Garden Strawberry

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Strawberry

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other species of strawberry, see Fragaria. For other uses, see Strawberry (disambiguation).
Garden strawberry
Fragaria ananassa

Strawberry fruit

Strawberry fruit cross section

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Eudicots

(unranked):

Rosids

Order:

Rosales

Family:

Rosaceae

Subfamily:

Rosoideae

Genus:

Fragaria

Species:

F. ananassa
Binomial name

Fragaria ananassa
Duchesne

The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry; Fragaria ananassa)[1] is a widely grown hybrid
species of the genus Fragaria(collectively known as the strawberries). It is cultivated worldwide for
its fruit. The fruit (which is not a botanical berry, but an aggregateaccessory fruit) is widely
appreciated for its characteristic aroma, bright red color, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is consumed
in large quantities, either fresh or in such prepared foods as preserves, fruit juice, pies, ice
creams, milkshakes, and chocolates. Artificial strawberry flavorings and aromas are also widely used
in many products like lip gloss, candy, hand sanitizers, perfume, and many others.
The garden strawberry was first bred in Brittany, France, in the 1750s via a cross of Fragaria
virginiana from eastern North America andFragaria chiloensis, which was brought from Chile
by Amde-Franois Frzier in 1714.[2] Cultivars of Fragaria ananassa have replaced, in
commercial production, the woodland strawberry (Fragaria vesca), which was the first strawberry
species cultivated in the early 17th century.[3]
Technically, the strawberry is an aggregate accessory fruit, meaning that the fleshy part is derived
not from the plant's ovaries but from thereceptacle that holds the ovaries.[4] Each apparent "seed"
(achene) on the outside of the fruit is actually one of the ovaries of the flower, with a seed inside it. [4]
Contents
[hide]

1History

2Cultivation
o

2.1Manuring and harvesting

2.2Pests

2.3Diseases

2.4Production trends

2.5Domestic cultivation

3Uses
3.1Flavor and fragrance

4Nutrients
4.1Health effects

5Phytochemicals
o

5.1Color

5.2Fragrance

6Genetics

7Allergy

8See also

9References

10Further reading

11External links

History
Main article: Breeding of strawberries

Fragaria ananassa 'Gariguette,' a cultivar grown in southern France

Strawberries on display at Chelsea Flower Show, 2009

The first garden strawberry was grown in Brittany, France during the late 18th century.[3] Prior to this,
wild strawberries and cultivated selections from wild strawberry species were the common source of
the fruit.
The strawberry fruit was mentioned in ancient Roman literature in reference to its medicinal use. The
French began taking the strawberry from the forest to their gardens for harvest in the 14th
century. Charles V, France's king from 1364 to 1380, had 1,200 strawberry plants in his royal
garden. In the early 15th century western European monks were using the wild strawberry in their
illuminated manuscripts. The strawberry is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, and in English
miniatures.[citation needed] The entire strawberry plant was used to treat depressive illnesses.
By the 16th century references of cultivation of the strawberry became more common. People began
using it for its supposed medicinal properties and botanists began naming the different species. In
England the demand for regular strawberry farming had increased by the mid-16th century. The
combination of strawberries and cream was created by Thomas Wolsey in the court of King Henry
VIII.[5]Instructions for growing and harvesting strawberries showed up in writing in 1578. By the end of
the 16th century three European species had been cited: F. vesca, F. moschata, and F. viridis. The
garden strawberry was transplanted from the forests and then the plants would be
propagated asexually by cutting off the runners.
Two subspecies of F. vesca were identified: F. sylvestris alba and F. sylvestris semperflorens. The
introduction of F. virginiana from Eastern North America to Europe in the 17th century is an important
part of history because this species gave rise to the modern strawberry. The new species gradually
spread through the continent and did not become completely appreciated until the end of the 18th
century. When a French excursion journeyed to Chile in 1712, it introduced the strawberry plant with
female flowers that resulted in the common strawberry that we have today.
The Mapuche and Huilliche Indians of Chile cultivated the female strawberry species until 1551
when the Spanish came to conquer the land. In 1765, a European explorer recorded the cultivation
of F. chiloensis, the Chilean strawberry. At first introduction to Europe, the plants grew vigorously but
produced no fruit. It was discovered in 1766 that the female plants could only be pollinated by plants
that produced large fruit: F. moschata, F. virginiana, and F. ananassa. This is when the Europeans
became aware that plants had the ability to produce male-only or female-only flowers. As more
large-fruit producing plants were cultivated the Chilean strawberry slowly decreased in population in
Europe, except for around Brest where the Chilean strawberry thrived. The decline of the Chilean
strawberry was caused by F. ananassa.[6]

Cultivation

Strawberry Field in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

Strawberry cultivars vary widely in size, color, flavor, shape, degree of fertility, season of ripening,
liability to disease and constitution of plant.[7] On average, a strawberry has about 200 seeds on its
external membrane.[citation needed] Some vary in foliage, and some vary materially in the relative
development of their sexual organs. In most cases, the flowers appear hermaphroditic in structure,
but function as either male or female.[8] For purposes of commercial production, plants are
propagated from runners and, in general, distributed as either bare root plants or plugs. Cultivation
follows one of two general modelsannual plasticulture,[9] or a perennial system of matted rows or
mounds.[10] Greenhouses produce a small amount of strawberries during the off season. [11]

Fragaria ananassa in the UBC Botanical Garden.

A field using the plasticulture method

The bulk of modern commercial production uses the plasticulture system. In this method, raised
beds are formed each year, fumigated, and covered with plastic to prevent weed growth and erosion.
Plants, usually obtained from northern nurseries, are planted through holes punched in this covering,
and irrigation tubing is run underneath. Runners are removed from the plants as they appear, in
order to encourage the plants to put most of their energy into fruit development. At the end of the
harvest season, the plastic is removed and the plants are plowed into the ground. [9][12] Because
strawberry plants more than a year or two old begin to decline in productivity and fruit quality, this

system of replacing the plants each year allows for improved yields and denser plantings. [9]
[12]
However, because it requires a longer growing season to allow for establishment of the plants
each year, and because of the increased costs in terms of forming and covering the mounds and
purchasing plants each year, it is not always practical in all areas.[12]
The other major method, which uses the same plants from year to year growing in rows or on
mounds, is most common in colder climates.[9][10] It has lower investment costs, and lower overall
maintenance requirements.[10] Yields are typically lower than in plasticulture.[10]
Another method uses a compost sock. Plants grown in compost socks have been shown to produce
significantly higher oxygen radical absorbance capacity
(ORAC), flavonoids,anthocyanins, fructose, glucose, sucrose, malic acid, and citric acid than fruit
produced in the black plastic mulch or matted row systems.[13] Similar results in an earlier 2003 study
conducted by the US Dept of Agriculture, at the Agricultural Research Service, in Beltsville Maryland,
confirms how compost plays a role in the bioactive qualities of two strawberry cultivars.[14]

Strawberry growth (Video)

Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit. [7][15] Traditionally, this has consisted
of a division between June-bearing strawberries, which bear their fruit in the early summer and
ever-bearing strawberries, which often bear several crops of fruit throughout the season.
[15]
Research published in 2001 showed that strawberries actually occur in three basic flowering
habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These refer to the day-length sensitivity of the plant and
the type of photoperiod that induces flower formation. Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers
regardless of the photoperiod.[16]
Strawberries may also be propagated by seed, though this is primarily a hobby activity, and is not
widely practiced commercially. A few seed-propagated cultivars have been developed for home use,
and research into growing from seed commercially is ongoing.[17] Seeds (achenes) are acquired
either via commercial seed suppliers, or by collecting and saving them from the fruit.
Strawberries can also be grown indoors in strawberry pots.
Kashubian strawberry (Truskawka kaszubska or Kaszbsk malna)[18] are the first Polish fruit to be
given commercial protection under EU law. They are produced
in Kartuzy,Kocierzyna and Bytw counties and in the municipalities
of Przywidz, Wejherowo, Luzino, Szemud, Linia, czyce and Cewice in Kashubia. Only the
following varieties may be sold as kaszbsk malna: Senga Sengana, Elsanta, Honeoye that have
been graded as Extra or Class I.

Manuring and harvesting

A diorama created from beeswax by Dr. Henry Brainerd Wright at theLouisiana State Exhibit Museum inShreveport,
Louisiana depicts strawberry harvesting. Strawberries are particularly grown in the southeastern portion of the state
around Hammond.

Harvest

Most strawberry plants are now fed with artificial fertilizers, both before and after harvesting, and
often before planting in plasticulture.[19]
To maintain top quality, berries are harvested at least every other day. The berries are picked with
the caps still attached and with at least half an inch of stem left. Strawberries need to remain on the
plant to fully ripen because they do not continue to ripen after being picked. Rotted and overripe
berries are removed to minimize insect and disease problems. The berries do not get washed until
just before consumption. They are covered in a shallow pan and refrigerated when storing. [20]
Soil test information and plant analysis results are used to determine fertility practices. Nitrogen
fertilizer is needed at the beginning of every planting year. There are normally adequate levels of
phosphorus and potash when fields have been fertilized for top yields. In order to provide more
organic matter a cover crop of wheat or rye is planted in the winter the year before planting the
strawberries. Strawberries prefer a pH from 5.5 to 6.5 so lime is usually not applied. [21]
The harvesting and cleaning process has not changed substantially over time. The delicate
strawberries are still harvested by hand.[22]Grading and packing often occurs in the field, rather than
in a processing facility.[22] In large operations, strawberries are cleaned by means of water streams
and shaking conveyor belts.[23]

Pests
See also: List of Lepidoptera that feed on strawberry plants
Around 200 species of pests are known to attack strawberries both directly and indirectly.[24] These
pests include slugs, moths, fruit flies, chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry
sap beetles, strawberry crown moth, mites, aphids, and others.[24][25] The caterpillars of a number of
species of Lepidoptera feed on strawberry plants.

The strawberry aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii, is a bug species found in the United States
(Arizona), Argentina and Chile. It is a vector of the strawberry mild yellow-edge virus.

Diseases
See also: List of strawberry diseases
Strawberry plants can fall victim to a number of diseases.[26] The leaves may be infected by powdery
mildew, leaf spot (caused by the fungus Sphaerella fragariae), leaf blight(caused by the
fungus Phomopsis obscurans), and by a variety of slime molds.[26] The crown and roots may fall
victim to red stele, verticillium wilt, black root rot, andnematodes.[26] The fruits are subject to damage
from gray mold, rhizopus rot, and leather rot.[26] To prevent root-rotting, strawberries should be
planted every four to five years in a new bed, at a different site.[27]
The plants can also develop disease from temperature extremes during winter.[26] When watering
strawberries, advice has been given to water only the roots and not the leaves, as moisture on the
leaves encourages growth of fungus.[28]

Production trends
World strawberry production in tons[29]

Rank

Country

USA

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

1,090,436

1,109,215

1,148,350

1,270,640

1,294,180

1,312,960

Turkey

211,127

250,316

261,078

291,996

299,940

302,416

Spain

330,485

269,139

281,240

266,772

275,355

262,730

Egypt

128,349

174,414

200,254

242,776

238,432

240,284

Mexico

191,843

176,396

207,485

233,041

226,657

228,900

Russia

227,000

230,400

180,000

185,000

165,000

184,000

Japan

190,700

191,400

190,700

184,700

177,500

177,300

South Korea

205,307

203,227

192,296

203,772

231,803

171,519

World strawberry production in tons[29]

Rank

Country

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Poland

193,666

174,578

200,723

198,907

153,410

166,159

10

Germany

173,230

158,658

150,854

158,563

156,911

154,418

11

Italy

143,315

160,558

155,583

163,044

153,875

150,000

3,973,243

4,001,721

4,136,802

4,596,614

4,366,889

4,594,539

Total world

Strawberries for sale atMahabaleshwar

Although official numbers are not available, the strawberry production of China in market year
2011/12 is estimated to be 2,100,000 tons.[30]

Domestic cultivation

Garden strawberry flower

Picking home-grown garden strawberries

Strawberries are popular and rewarding plants to grow in the domestic environment, be it for
consumption or exhibition purposes, almost anywhere in the world. The best time to plant is in late
summer or spring. Plant in full sun or dappled shade, and in somewhat sandy soil. The addition of
manure and a balanced fertilizer aids strong growth. Alternatively they can be planted in pots or
special planters using compost. Fibre mats placed under each plant will protect fruits from touching
the ground, and will act as a weed barrier.
Strawberries are tough and will survive many conditions, but during fruit formation, moisture is vital,
especially if growing in containers. Moreover, protection must be provided against slugs and snails
which attack the ripe fruit. The fruit matures in midsummer and should be picked when fully ripe
that is, the fruit is a uniform bright red colour. The selection of different varieties can extend the
season in both directions.[31] Numerous cultivars have been selected for consumption and for
exhibition purposes. The following cultivars have gained theRoyal Horticultural Society's Award of
Garden Merit:

Cambridge Favourite[32]

Honeoye[34]

Rhapsody[36]

Hapil[33]

Pegasus[35]

Symphony[37]

Propagation is by runners, which can be pegged down to encourage them to take root, [38] or cut off
and placed in a new location. Established plants should be replaced every three years, or sooner if
there are signs of disease.
When propagating strawberries, one should avoid using the same soil or containers that were
previously used for strawberry cultivation. After cultivating strawberries, rotating to another culture is
advisable, because diseases that attack one species might not attack another.[39]

Uses

Strawberry charlotte (Charlotte aux fraises)

In addition to being consumed fresh, strawberries can be frozen, made into preserves,[40] as well as
dried and used in prepared foods, such as cereal bars.[41] Strawberries and strawberry flavorings are
a popular addition to dairy products, such as strawberry-flavored milk, strawberry ice
cream, strawberry milkshakes, strawberry smoothies and strawberry yogurts. Strawberries and
cream is a popular dessert during the British summer, famously consumed at the Wimbledon tennis
tournament.[5] In Sweden, strawberries are a traditional dessert served on Midsummer Eve.
Depending on area, strawberry pie, strawberry rhubarb pie, or strawberry shortcake are also
popular. In Greece, strawberries are usually sprinkled with sugar and then dipped in Metaxa, a
famousbrandy, and served as a dessert. In Italy, strawberries have been used for various desserts
and as a popular flavoring for gelato (gelato alla fragola).
Strawberry pigment extract can be used as a natural acid/base indicator due to the different color of
the conjugate acid and conjugate base of the pigment. [42]

Flavor and fragrance


As strawberry flavor and fragrance are popular characteristics for consumers,[43] they are used widely
in a variety of manufacturing, including foods, beverages, confections,perfumes and cosmetics.[44][45]
Sweetness, fragrance and complex flavor are favorable attributes.[46] In plant breeding and farming,
emphasis is placed on sugars, acids, and volatile compounds, which improve the taste and
fragrance of a ripe strawberry.[47] Esters, terpenes, and furans are chemical compounds having the
strongest relationships to strawberry flavor and fragrance, with a total of 31 volatile compounds
significantly correlated to favorable flavor and fragrance.[47]

Nutrients
Nutrition

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy

136 kJ (33 kcal)

Carbohydrates

7.68 g

Sugars

4.89 g

Dietary fiber

2g

Fat

0.3 g

Protein

0.67 g

Vitamins
Thiamine (B1)

(2%)
0.024 mg

Riboflavin (B2)

(2%)
0.022 mg

Niacin (B3)

(3%)
0.386 mg

Pantothenic acid (B5)

(3%)
0.125 mg

Vitamin B6

(4%)
0.047 mg

Folate (B9)

(6%)
24 g

Choline

(1%)
5.7 mg

Vitamin C

(71%)

58.8 mg
Vitamin E

(2%)
0.29 mg

Vitamin K

(2%)
2.2 g

Minerals
Calcium

(2%)
16 mg

Iron

(3%)
0.41 mg

Magnesium

(4%)
13 mg

Manganese

(18%)
0.386 mg

Phosphorus

(3%)
24 mg

Potassium

(3%)
153 mg

Sodium

(0%)
1 mg

Zinc

(1%)
0.14 mg

Other constituents
Water

90.95 g

Fluoride

4.4 g

Link to USDA Database entry

Units

g = micrograms mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated usingUS recommendations for


adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

One serving (100 g; see Table) of strawberries contains approximately 33 kilocalories, is an excellent
source of vitamin C, a good source of manganese, and provides several other vitamins and dietary
minerals in lesser amounts.[40][48][49]
Strawberries contain a modest amount of essential unsaturated fatty acids in the achene (seed) oil.[49]

Health effects
Few studies have directly examined the effects of eating strawberries on human health. However,
limited research indicates that strawberry consumption may be associated with a
decreased cardiovascular disease risk and that phytochemicals present in strawberries have antiinflammatory or anticancer properties in laboratory studies.[40][50] Epidemiological studies have
associated strawberry consumption with lower rates of hypertension, inflammation, cancer, and
death from cardiovascular diseases.[50] Certain studies have suggested that strawberry consumption
may have beneficial effects in humans such as lowering blood LDL cholesterollevels, total
cholesterol, reducing the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, and decreasing the spike in blood sugar after
high sugar meals and the spike in blood cholesterol seen after high-fat meals. [40][50]

Phytochemicals
Garden strawberries contain the dimeric ellagitannin agrimoniin which is an isomer of sanguiin H-6.[51]
[52]
Other polyphenols present include flavonoids, such
as anthocyanins, flavanols, flavonols and phenolic acids, such as hydroxybenzoic
acid and hydroxycinnamic acid.[49] Strawberries contain fisetin and possess higher levels of this
flavonoid than other fruits.[52][53] Although achenes comprise only about 1% of total fresh weight of a
strawberry, they contribute 11% of the fruit's total polyphenols, which, in achenes, includeellagic
acid, ellagic acid glycosides, and ellagitannins.[54]

Color

Pelargonidin-3-glucoside is the major anthocyanin in strawberries and cyanidin-3-glucoside is found


in smaller proportions. Although glucose seems to be the most common substituting sugar in
strawberry anthocyanins, rutinose, arabinose, and rhamnose conjugates have been found in some
strawberry cultivars.[49]
Purple minor pigments consisting of dimeric anthocyanins (flavanol-anthocyanin
adducts : catechin(48)pelargonidin 3-O--glucopyranoside, epicatechin(48)pelargonidin 3-O-glucopyranoside, afzelechin(48)pelargonidin 3-O-glucopyranoside andepiafzelechin(48)pelargonidin 3-O--glucopyranoside) can also be found in
strawberries.[55]

Fragrance
Chemicals present in the fragrance of strawberries include:

methyl acetate

(E)-2-hexen-1-ol

(E)-2-hexenal

(E)-2-pentenal

(E,E)-2,4-hexadienal

(Z)-2-hexenyl acetate

(Z)-3-hexenyl acetate

1-hexanol

2-heptanol

2-heptanone

2-methyl butanoic acid

2-methylbutyl acetate

alpha-terpineol

amyl acetate

amyl butyrate

benzaldehyde

benzyl acetate

butyl acetate

butyl butyrate

butyl hexanoate

butyric acid

octanoic acid

decyl acetate

decyl butyrate

d-limonene

ethyl 2-methylbutanoate

ethyl 3-methylbutanoate

ethyl acetate

ethyl benzoate

ethyl butyrate

ethyl decanoate

ethyl decanoate

ethyl hexanoate

ethyl octanoate

ethyl pentanoate

ethyl propanoate

ethyl-2-hexenoate

-farnesene

-farnesene

furaneol

-decalactone

-dodecalactone

heptanoic acid

n-hexanal

hexanoic acid

hexyl acetate

isoamyl acetate

isoamyl hexanoate

isopropyl acetate

isopropyl butanoate

isopropyl hexanoate

linalool

mesifurane

methyl butyrate

methyl hexanoate

methyl isovalerate

methyl octanoate

methyl pentanoate

methyl propanoate

(E)-nerolidol

nonanal

nonanoic acid

ocimenol

octyl acetate

octyl butyrate

octyl butyrate

octyl hexanoate

octyl isovalerate

propyl butyrate

propyl hexanoate[56]

Genetics
Strawberries have complex octaploid genetics (8 sets of chromosomes),[57] a trait
favoring DNA extractions. Strawberries have been sequenced to display 7,096 genes.[58]

Allergy
Some people experience an anaphylactoid reaction to eating strawberries.[59] The most common form
of this reaction is oral allergy syndrome, but symptoms may also mimic hay fever or
include dermatitis or hives, and, in severe cases, may cause breathing problems.
[60]
Proteomic studies indicate that the allergen may be tied to a protein for the red anthocyanin
biosynthesis expressed in strawberry ripening, named Fra a1 (Fragaria allergen1).
[61]
Homologous proteins are found in birch pollen and apple, suggesting that people may
develop cross-reactivity to all three species.
White-fruited strawberry cultivars, lacking Fra a1, may be an option for strawberry allergy sufferers.
Since they lack a protein necessary for normal ripening by anthocyanin synthesis of red pigments,
they do not turn the mature berries of other cultivars red. [61] They ripen but remain white, pale yellow
or golden, appearing like immature berries; this also has the advantage of making them less
attractive to birds. A virtually allergen-free cultivar named Sofar is available. [62][63]

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