x and y axes

respectively
2.5.2
is coordinates of the point on the middle line of cross section.
Shear Force
Shear force causes an internal force in a member which acts in the plane of
the section. The shear stress is referenced according to the particular plane in which
it acts. In a wide flange girder, vertical shear occurs in the box girder cross section if
the box is loaded vertically. Horizontal shear acts along the length of the girder if the
member is loaded longitudinally. In a bridge, the greatest danger for shear occurs at
supports where a load combined with the beam reaction can result in high stresses.
Vertical shear would be computed as the load divided by the girder web area.
2.5.3
Torsion
For St Venant Torsion of thin walled of closed section Koll Brunner and
Basler have given the formula:
18
2.2
where
is shear flow in St Venant Torsion
is shear stress in St Venant Torsion
is thickness of wall of closed portion of the section
is torsional moment applied on a section
is area enclosed by mid-line of wall of enclosed
The pure torsion of a thin walled section also produces a warping of the
cross-section unless there is sufficient symmetry in the section. This is illustrated in
Figure 2.8 for a rectangular section that is free to warp at its ends. However, in
practice boxes are not subject to pure torsion. Wherever there is a change of torque
at a point of application of load or at a torsional restraint, there is restraint to warping
because the 'free' warping displacements due to the different torques would be
different. Such restraint gives rise to longitudinal warping stresses and associated
shear stresses in each wall of the box.
Figure 2.8
Warping of rectangular box subjected to pure torsion
19
2.5.4
Distortion
The general case of an eccentric load applied to a box girder is in effect a

combination of three components which are bending, torsion and distortion. As a
first step, the force can be separated into two components, a pair of symmetric
vertical loads and a force couple, as shown in Figure 2.9. However, torsion is in fact
resisted in a box section by a shear flow around the whole perimeter and the couple
should in turn be separated into two parts which represent pure torsion and distortion,
as shown in Figure 2.10. The first two components, vertical bending loads and a
torsional shear flow are externally applied forces and they must be resisted in turn at
the supports or bearings. The third component, distortional forces, comprises an
internal set of forces, statically in equilibrium, which do not give rise to any external
reaction. Distortional effects depend on the behaviour of the structure between the
point of application and the nearest positions where the box section is restrained
against distortion.
Figure 2.9
Separation of an eccentrically applied load into two components
Figure 2.10
Separation of force couple into torsion and distortion components
20
2.5.5 Shear Lag
In very wide flanges shear lag effects must be taken into account. When the
axial load is fed into a wide flange by shear from the webs the flange distorts in its
plane, plane sections do not remain plane in Figure 2.11.
The resulting stress
distribution in the flange is not uniform in very wide flanges. Thus, shear lag effects
have to be taken into account for the verification of stresses, especially for short
spans since it causes the longitudinal stress at a flange or web intersection to exceed
the mean stress in the flange.
Figure 2.11
Shear lag with wide flanges (typical variation of stress across top
flange)
2.5.6
Transverse Bending
The transverse bending stresses are generated due to transverse bending

moment caused by the symmetric loading on the deck at any particular individual
cross section. The transverse bending moment is also affected by the longitudinal
flexural action since all the cross sections are connected with flexural rigidity on the
longitudinal direction.
21
2.6
Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder
The analysis of single and multiple cell of box girder for deflection and
bending moment will be discussed in this research. Those structural actions are
important in determine the required reinforcement in the box girder to ensure its
safety. The orthotropic plate analysis method is adopted in this research.
2.6.1
Concept of Orthotropic Plate Theory
The concept of considering an actual bridge deck as an equivalent plate for

the purpose of determining the distribution of stresses is well established. Cusens
and Rama (1975) stated that an orthotropic plate is defined as one which has
different specified elastic properties in two orthogonal directions. There are two
forms of orthotropic may be identified which are material orthotropic and shape
orthotropic. Most of the bridge decks are orthotropic because of shape orthotropic.
More rarely there exists a combination of material and shape orthotropic.
2.6.2
Flexural Rigidity of Box Girder Bridge in Orthotropic Plate Analysis
The flexural rigidity
and
are taken as the second moments of area of
the section expressed per unit width multipled by the modulus of elasticity E as
following.
2.3
22
2.4
where
is flexural rigidity in x direction
is flextural rigidity in y direction
E
is modulus of elasticity
is second moments of area of section per unit width in x direction
is second moments of area of section per unit width in y direction
For the multi cell box girder bridges are constructed without transverse
diaphragms, an approximate value of
may be found by neglecting the second
moment of area of the flanges about their own centroids, which is shown in Figure
2.12. This leads to the expression as below.
4
where
is thickness of bottom flange
is thickness of upper flange
is thickness of end webs
is thickness of internal web
is depth of enclosed section between mid flange points
Figure 2.12
Multi cell box deck
2.5
23
2.6.2.1 Torsional Rigidity
The shear flows around the section are taken into consideration in evaluation
for torsional rigidity of multi cell sections (Cusens and Rama, 1975). For a structure
consisting of several cells where the webs and flanges are small compared to the
overall dimensions of the section, Wittrick (1963) has shown that the torsional
rigidity GJ may be written as follows.
2.6
where
2
is width of enclosed section (see Figure 2.12)

is area of enclosed section where
is number of cells
is thickness of top and bottom flanges (
is modulus of rigidity
2
=1
=
2
/
2.6.2.2 Equivalent Plate Rigidity
If the deck is treated as an equivalent orthotropic plate, its torsional rigidities

will come from the twist in two orthogonal directions. Each of the equivalent plate
rigidity in torsion,
and
may be taken as one half of the total torsional rigidity
24
as given by Equation 2.7 and Equation 2.8 which each divided by the total width or
span of the deck respectively.
1
2
2.7
1
2
2.8
where
is equivalent plate rigidity in x direction
is equivalent plate rigidity in y direction
is total torsional rigidity in x direction
is total torsional rigidity in y direction
For box sections consisting of five or more cells, the torsional rigidity may be
approximated by considering the enclosed section as a single box and the total
torsional rigidity may be obtained from Bredts formula for a single closed section.
This can be applied if the thickness
and
are very small compared to the
dimensions, 2 of the cell.

4
1 4
4
2
2 2
2.9
2.10
(2.11)
2.12
2.13
25
4 2
4 2 2
2.14
where
is area of the section enclosed by the median line
/ is summation of the length thickness ratio taken around the line.
For a box section deck with end diaphragms, it may be assumed that a section
along a longitudinal line is also a single cell box which is given by Equation 2.15.
1
2
2.15
For there are no end diaphragms, Essa (1972) has found that the following
equation may be used provided that the span width ratio is greater than 1.0. For
ratios less than 1.0, torsional rigidity appears to drop below the value given by
Equation 2.16.
2.6.3
1
4
2.16
Types of Cases in Orthotropic Plate Equation
There are four cases will be discussed in this study which is categorized as
follow. The roots have to be examined in order to identify the cases of the solution
of orthotropic equations.
26
i.
Case 1: Torsionally stiff and/or flexural soft bridge decks (
ii.
Case 2: Isotropic Bridge Decks (
iii.
Case 3: Torsional soft and/or flexural stiff bridge decks (
iv.
Case 4: Articulated bridge decks (
2.6.3.1 Solution of Orthotropic Plate Equations
For all the cases except case 4, the deflection and bending moments may be
expressed in the form of Equation 2.17 and equation 2.18 respectively. Figure 2.13
illustrates the definition of parameters and the typical load functions
are shown in
Table 2.2 for all types of cases.
i.
Deflection
2
ii.
2.17
Bending Moments
2.18
2.19
27
Figure 2.13
Definition of parameters
Table 2.2
Typical load functions

2
4
2
28
2.6.3.2 Torsionally Stiff and/or Flexural Soft Bridge Deck (
Bridge decks in this category may be considered as torsionally stiff and/or

flexurally soft due to the square of half the total torsional rigidity exceeds the product
of the flexural rigidity in the two orthogonal directions. The constants of integration,
K1 and K2 are shown as following equations.
Other parameters are stated in
Appendix I.
2.20
2.21
2.6.3.3 Isotropic Bridge Decks
An isotropic deck refers to the flexural rigidities in the two orthogonal

directions and half the total torsional rigidity is all equal. The coupling rigidities are
also equal. The constants of integration are shown as following equations. Other
parameters are stated in Appendix I.
1
2
2.22
29
1
2.23
2.3.6.4 Torsional Soft and/or Flexural Stiff Bridge Decks (
Bridge decks in this category are classified as torsional soft and/or flexural
stiff bridge decks. The constants of integration are shown as following equations.
Other parameters are stated in Appendix I.
2.24
2
2
2
2
2.25
2.6.3.5 Articulated Bridge Decks (
The transverse flexural rigidity
approaches zero in this case. This has
practical applications with bridge deck of low transverse flexural rigidity which may
30
be idealized as articulated plates. The longitudinal beams are thought of as being
jointed together by a series of longitudinal hinges which permit rotation but no
relative displacement between the beams.
i.
Deflection
2
ii.
2.26
Bending moments
2
2.27
My =0
The coefficients K1 and K2 are defined as follows:

2.28
31
CHAPTER 3
BRIDGE LOADINGS
3.1
General
In this chapter, bridge and traffic loadings are discussed according to

different types of situations respectively.
3.2
Models of Road Traffic Loads
Loads due to the road traffic, consisting of cars, lorries and special give rise
to vertical and horizontal, static and dynamic forces. However, only vertical loads
will be considered in this study.
32
3.3
Loading Classes
The actual loads on road bridges result from various categories of vehicles
and from pedestrians. Vehicle traffic may differ between bridges depending on its
composition, density, conditions, the extreme likely weights of vehicles, axle loads,
and if relevant the influence of road signs restricting carrying capacity also. These
differences should be taken into account through the use of load models suited to the
location of a bridge.
3.4
Divisions of Carriageway into Notional Lanes
The carriageway width, w, should be measured between kerbs or between the

inner limits of vehicle restraint systems. It should not include the distance between
fixed vehicle restraint systems or kerbs of a central reservation nor the widths of
these vehicle restraint systems. The width l w of notional lanes on a carriageway and
the greatest possible whole (integer) number l n of such lanes on this carriageway are
defined in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
Number and width of notional lanes
33
Where the carriageway on a bridge deck is physically divided into two parts
separated by a central reservation, each part including all hard shoulders or strips
should be separately divided into notional lanes if the parts are separated by a
permanent road restraint system.
Otherwise, the whole carriageway should be
divided into notional lanes if the parts are separated by a temporary road restraint
system.
3.5
Location and Numbering of Lanes for Design
The location and numbering of the lanes should be determined in accordance

with the following rules:
i.
The locations of notional lanes should not be necessarily related to their

numbering.
ii.
For each individual verification, the number of lanes to be taken into

account as loaded, their location on the carriageway and their numbering
should be so chosen that the effects from the load models are the most
adverse.
iii.
For fatigue representative values and models, the location and the
numbering of the lanes should be selected depending on the traffic to be
expected in normal conditions. The lane giving the most unfavourable
effect is numbered Lane Number 1, the lane giving the second most
unfavourable effect is numbered Lane Number 2 and so on.
iv.
Where the carriageway consists of two separate parts on the same deck,
only one numbering should be used for the whole carriageway.
34
3.6
Traffic Loadings
The vertical loads from traffic loading will be considered and discussed in
this chapter based on Eurocode 2. Load models defined in this section should be
used for the design and analysis of road bridges with loaded lengths less than 200 m.
The width of carriageway also should not exceed 42 m. There are four load models
for vertical load which represent different traffic effects. Those effects are discussed
in the following sub chapter.
Load model 1 (LM1) consists the concentrated and uniformly distributed

loads, which cover most of the effects of the traffic of lorry and cars. This model
should be used for general and local verifications. This load model consists of two
partial systems, which are double-axle concentrated loads (tandem system, TS) and
also uniformly distributed loads (UDL system).
Table 3.2
Characteristic values for load model 1
35
Figure 3.1
Application for load model 1
Load model 2 is referred to a single axle load applied on specific tyre contact
areas which covers the dynamic effects of the nominal traffic on short structural
members. As an order of magnitude, load model 2 can be predominant in the range
of loaded lengths up to 3 m to 7 m. This model consists of a single axle load QQak
with Qak equal to 400kN and Q is the adjustment factors.
Figure 3.2
Load Model 2
36
Load model 3 is a set of assemblies of axle loads representing special

vehicles such as industrial transport, which can travel on routes permitted for
abnormal loads. The classes of special vehicles are shown in Table 3.3 as following.
Table 3.3
Classes of special vehicles
Total weight
Composition
Notation
600 kN
4 axle-lines of 150 kN
600/150
900 kN
900/150
1200/150
or 6 axle-lines of200 kN
1200/150
1500/150
or 7 axle-lines of 200 kN
1500/200
1200 kN
1500 kN
+ 1 axle line of 100 kN

1800
2400 kN
1800/150
1800/200
2400/200
or 10 axle-lines of 240 kN or
2400/240
6 axle-lines of 200 kN (spacing 12m)
2400/200/200
+ 6 axle-lines of 200 kN
3000 kN
3000/200
3000/240
+ 1 axle-line of 120 kN or
3000/200/200
+ 7 axle-lines of 200 kN
3600 kN
3600/200
or 15 axle-lines of 240 kN or
3600/240
3600/200/200
+9 axle-lines of 200 kN
37
Load model 4 is referred to a crowd loading that intended for general

verifications. This crowd is particularly relevant for bridges located in or near towns
if its effects are not covered by load model 1. Load model 4 should be used only for
some transient design situations.
3.7
Load Combinations
Stresses for design should be calculated for the most sever combinations of
loads and forces.
Load combinations are generally considered important for
checking for adequacy of the bridge.
3.7.1
Design Situation
The relevant design situations shall be selected taking into account the
circumstances under which the structure is required to fulfill its function. Design
situations shall be classified as follows:
i.
Persistent design situations which refer to the conditions of normal use.
ii.
Transient design situations which refer to temporary conditions applicable

to the structure (e.g. during execution or repair).
38
iii.
Accidental design situations which refer to exceptional conditions

applicable to the structure or to its exposure to fire, explosion, impact or
the consequences of localized failure.
iv.
Seismic design situations which refer to conditions applicable to the

structure when subjected to seismic events.
3.7.2
Ultimate Limit States (Loading)
The following ultimate limit states shall be verified as relevant according to

different situations:
i.
EQU: Loss of static equilibrium of the structure or any part of it

considered as a rigid body, where minor variations in the value or the
spatial distribution of actions from a single source are significant, and the
strengths of construction materials or ground are generally not governing.
ii.
STR: Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or

structural members, including footings, piles, basement walls and others
where the strength of construction materials of the structure governs.
iii.
GEO: Failure or excessive deformation of the ground where the strengths

of soil or rock are significant in providing resistance.
iv.
FAT: Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.
39
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Design values of actions (EQU) (Set A)
Design values of actions (STR/GEO) (Set B)
40
Table 3.6
Design values of actions (STR/GEO) (Set C)
3.7.3 Combinations of Actions for Persistent or Transient Design Situations

(Fundamental Combinations)
In this study, only combination of actions for persistent or transient design

situations is considered as a part of analysis. The combination of effects of actions to
be considered should be based on the design value of the leading variable action and
the design combination values of accompanying variable actions.
Ed = E G, j Gk, j + PP + Q,1Qk,1 + Q,i 0,i Qk,i
(3.1)
41
CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.1
General
In this chapter, general design considerations, application of European of

practice code and design procedures of reinforced concrete box girder bridge are
discussed in detail.
4.2
Ultimate Limit State
Mosley (2007) stated that ultimate limit state is required, which the structure
must be able to withstand the loads with an adequate factor of safety against failure.
The purpose of designing the ultimate limit state is to ensure the safety of the
structure occupants or the safety of the structure itself. This sub chapter discusses
ultimate limit states of reinforced concrete box girder which is similar with
reinforced concrete flange beam.
The following assumptions are made when
analyzing a cross section to determine the ultimate moment of resistance.
42
i.
Plane sections remain plane.
ii.
Strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or compression, is the

same as the strain in the concrete at the same level.
iii.
Tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
iv.
The stresses in the concrete in compression are given by the design stressstrain relationship.
v.
The stresses in the reinforcing steel are given by the design stress-strain
relationship.
4.3
General Design Considerations
4.3.1 Structural Behavior
A reinforced concrete box girder is essentially a T-beam with a transverse

bottom flange similar to the top flange, resulting in a closed and torsionally stiff
multi cell configuration. The top deck, supported on web which is also referred to as
girders, perform two basic functions similar to a T-beam bridge. It supported the
variable actions on the bridge, and it acts as the top flange of the longitudinal girders.
Thus, the deck is subjected to simultaneous bending both transversely as well as
longitudinally.
However, for the simultaneous effects of maximum stresses
occurring in concrete in both directions.
The interior webs resist shear and often only small portion of girder moments.
Consequently, they are usually thinner than the webs of T-beams. This is because in
43
the case of continuous T-beam spans, the webs must resist the negative girder
moments, as well as the entire shear, and contain all the reinforcement for positive
moments. While the interior webs are all vertical, the exterior webs may be vertical,
inclined or curved, often to improve aesthetics. When the exterior webs are inclined,
their slope should preferably be 1:2 which is shown in Figure 4.1 (Caltrans, 1993c).
Figure 4.1
4.3.2
Sloped exterior webs of box girder
Minimum Dimensions of Cross Section
The minimum dimensions of the cross sectional units for box girder are
shown in Table 4.1 as follow:
Minimum dimension of cross sectional units for box girder
Table 4.1
Element
Dimension
Top Deck Slab

-
Middle
200mm
At cantilever end
200mm
At junction of the web and slab
300mm
Bottom Slab
Web
150mm
300mm (200mm + two duct ofdimension)
44
4.3.3
Fillets
Longitudinal fillets evolved to provide the smooth flow of stresses around

these corners which may develop when an arrangement of live loads on the structure
causes differential deflections between adjacent girders (Degenkolb, 1977).
Providing of fillets between the soffit slab and the webs is based on personal
experience and preference.
4.3.4
Diaphragms
Diaphragms help prevent excessive distortions of the cross section, facilitate

wheel load distribution, and distribute transverse load. Diaphragms are not required
for box girder unless the box girders are sharply curved.
4.4
Design Code
The applications of Eurocode in design are more significant in field of civil

engineering due to the effects of current British Standards for design procedures are
due to be withdrawn in 2010. Hence, all of the design procedures and process of
reinforced concrete box girder will be discussed based on Eurocode 2 in this research.
45
4.4.1
Introduction to Eurocode 2
Eurocode 2 is one of ten Eurocodes that will form into a uniform process of
design in concrete structures. Eurocode 2 will apply to the design of building and
civil engineering structures in plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete. Each part
of them deals with design alone. Hence, the basis of design, loads, materials and
workmanship are covered in their own Eurocodes. In this research EN 1992-1-1 and
EN 1992-2 are referred in the box girder design.
Figure 4.2
4.5
The Eurocodes
Stress-strain Relationship for the Design Sections
The theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will
crack in the regions of tensile strain and that, after cracking, all the tension is carried
by the reinforcement (Mosley et al, 2007). For cross section design, there are three
alternative stress-strain diagrams, which are parabolic rectangular, bilinear and
simplified rectangular, as illustrated in Figure 2.8. They are for ultimate limit state
design only and not for serviceability limit state. The stress-strain diagrams have
been constructed in Figure 4.3.
46
Figure 4.3
Table 4.2
Idealized stress-strain distributions
Comparison of stress block idealizations for cc = 0.85
The comparison of three idealizations in term of average stress over a

rectangular compression zone which is from extreme compression fiber to neutral
axis is shown in Table 4.2 and the distance from the compression face of the section
to the centre of compression. It is produced for cc = 0.85 and this table can be used
for flexural design calculations. The rectangular block generally gives the greater
flexural resistance, which is obvious because the depth of the stress block required to
provide a given force is smaller than for the other two alternatives.
47
4.6
Design Procedures of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder
The design of reinforced concrete box girder is similar to the design of

flanged section of beam.
The following sub chapter will discuss the general
procedure to obtain the reinforcement bar size of a flange section. It is not possible
to derive equations for all possible situations. A suitable iterative approach for the
calculation of the required reinforcement in the box girder of any section can be used
based on its analysis maximum bending moment.
4.6.1
Flanged Section (Depth of the stress block within the flange)
The design procedures of flanged section where the depth of stress block lies
within the flange are discussed as follows. Figure 4.4 shows the flanged section and
its stress block.
bf
hf
Neutral axis
0.567fck
Fcc
s = 0.8x
s/2
z
As
Fst
bw
Section
Figure 4.4
Stress Block
Flanged section with stress block within the flange
48
i.
Calculate the ultimate moment resistance of flange.

0.567
For this case, 0.8 is equal to
0.4
4.1
therefore
0.567
ii.
. 0.8
4.2
Determine the location of neutral axis. The neutral axis is within the
flange and only tension reinforcement is required when
M < Mflange
iii.
Calculate the following expressions.
4.3
where the value of <0.167
0.5
0.25
0.87
1.134
4.4
4.5
49
4.6.2
Flanged Section (Depth of the stress block extends below the flange)
There is a safe but conservative design for a flanged section with
can
0.45 , the maximum depth
be achieved by setting the depth of neutral axis to

allowed in the code.
bf
hf
Neutral axis
0.567fck
Fcc2
Fcc1
s = 0.8x
x = 0.45 d
d
z1
z2
As
Fst
bw
Section
Flanged section with stress block below the flange with depth of
Figure 4.5
neutral axis
i.
Stress Block
0.45
Determine the requirement of compression reinforcement. Calculate the

maximum resistance moment of concrete,
about
. Compression reinforcement is not required when
= 0.167
ii.
by taking moments
0.567
Determine the depth of stress block, .
/2
4.6
50
0.8
iii.
0.8
0.45
0.36
4.7
Divide the flange section within the depth of stress block into area 1 and 2
as shown in Figure 4.5.
1
0.36
2
iv.
Calculate the compression forces developed by these areas.

0.567
0.36
0.2
4.8
0.567
v.
Taking moment about
4.9
at the centroid of the flange.
/2
0.87
vi.
/2
2
0.2
0.36
2
Calculate the required reinforcement where
0.1
0.87
0.36
4.10
0.36
4.11
2
51
4.6.3
Flanged Section with Compression Reinforcement
The design procedures of flanged section with compression reinforcement are

discussed as follows. Figure 4.6 shows the flanged section and its stress block.
bf
0.567fck
d'
hf
Neutral axis
As'
1
Fsc
Fcc2
Fcc1
s = 0.8x
x = 0.45 d
z3
z1 z2
As
Fst
bw
Section
Figure 4.6
i.
Stress Block
Flanged section with compression reinforcement
Determine the requirement of compression reinforcement. Calculate the

maximum resistance moment of concrete,
about
. Compression reinforcement is required when
0.167
ii.
by taking moments
0.567
Check the yielding of steel.

0.0035
4.12
52
1
with
0.45
1
iii.
0.0035
Determine the steel stress,
0.0035
200000
iv.
4.13
The area of compression steel can be calculated from the below

expression.
0.87
vii.
0.87
Divide the flange section within the depth of stress block into area 1 and 2
as shown in Figure 4.6.
0.36
1
2
v.
4.14
Consider the equilibrium of forces on the section.
53
0.567
0.36
0.2
4.15
0.567
vi.
0.87
4.17
0.87
4.18
Calculate the area of tension reinforcement.

0.2
4.6.4
4.16
0.567
0.87
0.87
4.19
Shear Check and Reinforcement Design (Shear reinforcement is not
required)
i.
Calculate the design shear
at the web-flange interface.
4.20
/2
/2
3
32
4.21
4.22
54
ii.
Check for the expression. No shear reinforcement is required if

0.27
iii.
Calculate the minimum amount of transverse steel required in the

flange.
0.26
0.0013
Or
0.13
100
4.6.5
4.23
Shear Check and Reinforcement Design (Shear reinforcement is
required)
i.
at the web-flange interface.
4.24
/2
/2
3
32
4.25
4.26
55
ii.
Check for the expression. Shear reinforcement is required if

0.27
iii.
Check the shear stresses in the inclined strut. The angle
for the
inclination of the concrete strut is restricted to a lower and upper

value.
26.5
38.6
45
45
ie. 2.0
cot
ie. 1.25
1.0 for flanges in compression

cot
1.0 for flanges in tension
To prevent crushing of the concrete in the compressive strut the longitudinal

shear stress is limited to
4.27
1.5
0.6 1
0.5
45
0.2 1
iv.
4.28
250
4.29
250
Calculate the transverse shear reinforcement required. The required

transverse reinforcement per unit length,
may be calculated
from the equation below.
0.87
4.30
56
v.
Calculate the minimum amount of transverse steel required in the

flange.
0.26
0.0013
Or
0.13
100
4.31
4.6.6 Deflection Check
The appearance and function of a reinforced box girder may be impaired if

the deflection under serviceability loading is excessive. It is more usual to control
deflections by placing a limit on the ratio of the span to the effective depth ratios.
The span to the effective ratio should be limited to span/250 and the basic l/d and K
are determined from Figure 2.26 with additional notes which stated the following.
i.
This graph assumes that K=1.0 for simply supported span, K=1.5 for
interior span condition, K=1.3 for end span condition and K=0.4 for
cantilevers.
ii.
Compression reinforcement, have been taken as zero.
iii.
Curves based on following expressions:
11
1.5
3.2
4.32
57
where
11
1
12
1.5
4.33
where
4.34
4.35
100
Figure 4.7
Basic span to effective depth ratio
4.36
58
4.6.7
Crack Control
Cracking shall be limited to an extent that will not impair the proper
functioning or durability of the structure or cause its appearance to be unacceptable.
Cracking is normal in reinforced concrete structures subject to bending, shear,
torsion or tension resulting from either direct loading or restraint or imposed
deformations.
A limiting calculated crack width, wmax, taking into account the
proposed function and nature of the structure and the costs of limiting cracking
should be established. In this study, control of cracking without direct calculation
method is used.
Table 4.3
Recommended value for wmax (mm)
If crack control is required, a minimum amount of bonded reinforcement is

required to control cracking in areas where tension is expected. The amount may be
estimated from equilibrium between the tensile force in concrete just before cracking
and the tensile force in reinforcement at yielding or at a lower stress if necessary to
limit the crack width. Unless a more rigorous calculation shows lesser areas to be
adequate, the required minimum areas of reinforcement may be calculated as follows.
In profiled cross sections like box girders, minimum reinforcement should be
determined for the individual parts of the section (webs, flanges). As,min is given by
expression as follows.
59
4.37
As,mins = kc k fct,eff Act
Cracking due to the loading is minimized by ensuring the maximum clear

spacing between longitudinal reinforcing bars in beam is limited to that given in
Table 4.4. The spacing depends on the tress in the reinforcement which should be
taken as the stress under the action of the quasi-permanent loadings. The quasipermanent loading is taken as the permanent load, Gk plus a proportion of the
variable load, Qk which depends on the structure type. The calculation of steel stress
level can be expressed as follows.
When consider load induced, cracking bar
diameter may be restricted as indicated in Table 4.5.
1.15
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
1.35
0.3
1.5
Maximum bar spacing for crack control
Maximum bar size for crack control
4.38
60
4.7
Material Properties
4.7.1
Design Compressive Strength of Concrete
Design strengths of concrete are obtained by combining partial safety factors

for materials with their characteristic values. The design compressive strength for
concrete is defined as follows:
4.39
where
is the partial safety factor for concrete
is a coefficient taking account of long term effects on the compressive
strength and of unfavorable effects resulting from the way the load is applied,
which the value is recommended to be 0.85 for bridges .
The factor
contributes to preventing flexural resistances from being
overestimated by neglect of the drop off in stress towards the failure strain due to its
part be a correcting factor between the true stress-strain behaviour. The stress-strain
relationship for the design for concrete sections is shown in Figure 4.8 (a-c).
(a) Parabolic-rectangular distribution
(b) Bilinear distribution
61
(c) Alternative concrete design stress blocks for fck

Figure 4.8
4.72
50MPa
Stress-strain relationships for the design of concrete sections
Design Tensile Strength
The design tensile strength of concrete is defined as:
, .
4.40
where
is the partial safety factor for concrete
is a coefficient taking account of long term effects on the tensile strength
and of unfavourable effects, resulting from the way the load is applied and
the value is recommended to be 0.85 for bridges
, .
is the characteristic axial tensile strength below which 5% of all the strength
test results would be expected to fall for the specified concrete
62
4.7.3
Reinforcing Steel
The behaviour of the steel is identical in tension and compression which is

being linear in the elastic range up to the design yield stress of yk/s. The
representative short term design stress strain curve for reinforcement is given in
Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9
Stress-strain diagrams for reinforcing steel
Within the elastic range, the relationship between the stress and strain is as following.
Stress = Elastic Modulus Strain
4.41
So that the design yield strain is
4.42
where
yk
s
is the characteristic yield stress

is the partial factor of safety
63
CHAPTER 5
DEVELOPMENT OF SOFTWARE
5.1
Introduction
Generally, this chapter will discuss the methods that will be carried out in this
research as well as the analysis and design procedures of reinforced concrete box
girder by using software of Microsoft Excel. The processes of preparation for the
research also will be covered in this chapter in order to achieve the objectives which
have been stated in chapter one of research.
There are three important stages which have been identified in conducting
this research which covered the aspects of information that needed in this research
from the beginning until the end product of the research. In order to simplify or let
reader have a clearer pictures about this research, three important stages will be
illustrated in types of flow chart as shown in the following sub chapter.
64
5.2
Application of Microsoft Excel in Design Stages
Microsoft Excel is an electronic software program that can be used for storing,
organizing and manipulating data. Nowadays, it is a very user friendly program in
applying, analysis and presenting the scientific calculations which involves different
kind of mathematic functions. Excel is also widely considered to be one of the most
easily accessible software programs, with instinctive design, simple point-and-click
functionality and helpful wizards to guide new users through the more complicated
processes. The arrangement of the required functions or equation due to different
situations by the users are easy if compare to other software.
Calculations of
repeated equations can be done in a short time by entering the required input data.
Every changes of the input for the software will produce results immediately in the
interface.
5.3
Flow Chart Establishment
In this sub chapter, flow charts of the processes of preparation for the
research are constructed. For ease of understanding and application of software of
Microsoft Excel, the general procedures and formulas involved will be shown in the
related flow charts. Three flow charts have been constructed which are:
i.
Flow chart of research
ii.
Flow chart of analysis of reinforced concrete box girder
iii.
Flow chart of reinforced concrete box girder design
65
5.3.1

The flow chart of the research is a very important part of the research
methodology due to its function of ensuring the research is conducted in the right
manner and appropriate to the scope of research. The flow chart of research is
shown in Figure 5.1.
Start
Preliminary Study of
Literature Review
Exploration of Topic
of Research
Identify the Problem

Statement of Research
Identify the Scope of

Research
Determine the
Objectives of the
Research
No
Flow chart of design

procedures
Program Development
(Software by using
Microsoft excel)
Adequate and
Accuracy of Result
Yes
Final Report
Result and Discussion
Presentation of Final
Year Project
Submission of Final
Year Project
Figure 5.1
66
5.3.2
Flow Chart of Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder
Due to the complication of analysis of box girder which involves many

formulas, the flow chart of analysis is required to simplify the procedures. The flow
charts of analysis for deflection and bending of box girder are illustrated in Figure
5.2 to 5.6.
Start
Yes
Calculate flexural rigidities
torsional rigidity
,
and
Calculate load function:

2
Yes
0
Articulated Bridge
Deck
Isotropic Bridge
Deck
Yes
Torsionally stiff
and/or flexural soft
bridge decks
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Torsional soft and/or flexural stiff bridge decks
4
Figure 5.2
Flow chart of analysis bridge deck types
67
1
Input data:
Bridge dimension, L, b; Load position, c;
Longitudinal section, x; Edge beam rigidities,
EI, GJ; Load eccentricities, EE; Transverse
stations, yb = -1 to 1
Calculate parameters:
r1, r2, 1, 2
Calculate constants:
a1, b1, c1, d1
a3, b3, c3, d3
S1, S2, S3, S4
A, B, C, D
Calculate coefficients:
K1, K2
Calculate:
w, Mx, My
End
Figure 5.3
analysis
Flow chart of torsionally stiff and/or flexural soft bridge decks
68
2
Input data:
n
a1, b1, c1, d1
a3, b3, c3, d3
S1, S2, S3, S4
A, B, C, D
K1, K2
Calculate:
w, Mx, My
End
Figure 5.4
Flow chart of isotropic bridge decks analysis
69
3
Input data:
r3, r4, 3, 4
a1, b1, c1, d1
a3, b3, c3, d3
S1, S2, S3, S4
E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7
A, B, C, D
K1, K2
Calculate:
w, Mx, My
End
Figure 5.5
analysis
Flow chart of torsionally soft and/or flexural stiff bridge decks
70
4
Input data:
ro, o
a1, b1, a2, b2
S1, S2
A, B
Kl, K2
Calculate:
w, Mx, My
End
Figure 5.6
Flow chart of articulated decks analysis
71
5.3.3
Flow Chart of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Design
Start
Data input:
, , , ,
Calculate the moment in flange:

0.567 . .
/2
M < Mflange
Depth of the stress block

)
below the flange (
Compression reinforcement is
required
Check the yielding of steel:
1
0.0035
Determine the steel stress,
200000
Calculate the required compression and tension reinforcement:

.
.
.
Calculate shear reinforcement (A)
Figure 5.7
required)
Flow chart for box girder design (compression reinforcement is
72
Start (A)

at the webflange interface.
0.27
Yes
No
Shear reinforcement
is not required
Shear reinforcement
is required
Calculate the following parameters:

0.6 1
250
0.5
45
0.2 1
250
1.5
Calculate required transverse

/
reinforcement per unit length,
0.87
Calculate the minimum amount of transverse

steel required in the flange.
0.26
0.0013
Deflection check
Figure 5.8
Flow chart of shear reinforcement design
73
Determine l/d basic and K
1.0
1.0
Increase Asprov
No
Yes
Deflection checking passed
Figure 5.9
Flow chart of deflection check
74
Determine crack width,

Wmax
Increase Asprov
Calculate steel stress

1.15
1.35
0.3
1.5
Determination of maximum
allowable clear bar spacing
No
Allowacle spacing > actual

spacing
Yes
Crack control passed
End
Figure 5.10
Flow chart of crack control
75
CHAPTER 6
USER MANUAL
6.1
Introduction
During the process of developing and application of software, the

configuration of computer system is very important which may affects the duration
and accuracy the output data of analysis and design of software. This chapter will
explain the required configuration of instruments and application guidelines of the
software named BGB version 1.0 in detail.
6.2
Instruments Configuration
The main instrument to be used in software operating is a computer with

Windows operating system. Microsoft Excel software is needed to complete the
analysis and design of the software. In order to prevent the delays of computer
76
system, the computer system must fulfill the minimum requirement and
configuration as below:
i.
Processor
ii.
Pentium 133 MHz or above
Memory (RAM)
The required memory of computer depends on the operating system used.
Windows 98 atau Windows 98 SE - 24MB
Windows ME atau Windows NT - 32MB
Windows 2000 Professional - 64MB
Windows XP Professional atau Windows XP Home Edition

128MB
iii.
Windows Vista 64MB
Windows Seven 32MB
Windows Seven 64MB
1.2 GB or above
Display Card
v.
Windows Vista - 32MB
Capacity of hard disk
iv.
Super VGA (800 600) with 256 colours or above
Others
CD-ROM
Optical Mouse
Keyboard
Printer
77
6.3
Operating Guidelines of Software
The software is created according to the flow chart and procedures discussed
previous chapter. The analysis procedures have been simplified to avoid confusion
of user. The software guidelines of BGB version 1.0 in both analysis and design
part will be discussed step by step in this sub chapter in order to give a clear
overview of program to the user.
6.3.1 Operating Guidelines (Part I: Analysis)
In analysis part of the software, several procedures and steps have to be

followed in order to obtain the final output data.
i.
Click on the software in format of Microsoft Office Excel MacroEnabled Worksheet (.xlsm). The front page interface of the program is
loaded. There are six command buttons available in the interface (About,
User Manual, Author, Analysis, Design and Exit).
Figure 6.1
Front page interface of software with six available command buttons
78
ii.
After the front page interface of the program is loaded, user is advised to
view the product details by clicking on the About button.
Figure 6.2
iii.
Product details
User Manual button guide the user how to use the software. The
procedures to operate this software will be eased by following the
instructions and manual of the program.
Figure 6.3
User Manual
79
iv.
Creator of the program can be viewed by user also by clicking on Author

button.
Figure 6.4
v.
Authors profile
Select Analysis button from the command button bar to enter second
interface for selection of box girder type. Box girder types included
single cell, double cells and triple cells box girder.
Figure 6.5
Selection of box girder types in analysis part
80
vi.
Input required data such as geometry of bridge deck and box girder cross
section, type of road system, thickness of surfacing and deck, dimension
of parapet and material properties of box girder in the blue box only.
Click Next button after completed all data inputs.
Insert required
data into the
blue boxes.
Figure 6.6
vii.
Process of input required data
The values of all data inserted in step 7 are used to complete the
calculation part of bridge loadings and others.
Live load of the deck is
selected automatically in this section according to Eurocode 2.
View the
calculation result
of bridge loadings.
Figure 6.7
Calculation outputs of bridge loadings
81
viii.
This interface shows the flexural rigidities which are calculated based on
the data inputs from step 7.
View the
calculation result
flexural rigidities
Figure 6.8
ix.
Calculations of flexural rigidities
Calculations for bridge deck type determination will be done.
The
software will show the result of bridge case to user before proceed to the
calculation of parameters part. In this example, torsionallt soft and/or
flexurally stiff bridge deck is selected.
Determination of
types for bridge
decks
Figure 6.9
Determination of types for bridge decks
82
x.
User can view the values of parameters, which are required in the
computation of coefficients, K1 and K2 in the following interface.
Computations of
parameters and
constants
Figure 6.10
xi.
Computations of parameters and constants
The coefficients, K1 and K2 are obtained in order to calculate the

deflections and bending moments of each individual load case. Fifteen
types of load cases are prepared in this software in order to give user
more options during load combination part.
Figure 6.11 shows an
example of load cases. The load cases included are deck and premix self
weight, structural self weight, superimposed dead load, load model 1
(Tandem system) at Lane No.1, 2 and 3, load model 1 (Uniform
distributed load system) at lane no.1, 2 and 3, load model 2 (9 kN/m2) at
lane no.1, load model 2 (2.5 kN/m2) at lane no.2, 3 and remaining area
and load model 3 (special vehicle) at lane no.1.
83
Figure 6.11
xii.
Computations of coefficients, K1 and K2 according to each load case
The deflection, bending moment, Mx and My of each stations will be

computed automatically. User can obtain the concern location of the box
girder deck easily since the orthotropic plate theory allows the division of
transverse and longitudinal sections of the deck. However, the values
displayed in this interface only concern about each load case individually.
Load combination will be explained in step following. Figure 6.12 shows
the example of deflection results.
Figure 6.12
Deflection of individual load case
84
xiii.
User can obtain the desired type of load combination by clicking the
command button of the load combination. This software provides three
types of load combination which are:
a) Load combination 1: dead load + superimposed dead load +

LM1(Tandem system) + LM2
b) Load combination 2: dead load + superimposed dead load + LM1(UDL)
+ LM2
c) Load combination 3: dead load + superimposed dead load + LM1(UDL)
+ LM3
Options for types of

load combinations
Figure 6.13
xiv.
Options for types of load combinations
User is required to insert the desired design condition into blue box in
order to complete the computation of load combination.
85
Selection of
design condition
for load
Figure 6.14
xv.
Selection of design condition for load combination
After insert the desired load combination, the result of deflections and
bending moments can be viewed in the tables or graph according to each
station point. Figure 4.14 shows an example of bending moments in table
while Figure 6.15 show the result in graph.
Figure 6.15
Results of bending moment for load combination in table form
86
Figure 6.16
xvi.
Results of bending moment for load combination in graph form
Click on the Main Page button to enter back to the front page of
software for design or others function. Click on the Back button if
want to view the previous pages.
Figure 6.17
6.3.2 Operating Guidelines (Part II: Design)
In design part of the software, several procedures and steps have to be

followed in order to obtain the final output data.
87
i.
User is required to choose the type of box girder they preferred.
Figure 6.18
ii.
Selection of box girder types in design part
The output values of maximum bending moment in the previous analysis part
can be used to obtain the most economic reinforcement design for box girder.
However, if user intends to use other value of bending moment, this design
section also provides this feature.
User can choose either design the
reinforcement bar for the whole structure nor by section and also hogging or
sagging for section. Figure 6.19 shows the interfaces of those features.
Figure 6.19
Selection of design options
88
iii.
Designation of single box girder by consider whole structure is been chosen

as example in this sub chapter. Firstly, insert required data into the blue
boxes such as characteristics of concrete and steel preferred, dimension of
cross section, proposed reinforcement bar in each layer and other relevant
data.
Figure 6.20
iv.
Process of insert required data in design
The result of the maximum moment resistance of box girder cross section is
determined and compare with the ultimate bending moment from previous
analysis.
Comparison between maximum

bending moment applied and
moment of resistance
Figure 6.21
of resistance
Comparison between maximum bending moment applied and moment
89
v.
Moment of resistance for section must be greater than maximum bending

moment applied. Shear is provided to ensure the safety of reinforcement
provided.
Shear check
Figure 6.22
vi.
Shear check
Deflection check is provided to control the deflection of the structure.
Deflection
check
Figure 6.23
Deflection check
90
vii.
Cracking control is provided to prevent the cracking failure of structure.
Cracking check
Figure 6.24
viii.
Cracking control
The detailing diagram of proposed reinforcement bar size of reinforced

concrete box girder is provided in the end of the design procedures.
Figure 6.25
Detailing diagram of box girder
91
ix.
Click on the Main Page button to enter back to the front page of software
for design or others function. Click on the Back button if want to view the
previous pages.
Figure 6.26
92
CHAPTER 7
RESULTS VERIFICATION AND DISCUSSION
7.1
General
As we know, the accuracy of result for the new developed software is very
important to ensure its reliability for further usage. Analysis and design results for
reinforced concrete box girder bridge are discussed in this chapter.
Result
comparison method between developed software, BGB version 1.0 and market
available analysis software, LUSAS Modeller is done in order to verify its accuracy
in the analysis part while parametric study method is used in the design part of
reinforced concrete box girder bridge.
7.2
Verification Tool
LUSAS Modeller is chosen for the software verification in analysis part of

this study. LUSAS Modeller is an associative feature-based modeling system that
93
geometry features are sub-divided into finite elements in order to perform an analysis.
Increasing the density of the mesh will usually result in an increase in accuracy of the
solution, but with a corresponding increase in solution time and disk space required.
However, the results which provided from the LUSAS Modeller analysis are reliable
and accurate.
7.3
Software Verification for Analysis
Basically, the results for the analysis part of software are verified and
compared with LUSAS Modeller software based on two aspects, which are
deflection and bending moments. In this study, single cell box girder bridge is
chosen as an example to compare with the LUSAS Modeller. The software analysis
results of displacement and bending moments of single cell box girder bridge are
shown in Appendix II.
In the BGB version 1.0, the width and length of span for the bridge deck are
divided into nine stations (-b, -3b/4, -b/2, -b/4, 0, b/4, b/2, 3b/4, b) and eleven
stations (0, L/10, 2L/10, 3L/10, 4L/10, 5L/10, 6L/10, 7L/10, 8L/10, 9L/10, L)
respectively.
Thus, the same geometry, specifications and loadings applied are
followed during the bridge modeling process in LUSAS Modeller.
Figure 7.1
Bridge model in LUSAS Modeller
94
7.3.1 Deflection
In this study, there are three types of load combinations for bridge decks are
established. In order to compare both of the analysis tools, the maximum deflection
station, 0 along the longitudinal span is chosen and compare with the same locations
of the bridge model in LUSAS Modeller.
Load combination 1 includes the combination of dead load, superimposed

dead load, load model 1 (Tandem system) and load model 2.
The maximum
deflection of software analysis is 19 mm while the result obtained from LUSAS

analysis is 24 mm. Although there is difference between both analyses tools, the
difference of both deflection values is not significant since the length of span is 30m.
This length of span is considered as a quite long span. Furthermore, the shape of
both graphs produced is similar which support the accuracy factor of the developed
software. The deflection near the support is small and increases steadily until the
mid span of the bridge, where the location that maximum displacement take place.
The deflection values decreases after the distance from the mid span. Figure 7.2
shows the comparison deflection results graphs of software and LUSAS Modeller for
load combination 1.
95
(a) Deflection graph of software

Figure 7.2
(b) Deflection graph of LUSAS
Deflection graph of both analysis tools for load combination 1
The combination of load combination 2 includes of dead load, superimposed

dead load, load model 1 (UDL system) and load model 2. The maximum deflection
of software analysis is 18 mm while the result obtained from LUSAS analysis is 29
mm. The condition is similar to the load combination 1. Since the length of span is
30m and the length of span is considered as long span, the difference of both
deflection values is not significant. The deflection near the support is small and
increases steadily until the mid span of the bridge, where the location that maximum
displacement takes place and the deflection is values decreases after the distance
from the mid span. Hence, the shape of both graphs produced is similar which
proved that the accuracy of the software in application for preliminary stage of
analysis. Figure 7.3 shows the comparison deflection results graphs of software and
LUSAS Modeller for load combination 2.
96

Figure 7.3
For load combination 3, the combination includes of dead load, superimposed

dead load, load model 1 (UDL system) and load model 3. In the developed software,
the maximum deflection is 20 mm while the result obtained from LUSAS analysis is
35mm. The condition is similar to the load combination 2 and 3. The deflection
near the support is small and increases steadily until the mid span of the bridge,
where the location that maximum displacement takes place and the deflection is
values decreases after the distance from the mid span. Since the length of span is
30m and the length of span is considered as long span, the difference of both
deflection values is not significant. Hence, the shape of both graphs produced is
similar which proved that the accuracy of the software.
Figure 7.4 shows the
comparison deflection results graphs of software and LUSAS Modeller for load
combination 3.
97

Figure 7.4
7.3.2 Bending Moment
Similar to the verification process of deflection, there are three types of load
combinations for bridge decks are established and needed to be compared between
both tools. In the process of comparison, the maximum bending moment station, 0
along the longitudinal span is chosen and compare with the same locations of the
bridge model in LUSAS Modeller.

dead load, load model 1 (Tandem system) and load model 2. The maximum bending
moment of software analysis is 1398 kNm while the result obtained from LUSAS
analysis is 1290 kNm. As we know, orthotropic plate theory is adopted in software
while finite element method is used in LUSAS modeller. Furthermore, the Eurocode
98
load model 1 to 3 is preset in the LUSAS Modeller which give more accurate loading
applied to the surface of the deck if compare to the manual formulas and calculation
of software. The bending moment near the support is approximately to zero and
increases steadily until the mid span of the bridge, where the location that maximum
bending moment takes place and decreases after the distance from the mid span.
Moreover, the shape of both graphs produced is similar which support the accuracy
of the software in application for preliminary stage of analysis. Figure 7.5 shows the
comparison bending moment results graphs of software and LUSAS Modeller for
load combination 1.
(a) Bending moment graph of software

Figure 7.5
(b) Bending moment graph of LUSAS
Bending moment graph of both analysis tools for load combination 1
For combination of load combination 2, it includes of dead load,

superimposed dead load, load model 1 (UDL system) and load model 2.
The
maximum bending moment of software analysis is 1114 kNm while the result
obtained from LUSAS analysis is 1270 kNm. The condition is similar to the load
combination 2. Orthotropic plate theory is adopted in software while finite element
method is used in LUSAS modeller. On the other hand, the Eurocode load model 1
99
to 3 is preset in the LUSAS Modeller. This will give more accurate loading applied
to the surface of the deck if compare to the manual formulas and calculation of
software. At the support, bending moment approximately to zero and increases
steadily until the mid span of the bridge, where the location that maximum bending
moment takes place and decreases after the distance from the mid span. Moreover,
the shape of both graphs produced is similar which proved that the accuracy of the
software.
Figure 7.6 shows the comparison bending moment results graphs of
software and LUSAS Modeller for load combination 2.

Figure 7.6

dead load, load model 1 (UDL system) and load model 3. The maximum bending
moment of software analysis is 1119 kNm while the result obtained from LUSAS
analysis is 1400 kNm. The condition is similar to the load combination 2 and 3. The
bending moment near the support is approximately to zero and increases steadily
until the mid span of the bridge, where the location that maximum bending moment
takes place and decreases after the distance from the mid span. As we know,
100
orthotropic plate theory is adopted in software while finite element method is used in
LUSAS modeller. Furthermore, the Eurocode load model 1 to 3 is preset in the
LUSAS Modeller which give more accurate loading applied to the surface of the
deck if compare to the manual formulas and calculation of software. Howeover, the
shape of both graphs produced is similar which support the accuracy of the software
in analysis. Figure 7.7 shows the comparison bending moment results graphs of
software and LUSAS Modeller for load combination 3.

Figure 7.7
7.4
Parametric Study
Parametric study is used to analyze the effect due to the manipulation of

different parameter in design part of the developed software. In this research, two
cases of parametric study will be discussed. The relationship between the amounts
of reinforcement bar required and different values of bending moment applied is
studied for different types of reinforced concrete box girder bridge. Besides that, the
relationship between the amount of reinforcement bar area required and the different
values of section width is being studied also.
101
7.4.1
Relationship between Amount of Longitudinal Reinforcement Bar
Required Due to Different Values of Bending Moment Applied
A study has been conducted to analyze the effect of bending moment applied
to the reinforcement bar required. The first case being studied is the left or right and
middle section of box girder which is in hogging and sagging situation respectively.
The applied bending moments are 1000 kNm, 2000 kNm, 3000 kNm, 4000 kNm and
5000 kNm. Other parameters are fixed as constants are shown in Figure 7.8 as
follows.
Figure 7.8
The constants are remained in the software but the bending moments applied
are vary. Figure 7.9 shows the relationship between amount area of reinforcement
bar required and the bending moments applied. The x-axis is the amount area of
reinforced bar required while y-axis showed the different values of bending moments
applied. The graph showed that when the value of applied bending moment is
increased, the amount area of reinforcement bar required is increased as well.
102
Figure 7.9
Relationship between amount area of reinforcement bar required and
the bending moments applied
7.4.2
Relationship between Amount of Longitudinal Reinforcement Bar
Required Due to Different Values of Section Width, bf
In this case, the target is to study the effect of bending moment applied to the
reinforcement bar required. The width of the section, bf are 0.5 m, 1.0 m, 1.5 m, 2.0
m and 2.5 m respectively. Other parameters are fixed as constants are shown in
Figure 7.10 as follows.
Figure 7.10
103
The constants above are remained in the software but the widths, bf of the box
girder section are varied. Figure 7.11 shows the relationship between amount area of
reinforcement bar required and width of the box section. The x-axis is the amount
area of reinforced bar required while y-axis showed the different values of width of
the box section. The graph showed that when the value of width of the section is
increased, the amount area of reinforcement bar required is decreased. This means
that the greater value for width of box section, the less reinforcement bar area is
required in order to prevent the structural failure.
Figure 7.11
Relationship between amount area of reinforcement bar required and
the width of box section, bf
104
CHAPTER 8
LIMITATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
8.1
Limitations of Software
BGB version 1.0 is new developed software which specializes in reinforce

concrete box girder bridge analysis and design. Certainly there must have some
restrictions and limitations if compare to available software in market.
The
limitations are listed as follows.
i.
This software is applicable to single, double or triple cells of box girder

analysis and design only.
ii.
This software is unable to analyze box girder bridge which consists

continuous span in analysis part.
iii.
Number of lanes applied in bridge is limited to three lanes and one

remaining area.
105
iv.
There are only fifteen general types of individual load cases and three
types of load combinations to be manipulated by user in the software.
v.
Design of bridge diaphragm is not included in this software.
vi.
The dimension of detailing in box girder design part is not subjected to

scale. It can only be a reference for draftsman in their work.
vii.
User can only utilize this software by using computer with the assistance
of Microsoft Excel software.
viii.
This software does not possess the function of output file. This mean all
the data and result are only can be store in the Microsoft excel format.
8.2
Recommendations
Since there are some limitations in this software, several recommendations

are proposed in order to improve the output results of the software are listed as
follows.
i.
Number of box girder cell can be increased up to four cells since this type
of box girder also available in market.
ii.
Number of notional option can be increased until six lanes which consist
of two way traffic.
iii.
The software should be upgraded to the stage of analysis reinforced box

girder bridge deck with continuous span instead of simply supported only.
106
iv.
The number of load combination cases can be increased to make the

software more practical in real traffic situation.
v.
Design of diaphragm is suggested in this software in order to complete

the bridge design.
vi.
Detailing produced in the design part should be developed in AutoCAD

format which is subjected to scale.
vii.
This software should be developed or upgraded to level which can

function in computer without software of Microsoft Excel.
viii.
The function of output file should be developed for ease of application

and reference.
8.3
Conclusion
In the end of the research, it can be concluded that the new software, BGB
Version 1.0 has been developed successfully. This software possesses two major
functions in analysis and design of reinforced concrete box girder. The benefits of
this software developing are time saving and ease of use for the new beginners.
On the other hand, the objectives of the research are achieved in the end of
the study. Structural properties and behaviours of reinforced concrete box girder
bridge had been study and reviewed when the research was carried out. A series of
analysis and design procedures has been transform and developed into software with
assistance of Microsoft Excel and it can be applied easily. All of the analysis and
design procedures are based on the latest version of Eurocode 2 to prevent the
structural failure of the design.
107
Besides that, this software is able to analyze structural actions of reinforced
concrete box girder which are under fifteen types of individual load cases and three
types of load combinations.
The results also had been verified through the
comparison results of both tools in aspects of deflection and bending moment. For
the design part, parametric study had been carried in order to obtain the relationship
among the parameters which can be manipulated in the design part of the software.
In this research, it can be concluded that the results obtained from the
software comprises of the advantages which are based on safety, serviceability,
reliability and economy in the real world situations. The objectives of the research
were achieved and hopefully this software can contribute its significant in to the
designer in the future.
108
REFERENCES
1. R. Cusens and R. P. Rama. Bridge Deck Analysis. A Wiley Interscience

Publication.1975
2. W. Beeby and R. S. Narayanan. Designers Guide to EN 1992-1-1 and EN
1992-1-2 Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structure: General Rules and
Rules for Building and Structural Fire Design. Thomas Telford Publishing,
Thomas Telford Ltd. 2005
3. Bill Mosley, John Bungey, et al. Reinforced Concrete Design to Eurocode 2.
Palgrave Macmillan. 2008
4. C. R. Hendy and D. A. Smith. Designers Guide to EN 1992-2 Eurocode 2:
Design of Concrete Structure Part 2: Concrete Bridges. Thomas Telford
Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd. 2007
5. Dr. Kim S. Elloitt. The Design of Reinforced and Prestressed concrete
structure. The University of Nottingham. 2009
6. Eugene J. OBrein and Damien L. Keogh. Bridge Deck Analysis. Department
of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, Ireland. E & FN SPON.
1999
7. BS EN 1991-2: 2003 (Eurocode 2: Actions on Structures Part 2: Traffic
Loads on Bridges). British Standards Institution, London. 2003
109
8. BS EN 1992-1-1: 2004 (Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures Part 1-1:
General Rules and Rules for Buildings). British Standards Institution, London.
2004
9. BS EN 1992-2-2: 2005 (Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures Part 2:
Concrete bridges: Design and Detailing Rules). British Standards Institution,
London. 2005
10. N. Rajagopalan. Bridge Superstructure. Alpha Science International Ltd.
2006
110
APPENDIX I
Parameters in Orthotropic Plate Theory
Case 1: Torsionally stiff and/or flexural soft bridge decks (
The constants are defined as follows:
1 =
nb
r1 ,
L
2 =
nb
r2 ,
L
1 =
y1
,
b
A=
( S 3 S 4 )b1 ( S1 + S 2 )b3
2(a3b1 a1b3 )
B=
( S1 + S 2 )a3 ( S 3 S 4 )a1
2(a3b1 a1b3 )
C=
( S 3 + S 4 ) d 1 ( S1 S 2 ) d 3
2(c3 d1 c1d 3 )
D=
( S1 S 2 )c3 ( S 3 + S 4 )c1
2(c3 d1 c1 d 3 )
0 =
S1 = (
u1
u
+ GJ n )e 11 ( 2 + GJ n )e 21
r1
r2
S2 = (
u1
u
+ GJ n )e 1 2 ( 2 + GJ n )e 2 2
r1
r2
S3 =
1
1
(u 3 + EI n )e 11 (u 4 + EI n )e 21
r1
r2
S4 =
1
1
(u 3 + EI n )e 1 2 + (u 4 + EI n )e 2 2
r1
r2
y0
b
111
a1 = u1 cosh 1 GJ n r1 sinh 1
b1 = u2 cosh 2 GJ n r2 sinh 2
c1 = u1 sinh 1 GJ n r1 cosh 1
d1 = u2 sinh 2 GJ n r2 cosh 2
a3 = EI n cosh 1 u3 sinh 1
b3 = EI n cosh 2 u4 sinh 2
c3 = EI n sinh 1 u3 cosh 1
d 3 = EI n sinh 2 u4 cosh 2
u1 = D y r12 D2
u 2 = D y r22 D2
u 3 = r1 [ D y r12 ( D2 + D xy + D yx )]
u 4 = r2 [ D y r22 ( D2 + D xy + D yx )]
r1 =
H
H 2 Dx
)
+ (
Dy
Dy
Dy
r2 =
H
H 2 Dx
)
(
Dy
Dy
Dy
n =
n
L
112
Case 2: Isotropic Bridge Decks (
1 =
nb
r1 ,
L
2 =
nb
r2 ,
L
1 =
y1
,
b
A=
( S 3 + S 4 ) d 1 ( S1 S 2 ) d 3
2(d1 a3 d 3 a1 )
B=
( S 3 S 4 )c1 ( S1 + S 2 )c3
2(c1b3 c3 b1 )
C=
( S1 + S 2 )b3 ( S 3 S 4 )b1
2(c1b3 c3 b1 )
D=
( S1 S 2 )a3 ( S 3 + S 4 )a1
2(d1 a3 d 3 a1 )
0 =
y0
b
GJ n
S1 =
n1 {(1 v) n1 (1 + v)} e n1
Dx
GJ n
S 2 =
n 2 {(1 v) n 2 (1 + v)} e n 2
Dx
EI n
{1 + n1 }e n1
S 3 = {2 + (1 v) n1 }
Dx
EI n
{1 + n 2 }e n2
S 4 = {2 + (1 v) n 2 } +
Dx
a1 = (1 v) sinh n
GJ n
cosh n
Dx
b1 = (1 v ) cosh n
GJ n
sinh n
Dx
c1 = (1 v) n sinh n + 2 cosh n
GJ n
( n cosh n + sinh n )
Dx
113
d1 = (1 v ) n cosh n + 2 sinh n
GJ n
( n sinh n + cosh n )
Dx
a3 = (1 v) cosh n +
EI n
sinh n
Dx
b3 = (1 v) sinh n +
EI n
cosh n
Dx
c3 = (1 v ) n cosh n (1 + v ) sinh n +
EI n
n sinh n
Dx
d 3 = (1 v) n sinh n (1 + v) cosh n +
EI n
n cosh n
Dx
r1 =
H
H 2 Dx
)
+ (
Dy
Dy
Dy
r2 =
H
H 2 Dx
)
(
Dy
Dy
Dy
n =
nb
L
114
Case 3: Torsional soft and/or flexural stiff bridge decks (
A=
( S1 + S 2 ) d 3 ( S 3 S 4 ) d 1
2(a1d 3 a3 d1 )
B=
( S1 S 2 )c3 ( S 3 + S 4 )c1
2(b1c3 c1b3 )
C=
( S 3 + S 4 )b1 ( S1 S 2 )b3
2(b1c3 c1b3 )
D=
( S 3 S 4 )a1 ( S1 + S 2 )a3
2(a1 d 3 a3 d1 )
S 1 = [GJ n sin 4 1 E1 cos 4 1 E 2 sin 4 1 ]e 31

S 2 = [GJ n sin 4 2 E1 cos 4 2 E 2 sin 4 2 ]e 3 2
EI
S 3 = E3 sin 41 + E 4 cos 41 2 n 2 (r4 cos 41 + r3 sin 41 ) e 31
(r3 + r4 )
EI
S 4 = E3 sin 4 2 E 4 cos 4 2 + 2 n 2 (r4 cos 4 2 + r3 sin 4 2 ) e 32
(r3 + r4 )
a1 = E5 cosh 3 cos 4 + E4 sinh 3 sin 4 + GJ n (r3 sinh 3 cos 4 r4 cosh 3 sin 4 )

b1 = E5 cosh 3 sin 4 E4 sinh 3 cos 4 + GJ n (r3 sinh 3 sin 4 + r4 cosh 3 cos 4 )
c1 = E5 sinh 3 cos 4 + E4 cosh 3 sin 4 + GJ n (r3 cosh 3 cos 4 r4 sinh 3 sin 4 )
d1 = E5 sinh 3 sin 4 E4 cosh 3 cos 4 + GJ n (r3 cosh 3 sin 4 + r4 sinh 3 cos 4 )
a3 = E6 sinh 3 cos 4 E7 cosh 3 sin 4 + EI n cosh 3 cos 4
b3 = E6 sinh 3 sin 4 + E1 cosh 3 cos 4 + EI n cosh 3 sin 4
c3 = E6 cosh 3 cos 4 E7 sinh 3 sin 4 + EI n sinh 3 cos 4
d 3 = E6 cosh 3 sin 4 + E7 sinh 3 cos 4 + EI n sinh 3 sin 4
115
E1 =
r4
D2 + D y ( r32 + r42 )
( r + r42 )
E2 =
r3
D2 D y (r32 + r42 )
(r + r42 )
2
3
2
3
E3 = D y (r42 r32 ) + ( D2 + D xy + D yx )
E 4 = 2 D y r3 r4
E5 = D2 D y ( r32 r42 )
E6 = r3 ( D2 + D xy + D yx ) D y (r33 3r3 r42 )
E7 = r4 ( D2 + D xy + D yx ) + D y ( r43 3r4 r32 )
3 = n br3
4 = nbr4
r3 =
1
2
Dx
H
+
Dy Dy
r4 =
1
2
Dx
H
Dy Dy
n =
n
L
116
Case 4: Articulated bridge decks (
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
117
APPENDIX II
Example calculation of bridge deck analysis
(single cell box girder)
118
APPENDIX III
Example calculation of reinforced concrete box girder design
(single cell box girder hogging moment)

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PSZ 19:16 (Pind.

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

Authors full name :

POH YANG ___________________

COMPUTERIZED DESIGN OF REINFORCED

I declare that this thesis is classified as :

(Contains confidential information under the Official Secret

(Contains restricted information as specified by the

I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access

I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows:

IR. MOHAMAD SALLEH YASSIN

Name of Supervisor : IR. MOHAMAD SALLEH YASSIN

COMPUTERIZED DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX GIRDER

GRACE TAN POH YANG

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Faculty of Civil Engineering

: GRACE TAN POH YANG

To my beloved father and mother

First of all, I would like to express my greatest and sincere appreciation to my

I am very grateful to have my family member with me during the period of

ANALYSIS OF BOX GIRDER BRIDGE

Types of Concrete Bridge Decks

2.3.1 Slab Decks

2.3.2 Voided Slab Deck

2.3.3 Pseudo Slab

Maunsell Top Hat Beam

Beam and Slab

2.3.6 Box Girders Deck

Box Girder Bridges

Basic Concept of Reinforced Concrete

Components of Reinforced Concrete Box

Evolution of Box Girder

Development of Reinforced Concrete

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Box

2.4.7.1 Relative Shallow Requirement

2.4.7.2 Aesthetic Value

2.4.7.3 Ideal Space for Utilities

2.4.7.4 High Torsional Stiffness

2.4.7.5 Cost Saving

Structural Action of Box girder

2.5.2 Shear Force

2.5.5 Shear Lag

Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Box Girder

Concept of Orthotropic Plate Theory

Flexural Rigidity of Box Girder

Bridge in Orthotropic Plate Analysis

2.6.2.2 Equivalent Plate Rigidity

Types of Cases in Orthotropic Plate Equation

2.6.3.1 Solution of Orthotropic Plate Equations

2.6.3.2 Torsionally Stiff and/or Flexural Soft

2.3.6.4 Torsional Soft and/or Flexural Stiff

2.6.3.5 Articulated Bridge Decks (

Models of Road Traffic Loads

Divisions of Carriageway into Notional Lanes

Location and Numbering of Lanes for Design