Clinical Review & Education

Care of the Aging Patient: From Evidence to Action

Polypharmacy in the Aging Patient

A Review of Glycemic Control in Older Adults
With Type 2 Diabetes
Kasia J. Lipska, MD, MHS; Harlan Krumholz, MD, SM; Tacara Soones, MD, MPH; Sei J. Lee, MD, MAS

IMPORTANCE There is substantial uncertainty about optimal glycemic control in older adults

with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

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OBSERVATIONS Four large randomized clinical trials (RCTs), ranging in size from 1791 to 11 440
patients, provide the majority of the evidence used to guide diabetes therapy. Most RCTs of
intensive vs standard glycemic control excluded adults older than 80 years, used surrogate
end points to evaluate microvascular outcomes and provided limited data on which
subgroups are most likely to benefit or be harmed by specific therapies. Available data from
randomized clinical trials suggest that intensive glycemic control does not reduce major
macrovascular events in older adults for at least 10 years. Furthermore, intensive glycemic
control does not lead to improved patient-centered microvascular outcomes for at least 8
years. Data from randomized clinical trials consistently suggest that intensive glycemic
control immediately increases the risk of severe hypoglycemia 1.5- to 3-fold. Based on these
data and observational studies, for the majority of adults older than 65 years, the harms
associated with a hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) target lower than 7.5% or higher than 9% are likely
to outweigh the benefits. However, the optimal target depends on patient factors,
medications used to reach the target, life expectancy, and patient preferences about
treatment. If only medications with low treatment burden and hypoglycemia risk (such as
metformin) are required, a lower HbA1c target may be appropriate. If patients strongly prefer
to avoid injections or frequent fingerstick monitoring, a higher HbA1c target that obviates the
need for insulin may be appropriate.
CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE High-quality evidence about glycemic treatment in older
adults is lacking. Optimal decisions need to be made collaboratively with patients,
incorporating the likelihood of benefits and harms and patient preferences about treatment
and treatment burden. For the majority of older adults, an HbA1c target between 7.5% and
9% will maximize benefits and minimize harms.
JAMA. 2016;315(10):1034-1045. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.0299

lder patients with diabetes are increasingly common in

clinical practice due to the aging US population, the decreased mortality rates among persons with diabetes, and
the obesity epidemic.1,2 Among US residents aged 65 years and older,
10.9 million (26.9%) had diabetes in 20103 and this number is projected to increase to 26.7 million by 2050.4 The majority ( > 95%)
of older adults with diabetes have type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Insulin resistance and impaired beta-cell function both contribute to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes in older adults.5,6 Aging
is associated with accumulation of fat in muscle and liver tissues and
reduced rates of mitochondrial activity in muscle and brain, contributing to insulin resistance.7,8 Along with these changes, aging is
associated with defects in insulin secretion, which further contribute to hyperglycemia and type 2 diabetes.9-12
In older adults, classic symptoms of diabetes, such as polyuria,
and polydipsia, may be absent. Instead, diabetes may present with
1034

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Author Affiliations: Author

affiliations are listed at the end of this
article.
Corresponding Author: Kasia J.
Lipska, MD, MHS, Department of
Internal Medicine, Section of
Endocrinology, Yale School of
Medicine, 333 Cedar St, PO Box
208020, New Haven, CT 06520
(kasia.lipska@yale.edu).
Section Editor: Edward H.
Livingston, MD, Deputy Editor, JAMA.

dehydration, confusion, incontinence, and diabetes complications, such as neuropathy or nephropathy. Typically, the disease is
asymptomatic and usually diagnosed based on routinely performed laboratory studies (Box 1).13,15
The criteria for diagnosis are the same for younger and older
adults.13 TheyarebasedonplasmaglucoseandhemoglobinA1c (HbA1c)
thresholds that increase the risk of developing retinopathy.15 Incident diabetes among older compared with younger adults more often manifests as postprandial rather than fasting hyperglycemia.16
Measurement of HbA1c is often more convenient than obtaining a fasting plasma glucose, but there are some clinical conditions common
in older persons, such as chronic kidney disease or anemia, that may
restrict the ability of HbA1c to accurately reflect average glycemia.14
In adults older than 70 years, the nonfatal diabetes complications with the highest incidence rates include congestive heart failure, coronary artery disease, and cerebrovascular disease.17 How-

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Glycemic Control in Older Adults with Type 2 Diabetes

ever, among older patients with duration of diabetes of 10 years or

more, rates of acute hypoglycemic events and eye disease slightly
exceed rates of cerebrovascular disease and approximate those of
coronary artery disease.17 Therefore, both the risk of diabetes complications and the risk of therapy resulting in hypoglycemia become critically important to consider when setting therapeutic goals.
The goals of treatment of type 2 diabetes are to improve symptoms (if present), reduce the risk of acute and chronic diabetes complications, and minimize harms and burdens of therapy. Glycemic
control has been the central focus of diabetes care for decades18-23
and is the primary subject of this review. Randomized trials have
shown that intensive glycemic control may lower the risk of some
long-term complications (ie, microvascular disease18,19) but increase the risk of harm (ie, hypoglycemia18-23).
Decisions about glycemic treatment involve trade-offs between
these possible benefits versus the potential harms and burdens of
treatment. For some persons, the benefits of tight glycemic control
may outweigh the harms. For others, the harms may be more important than the benefits. Recent guidelines on glucose-lowering treatment of older adults acknowledge that the likelihood of benefits and
harms varies across patient subgroups and endorse individualized glycemic targets.13,24-28 However, there is substantial uncertainty about
how to individualize glycemic targets and treatment plans for older
adults with multiple comorbidities and risk factors. The goal of this article is to synthesize the available evidence and provide clinicians practical information to guide discussions about glycemic treatment with
these vulnerable patients.

Methods
We used the Cochrane review of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) for
intensive glycemic control to identify studies from inception of the included databases through 2012. Using the same search strategy as the
Cochrane review, we searched MEDLINE to identify additional studies published between January 2013 and June 2015. We included randomized, double-blind trials with more than 100 participants in each
group with type 2 diabetes, with at least 2 years of follow-up after randomization, with prespecified cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes, and with follow-up of 90% or more of randomized participants
for vital status ( eTable 1 in the Supplement). We also determined how
many of these trials included patients aged 80 years or older.
We used the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) methods29 to assess the strength of the evidence
on the benefits and harms of glucose-lowering treatment based on the
obtained data. The goal was to provide information that would help an
older patient better understand what to expect from glucose-lowering
treatment,whatthebenefitsandharmsare,andinwhattimeframebenefits and harms are most likely. Moreover, in order to make an informed
decision,thepatientneedstounderstandthestrengthoftheevidence.

Box 1. Special Considerations in the Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes

Mellitus in Older Adults
Clinical Features

Most often asymptomatic and diagnosed based on routine

laboratory evaluation
Classic symptoms (polyuria, polydipsia) may be absent
May present with dehydration, confusion, incontinence,
and diabetes complications, such as neuropathy or nephropathy
Diagnosis

Standard diagnostic criteria apply (fasting plasma glucose

126 mg/dL, 2-hour plasma glucose 200 mg/dL during an
OGTT, HbA1c 6.5%, or random blood glucose 200 mg/dL in
the presence of classic symptoms of hyperglycemiaa)13
More likely to have abnormal 2-hour plasma glucose during an OGTT
Cautions

The HbA1c level may not accurately reflect hyperglycemia in

conditions common among older adults, including anemia,
recent blood transfusions, treatment with erythropoietin,
or chronic kidney disease14
Abbreviations: HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test.
SI conversion: To convert glucose from mg/dL to mmol/L, multiply by 0.0555;
HbA1c in percentage to mmol/mol, subtract 2.152 and then multiply by 10.93.
a

In the absence of hyperglycemic symptoms, these criteria must be

repeated and confirmed.

Diabetes Study (UKPDS),18,19 Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in

Diabetes (ACCORD) trial,22 Action in Diabetes and Vascular Disease:
Preterax and Diamicron MR Controlled Evaluation (ADVANCE) trial,21
and Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial (VADT)20 as well as several
meta-analyses30-34 (Table 1). These landmark trials allocated glucoselowering treatments in a randomized and concealed fashion and maintained balance across the 2 groups throughout follow-up, resulting in
a relatively low risk of bias.36 The definitions of the outcomes in these
trials are summarized in Box 2.
However, applying these data to questions of benefits and harms
for older patients presents several challenges.
Trials Have Focused on Younger Patients

The mean age of participants in the major RCTs ranged between 53

and 66 years, and very few (if any) adults older than 80 years were
included (Table 1).37,38 One important reason for this underrepresentation is that intensive glycemic control in older patients raised
safety concerns. Early on in the ACCORD trial, the data and safety
monitoring board specifically recommended against further recruitment of participants older than 80 years because of frequent hypoglycemia observed in this group.39 Therefore, applying the results of the major RCTs to older adults is problematic.
Trials Have Focused on Surrogate End Points
Rather Than Clinical Outcomes

Results
Glucose-Lowering Treatment in Older AdultsDeficiencies
of the Evidence Base
The evidence about the benefits and harms of intensive vs standard
glycemic control comes primarily from 4 large RCTs: UK Prospective
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Care of the Aging Patient: From Evidence to Action Clinical Review & Education

Clinical trials of glucose-lowering therapies often rely on intermediate or surrogate end points, such as albuminuria or worsening creatinine (Table 1). Although these end points are strongly associated
with clinical outcomes such as dialysis or death due to renal failure,
it often takes many years of albuminuria or worsening creatinine to
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Clinical Review & Education Care of the Aging Patient: From Evidence to Action

Glycemic Control in Older Adults with Type 2 Diabetes

Table 1. Characteristics of Major Randomized Clinical Trials of Intensive Glycemic Control and Their Outcomes

Trial Dates

UKPDS18

ACCORD22

ADVANCE21

VADT20

1977-1998

1999-2008

2001-2008

2000-2008

Cochrane Reviewa

Trial participants
No.

4209

10 251

11 440

1791

34 325

Age, mean (SD), y

53 (9)

62 (7)

66 (6)

60 (9)

62b

Age 80 y, No. (%)

0 (0)c

47 (0.5)

178 (1.6)

NR

NR

Duration of diabetes at baseline,

mean (SD), y

Recent diagnosis

10 (NR)

8 (6)

11.5 (NR)

NR

Varied across trials

Trial Intervention
Target HbA1c, %
Intensive control

FPG < 108 mg/dL

<6

6.5

<6

Standard control

Not defined

7-7.9

Per local guidelines

8-9

Achieved HbA1c, %
Intensive control

7.0

6.4

6.5

6.9

Standard control

7.9

7.5

7.3

8.4

Varied across trials

Intensive control, No./total (%)

169/2729 (6.2)

352/5128 (6.9)

557/5571 (10.0)

235/892 (26.3)

1745/17 444 (10.0)

Standard control, No./total (%)

87/1138 (7.6)

371/5123 (7.2)

590/5569 (10.6)

264/899 (29.4)

1681/15 402 (10.9)

Relative risks (95% CI)

0.80 (0.62-1.04)

0.90 (0.78-1.04)

0.94 (0.84-1.06)

0.90 (0.70-1.16)

0.91 (0.82-1.02)

Trial Outcomesd
Macrovascular complications
compositee

Microvascular complications compositee

Intensive control, No./total (%)

249/3071 (8.1)

556/5128 (10.8)

526/5571 (9.4)

NR

1402/13 933 (10.1)

Standard control, No./total (%)

121/1138 (10.6)

586/5123 (11.4)

605/5569 (10.9)

NR

1396/11 994 (11.6)

Relative Risks (95% CI)

0.76 (0.62-0.94)

0.95 (0.85-1.06)

0.87 (0.78-0.97)

NR

0.88 (0.82-0.95)

Retinopathy compositee
Intensive control, No./total (%)

363/2729 (13.3)

81/1429 (5.7)

88/791 (11.1)

123/534 (23)

774/5932 (13.0)

Standard control, No./total (%)

172/1138 (15.1)

126/1427 (8.8)

99/811 (12.2)

154/534 (28.8)

706/4368 (16.2)

Relative risks (95% CI)

0.88 (0.74-1.04)

0.64 (0.49-0.84)

0.91 (0.70-1.19)

0.80 (0.65-0.98)

0.79 (0.68-0.92)

Nephropathy compositee
Intensive control, No./total (%)

11/2729 (0.4)

3056/5128 (59.6)

230/5571 (4.1)

78/892 (8.7)

3429/14 838 (23.1)

Standard control, No./total (%)

11/1138 (1.0)

3077/5123 (60.1)

292/5569 (5.2)

78/899 (8.7)

3550/13 258 (26.8)

Relative risks (95% CI)

0.42 (0.18-0.96)

0.99 (0.96-1.02)

0.79 (0.67-0.93)

1.01 (0.75-1.36)

0.75 (0.59-0.95)

End-stage renal disease

(dialysis, death due to renal disease)30
Intensive control, No./total (%)

28/3071 (0.9)

140/5128 (2.7)

22/5571 (0.4)

2/892 (0.2)

193/15 036 (1.3)

Standard control, No./total (%)

11/1138 (1.0)

152/5123 (3.0)

33/5569 (0.6)

3/899 (0.3)

205/13 109 (1.6)

Relative risks (95% CI)

0.94 (0.47-1.89)

0.92 (0.73-1.15)

0.67 (0.39-1.14)

0.67 (0.11-4.01)

0.87 (0.71-1.06)

Severe hypoglycemiae
Intensive control, No./total (%)

33/3071 (1.1)

830/5128 (16.2)

150/5571 (2.7)

76/892 (8.5)

1119/15 359 (7.3)

Standard control, No./total (%)

8/1138 (0.7)

261/5123 (5.1)

81/5569 (1.5)

28/899 (3.1)

395/13 435 (2.7)

Relative risks (95% CI)

1.53 (0.71-3.30)

3.18 (2.78-3.63)

1.85 (1.42-2.42)

2.74 (1.79-4.18)

2.18 (1.53-3.11)

Abbreviations: FPG, fasting plasma glucose; NR, not reported.

SI conversion: To convert HbA1c in percentage to mmol/mol, subtract 2.152 and

then multiply by 10.93.35

Ages 25 to 65 years only.

Relative risks less than 1 denote fewer events with intensive control.

The trial outcome definitions are specified in Box 2.

Cochrane review included 24 trials. The 4 trials listed here contributed 80% of
the sample for the Cochrane review.30

lead to clinical outcomes. Because many older patients have limited life expectancy, the use of these intermediate end points may
not be relevant.
Trials Provide Limited Data on Which Subgroups Are Most Likely
to Benefit or Be Harmed

To make informed decisions, patients need individualized information on the relative benefits and risks of glycemic control. However,
1036

SD not reported in the Cochrane review.

data about the likelihood of benefits and harms across large subgroups are currently limited. In both the ACCORD and ADVANCE
studies, the effect of glycemic control on outcomes did not differ between younger and older ( < 65 vs 65 years) patients.21,39 In contrast, other subgroup analyses that explored whether intensive glycemic control is more beneficial in specific patient groups (ie, those
with a history of microvascular disease, macrovascular disease, or < 15
years of diabetes) yielded conflicting results.21,22,40

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Glycemic Control in Older Adults with Type 2 Diabetes

Care of the Aging Patient: From Evidence to Action Clinical Review & Education

Box 2. Definition of Trial Outcomes

Definition for Macrovascular Complications Composite30

UKPDS: Not defined. Composite measure of death from

cardiovascular causes (including sudden death), nonfatal myocardial
infarction,andnonfatalstrokeasreportedinthemeta-analysisbyTurnbull
et al31 (note: data were censored at 5 years after randomization)
ACCORD: Nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke,
or cardiovascular death
ADVANCE: Nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke,
or cardiovascular death
VADT: Myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular death,
new or worsening heart failure, surgical intervention for cardiac,
cerebrovascular or peripheral vascular disease, amputation,
or inoperable coronary artery disease
Cochrane: Nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal ischemic stroke,
nonfatal hemorrhagic stroke, amputation of lower extremity,
or cardiac or peripheral revascularization
30

Definition for Microvascular Complications Composite

UKPDS: Retinopathy requiring photocoagulation, vitreous

hemorrhage, or renal failure

VADT: 2-point increase in the Early Treatment of Diabetic

Retinopathy Study
Cochrane: Manifestation and progression of retinopathy (varied by
individual study)
Definition for Nephropathy30

UKPDS: 2-fold plasma creatinine increase

ACCORD: Doubling of serum creatinine or a 20mL/min/1.73 m2
decrease in estimated glomerular filtration rate, development
of macroalbuminuria, or development of renal failure
ADVANCE: Development of macroalbuminuria or doubling
of the serum creatinine level to at least 2.3 mg/dL, the need for renal
replacement therapy, or death due to renal disease
VADT: Doubling of the serum creatinine level, a creatinine level of more
than 3 mg/dL, or a glomerular filtration rate less than 15 mL per minute
Cochrane: Manifestation and progression of nephropathy (varied by
individual study)
End-stage renal disease composite was defined in all trials as severe
renal failure (dialysis, renal transplantat, or death due to renal failure)

ACCORD: Fatal or nonfatal renal failure, serum creatinine

more than 3.3 mg/dL, retinal photocoagulation or vitrectomy
for diabetic retinopathy

Definition for Severe Hypoglycemia30

ADVANCE: New or worsening nephropathy or retinopathy

(development of proliferative retinopathy, macular edema, diabetesrelated blindness, or retinal photocoagulation)

ACCORD: Hypoglycemia with documented blood glucose

less than 50 mg/dL or symptoms that promptly resolve with oral
carbohydrate, intravenous glucose, or glucagon that require any
assistance (medical or nonmedical)

VADT: Retinopathy, nephropathy, or neuropathy

Cochrane: manifestation and progression of nephropathy, end-stage
renal disease, manifestation and progression of retinopathy,
or retinal photocoagulation
30

Definition for Retinopathy Composite

UKPDS: 1 or more microaneurysms and 2 or more changes in

the Early Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy Study scale
ACCORD: Progression of 3 or more stages of the Early Treatment
of Diabetic Retinopathy Study scale
ADVANCE: Progression of 2 or more steps in the Early Treatment
of Diabetic Retinopathy Study classification

Few Studies on Which Medications Work Best for Which Patients

Clinicians and patients can now choose from 12 different classes of

glucose-lowering agents, with many patients needing a combination of drugs. However, there are few comparative effectiveness outcomes studies to guide clinical practice, let alone guide practice for
the oldest patients. Long-term clinical outcomes associated with the
use of different medications are unknown. These deficiencies are
particularly pronounced among higher-risk subpopulations, such as
older adults and patients with underlying comorbid conditions.41 A
summary of advantages and disadvantages of commonly used
agents is presented in Table 2, and patient decision aids incorporating this information are available for use in clinical practice.50

Making Glycemic Treatment Decisions

With Limited Evidence
Despite limited evidence, patients and clinicians must
make decisions on how to manage hyperglycemia. We
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UKPDS: Hypoglycemia requiring third-party help or medical

intervention

ADVANCE: Patients with transient dysfunction of the central

nervous system who were unable to treat themselves
VADT: Medical intervention to avert a life-threatening event
or hospitalization
Cochrane: Hypoglycemia requiring assistance
Abbreviations: ACCORD, Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes;
ADVANCE, Action in Diabetes and Vascular Disease: Preterax and Diamicron
MR Controlled Evaluation; UKPDS, UK Prospective Diabetes Study;
VADT, Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial.
SI conversion: To convert creatinine from mg/dL to mol/L, multiply by 88.4;
glucose from mg/dL to mmol/L, multiply by 0.0555.

s y n t h e s i z e d t h e a va i l a b l e e v i d e n c e a n d d e v e l o p e d a
4-step approach to help patients and clinicians individualize
glycemic treatment. For each step, we included a discussion
of the quality of the available evidence based on the ACC/AHA
criteria (eTable 2 in the Supplement). In the following sections,
intensive glycemic control is defined as an HbA1c value lower
than 7%.
Estimate Benefits of Intensive Glycemic Control
Cardiovascular Benefits | The UKPDS, ACCORD, ADVANCE, and

VADT trials showed that intensive glycemic control (HbA1c <7%;

to convert HbA1c in percentage to mmol/mol, subtract 2.152 and
then multiply by 10.93)35did not significantly reduce major cardiovascular events (defined as myocardial infarction, stroke, or cardiovascular mortality) during each of these trials.18,20-22 Long-term,
observational follow-up of trial participants showed reductions in
major cardiovascular events associated with intensive glycemic
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Clinical Review & Education Care of the Aging Patient: From Evidence to Action

Glycemic Control in Older Adults with Type 2 Diabetes

Table 2. Comparison of Different Classes of Glucose Lowering Medication for Older Adultsa
Glycemic
Control:
Reduction
of HbA1c, %
Biguanides

Cardiovascular Safety

1-242

Risk of lactic acidosis

Do not use below eGFR
of 30 mL/min/1.73 m2
Do not use in patients
with decompensated
heart failure
Gastrointestinal
adverse effects (nausea,
diarrhea)

Reduced cardiovascular
events and mortality18

Low (<10)

1-2

Risk of hypoglycemia
Avoid long-acting
sulfonylureas (glyburide,
glimepiride)
Weight gain

Uncertain risk of
increased cardiovascular
events

Low (<10)

1-243

Fluid retention
Weight gain
Heart failure risk
Avoid use in class III or IV
heart failure
Fracture risk
Uncertain bladder cancer
risk

Increased risk of
myocardial infarction
(rosiglitazone)

Moderate
(10-100)

0.4-0.9

Gastrointestinal adverse
effects (flatulence)

Reduced cardiovascular
events in patients with
impaired glucose
tolerance44

Moderate cost
(10-100)

0.4-0.9

Weight gain
Risk of hypoglycemia
Avoid nateglinide in renal
dysfunction

Unknown

Moderate
(10-100)

0.6

Gastrointestinal adverse
effects (nausea)
Risk of hypoglycemia
when used with insulin

Unknown

Very high
(>300)

Weight loss
Gastrointestinal
adverse effects (nausea,
vomiting,
diarrhea)
Uncertain risk of acute
pancreatitis

Unknown

High (100-300)

0.5-0.8

Uncertain risk of acute

pancreatitis
Uncertain risk of severe
joint pain
Skin lesions

2 Cardiovascular
outcomes trials showed
neutral effects on major
cardiovascular
events45,46

Very high
(>300)

Metformin

Sulfonylureas

Cost per Month

($ US)b

Adverse Effects

Glyburide
Glipizide
Glimepiride
Thiazolidinediones
Pioglitazone
Rosiglitazone

-Glucosidase inhibitors
Acarbose
Glinides
Repaglinide
Nateglinide
Amylin mimetics
Pramlintide
GLP-1 mimetics
Exenatide
Liraglutide

DPP-4 inhibitors
Sitagliptin
Saxagliptin
Linagliptin
Alogliptin
SGLT2 inhibitors

0.5-0.7

Dapagliflozin
Canagliflozin
Empagliflozin

Insulin

No limit

Reduction in rates of
Very high
Weight loss
cardiovascular events and (>300)
Blood pressure lowering
47
Vulvovaginal candidiasis mortality in one study
and urinary tract
infections
May lead to abnormalities
in renal function; elderly
patients with preexisting
renal impairment may be
at greater risk
Avoid when eGFR
< 60 mL/min/1.73 m2
Risk of euglycemic
diabetic ketoacidosis
May challenge
self-management
capacity
Risk of hypoglycemia
Weight gain

1 Trial showed neutral

effects48

control in the UKPDS,51 ACCORD,52 and VADT53 trials, but not in

the ADVANCE trial.54 These reductions emerged after at least 10
years of follow-up and were not associated with improved mortality among ADVANCE 54 and VADT 53 trial participants. In the
1038

Abbreviations: DPP, dipeptidyl

peptidase; eGFR, estimated
glomerular filtration rate;
GLP, glucagon-like peptide;
HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c;
SGLT2, sodium-glucose
cotransporter 2.
SI conversion: To convert HbA1c in
percentage to mmol/mol, subtract
2.152 and then multiply by 10.93.35
a

Information about these

medications that can be used in the
shared decision-making process
with patients is available at http:
//shareddecisions.mayoclinic.org
/decision-aid-information/decision
-aids-for-chronic-disease/diabetes
-medication-management.

Costs are the wholesale acquisition

cost of a 30-day supply of the initial
dose of each medication.49

Variable

ACCORD trial, increased mortality was seen among intensively

treated participants.55 Therefore, RCTs do not support intensive
glycemic control to reduce major cardiovascular events in older
adults, at least in the first 10 years of intervention. Because patients

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Glycemic Control in Older Adults with Type 2 Diabetes

older than 80 years and those with other comorbidities were

excluded from the trials, this conclusion may not apply to these
patients (level B evidence).
Microvascular Benefits | The ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VADT
trials did not show a significant effect of intensive treatment on
clinical microvascular outcomes important to patients; however,
multiple surrogate end points improved with intensive glycemic
control. 20-22 For example, the ADVANCE trial showed a 14%
(95% CI, 3%-23%) relative risk reduction in the primary microvascular end point, which combined nephropathy and retinopathy
composites. This risk reduction was driven by a reduction in
nephropathy. In turn, the only component of the nephropathy
composite that was significantly reduced was the development
of macroalbuminuria (2.9% vs 4.1% in intensive vs standard
groups, respectively; P <.001). In the ACCORD and VADT trials,
intensive glycemic control did not significantly reduce the secondary microvascular end points that were not based on
albuminuria.20,22,56
In contrast, the UKPDS trial and its follow-up, which reflects
medical practice common more than 20 years ago, showed a significant reduction in microvascular complications defined as a composite of photocoagulation, vitreous hemorrhage, and renal failure, ie, based on clinical outcomes important to patients.51 In the first
8 years of the trial, the control and intensive treatment groups had
the same rates of microvascular complications, suggesting no benefits from intensive treatment. In years 8 to 15, the control and intervention group curves diverged, suggesting that the intervention group was starting to benefit based on decreased microvascular
complications. Beyond 15 years, the 2 curves did not diverge further, suggesting there was little additional benefit. The absolute benefits were smallmicrovascular events were reduced from 14.2 to
11.0 per 1000 patient-years.
Taken together, the results of these trials suggest that intensive glycemic control does not reduce microvascular outcomes
important to patients, at least in the first 8 years of intervention. In
contrast, there may be a small microvascular benefit that emerges
after 8 to 15 years of treatment, based on the UKPDS trial followup. However, it must be noted that the UKPDS trial results are not
readily applicable to older patients with long-standing diabetes
because UKPDS trial included younger patients with newly diagnosed disease. In addition, the RCTs used surrogate end points that
do not directly apply to clinical outcomes (level B evidence).
Estimate Harms of Intensive Glycemic Control

All 4 major RCTs showed that intensive glycemic control increases

the risk of severe hypoglycemia.18,20-22 Although both younger and
older participants are at higher risk of severe hypoglycemia when
randomized to intensive glycemic control,57 the baseline risk of severe hypoglycemia (irrespective of trial group assignment) increases with age (hazard ratio, 1.03 per each 1 year increase, P < .001).
For example, in the ACCORD trial, the annual risk of severe hypoglycemia requiring medical assistance for participants younger than
65 years was 0.8% in the standard glycemic control group vs 2.4%
in the intensive glycemic control group.22 For participants 75 years
or older, the annual risk of severe hypoglycemia was much higher:
1.4% in the standard glycemic control group vs 5.3% in the intensive glycemic control group.58
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Other data on harms associated with intensive glycemic control

come primarily from epidemiologic analyses. Poor cognitive function has been associated with increased risk of severe hypoglycemia.59
In addition, age, duration of diabetes, use of multiple medications, frequent hospitalizations, and cognitive impairment (markers of underlying frailty) increase the risk of hypoglycemia.17,58,60-64 Furthermore, treatment with insulin is associated with the highest risk of
hypoglycemia compared with other agents.63
Taken together, RCTs show that intensive glycemic treatment
consistently increases the risk of hypoglycemia by 1.5- to 3-fold. Although the evidence is consistent and based on well-designed RCTs,
few older patients were included in these trials. However, results from
observational studies support extending these results to older patients (level B evidence).
Establish an Individualized Glycemic Target That Maximizes
Benefits but Minimizes Harms According to the Patients Values

Current evidence suggests that attempts to achieve intensive glycemic control will lead to net harm in the majority of older adults
with type 2 diabetes. The ACCORD study showed an increased risk
of mortality for patients randomized to intensive glycemic control
compared with the standard group.22 As discussed above, all 4
major trials of intensive glycemic control showed that intensive glycemic treatment increases the rates of severe hypoglycemia compared with standard glycemic control,20-22 whereas the cardiovascular and microvascular benefits are uncertain for the majority of
older adults. Furthermore, modeling studies, based on estimates of
microvascular complications drawn from the UKPDS trial (ie, with
the most optimistic estimates of benefit), suggest that the marginal
benefits of decreasing HbA1c lower than 7.5% are likely small.65,66
Thus, for the vast majority of older patients with diabetes, the
harms associated with an HbA1c target lower than7.5% likely outweigh the benefits.
There is wide consensus that HbA 1c values higher than
9% should be avoided because they can lead to immediate
symptoms.25 These symptoms include polyuria, which can occur at
blood glucose levels above the renal threshold (>180-200 mg/dL),
and may lead to dehydration. In addition, hyperglycemia may lead
to fatigue, increased risk for infection, and cognitive impairment.
For these reasons, HbA1c values higher than 9% may lead to harms.
Most experts and guidelines suggest that HbA1c values higher than
9% should be avoided because of these risks, especially because an
HbA1c below 9% can usually be safely achieved.13,24,25,27,28,67
Despite the consensus, there is remarkably little data to support it.
Modeling studies suggest that patient preferences are
critically important in modulating the target HbA1c (within the
7.5%-9% range) because they influence the net benefit (or net
harm) achieved from more vs less intensive glycemic control.66
Different patients place different value on avoiding specific burdens (eg, insulin treatment and fingerstick monitoring).66 An
older patient with a life expectancy more than 15 years who perceives little burden from insulin injections may increase his or her
chances of an improved quality of life with intensive glycemic
control. In contrast, an older patient who expresses a strong
desire to avoid burdensome treatments may experience reduced
quality of life with more intensive treatment. Thus, patient preferences and values regarding treatments should play a major role in
determining glycemic targets.
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Clinical Review & Education Care of the Aging Patient: From Evidence to Action

Table 3. Minimizing Polypharmacy in Older Adults With Type 2

Diabetes Mellitus
When to Consider
Reducing or Stopping
Medications
Lack of benefit

HbA1c<6.5% or 7.5%
in persons with limited
life expectancy
Adverse events
Hypoglycemia

How to Modify Therapy

Evidence for Diminishing Benefits With Polypharmacy

The first glucose-lowering medication, which is often started at
higher HbA1c levels compared with the levels when the second
agent is started, decreases HbA1c more than subsequent medications. Starting a second or third medication for glycemic control leads
to smaller reductions in HbA1c than starting that same medication
as monotherapy.69,70 For example, a meta-analysis of trials examining the efficacy of oral glucose-lowering agents showed that for
patients with baseline HbA1c levels between 9.0% to 9.9%, oral
agents decreased HbA1c levels by 1.0%. For patients with baseline
HbA1c levels between 8.0% to 8.9%, oral agents decreased HbA1c
levels by only 0.6%; for patients with baseline HbA1c levels between 6.0% to 6.9%, the average reduction was only 0.2%.71

As above

Reduce or stop medications most likely to have

caused adverse event
Insulin, sulfonylureas
Insulin, sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones

Heart failure, edema

Thiazolidinediones

Gastrointestinal
adverse effects

Metformin, GLP-1 agonists

Elicit and explore the rationale behind patient
preferences

Less frequent monitoring Decrease or stop insulin

of blood glucose
High cost of medications
Limited capacity
Cognitive impairment
Poor dexterity or vision

Stop newer, high-cost agents

Support patient to enhance capacity or choose
to accept some hyperglycemia
Explore whether caregivers can administer
diabetes medications
Decreasing or stopping medications may be best
approach if caregivers cannot help

Abbreviations: GLP, glucagon-like peptide; HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c.

SI conversion: To convert HbA1c in percentage to mmol/mol, subtract 2.152 and
then multiply by 10.93.35

Finally, the type of treatment that is required to achieve

a specific target significantly impacts the likelihood of benefits
and harms. Lifestyle modification is unlikely to result in harm.
Metformin is also considered safe but may cause adverse gastrointestinal effects. An HbA1c target lower than 7% may be reasonable for some patients with the use of this relatively safe medication. In contrast, insulin is associated with the highest risk of
hypoglycemia68 compared with other agents and confers about a
2-fold increased risk compared with sulfonylurea treatment.63 Furthermore, insulin requires significant self-management capacity,
and insulin therapy can frequently result in treatment errors. Thus,
for some older patients who are unable to achieve their glycemic
target with oral medications, the appropriate response may be to
discuss the trade-offs involved in the decision to start insulin rather
than reflexively intensify treatment. Other harms or adverse
effects of therapy (Table 2) may also influence the decision to
modulate the glycemic target.
Therefore, based on RCTs and observational data, the harms associated with an HbA1c target lower than 7.5% or higher than 9% are
likely to outweigh the benefits for the majority of older adults. A large
part of the evidence is based on observational studies with a risk of
bias. Some of the evidence is based primarily on expert opinion (level
C evidence).
Minimize Polypharmacy

Most patients HbA1c levels increase over time, and patients and their
clinicians must decide whether to intensify therapy. Decisions to de1040

intensify therapy must also be made when HbA1c levels decline, the
risk of harms increases, or the treatment burden becomes unacceptable to the patient (Table 3).

Reduce the dose or stop the medication

with highest rates of adverse events, treatment
burden, or patient costs
Often, this will be the last medication started

Weight gain

Patient preference
for decreased intensity
of treatment

Glycemic Control in Older Adults with Type 2 Diabetes

Evidence for Increasing Harms With Polypharmacy

Multiple studies have shown that polypharmacy increases the number of adverse drug events,72,73 including severe hypoglycemia,63,74
drug-drug interactions, 75,76 interactions with coexisting comorbidities,77 and patient costs.78 In addition, the higher the number of medications, the less likely the patient will remain adherent
with the treatment regimen.79,80 Furthermore, diabetes treatments such as insulin and dietary restrictions impose burdens on patients with the consequence of decreased quality of life.81
Based on these data, in older patients with type 2 diabetes,
increasingly intensive efforts to lower glucose levels with the
use of multiple medications tend to be associated with diminishing benefits and greater risks of harm. Although there is consistent evidence with regards to harms of polypharmacy, the balance of benefits and harms has not been evaluated in RCTs
(level C evidence).
Table 3 outlines circumstances when clinicians and patients
should consider decreasing or stopping medications and how this
can be done.

Discussion
Currently, older patients with diabetes and their clinicians must make
decisions on how best to manage hyperglycemia with limited evidence. These decisions need to balance what is known about the
benefits and harms of treatment but require extrapolating evidence from younger, healthier patients, resulting in substantial uncertainty. Furthermore, different patients place different values on
possible outcomes of treatment. Because these trade-offs are complex and because the strategies to lower glucose levels require active engagement of patients with respect to adherence and lifestyle behaviors, there is an imperative to involve the patients in the
process. A shared-decision-making process, in the course of which
a patient and his/her clinician discuss and weigh the likely outcomes from different treatment options, can take into account the
best available evidence, as well as the patient's values and preferences about treatment.82,83
The Figure presents an approach to help older patients and their
clinicians individualize glycemic treatment decisions. The process

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Glycemic Control in Older Adults with Type 2 Diabetes

Care of the Aging Patient: From Evidence to Action Clinical Review & Education

Figure. Framework to Individualize Glycemic Treatment Decisions in Older Adults

Patient-physician partnership
Patient
Knowledge of own body,
circumstances, goals of health care

Physician
Disease and treatment knowledge

Step 1 Estimate benefits of intensive glycemic control (target HbA1c <7%)

Step 1a: Estimate macrovascular
benefits of intensive glycemic control

Step 1b: Estimate microvascular

benefits of intensive glycemic control
considering life expectancy

Preponderance of evidence suggests

intensive glycemic control does not
decrease cardiovascular events
in older adults

Estimated life
expectancy <8 y

Unlikely that intensive

glycemic control will
decrease microvascular
complications

Estimated life
expectancy 8-15 y

Estimated life
expectancy >15 y

Uncertain whether
intensive glycemic control
will decrease microvascular
complications

Possible that intensive

glycemic control will
decrease microvascular
complications, especially if
new-onset diabetes

Step 2 Estimate harms of intensive glycemic control

Potential harms
of intensive glycemic control

Factors that increase

likelihood of harm

Factors that decrease

likelihood of harm

Hypoglycemia

Age >80 y

Age 80 y

Cognitive impairment

Cognitively intact

Longer duration of diabetes

Shorter duration of diabetes

Treatment with insulin

Treatment with diet or metformin

Other adverse events, including drug-drug

and drug-disease interactions

Polypharmacy

Diet therapy or oral monotherapy

High treatment burden

Insulin therapy

Oral monotherapy

Complex regimen

Simple regimen

Poor support system

Strong support system

Step 3 Individualize glycemic target (HbA1c range, 7.5%-9%)

Patient and physician weigh likelihood of benefits and harms of intensive glycemic control
Favors lower HbA1c target
Benefits of intensive glycemic control possible
Harms unlikely
Perceived treatment burden low

Favors higher HbA1c target

Benefits of intensive glycemic control unlikely
Harms likely
Perceived treatment burden high

Step 4 Minimize polypharmacy

HbA1c < target
Decrease or discontinue
highest-risk medication
(usually the last medication
started [see Table 3])

HbA1c = target
Continue current treatment;
consider whether target HbA1c
might be achievable with
fewer medications

of shared decision making starts with establishment of a strong partnership that serves as the basis for exchange of information.84 Estimation of life expectancy can help determine whether it is posjama.com

HbA1c > target

Reconsider HbA1c target given
the potential harms of
initiating or intensifying
medications to reach it

sible for a patient to realize the potential long-term benefits of

intensive glycemic control. Several important patient-level factors
such as the need for insulin, duration of diabetes, and cognitive im(Reprinted) JAMA March 8, 2016 Volume 315, Number 10

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Clinical Review & Education Care of the Aging Patient: From Evidence to Action

pairment determine the likelihood of harms associated with treatment. Patient preferences should play a major role in determining
the appropriate glycemic target.
In the following 4 clinical cases, we illustrate how our proposed decision-making framework can be applied to different older
adults with diabetes.

Clinical Cases: Managing Glycemia

in Older Patients

Glycemic Control in Older Adults with Type 2 Diabetes

Estimate Harms

Mrs B takes multiple medications and is at increased risk of falls and

adverse effects from medications.
Individualize HbA1c Target

Her HbA1c target can be relaxed given her multiple comorbidities to

reduce polypharmacy. It is reasonable for her HbA1c value to be in
the 8% range. The discussion with patient and caregivers should focus on lack of benefits for intensive glycemic control and potential
risk of harm with 4 agents.

Case 1

Minimize Polypharmacy

Mrs K is 82 years old and functionally independent and has had a

history of type 2 diabetes for the past 7 years. She has been treated
with 1000 mg of metformin twice daily without any adverse effects. She also has dyslipidemia, hypertension, and chronic kidney
disease. Her HbA1c value is 7.6%, her creatinine level is 1.5 mg/dL (to
convert creatinine from mg/dL to mol/L, multiply by 88.4) with an
estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of 40 mL/min/1.73 m2.

To minimize Mrs Bs medication burden, she could stop taking pioglitazone because it is associated with weight gain, lower extremity edema, risk of heart failure, and osteoporosis in women.
Sitagliptin could also be stopped given its relatively low efficacy and high cost.
Metformin and glipizide could be continued. Routine monitoring of blood glucose is not recommended for patients taking oral medications;however,sheisatriskofhypoglycemia,andintermittentmonitoring may be helpful to assess for hypoglycemic events. Her glipizide
dose can be reduced or stopped if there is any hypoglycemia.

Estimate Benefits

The lag time to benefit from intensive glycemic control is likely in the
order of 10 years. Short-term benefits of reducing HbA1c to lower
than 7.5% for her are unclear.
Estimate Harms

Addition of oral medications or insulin may increase treatment burden, risk of adverse effects (including hypoglycemia), treatment errors, and increase costs of care.

Case 3
Mr C is 78 years old and has had type 2 diabetes for the past 10 years.
He has nephropathy (eGFR 30 mL/min/1.73 m2), mild retinopathy,
and peripheral neuropathy. He has established coronary artery disease and had coronary artery bypass graft 6 years ago. He has osteoarthritis and limited mobility. For his diabetes, he takes glimepiride 4
mg twice a day and linagliptin 5 mg once daily. His HbA1c value is 8.1%.

Individualize HbA1c Target

Current HbA1c is reasonable, pending a discussion with the patient

regarding preferences for treatment. Focus should be on reducing
risk of cardiovascular events with blood pressure and lipid control.
Minimize Polypharmacy

Although metformin is contraindicated in women with a creatinine

level of 1.5 mg/dL or higher, the risk of lactic acidosis appears to be
very low.85 Metformin monotherapy can be safely continued with
more frequent monitoring of renal function (every 3-6 months depending on rate of decline) and at a reduced dose (500 mg twice
daily).85 Because metformin has an excellent safety record and is not
associated with either weight gain or hypoglycemia, it remains the
first choice agent for treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Case 2

1042

Estimate Benefits

The discussion with the patient should focus on trade-offs between escalating therapy (eg, with insulin) vs continuing current regimen (with glimepiride and linagliptin). Given that his HbA1c value is
higher than 8%, intensifying treatment may result in modest reductions in cardiovascular events and microvascular events. These benefits are likely to emerge after 10 years of treatment.
Estimate Harms

On the other hand, intensifying therapy may require insulin and can
be associated with a high treatment burden.
The discussion with the patient should also focus on his risk of
hypoglycemia. The patient has several risk factors for hypoglycemia, including chronic kidney disease and presence of established
microvascular complications. He should be aware of hypoglycemia
symptoms, be able to monitor blood glucose, and be asked to report any symptoms or low blood glucose results to the office.

Mrs B is 85 years old and has type 2 diabetes of 10 years duration.

She is functionally dependent, living in a nursing home, with moderate dementia (Mini-Mental State Examination score, 18), depression, hypertension, dyslipidemia, osteoporosis, history of falls, and
urinary incontinence. She is taking metformin 500 mg twice daily,
glipizide 10 mg twice daily, sitagliptin 100 mg once daily, and pioglitazone 15 mg once daily. Her HbA1c value is 7.1%. She has not had
any known hypoglycemia.

Current HbA1c level is reasonable, pending a discussion with the patient regarding preferences for treatment. Rather than initiating insulin and increasing his risk of hypoglycemia, it is reasonable to continue current oral medications and accept a higher HbA1c target.

Estimate Benefits

Minimize Polypharmacy

Benefits of intensive glycemic control are unclear in functionally dependent patients with limited life expectancy like Mrs B.

Stopping medications is likely to result in an HbA1c increase that is

well above his glycemic target.

Individualize HbA1c Target

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Glycemic Control in Older Adults with Type 2 Diabetes

Care of the Aging Patient: From Evidence to Action Clinical Review & Education

Case 4
Mrs D is a 79-year-old widow, functionally independent, living alone.
She has hypertension, dyslipidemia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic kidney disease, osteoarthritis, and osteoporosis. She has had type 2 diabetes for the past 40 years. She currently takes insulin glargine, 42 U at bedtime, and insulin aspart, 5 U
with breakfast, 7 U with lunch, and 9 U with dinner. She takes additional insulin aspart based on a blood glucose scale with each meal.
She has had symptomatic hypoglycemia over the past week, with
blood glucose levels down to 50 mg/dL, without a clear pattern. Her
blood glucose values range from 51 to 345 mg/dL, but she does not
keep an organized log and admits that she sometimes forgets to take
her insulin. Her HbA1c level is 7.8%.
Estimate Benefits

Mrs D has long-standing diabetes that is unlikely to be safely managed without the use of insulin. However, benefits of intensive glycemic control in her case are unclear and unlikely to be realized during her lifetime.
Estimate Harms

Harms of insulin therapy include severe hypoglycemia, especially

among older patients with complex health problems like Mrs D. Complex insulin regimen also increases treatment burden. Treatment errors are frequent and her cognitive status needs to be assessed to
determine her capacity for self-management.
Individualize HbA1c Target

Type 2 diabetes control may be too tight, and her insulin regimen
overly complex, given the harms and burdens of treatment. Focus
ARTICLE INFORMATION
Author Affiliations: Department of Internal
Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Yale School of
Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut (Lipska);
Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation,
Yale-New Haven Hospital, New Haven, Connecticut
(Krumholz); Section of Cardiovascular Medicine and
the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Clinical
Scholars Program, Yale School of Medicine,
New Haven, Connecticut (Krumholz); Department
of Health Policy and Management, Yale School of
Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut (Krumholz);
Department of Geriatrics and Palliative Medicine;
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai;
New York (Soones); Division of Geriatrics,
Department of Medicine, University of California,
San Francisco (Lee); San Francisco VA Medical
Center, California (Lee).
Author Contributions: Drs Lipska and Lee had full
access to all of the data in the study and take
responsibility for the integrity of the data and the
accuracy of the data analysis.
Study concept and design: Lipska, Soones, Lee.
Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All
authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: Lipska, Soones, Lee.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important
intellectual content: Lipska, Krumholz, Lee.
Statistical analysis: Lee, Soones.
Obtained funding: Lee, Lipska.
Administrative, technical, or material support:
Soones, Lee.
Study supervision: Lee.
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should shift to prevention of symptomatic hyperglycemia and keeping her HbA1c values in the 8% range may be reasonable, while avoiding hypoglycemia.
Minimize Polypharmacy

Her insulin regimen needs to be simplified to reduce the risk for

errors. A first step may be to reduce her glargine dose and prescribe a fixed dose of aspart with each meal. Depending on her
schedule of meals, premixed insulin injections twice daily may be
another option.

Conclusions
Although there are major gaps in the evidence base on how best to
care for older adults with diabetes, 4 evidence-informed steps can
help clinicians and patients make individualized treatment decisions. Patient-centered decisions start with a strong partnership between the clinician and the patient. The first and second steps include assessments of potential benefits and harms of intensive
glycemic control. Estimation of life expectancy can be useful to determine whether long-term benefits of intensive glycemic control
are possible. The need for insulin (or other type of therapy), duration of diabetes, and cognitive impairment can be used to determine the likelihood of harms associated with treatment. In the third
step, patient preferences should play a major role in determining the
appropriate glycemic target. Fourth, polypharmacy should be minimized. If a glycemic target cannot be easily achieved, the most appropriate course may be to modify the glycemic target rather than
intensify treatment.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: All authors have

completed and submitted the ICMJE Form for
Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest.
Dr Lipska reports receiving grants from the
National Institutes of Health. Dr Lipska also reports
receiving support from the Centers for Medicare &
Medicaid Services to develop and maintain publicly
reported quality measures. Dr Lee reports receiving
grants from the National Institute on Aging
and the American Federation for Aging Research.
Dr Krumholz reports receiving personal fees
for serving as chair of the Scientific Advisory
Board of United Health and other support
from Johnson & Johnson (Janssen)
and Medtronic.
Funding/Support: Dr Lipskas effort on this
project was supported through the Beeson Career
Development Award from the National Institute on
Aging and the American Federation of Aging
Research (K23AG048359). Dr Lees effort on this
project was supported through the Beeson Career
Development Award from the National Institute on
Aging and the American Federation of Aging
Research (K23AG040779) and an Early Career
Award from the S. D. Bechtel Jr Foundation.
Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no
role in the design and conduct of the study;
collection, management, analysis, and
interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or
approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit
the manuscript for publication.

Care of the Aging Patient Series: Authors

interested in contributing Care of the Aging Patient
articles may contact the section editor
Dr Livingston at edward.livingston
@jamanetwork.org.
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