Understanding Copyright and Related Rights
Understanding Copyright and Related Rights
Understanding Copyright and Related Rights
Contents
Introduction
Intellectual Property
The Two Branches of Intellectual Property: Industrial Property and Copyright
Works Protected by Copyright
Rights Protected
Right of reproduction and related rights
Rights of public performance, broadcasting, communication to the public and making
available to the public
Translation and adaptation rights
Moral rights
Limitations on Rights
Duration of Copyright
Ownership, Exercise and Transfer of Copyright
Enforcement of Rights
Related Rights
The Role of WIPO
Further Information
Introduction
This booklet is intended to provide an introduction for non-specialists or new-comers to
the subject of copyright and related rights. It explains in laymans terms the
fundamentals underpinning copyright law and practice. It describes the different types of
rights which copyright and related rights law protects, as well as the limitations on those
rights. And finally it briefly covers transfer of copyright and provisions for enforcement.
Detailed legal or administrative guidance on how, for example, to deal with infringement
of copyright, is not covered in this booklet, but can be obtained from national intellectual
property or copyright offices. The further information section at the back of this booklet
also lists some useful websites and publications for readers requiring more detail.
A separate WIPO booklet, Understanding Industrial Property, offers an equivalent
introduction to the subject of industrial property, including patents for invention, industrial
designs, trademarks and geographical indications.
Intellectual Property
Copyright legislation is part of the wider body of law known as intellectual property. The
term intellectual property refers broadly to the creations of the human mind. Intellectual
property rights protect the interests of creators by giving them property rights over their
creations.
The Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization (1967) gives
the following list of subject matter protected by intellectual property rights:
scientific discoveries;
industrial designs;
all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific,
literary or artistic fields.
trade,
which
would
contribute
to
economic
and
social
development.
Copyright relates to artistic creations, such as books, music, paintings and sculptures,
films and technology-based works such as computer programs and electronic
databases. In most European languages other than English, copyright is known as
authors rights. The expression copyright refers to the main act which, in respect of
literary and artistic creations, may be made only by the author or with his authorization.
That act is the making of copies of the work. The expression authors rights refers to the
creator of the artistic work, its author. It thus underlines the fact, recognized in most
laws, that the author has certain specific rights in his creation which only he can exercise
(such as the right to prevent a distorted reproduction). Other rights (such as the right to
make copies) can be exercised by other persons, for example, a publisher who has
obtained a license from the author.
While other types of intellectual property also exist, it is helpful for present purposes to
explore the distinction between industrial property and copyright in terms of the basic
difference between inventions and literary and artistic works.
Inventions may be defined in a non-legal sense as new solutions to technical problems.
These new solutions are ideas, and are protected as such; protection of inventions
under patent law does not require that the invention be represented in a physical
embodiment. The protection accorded to inventors is, therefore, protection against any
use of the invention without the authorization of the owner. Even a person who later
makes the same invention independently, without copying or even being aware of the
first inventors work, must obtain authorization before he can exploit it.
Unlike protection of inventions, copyright law protects only the form of expression of
ideas, not the ideas themselves. The creativity protected by copyright law is creativity in
the choice and arrangement of words, musical notes, colors and shapes. So copyright
law protects the owner of property rights against those who copy or otherwise take and
use the form in which the original work was expressed by the author.
From this basic difference between inventions and literary and artistic works, it follows
that the legal protection provided to each also differs. Since protection for inventions
gives a monopoly right to exploit an idea, such protection is short in duration- usually
about 20 years. The fact that the invention is protected must also be made known to the
public. There must be an official notification that a specific, fully described invention is
the property of a specific owner for a fixed number of years; in other words, the
protected invention must be disclosed publicly in an official register.
Since the legal protection of literary and artistic works under copyright, by contrast,
prevents only unauthorized use of the expressions of ideas, the duration of protection
can be much longer than in the case of the protection of ideas themselves, without
damage to the public interest. Also, the law can be - and in most countries is - simply
declaratory, i.e., the law may state that the author of an original work has the right to
prevent other persons from copying or otherwise using his work. So a created work is
considered protected as soon as it exists, and a public register of copyright protected
works
is
not
necessary.
Member countries of the Berne Union, and many other countries, provide protection
under their copyright laws for the above categories of works. The list, however, is not
intended to be exhaustive. Copyright laws also protect other modes or forms of
expression of works in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, which are not included
in the list.
Computer programs are a good example of a type of work which is not included in the
list in the Berne Convention, but which is undoubtedly included in the notion of a
production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain within the meaning of Article 2.
Indeed, computer programs are protected under the copyright laws of a number of
countries, as well as under the WIPO Copyright Treaty (1996). A computer program is a
set of instructions, which controls the operations of a computer in order to enable it to
perform a specific task, such as the storage and retrieval of information. The program is
produced by one or more human authors, but in its final mode or form of expression, it
can be understood directly only by a machine (the computer), not by humans.
Multimedia productions are another example of a type of work not listed in the Berne
Convention, but which clearly comes within the notion of creations in the literary,
scientific and artistic domain. While no acceptable legal definition has been developed,
there is a consensus that the combination of sound, text and images in a digital format,
which is made accessible by a computer program, embodies an original expression of
authorship sufficient to justify the protection of multimedia productions under the
umbrella
Rights Protected
of
copyright.
The most important feature of any kind of property is that the owner may use it
exclusively, i.e., as he wishes, and that nobody else can lawfully use it without his
authorization. This does not, of course, mean that he can use it regardless of the legally
recognized rights and interests of other members of society. Similarly the owner of
copyright in a protected work may use the work as he wishes, and may prevent others
from using it without his authorization. The rights granted under national laws to the
owner of copyright in a protected work are normally exclusive rights to authorize a third
party to use the work, subject to the legally recognized rights and interests of others.
There are two types of rights under copyright. Economic rights allow the rights owner to
derive financial reward from the use of his works by others. Moral rights allow the author
to take certain actions to preserve the personal link between himself and the work.
Most copyright laws state that the author or rights owner has the right to authorize or
prevent certain acts in relation to a work. The rights owner of a work can prohibit or
authorize:
These
rights
are
explained
in
more
detail
in
the
following
paragraphs.
performances of musical works - is the legal basis for many forms of exploitation of
protected works.
Other rights are recognized in national laws in order to ensure that this basic right of
reproduction is respected. Many laws include a right specifically to authorize
distribution of copies of works. Obviously, the right of reproduction would be of little
economic value if the owner of copyright could not authorize the distribution of the
copies made with his consent. The right of distribution usually terminates upon first sale
or transfer of ownership of a particular copy. This means, for example, that when the
copyright owner of a book sells or otherwise transfers ownership of a copy of the book,
the owner of that copy may give the book away or even resell it without the copyright
owners further permission.
Another right which is achieving increasingly wide recognition, and is included in the
WIPO Copyright Treaty, is the right to authorize rental of copies of certain categories of
works, such as musical works in sound recordings, audiovisual works, and computer
programs. This became necessary in order to prevent abuse of the copyright owners
right of reproduction when technological advances made it easy for rental shop
customers to copy such works.
Finally, some copyright laws include a right to control importation of copies as a means
to prevent erosion of the principle of territoriality of copyright; that is, the legitimate
economic interests of the copyright owner would be endangered if he could not exercise
the rights of reproduction and distribution on a territorial basis.
Certain forms of reproduction of a work are exceptions to the general rule, because they
do not require the authorization of the rights owner. These exceptions are known as
limitations on rights. An area of current debate relates to the scope of one particular
limitation traditionally present in copyright laws, which allows individuals to make single
copies of works for private, personal and non-commercial purposes. The continued
justification for such a limitation on the right of reproduction is being questioned now that
digital technology has made it possible to produce high-quality, unauthorized copies of
works, which are virtually indistinguishable from the source - and thus a perfect
substitute
for
the
purchase
of
authorized
copies.
access these works from a place and at a time individually chosen by them. Most
national laws implement this right as a part of the right of communication to the public,
although
some
do
so
as
part
of
the
right
of
distribution.
of
normal
use
of
works
in
digital
format.
Moral rights
The Berne Convention (Article 6bis) requires Member countries to grant to authors:
(i) the right to claim authorship of the work (sometimes called the right of paternity);
and
(ii) the right to object to any distortion or modification of the work, or other derogatory
action in relation to the work, which would be prejudicial to the authors honor or
reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).
These rights are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Convention
requires them to be independent of the authors economic rights, and to remain with the
author even after he has transferred his economic rights. It is worth noting that moral
rights are only accorded to individual authors. Thus even when, for example, a film
producer or a publisher owns the economic rights in a work, it is only the individual
creator
who
has
moral
interests
at
stake.
Limitations on Rights
The first limitation is the exclusion from copyright protection of certain categories of
works. In some countries, works are excluded from protection if they are not fixed in
tangible form. For example, a work of choreography would only be protected once the
movements were written down in dance notation or recorded on videotape. In certain
countries, the texts of laws, court and administrative decisions are excluded from
copyright protection.
The second category of limitations concerns particular acts of exploitation, normally
requiring the authorization of the rights owner, which may, under circumstances specified
in the law, be carried out without authorization. There are two basic types of limitations in
this category: (a) free use, which carries no obligation to compensate the rights owner
for the use of his work without authorization; and (b) non-voluntary licenses, which do
require that compensation be paid to the rights owner for non-authorized exploitation.
Examples of free use include:
quoting from a protected work, provided that the source of the quotation and the
name of the author is mentioned, and that the extent of the quotation is
compatible with fair practice;
In respect of free use for reproduction, the Berne Convention contains a general rule,
rather than an explicit limitation. Article 9(2) states that Member States may provide for
free reproduction in special cases where the acts do not conflict with normal exploitation
of the work and do not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author. As
noted above, many laws allow for individuals to reproduce a work exclusively for their
personal, private and non-commercial use. However, the ease and quality of
individual copying made possible by recent technology has led some countries to narrow
the scope of such provisions, including through systems which allow certain copying, but
incorporate a mechanism for payment to rights owners for the prejudice to their
economic interests resulting from the copying.
In addition to the specific categories of free use set out in national laws, the laws of
some countries recognize the concept known as fair use or fair dealing. This allows
use of works without the authorization of the rights owner, taking into account factors
such as the nature and purpose of the use, including whether it is for commercial
purposes; the nature of the work used; the amount of the work used in relation to the
work as a whole; and the likely effect of the use on the potential commercial value of the
work.
Non-voluntary licenses allow use of works in certain circumstances without the
authorization of the owner of rights, but require that compensation be paid in respect of
the use. Such licenses are called non-voluntary because they are allowed in the law, and
do not result from the exercise of the exclusive right of the copyright owner to authorize
particular acts. Non-voluntary licenses were usually created in circumstances where a
new technology for the dissemination of works to the public had emerged, and where the
national legislator feared that rights owners would prevent the development of the new
technology by refusing to authorize use of works. This was true of two non-voluntary
licenses recognized in the Berne Convention, which allow the mechanical reproduction
of musical works and broadcasting. The justification for non-voluntary licenses is,
however, increasingly called into question, since effective alternatives now exist for
making works available to the public based on authorizations given by the rights owners,
including
in
the
form
Duration of Copyright
of
collective
administration
of
rights.
Copyright does not continue indefinitely. The law provides for a period of time during
which the rights of the copyright owner exist. The period or duration of copyright begins
from the moment when the work has been created, or, under some national laws, when
it has been expressed in a tangible form. It continues, in general, until some time after
the death of the author. The purpose of this provision in the law is to enable the authors
successors to benefit economically from exploitation of the work after the authors death.
In countries party to the Berne Convention, and in many other countries, the duration of
copyright provided for by national law is as a general rule the life of the author plus not
less than 50 years after his death. The Berne Convention also establishes periods of
protection for works such as anonymous, posthumous and cinematographic works,
where it is not possible to base duration on the life of an individual author. There is a
trend in a number of countries toward lengthening the duration of copyright. The
European Union, the United States of America and several others have extended the
term
of
copyright
to
70 years
after
the
death
of
the
author.
Under an assignment, the rights owner transfers the right to authorize or prohibit certain
acts covered by one, several, or all rights under copyright. An assignment is a transfer of
a property right. So if all rights are assigned, the person to whom the rights were
assigned becomes the new owner of copyright.
In some countries, an assignment of copyright is not legally possible, and only licensing
is allowed. Licensing means that the owner of the copyright retains ownership but
authorizes a third party to carry out certain acts covered by his economic rights,
generally for a specific period of time and for a specific purpose. For example, the author
of a novel may grant a license to a publisher to make and distribute copies of his work.
At the same time, he may grant a license to a film producer to make a film based on the
novel. Licenses may be exclusive, where the copyright owner agrees not to authorize
any other party to carry out the licensed acts; or non-exclusive, which means that the
copyright owner may authorize others to carry out the same acts. A license, unlike an
assignment, does not generally convey the right to authorize others to carry out acts
covered by economic rights.
Licensing may also take the form of collective administration of rights. Under
collective administration, authors and other rights owners grant exclusive licenses to a
single entity, which acts on their behalf to grant authorizations, to collect and distribute
remuneration, to prevent and detect infringement of rights, and to seek remedies for
infringement. An advantage for authors in collective administration lies in the fact that,
with multiple possibilities for unauthorized use of works resulting from new technologies,
a single body can ensure that mass uses take place on the basis of authorizations which
are easily obtainable from a central source.
A rights owner may also abandon the exercise of the rights, wholly or partially. The
owner may, for example, post copyright protected material on the Internet and leave it
free for anybody to use, or may restrict the abandonment to noncommercial use. Some
very impressive cooperation projects have been organized on a model where
contributors abandon certain rights as described in the licensing terms adopted for the
project, such as the General Public License (GPL). They thereby leave their
contributions free for others to use and to adapt, but with the condition that the
subsequent users also adhere to the terms of the license. Such projects, including the
open source movement, which specializes in creating computer programs, also build
their business models on the existence of copyright protection, because otherwise they
could
not
impose
an
obligation
on
subsequent
users.
Enforcement of Rights
The Berne Convention contains very few provisions concerning enforcement of rights,
but the evolution of new national and international enforcement standards has been
dramatic in recent years due to two principal factors. The first concerns advances in the
technological means for creation and use (both authorized and unauthorized) of
protected material. Digital technology in particular makes it easy to transmit and make
perfect copies of any information existing in digital form, including copyright-protected
works. The second factor is the increasing economic importance in the realm of
international trade of the movement of goods and services protected by intellectual
property rights. Simply put, trade in products embodying intellectual property rights is
now a booming, worldwide business. This is acknowledged in the WIPO Copyright
Treaty (WCT), which requires Contracting Parties to ensure that enforcement
procedures are available under their law so as to permit effective action against any
infringement of rights covered by the Treaty, including remedies to prevent or deter
further infringements.
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which
contains more detailed provisions on the enforcement of rights, is ample evidence of this
new link between intellectual property and trade. The following paragraphs identify and
summarize some of the enforcement provisions found in recent national legislation. They
may be divided into the following categories: conservatory or provisional measures; civil
remedies; criminal sanctions; measures to be taken at the border; and measures,
remedies and sanctions against abuses in respect of technical devices.
Conservatory or provisional measures have two purposes: first, to prevent
infringements from occurring, in particular to prevent the entry of infringing goods into
the channels of commerce, including entry of imported goods after clearance by
customs; and second, to preserve relevant evidence in regard to an alleged
infringement. Thus, judicial authorities may have the authority to order that provisional
measures be enacted without advance notice to the alleged infringer. In this way, the
alleged infringer is prevented from relocating the goods to avoid detection. The most
common provisional measure is a search of the premises of the alleged infringer and
seizure of suspected infringing goods, the equipment used to manufacture them, and all
relevant documents and other records of the alleged infringing business activities.
Civil remedies compensate the rights owner for economic injury suffered because of
the infringement, usually in the form of pecuniary damages, and create an effective
deterrent to further infringement. This is often in the form of a judicial order to destroy the
infringing goods and the materials which have been predominantly used for producing
them. If there is a danger that infringing acts may be continued, the court may also issue
injunctions against such acts, failure to comply with which would subject the infringer to
payment of a fine.
Criminal sanctions are intended to punish those who willfully commit acts of piracy on
a commercial scale and, as in the case of civil remedies, to deter further infringement.
The purpose of punishment is served by substantial fines, and by prison sentences
consistent with the level of penalties applied for crimes of corresponding seriousness,
particularly for repeat offenses. The purpose of deterrence is served by orders for the
seizure and destruction of infringing goods, and of the materials and equipment used
predominantly to commit the offense.
Measures to be taken at the border are different from the enforcement measures
described so far, in that they involve action by the customs authorities rather than by the
judicial authorities. Border measures allow the rights owner to request that customs
authorities suspend the release into circulation of goods that are suspected of infringing
copyright. This is intended to give the rights owner a reasonable time to commence
judicial proceedings against the suspected infringer, without the risk that the alleged
infringing goods will disappear into circulation after customs clearance. The rights owner
must (a) satisfy the customs authorities that there is prima facie evidence of
infringement, (b) provide a detailed description of the goods so that they can be
recognized and (c) provide a security to indemnify the importer, the owner of the goods,
and the customs authorities in case the goods turn out to be non-infringing.
The final category of enforcement provisions, which has achieved greater importance
since the advent of digital technology, includes measures, remedies and sanctions
against abuses in respect of technical means. In certain cases, the only practical
means of preventing copying is through so-called copy-protection or copy-management
systems. These use technical devices, which either entirely prevent copying, or make
the quality of the copies so poor as to be unusable. Technical means are also used to
prevent the reception of encrypted commercial television programs except with use of
decoders. However, it is technically possible to manufacture devices to circumvent such
copy-protection and encryption systems. The enforcement provisions are intended to
prevent the manufacture, importation and distribution of such devices. Provisions to this
effect are included in the WCT. So too are provisions to prevent the unauthorized
removal or alteration of electronic rights management information, and the dissemination
of copies of works from which such information has been removed. Such information
may identify the author or rights owner, or contain information about the terms and
conditions of use of the work. Removing it may result in the distortion of computerized
rights
management
or
fee-distribution
systems.
Related Rights
The purpose of related rights is to protect the legal interests of certain persons and legal
entities who contribute to making works available to the public; or who produce subject
matter which, while not qualifying as works under the copyright systems of all countries,
contain sufficient creativity or technical and organizational skill to justify recognition of a
copyright-like property right. The law of related rights deems that the productions which
result from the activities of such persons and entities merit legal protection in
themselves, as they are related to the protection of works of authorship under copyright.
Some laws make clear, however, that the exercise of related rights should leave intact,
and in no way affect, the protection of copyright.
Traditionally, related rights have been granted to three categories of beneficiaries:
performers,
broadcasting organizations.
The rights of performers are recognized because their creative intervention is necessary
to give life to, for example, motion pictures or musical, dramatic and choreographic
works; and because they have a justifiable interest in legal protection of their individual
interpretations. The rights of producers of phonograms are recognized because their
creative, financial and organizational resources are necessary to make sound recordings
available to the public in the form of commercial phonograms; and because of their
legitimate interest in having the legal resources to take action against unauthorized
uses, be this the making and distribution of unauthorized copies (piracy), or the
unauthorized broadcasting or communication to the public of their phonograms.
Likewise, the rights of broadcasting organizations are recognized because of their role in
making works available to the public, and in light of their justified interest in controlling
the transmission and retransmission of their broadcasts.
Treaties. The first organized international response to the need for legal protection of
the three categories of related rights beneficiaries was the conclusion, in 1961 of the
International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms
and Broadcasting Organizations (Rome Convention). Unlike most international
conventions, which follow in the wake of national legislation and are intended to
synthesize existing laws, the Rome Convention was an attempt to establish international
regulations in a new field where few national laws existed at the time. This meant that
most States had to draft and enact laws before adhering to the Convention
Today, it is a widespread view that the Rome Convention is out-of-date and in need of
revision or replacement by a new set of norms in the field of related rights, even though
it was the basis for inclusion of provisions on the rights of performers, producers of
phonograms, and broadcasting organizations in the TRIPS Agreement. (The levels of
protection are similar, but not the same). For two of the categories of beneficiaries, upto-date protection is now provided by the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty
(WPPT), which was adopted in 1996, together with the WCT. Work on a new, separate
treaty on the rights of broadcasters continues at WIPO.
The rights granted to the three beneficiaries of related rights in national laws are as
follows (although not all rights may be granted in the same law):
Broadcasting organizations are provided the rights to authorize or prohibit rebroadcasting, fixation and reproduction of their broadcasts.
Under some laws, additional rights are granted. For example, in a growing number of
countries, producers of phonograms and performers are granted a right of rental in
respect of phonograms (audiovisual works in respect of performers), and some countries
grant specific rights over cable transmissions. Likewise under the WPPT, producers of
phonograms (as well as any other right holders in phonograms under national law) are
granted a right of rental.
As in the case of copyright, the Rome Convention and national laws contain limitations
on rights. These allow use of protected performances, phonograms, and broadcasts, for
example, for teaching, scientific research, or private use, and use of short excerpts for
reporting current events. Some countries allow the same kinds of limitations on related
rights as their laws provide in connection with copyright, including the possibility of nonvoluntary licenses. Under the WPPT, however, such limitations and exceptions must be
restricted to certain special cases, which do not conflict with the normal use of the
performances of phonograms, and which do not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate
interests of the performers or producers.
The duration of protection of related rights under the Rome Convention is 20 years from
the end of the year (a) that the recording is made, in the case of phonograms and
performances included in phonograms; or (b) that the performance took place, in the
case of performances not incorporated in phonograms; or (c) that the broadcast took
place, for broadcasts. In the TRIPS Agreement and the WPPT, however, the rights of
performers and producers of phonograms are to be protected for 50 years from the date
of the fixation or the performance. Under the TRIPS agreement, the rights of
broadcasting organizations are to be protected for 20 years from the date of the
broadcast. Thus many national laws which protect related rights grant a longer term than
the minimum contained in the Rome Convention.
In terms of enforcement, remedies for infringement or violation of related rights are, in
general, similar to those available to copyright owners as described above, namely,
conservatory or provisional measures; civil remedies; criminal sanctions; measures to be
taken at the border; and measures, remedies and sanctions against abuses in respect of
technical devices and rights management information.
Finally, mention should be made of the relationship between the protection of related
rights and the interests of developing countries. The largely unwritten and unrecorded
cultural expression of many developing countries, generally known as folklore or
traditional cultural expressions, may be protected under related rights as
performances, since it is often through the intervention of performers that they are
communicated to the public. By providing related rights protection, developing countries
may also provide a means for protection of the vast, ancient and invaluable cultural
expression, which is the essence of what distinguishes each culture. Likewise, protecting
producers of phonograms and broadcasting organizations helps to establish the
foundation for national industries capable of disseminating national cultural expression
within the country and, perhaps more important, in markets outside it. The current
popularity of what is called world music demonstrates that such markets exist. But the
economic benefits from do not always return to the country where the cultural
expressions originated. In sum, protection of related rights serves the twin objectives of
preserving national culture and providing a means for commercial exploitation of
international markets.
The interest of developing countries in the protection of related rights goes beyond the
protection of traditional cultural expressions and into the realm of international trade and
development. Today, the extent to which a country protects intellectual property rights is
inextricably linked to the potential for that country to benefit from the rapidly expanding
international trade in goods and services protected by such rights. For example, the
convergence of telecommunications and computer infrastructures will lead to
international investment in many sectors of developing country economies, including
intellectual property, and those countries which lack political commitment to the
protection of intellectual property rights will be left out of the frame. Protection of related
rights has thus become part of a much larger picture. It is a necessary precondition for
participation in the emerging system of international trade and investment that will
characterize
the
21st
century.
WIPO also provides an Arbitration and Mediation Center, which offers services for the
resolution of international commercial disputes between private parties involving
intellectual property. The subject matter of these proceedings includes both contractual
disputes (such as patent and software licenses, trademark coexistence agreements, and
research and development agreements) and non-contractual disputes (such as patent
infringement).
The Center is also now recognized as the leading dispute resolution service provider for
disputes arising out of the abusive registration and use of Internet domain names.
Further information
Further information about all aspects of copyright and related rights is available on the
WIPO website and in a range of WIPO publications. Many of these publications may be
downloaded free of charge.
www.wipo.int - For the WIPO website
www.wipo.int/treaties - For full texts of all of the treaties regulating intellectual property
protection .
www.wipo.int/ebookshop - To buy publications from the WIPO electronic bookshop.
These include:
WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use, publication no.489.
Guide to the Copyright and Related Rights Treaties Administered by WIPO and
Glossary of Copyright and Related Rights Terms, publication no. 891
WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights, publication no.
897
From Artist to Audience: How creators and consumers benefit from copyright and
related rights and the system of collective management of copyright, publication
no 922