Sandhya (2010)

LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392
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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Review
Modied atmosphere packaging of fresh produce: Current status and future needs
Sandhya*
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Punjab Agricultural University, Samrala, Ludhiana, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 5 January 2009
Received in revised form
22 April 2009
Accepted 18 May 2009
Fresh produce is more susceptible to disease organisms because of increase in the respiration rate after
harvesting. The respiration of fresh fruits and vegetables can be reduced by many preservation techniques. Modied atmosphere packaging (MAP) technology is largely used for minimally processed fruits
and vegetables including fresh, ready-to-use vegetables. Extensive research has been done in this
research area for many decades. Oxygen, CO2, and N2, are most often used in MAP. The recommended
percentage of O2 in a modied atmosphere for fruits and vegetables for both safety and quality falls
between 1 and 5%. Although other gases such as nitrous and nitric oxides, sulphur dioxide, ethylene,
chlorine, as well as ozone and propylene oxide have also been investigated, they have not been applied
commercially due to safety, regulatory, and cost considerations. Successful control of both product
respiration and ethylene production and perception by MAP can result in a fruit or vegetable product of
high organoleptic quality; however, control of these processes is dependent on temperature control.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
MAP
Fruits
Vegetables
Cut owers
Salads
Packaging
1. Introduction
The total production of fruits in the world is around 370 million
MT. India ranks rst in the world with an annual output of about 32
million MT which accounts for about 8% of worlds fruit production
(Anonymous, 2009). India is also the second largest producer of
vegetables in the world (ranks next to China) and accounts for
about 15% of the worlds production of vegetables. The current
production level is over 71 million MT and the total area under
vegetable cultivation is around 6.2 million hectares, which is about
3% of the total area under cultivation in the country. The diverse
agro climatic zones of the country make it possible to grow almost
all varieties of fruits and vegetables in India. Although India is the
largest producer of fruits in the world, the production per capital is
only about 100 g per day. However, it is estimated that more than
2022% of the total production of fruits is lost due to spoilage at
various post-harvest stages. Thus, the per capita availability of fruits
is further reduced to around 80 g per day, which is almost half the
requirement for a balance diet. Also it is estimated that around 20
25% of total vegetables are lost due to poor post-harvesting practices. Less than 2% of the total vegetables produced in the country
are commercially processed as compared to 70% in Brazil and 65%
in USA.
Fresh produce is more susceptible to disease organisms because
of increase in the respiration rate after harvesting. So, the shelf life
* Tel.: 91 9463354523.
E-mail address: sandhya7819@gmail.com
0023-6438/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2009.05.018
under ambient conditions is very limited. The respiration of fresh

fruits and vegetables can be reduced by many preservation techniques like low temperature, canning, dehydration, freeze-drying,
controlled atmosphere, and hypobaric and modied atmosphere.
Dehydration also controls the activity of microorganisms by the
removal of water under controlled conditions of temperature,
pressure and relative humidity. The controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP) is used for bulk storages. In this, the composition of
gases is maintained in the package, so it requires continuous
monitoring of gases. Freeze-drying is a very important technique in
which product volume remains the same as sublimation leads to
direct removal of ice. But it is 25 times more expensive and slow
operation as compared to other methods. Modied atmosphere
packaging technology is largely used for minimally processed fruits
and vegetables including fresh, ready-to-use vegetables. In this
paper, published research on modied atmosphere storage specifically on fresh fruits and vegetables is critically reviewed and
opportunities for future research are explored.
2. Modied atmosphere packaging (MAP)

Modied atmosphere packaging (MAP) is a technique used for
prolonging the shelf-life period of fresh or minimally processed
foods. In this preservation technique the air surrounding the food in
the package is changed to another composition. This way the initial
fresh state of the product may be prolonged. It is the shelf life of
perishable products like meat, sh, fruits and vegetables that will be
prolonged with MAP since it slows the natural deterioration of the
382
Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392
product. MAP is used with various types of products, where the

mixture of gases in the package depends on the type of product,
packaging materials and storage temperature. But fruits and vegetables are respiring products where the interaction of the packaging
material with the product is important. If the permeability (for O2
and CO2) of the packaging lm is adapted to the product respiration,
an equilibrium modied atmosphere will establish in the package
and the shelf-life of the product will increase.
Among fresh-cut produce equilibrium modied atmosphere
packaging (EMAP) is the most commonly used packaging technology. When packaging vegetables and fruits the gas atmosphere
of package is not air (O2 21%; CO2 0.01%; N2 78%) but consists
usually of a lowered level of O2 and a heightened level of CO2. This
kind of package slows down the normal respiration of the product
and so prolongs the shelf life of the product.
There are many factors which effect modied atmosphere
packaging of fresh produce. Movement of O2, CO2, and C2H4 in
produce tissues is carried out by the diffusion of the gas molecules
under a concentration gradient. Different commodities have
different amounts of internal air space (potatoes 12%, tomatoes
1520%, apples 2530%). A limited amount of air space leads to
increase in resistance to gas diffusion. The evaluation of these gases
(O2, CO2 and C2H4) by three varieties of apricots stored at 10 C
under four plastic lms of different permeabilities has been studied
(Pretel, Souty, & Romojaro, 2000). Respiration rate of mushroom
under air has been studied with apparent activation energy of
43.4 kJ/mol between 10 and 20 C (Varoquaux, Gouble, Barron, &
Yildiz, 1999). One of the primary effects of MAP is a lower rate of
respiration, which reduces the rate of substrate depletion. Ethylene
(C2H4) is a natural plant hormone and plays a central role in the
initiation of ripening, and is physiologically active in trace amounts
(0.1 ppm). C2H4 production is reduced by about half at O2 levels of
around 2.5%. This low O2 retards produce ripening by inhibiting
both the production and action of C2H4. Modied atmosphere
packaging of kohlrabi stem also showed improvement in quality
(Escalona, Verlinden, Geysen, & Nicolai, 2006).
Also metabolic processes such as respiration and ripening rates
are sensitive to temperature. Biological reactions generally increase
two to three-fold for every 10 C rise in temperature. Therefore
temperature control is vitally important in order for a MAP system
to work effectively. Film permeability also increases as temperature
increases, with CO2 permeability responding more than O2
permeability. Low RH can increase transpiration damage and lead
to desiccation, increased respiration, and ultimately an unmarketable product. One serious problem associated with high in-package
humidity is condensation on the lm that is driven by temperature
uctuations. A mathematical model was developed for estimating
the changes in the atmosphere and humidity within perforated
packages of fresh produce (Lee, Kang, & Renault, 2000). The model
was based on the mass balances of O2, CO2, N2 and H2O vapours in
the package. Also a procedure to maintain desired levels of O2 and
CO2 inside packages that are exposed to different surrounding
temperatures was designed and tested (Silva, Chau, Brecht, & Sargent, 1999). For most commodities light is not an important inuence in their post-harvest handling. However green vegetables, in
the presence of sufcient light, could consume substantial amounts
of CO2 and produce O2 through photosynthesis. Shock and vibration leads to damage to produce cells which causes an increase in
respiration and may lead to enzymes being released that will cause
browning reactions to begin.
food product being packed. Used singly or in combination, these

gases are commonly used to balance safe shelf-life extension with
optimal organoleptic properties of the food. Noble or inert gases
such as argon are in commercial use for products such as coffee and
snack products; however, the literature on their application and
benets is limited. Experimental use of carbon monoxide (CO) and
sulphur dioxide (SO2) has also been reported.
2.1.1. Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a colourless gas with a slight pungent odour at
very high concentrations. It is an asphyxiant and slightly corrosive
in the presence of moisture. CO2 dissolves readily in water (1.57 g/
kg at 100 kPa, 20 C) to produce carbonic acid (H2CO3) that
increases the acidity of the solution and reduces the pH. This has
signicant implications for MAP of foods. The high solubility of CO2
can result in pack collapse due to the reduction of headspace
volume. In some MAP applications, pack collapse is favoured, for
example in ow wrapped cheese for retail sale.
2.1.2. Oxygen
Oxygen is a colourless, odourless gas that is highly reactive and
supports combustion. It has a low solubility in water (0.040 g/kg at
100 kPa, 20 C). Oxygen promotes several types of deteriorative
reactions in foods including fat oxidation, browning reactions and
pigment oxidation. Most of the common spoilage bacteria and fungi
require oxygen for growth. Therefore, to increase shelf life of foods
the pack atmosphere should contain a low concentration of
residual oxygen.
2.1.3. Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a relatively un-reactive gas with no odour, taste, or
color. It has a lower density than air, non-ammable and has a low
solubility in water (0.018 g/kg at 100 kPa, 20 C) and other food
constituents. Nitrogen does not support the growth of aerobic
microbes and therefore inhibits the growth aerobic spoilage but
does not prevent the growth of anaerobic bacteria. The low solubility of nitrogen in foods can be used to prevent pack collapse by
including sufcient N2 in the gas mix to balance the volume
decrease due to CO2 going into solution.
2.1.4. Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas
that is highly reactive and very ammable. It has a low solubility in
water but is relatively soluble in some organic solvents. CO has
been studied in the MAP of meat and has been licensed for use in
the USA to prevent browning in packed lettuce. Commercial
application has been limited because of its toxicity and the
formation of potentially explosive mixtures with air.
2.1.5. Noble gases
The noble gases are a family of elements characterized by their
lack of reactivity and include helium (He), argon (Ar), xenon (Xe)
and neon (Ne). These gases are being used in a number of food
applications now e.g. potato-based snack products. While from
a scientic perspective, it is difcult to see how the use of noble
gases would offer any preservation advantages compared with N2
they are being used. Table 1 shows some recommended gas
mixtures for extending the shelf life of a variety of products.
3. MAP applications
2.1. Gases used in modied atmosphere packaging
3.1. Vegetables
The three main gases used in modied atmosphere packaging

are CO2, O2 and N2. The choice of gas is very dependent upon the
An important fact when dealing with vegetables (and all other

produce) is that they are still living structures and continue to

Table 1
Recommended gas mixtures for MAP.
Product
O2 (%)
CO2 (%)
N2 (%)
Fruits
Apple
Apricot
Avocado
Banana
Grape
Grapefruit
Kiwifruit
Lemon
Mango
Orange
Papaya
Peach
Pear
Pineapple
Strawberry
12
23
25
25
25
310
12
510
37
510
25
12
23
25
510
13
23
310
25
13
510
35
010
58
05
58
35
01
510
1520
9598
9496
8595
9096
9297
8092
9396
8095
8592
8595
8793
9396
9698
8593
7080
Vegetables
Artichoke
Beans, snap
Broccoli
Brussels sprouts
Cabbage
Carrot
Cauliower
Chili peppers
Corn, sweet
Cucumber
Lettuce (leaf)
Mushrooms
Spinach
Tomatoes
Onion
23
23
12
12
23
5
25
3
24
35
13
321
Air
35
12
23
510
510
57
36
34
25
5
1020
0
0
515
1020
0
0
9496
8793
8894
9194
8195
9195
9096
92
7688
9597
9799
6592
9597
9899
Source: Day (1993), Exama, Arul, Lencki, Lee, and Toupin (1993), Moleyar and
Narasimham (1994), Powrie and Skura (1991), and Smith and Ramaswamy (1996).
respire as long as there are nutrients and gases available. Respiration and transpiration continue after harvest and since the produce
is detached from its source of water, photosynthates and minerals,
it is entirely dependent on its own food reserves and moisture
content. Water loss is loss of saleable weight and thus a direct loss
to the grower or processor. A loss in weight of only 5% will cause
many vegetables to appear wilted or shriveled, and under warm,
dry conditions without the correct packaging this can happen in
a few hours. The relative humidity (RH) within a pack is inuenced
by the rate at which the product loses water vapour and by the
water vapour transmission rate (WVTR) of the packaging lm.
Packaging lms can achieve signicant increase in shelf life by
reducing the loss of the vegetables stored energy reserves through
lowering the respiration rate. This can be achieved by designing
a pack giving optimum O2 and CO2 concentrations, as well as
manipulating the WVTR of the lm. Work has already been
reported on packaging of vegetable crops using high water vapour
permeable lms (Aharoni et al., 2007).
Successful applications include broccoli orets, cauliower
orets, carrots, baby carrots, peeled garlic (Lee et al., 2000). The
effect of lm wrapping was studied on the quality of cauliowers
(Artes & Martinez, 1999) and broccoli (Artes, Vallejo, & Martinez,
2001). LDPE was found as good alternative to PVC for wrapping
these vegetables. Broccoli heads were also packaged using three
types of PP lms: macro perforated (Ma-P), micro perforated (Mi-P)
and non-perforated (No-P) and were stored at 1 C for 28 days to
study the effect of MAP on the maintenance of quality and functional properties by comparison with non-wrapped heads (Serrano,
Martinez-Romero, Guillen, Castillo, & Valero, 2006). Also a review
was conducted to study the inuence of post-harvest treatments on
quality and glucosinolate content in broccoli heads (Jones, Faragher,
383
& Winkler, 2006). This review looks at the effects of temperature,

RH, storage under CA or MAP and processing on glucosinolate
content in broccoli heads. The most important post-harvest
conditions necessary for maintaining broccoli quality are low
temperature (<4 C) and high RH. Qualitative changes in the
broccoli (Brassica oleracea italica) under modied atmosphere
packaging in perforated polymeric lm had also been studied (Rai,
Tyagi, Jha, & Mohan, 2008). It has been found that perforated PP
lm packages (2 holes, each of 0.3 min diameter) and having a lm
area of 0.1 m2 could be used to store broccoli for 4 days under MAP
with maintenance of chlorophyll and ascorbic acid. Comparative
evaluation of the effect of storage temperature uctuation on
modied atmosphere packages of selected fruits and vegetables
like mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus cv. U3 Sylvan 381), broccoli
(Brassica oleracea L. cv. Acadi) and mature-green tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum cv. Trust) had also been done by Tano, Oule,
Doyon, Lencki, and Arul (2007). The quality of the products stored
under the temperature uctuating regime was severely affected as
indicated by extensive browning, loss of rmness, weight loss
increase, the level of ethanol in the plant tissue, and infection due
to physiological damage and excessive condensation, compared to
products stored at constant temperature. It was clear that
temperature uctuation, even if it should occur only once, can
seriously compromise the benets of modied atmosphere packaging and safety of the packaged produce.
The effect of storage conditions and physical tissue damage on
membrane peroxidation in minimally processed cucumber tissue
was investigated (Karakas & Yildiz, 2007). Tissue hardness of MAP
sealed samples increased for the rst 3 days for all tissues but
chilled tissues started to soften on the sixth day. Cucumbers
packaged in perforated 31.75 mm LDPE bags were found to have less
severe chilling injury than non-wrapped fruit in storage at 5 C and
9095% RH (Wang & Qi, 1997). The inuence of MAP on the sensory
characteristics and shelf life of shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula
edodes) was also studied using LDPE, PP and macro perforated lm
(Ares, Parentelli, Gambaro, Lareo, & Lema, 2006). Sensory characteristics of mushrooms were determined by descriptive analysis,
and a consumer study was performed during storage. The quality of
another variety of mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) was also
compared during cold storage under various temperatures and
modied atmospheres with and without moisture absorbers (Villaescusa & Gil, 2003). MAP (15 kPa O2 5 kPa CO2) was found
benecial for maintaining acceptable quality of Pleurotus for 7 days
at 4 C. The inuence of modied atmosphere packaging on the
microbiological and sensory quality of shiitake mushrooms (L.
edodes) was also studied (Parentelli et al., 2007). Sensory analysis
showed that mushrooms stored under modied atmosphere
(active and passive) had a higher deterioration rate than those
stored in PP macro perforated lms, and lower sensory quality
values during the entire storage time. These results suggest that
mushroom deterioration was probably due to shiitake mushrooms
sensitivity to high CO2 concentrations. Mushrooms have been
packed under micro porous and hydrophilic lms and stored at
10 C and 20 C under high relative humidity (>92%) to study the
unique gas barrier properties of hydrophilic lms (wheat glutenbased material and synthetic polymer). Unique steady state atmospheres, poor in both oxygen and carbon dioxide, were observed,
regardless of the temperature and the hydrophilic lm used, owing
to their high selectivity to gas diffusion (Barron, Varoquaux, Guilbert, Gontard, & Gouble, 2002).
The effect of super-atmospheric O2 and MAP on plant
metabolism, organoleptic quality and microbial growth of minimally processed baby spinach was also studied (Allende, Luo,
McEvoy, Artes, & Wang, 2004). Packaging lm O2 transmission
rate and initial levels of super-atmospheric O2 in the packages
384
signicantly affected the changes of in-package atmospheres

during storage and consequently quality of baby spinach leaves.
Microbial proliferation and sensory quality aspects of sliced
onions were tested at different temperatures (2, 4 and 10 C)
and atmospheric conditions (with or without 40% CO2 59%
N2 1% O2) by Liu and Li (2006). The microbial shelf lives of the
tested onions in 40% CO2 59% N2 1% O2, or at 2, 4 and 10 C,
were 12.5, 9.5, 7, 12, 9 and 6 days, respectively, and their sensory
shelf lives were 12, 8, 5, 10.5, 7 and 5 days, respectively. Work on
other vegetables has also been reported like sweet corn (Rodov
et al., 2000) and snow pea pods (Pariasca, Miyazaki, Hisaka,
Nakagawa, & Sato, 2001). Studies were also carried out on
modied atmosphere packaging of shelled peas for variety Pb-87.
The shelf life of shelled peas packed in low-density polyethylene
bags (25 mm thickness) was 45, 17, 7 and 4 days when stored at
the temperatures of 11, 5, 15 C and room temperature
respectively, considering the quality indices like total soluble
solids, total water soluble sugars, protein, physiological weight
loss and decay (Sandhya & Singh, 2004a). The shelf life of shelled
peas packaged in high-density polyethylene was found as 4, 7, 17
and 45 days when stored at the temperatures of ambient, 15, 5
and 11 C, respectively (Sandhya & Singh, 2004b). The inuence
of different storage conditions on the storability of packaged
shredded cabbage had also been studied (Plestenjak, Pozrl, Hribar, Unuk, & Vidrih, 2008). A higher variation in CO2 and O2
concentrations, and consequent accumulation of anaerobic
metabolites had a negative inuence on the sensorial properties
of the cut cabbage.
3.2. Fruit
One of the major benets of modied atmosphere packaging
(MAP) is the prevention or retardation of fruit senescence
(ripening) and associated biochemical and physiological changes.
Temperature is the most effective environmental factor in the
prevention of fruit ripening. Both ripening and C2H4 production
rates increase with an increase in temperature. To delay fruit
ripening, fruits should be held as close to 0 C as possible, without
suffering chilling injury. The use of MAP as a supplement to proper
temperature maintenance in the effort to delay ripening is consequentially more effective for chilling sensitive fruits, but is generally benecial for all fruits. Reducing O2 concentration below 8%
and/or elevating CO2 concentration above 1% retards fruit ripening.
It has been established that 2% O2 level anaerobic respiration may
result in the development of off-avours and off-odours. Fruits
exposed to such low O2 levels may also loose their ability to attain
uniform ripeness upon removal from MAP.
Successful applications of MAP on fruits include Royal Gala
apples, Granny Smith apples, lemons (whole, peeled, and sliced),
and oranges (whole, peeled, and sliced). The effectiveness of
modied atmospheres and packaging materials on the growth of
Penicillium expansum and patulin production in Granny Smith
apples was determined (Moodley, Govinden, & Odhav, 2002). It
showed conclusively that PE is an excellent packaging material for
the storage of apples since it inhibited the growth of P. expansum,
thereby allowing patulin to be produced, regardless of gaseous
environment. A lot of work has also been reported on the effect of
MAP on the other fruits. Fresh-cut Conference pears were packaged
under different modied atmosphere packaging conditions, stored
in refrigeration and the effects of packaging atmospheres on the
microbial viability as well as on quality parameter were studied
(Soliva-Fortuny & Martin-Belloso, 2003). The use of plastic bags of
a permeability of 15 cm3 O2/m2/bar/24 h and initial atmospheres of
0 kPa O2 extended the microbiological shelf life of pear cubes for at
least 3 weeks of storage. The changes in sensory quality and
proliferation of spoilage microorganisms on lightly processed and

packaged cactus pear fruit were also measured as a function of
storage temperature and MAP (Corbo et al., 2004). It was found that
cactus pear fruit had longer shelf life at 4 C. Also the three different
varieties of pear (Williams, Conference, Passacrassana) that had
reached their commercial ripening stage were evaluated for suitability for minimal processing (Arias, Gonzalez, Lopez-Buesa, &
Oria, 2008). Conference pear was found to be the most suitable
variety. An integrated strategy was developed to control postharvest decay of Embul banana by combining essential oils with
MAP (Ranasinghe, Jayawardena, & Abeywickrama, 2005). Treatment with emulsions of cinnamon oils combined with MA packaging can be recommended as a safe, cost-effective method for
extending the storage life of Embul bananas up to 21 days in a cold
room and 14 days at 28 2 C without affecting the organoleptic
and physico-chemical properties. The effect of MAP on chillinginduced peel browning in banana was also studied (Nguyen, Ketsa,
& van Doorn, 2004).
The combined inuence of mid heat pre-treatments (MHPT) and
two types of MAP conditions on metabolic response of fresh-cut
peaches was studied during 8 day long storage under refrigeration
(Steiner et al., 2006). The quality of Royal Glory peaches was also
evaluated using a combination of hot water treatment and MAP
(Malakou & Nanos, 2005). Hot water treatment did not cause any
fruit damage but reduced rmness loss. The effects of MAP in nonretractile plastic lm and storage in air on ethylene production,
respiratory activity, development of chilling symptoms, water loss,
ion leakage and accumulation of ethanol and acetaldehyde in wildtype and ethylene-suppressed melons were compared during
storage at 2 C (Flores et al., 2004). Fresh-cut Amarillo melon was
stored under passive MAP for 14 days at 5 C using three
commercial lms (MPP, PP and OPP) and the quality was evaluated
(Aguayo, Allende, & Artes, 2003). The changes of headspace gas
concentrations to describe the respiration of fresh-cut melon under
low or super-atmospheric oxygen atmospheres had also been
studied (Oms-Oliu, Soliva-Fortuny, & Martin-Belloso, 2008). A
mathematical procedure was also tested to make changes of inpackage O2 and CO2 concentrations throughout storage, in order to
predict the respiratory activity of the commodity. The storage
behaviour of minimally processed pumpkin under MAP conditions
was studied by Baskaran, Prasad, Shivaiah, and Habibunnisa (2001).
It was observed that minimally processed pumpkin, which has
a high respiratory rate at room temperature (155.7 mg CO2/kg/h),
could be stored for a period of 25 days under MAP conditions. The
modied atmosphere package combined with ozone and edible
coating lms were used for improving the effect of preservation of
strawberry (Zhang, Xiao, Peng, & Salokhe, 2005). The optimum gas
composition of MAP test for strawberry was 2.5% O2 16% CO2. Also
the integrated model approach was used to study the effect of MA
conditions on the keeping quality of Elsanta strawberries as
limited by spoilage (Hertog, Boerrigter, van den Boogaard, Tijskens,
& van Schaik, 1999). Headspace ngerprint mass spectrometry had
been used to characterize strawberry aroma at super-atmospheric
oxygen conditions (Berna et al., 2007). Ethyl acetate is one of the
most important off-avours in strawberries. The results showed
that after 4 and 7 days of storage under super-atmospheric oxygen
concentrations (without carbon dioxide) the production of ethyl
acetate was suppressed.
Also storage of table grapes in 80% O2 or 40% O2 30% CO2
improved berry hardness, springiness, chewiness, avours and
membrane integrity over control stored in air (Deng, Wu, & Li,
2005). It was observed that the quality of SO2-free Superior seedless table grapes was preserved in MAP (Artes-Hernandez, TomasBarberan, & Artes, 2006). The improvement of the overall quality of
table grapes stored under modied atmosphere packaging in
combination with natural antimicrobial compounds had also been

studied (Guillen et al., 2007). The effects of modied atmosphere
packaging (MAP) on the storage life of loquat fruit were investigated by Ding, Chachin, Ueda, Imahori, and Wang (2002) and Ding
et al. (2006). Hass avocado fruit showed potential for long-term
storage (up to 9 weeks) under MA in a commercial size package
(Meir et al., 1997). The inuence of MAP and post-harvest treatments on quality retention of litchi was studied (Sivakumar &
Korsten, 2006). The emission of the metabolites, acetaldehyde and
ethanol from litchi fruit has also been monitored during maturation
and storage (Pesis et al., 2002). The effects of an antioxidant dipping
treatment (in an aqueous solution of 1% ascorbic acid and 1% citric
acid for 3 min) and of modied atmosphere (90% N2O, 5% O2 and 5%
CO2) packaging on functional properties of minimally processed
apples have been investigated by Cocci, Rocculi, Romani, and Rosa
(2006). Storage of mango fruits at 12 C caused slight chilling injury
symptoms on the fruit peel expressed as red spots around the
lenticels (Pesis et al., 2000). An integrated approach was studied for
control of post-harvest brown rot of sweet cherry fruit (Spotts,
Cervantes, & Facteau, 2002). System components included a preharvest application of propiconazole, a post-harvest application of
a wettable dispersible granular formulation of yeast, storage in MA
at 2.8 C for 20 days or 0.5 C for 42 days. The post-harvest quality
of papaya was enhanced signicantly by combining methyl jasmonate (MJ)-treatments and MAP (Gonzalez-Aguilar, Buta, & Wang,
2003). Use of MJ at 105 M with MAP is benecial to maintaining
post-harvest quality of papaya during low-temperature storage and
shelf-life period. Post-harvest water dipping of ber (Ziziphus
mauritiana Lamk) at 50 C for 5 min signicantly increased the shelf
life and maintained the quality of ber fruits, particularly late in the
storage period (Lal, Fageria, Gupta, Dhaka, & Khandelwal, 2002).
Fruits packed in sealed polythene bags signicantly lowered the
loss in fruit weight, spoilage and ripening with consequent increase
in acidity and organoleptic score.
3.3. Prepared salads

Consumer demand for freshness and convenience has led to the
evolution and increased production of several kinds of minimally
processed vegetables. Mixed prepared vegetables deteriorate
rapidly in quality and have short shelf lives. Prepared salads have
the difculty of having several different components all with
widely varying requirements and respiration rates. The key
requirements in the minimal processing of salads are good quality
raw materials (cultivation, harvesting, storage), strict hygiene and
good manufacturing practices (HACCP), low temperatures during
processing, careful cleaning and/or washing before and after
peeling, good quality processing water (sensory, microbial, pH), use
of mild additives in washing water for disinfection and the
prevention of browning, gentle spin drying following washing,
gentle cutting, slicing, peeling and/or shredding, correct packaging
materials and packaging methods, correct temperature and
humidity during distribution and retailing.
Successful applications include broccoli slaw, coleslaw, dry slaw,
stir fry mix, casserole mix, chop suey mix and mixed leaf salad. A
modied atmosphere package has been designed for a mixed
vegetable salad consisting of 75 g cut carrot, 55 g of cut cucumber,
20 g of sliced garlic and 50 g of whole green pepper (K.S. Lee, Park,
& Lee, 1996). Respiration data of all the components were combined
with lm permeability data to predict package atmospheres and
design optimal packages for experimental testing for improved
shelf life of the produce. A MA package of 2.02.1% O2 and 5.55.7%
CO2 was found benecial for all the components and provided
better quality retention.
385
3.4. Cut owers

Ethylene induced abscission is most often a problem in ornamental plants, where low concentration can cause complete loss of
owers or leaves. While useful in inducing owering in bulbs and
other prop gules, ethylene can damage these prop gules after
owers have started to develop or are fully developed.
Ethylene pollution during marketing of tulip bulbs for example,
results in failure of the owers to develop, a condition called
blasting. Low concentrations of O2 and high concentrations of
CO2 in the storage atmosphere reduce the rates of respiration as
well as ethylene production. Previous research has demonstrated
that storage of dry-sale Asiatic hybrid lily bulbs in a 1% O2 atmosphere can improve quality and shelf life (2224 C) of certain
cultivars compared with storage in air, indicating a possible application for MAP (Legnani, Watkins, & Miller, 2004). The success of
a MAP system could be dependent on the tolerance of lily bulbs to
the elevated CO2 levels that would occur within the MAP. The
effects of warm (22 C) bulb storage with elevated CO2 atmospheres
(4%, 8% or 16%) in combination with 1% O2 or air on growth and
development of three cultivars of Asiatic hybrid lily bulbs have been
investigated by Legnani, Watkins, and Miller (2006). It was found
that elevated CO2 in combination with 1% O2 had no effect on short
elongation prior to transplanting. Also it did not affect bulb respiration rate but it did increase ethylene production.
Water loss along with ethylene action is one of the major factors
that limit the marketable life of cut owers. Water loss can cause
undesirable changes in appearance such as wilting and shriveling,
softening of tissues, weight loss and changes in color. It also induces
water stress, which accelerates senescence and abscission.
Successful applications include Siam Tulips, Delphinium, Hellebores, Viburnum, Peonies and Hydrangea.
4. Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables
Fresh-cut fruit products for both retail and food service applications have increasingly appeared in the market place recently. In
the coming years, it is commonly perceived that the fresh-cut fruit
industry will have unprecedented growth. For this reason, many
leading fresh-cut salad manufacturers have targeted development
of fresh-cut fruit products as part of their long-term business plans.
Fresh-cut vegetables for cooking are the largest segment of the
fresh-cut produce industry. Fresh-cut salads are another major
category, as consumers perceive them as being healthy. Fresh-cut
fruit is growing very fast and makes up about 11 and 5% of total
sales in Japan and Korea, respectively. However, processors of freshcut fruit products will face numerous challenges not commonly
encountered during fresh-cut vegetable processing. The difculties
encountered with fresh-cut fruit, while not insurmountable,
require a new and higher level of technical and operational
sophistication. Post-harvest quality loss is primarily a function of
respiration, onset or progression of ripening (climacteric fruit),
water loss (transpiration), enzymatic discoloration of cut surfaces,
decay (microbial), senescence and mechanical damage suffered
during preparation, shipping, handling and processing (Schlimme
& Rooney, 1994; Watada, Ko, & Minott, 1996). The quality changes of
treated fresh-cut tropical fruits packaged in thermoformed plastic
containers had been tested and evaluated (Singh, Chonhenchob,
Chantarasomboon, & Singh, 2007). Extended shelf life was
observed in fresh-cut mangoes, pineapples, and mixes packaged in
PET due to reduced O2 and elevated CO2 atmosphere. Modied
atmosphere of 6% O2 and 14% CO2 achieved in PET extended the
shelf life of fresh-cut pineapples from 6 to 13 days. The results
suggest that shelf life of fresh-cut fruit could be extended using
appropriate semi-rigid containers.
386
Fresh-cut processing increases respiration rates and causes

major tissue disruption as enzymes and substrates, normally
sequestered within the vacuole, become mixed with other cytoplasmic and nucleic substrates and enzymes. Processing also
increases wound-induced C2H4, water activity and surface area per
unit volume, which, may accelerate water loss and enhance
microbial growth since sugars also become readily available
(Watada, Abe, & Yamauchi, 1990; Watada & Qi, 1999; Wiley, 1994).
These physiological changes may be accompanied by avor loss, cut
surface discoloration, color loss, decay, increased rate of vitamin
loss, rapid softening, shrinkage and a shorter storage life. Increased
water activity and mixing of intracellular and intercellular enzymes
and substrates may also contribute to avor and texture changes/
loss during and after processing. Therefore, proper temperature
management during product preparation and refrigeration
throughout distribution and marketing is essential for maintenance
of quality.
The effect of modied atmospheres on the quality of many
fresh-cut products has been studied. Successful applications
include mushroom (Simon, Gonzalez-Fandos, & Tobar, 2005),
apples (Soliva-Fortuny, Ricart-Coll, & Martin-Belloso, 2005), tomato
(Aguayo, Escalona, & Artes, 2004; Artes, Conesa, Hernandez, & Gil,
1999; Gil, Conesa, & Artes, 2002), pineapple (Marrero & Kader,
2006), butterhead lettuce (Escalona et al., 2006), potato (Beltran,
Selma, Tudela, & Gil, 2005; Tudela, Espin, & Gil, 2002), kiwifruit
(Rocculi, Romani, & Rosa, 2005), salad savoy (Kim, Luo, & Gross,
2004), honeydew (Bai, Saftner, & Watada, 2003), mangoes (Beaulieu & Lea, 2003), carrot (Barry-Ryan & OBeirne, 2000; Kakiomenou, Tassou, & Nychas, 1996). Nitrogen (N2) gas packaging for freshcut vegetables (lettuce and cabbage) has been examined as a means
of modied atmosphere packaging (MAP) for extending the shelf
life of cut vegetables (Koseki & Itoh, 2002). Degradation of cut
vegetables in terms of appearance was delayed by N2 gas packaging. Because of this effect, the appearance of fresh-cut vegetables
packaged with N2 gas remained acceptable at temperatures below
5 C after 5 days. Fresh-cut cantaloupe cubes were placed in lmsealed containers in which the internal gas mixture was attained
naturally (nMAP), was ushed with 4 kPa O2 10 kPa CO2 (fMAP),
or was maintained near atmospheric levels by perforating the lm
(PFP). While both nMAP and fMAP maintained the saleable quality
of melon cubes at 5 C, fMAP maintained quality better than nMAP
(Bai, Saftner, Watada, & Lee, 2001). Also quality of fresh-cut tomato
slices was compared during cold storage under various modied
atmosphere-packaging conditions (Hong & Gross, 2001). Modied
atmosphere packaging provided good quality tomato slices with
a shelf life of 2 weeks or more at 5 C.
contamination. The properties of some of the packaging lms are

given in Table 2.
The degree to which atmospheric modication takes place in
packages is dependent upon several variables such as lm permeability to O2 and CO2, product respiration and the inuence of
temperature on both of these processes (Beaudry, 1999; Beaudry,
Cameron, Shirazi, & Dostal-Lange, 1992; Cameron, Beaudry, Banks,
& Yelanich, 1994). Temperature abuse during transportation,
storage and marketing of fresh products is a primary concern in the
fresh produce industry, because poor temperature control can lead
to the deterioration of a packaged product due to increase in
product metabolism and growth of food spoilage organisms.
Consequently, O2 levels decline and CO2 levels increase as
temperature increases (Beaudry et al., 1992; Cameron et al., 1994).
Thus, when there is an increase in temperature, the resultant
increase in lm permeability cannot keep pace with the increase in
the demand for O2 by the product, leading to the observed decline
in O2 as temperature increases. In perforated packages, this effect is
more pronounced because there is only a minimal increase in O2
transport through perforations with increasing temperature.
The concentrations of O2 and CO2 within a package can be
modeled. Elaborate and useful models have been developed that
would allow fresh produce processors to choose packaging materials most suited to the enclosed product. A common mathematical
model involves the use of what is known as a MichaelisMenten
type respiratory model to describe the inuence of temperature, O2
(and potentially CO2) on respiration. This approach has been used
for blueberries (Cameron et al., 1994), strawberries (Joles, 1993),
raspberries (Joles, Cameron, Shirazi, Petracek, & Beaudry, 1994) and
apple slices (Lakakul, Beaudry, & Hernandez, 1999). Respiratory
models are then coupled with an equation describing the temperature sensitivity of lm permeability to gases (known as the
Arrhenius equation) to predict package O2 partial pressure as
a function of temperature, product mass, surface area and lm
thickness (Cameron et al., 1994; Lakakul et al., 1999).
Using polymeric lms, MA packaging systems for products with
low to medium respiration rates have to some extent been
successfully developed. Products such as broccoli, mushrooms,
leeks, etc exhibit very high rates of respiration such that conventional lms can potentially over modify the pack atmosphere and
thus result in fermentation. Accordingly, there has been a lot of
commercial interest to develop lms with high gas transmission
Table 2
Properties of packaging lms.
Material
5. Packaging technology for fresh produce

Fresh-cut products often have signicantly different packaging
requirements than the whole product. For whole produce, packaging is primarily designed to avoid bruising during post storage
handling. The MA packaging technique consists of the enclosure of
respiring produce in polymeric lms in which the gaseous environment is actively or passively altered to slow respiration, reduce
moisture loss and decay and/or extend the shelf life of the products.
Many of the lms used in MAP, singly do not offer all the properties
required for a modied atmosphere pack. To provide packaging
lms with a wide range of physical properties, many of these
individual lms are combined through processes like lamination
and co-extrusion. There are several groupings in MAP lms. Polyethylene is most commonly used to provide a hermetic seal and
also as a medium of control for characteristics like anti-fogging
abilities, peelability and ability to seal through a degree of
Properties
Paper
Aluminum foil
Strength; rigidity; opacity; printability.

Negligible permeability to water vapour, gases and odours;
grease proof, opacity and brilliant appearance; dimensional
stability; dead folding characteristics.
Cellulose lm
Strength; attractive appearance; low permeability to water
(coated)
vapour (depending on the type of coating used), gases, odours
and greases; printability.
Polythene
Durability; heat-sealability; low permeability to water vapour;
good chemical resistance; good low-temperature
performance.
Rubber
Heat-sealability; low permeability to water vapour, gases,
hydrochloride
odours and greases; chemical resistance.
Cellulose acetate
Strength; rigidity; glossy appearance; printability;
dimensional stability.
Vinylidene chloride Low permeability to water vapour, gases, copolymer odours
and greases; chemical resistance; heat-sealability.
Polyvinyl chloride Resistance to chemicals, oils and greases; heat-sealability.
Polyethylene
Strength; durability; dimensional stability; low permeability
terephthalate
to gases, odours and greases.
Source: FAD/WFP (1970).
387
Table 3
Polymers, lm types and permeability available for packaging of MAP produce.
Film
Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH)

Polyvinylidene chloride coated (PVdc)
Polyethylene, LD
Polyethylene, HD
Polypropylene cast
Polypropylene, oriented
Polypropylene, oriented, PVdc coated
Rigid PVC
Plasticized PVC
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
Polystyrene, oriented
Polyurethane (polyester)
PVdcPVC copolymer (Saran)
Polyamide (Nylon-6)
Permeability (cm3/m2 d atm for 25 mm lm at 25 C)

Oxygen
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
Water vapour
transmission,
g/m2/day/atm
(38 C and 90% RH)
35
915
7800
2600
3700
2000
1020
150350
50030,000
12,500
5000
8001500
825
40
2800
650
680
400
813
60150
30010,000
4900
800
6001200
22.6
14
2030
42,000
7600
10,000
8000
3550
4501000
150046,000
50,000
18,000
700025,000
50150
150190
1618
18
710
1012
67
45
3040
1540
4060
100125
400600
1.55.0
843100
Source: Chung and Yam (1999), Day (1993), Greengrass (1993), Guilbert, Gontard, and Gorris (1996), Han (2000), Park (1999), and Phillips (1996).
rates (Lange, 2000). High gas transmission lms are obtained by

modifying the lm manufacturing process so that gases such as O2,
CO2 and water vapour exit or enter the package in a controlled
manner such that aerobic respiration needs are met and desirable
CO2 and moisture levels are maintained. The permeabilities of two
commercial ceramic-lled LDPE lms were measured and
compared with those of a plain LDPE lm. The ceramic lms have
higher oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and ethylene (C2H4)
permeabilities, higher CO2 to O2 permeability ratio, and higher
C2H4 to O2 permeability ratio (Lee, Haggar, & Yam, 2006). Table 3
gives the details of their lm types and permeability availability.
Films that have improved rates of gas transmission by virtue of
their polymeric nature are usually blends of two or three different
polymers, where each polymer of a blend performs a specic
function such as strength, transparency and improved gas transmission to meet certain product descriptions. Furthermore, lms
can be laminated to achieve needed properties. Among this class
are high (618%) ethylenevinyl acetate content, low-density
polyethylene (Elvax, DuPont, Wilmington, DE), oriented polypropylene laminates (OPP, BP Amoco, Lisle, IL), styrene butadiene
block copolymer lms (K-Resin, Phillips Chemical Company,
Houston, TX) and ultra low-density ethylene octene copolymer
lms (Attane series, Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI) and
polyolen plastomer octene copolymer lms (Afnity series, Dow
Chemical Company, Midland, MI). A lot of work has been reported
on MAP using different types of lms (Barth & Zhuang, 1996;
Geeson, Genge, & Sharples, 1994; Hong & Kim, 2004; Jacobsson,
Nielsen, & Sjoholm, 2004; Lee, Jang, & Hwang, 2002; Porat, Weiss,
Cohen, Daus, & Aharoni, 2004; Schick & Toivonen, 2002; Srinivasa,
Baskaran, Ramesh, Prashanth, & Tharanathan, 2002). Commercially
available modied atmosphere-packaging systems for small and
large quantities of produce are given in Table 4.
Films using micro perforations can attain very high rates of
gas transmission (Alique, Martinez, & Alonso, 2003). The diameter of micro perforation generally ranges from 40 to 200 mm and
by altering the size and thickness of micro perforations; gas
permeability through a package can be altered to meet welldened product requirements. Based on the rates of respiration
and gas transmission through the micro perforations and the
base lm, packages have been developed that maintain desired
levels of O2 and moisture for high respiring mushrooms (Gosh,
Xiong, & Anantheswaran, 2000). Micro perforated lms have also
been used to extend the storability of strawberries and nectarines (Meyers, 1985), leeks, asparagus, parsnips, cherry tomatoes
and sweet corn (Geeson, 1988) and apple (Watkins, Brookeld,

Elgar, & McLeod, 1998). A procedure permitting the simple
determination of O2 and CO2 permeance of micro perforated
lms used to pack respiring foods under real conditions has been
evaluated (Ozdemir, Monnet, & Gouble, 2005). Macro perforated
lms has also been used to improve the keeping quality of
strawberries and raspberries by combining high O2 atmospheres
with low oxygen MAP (Van der Steen, Jacxsens, Devlieghere, &
Debevere, 2002).
6. Tracking technology used in packaging system
Food-safety experts believe that contaminated food causes up to
76 million illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations and 5000 deaths each
year in the US alone (DeWaal, 2003). These estimates underline the
fact that food borne-illnesses pose a signicant public-health
burden. CSPI recommends strengthening the safety of the food
supply by setting farm and animal production food-safety standards, by improving Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
(HACCP) implementation, especially by the US Food and Drug
Administration, and nally, by streamlining food-safety policy and
regulation. Having several federal agencies with distinct responsibilities for food-safety regulation has resulted in inconsistent foodsafety standards. The US regulatory structure is fragmented and not
well equipped to meet current challenges facing the food-safety
system. Instead, CSPI calls for a single food-safety agency that
maximizes allocation of resources resulting in a more rational
system of food-safety regulation.
A new review looks at two rapidly developing aspects of food
packaging: active packaging and intelligent packaging. Active
packaging involves an interaction between pack and food product
to extend the shelf life of the product. This is usually by the addition
of active agents into the packaging container or lm, such as
scavengers for oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethylene, and moisture
absorbers. An intelligent pack monitors the quality and/or safety of
a food product, providing an indication that can be helpful in the
distribution chain. Examples include indicators (including integrity,
freshness and timetemperature (TTI) indicators), sensors, RFID
tags and security tags.
TTIs are colorimetric labels which respond to cumulative
exposure to time and temperature (Anonymous, 2003). TTIs
provide a visual indicator that gradually changes with time,
typically faster at elevated temperatures and slower at colder
temperatures. TTIs are attached to perishable products at the time
388
Table 4
Commercially available modied atmosphere packaging systems for small and large quantities of produce.
Product
Description
Use
Pallet Package System
Pallet box wrapped in heavy gauge polyethylene, with a silicone membrane

window to allow gas exchange regulation and a calibrated hole for
pressure regulation.
Marcellin System
For room storage: regulates the atmospheric composition via a parallel series of
rectangular bags of silicone rubber; can be installed in or out of storage area and
maintains a fairly consistent atmosphere.
Tom-Ah-Toes (Natural Pak Produce)
Long, narrow box overwrapped with gas permeable lm; contains a sachet
containing calcium chloride and activated lime to absorb CO2.
Maptek FreshTM (SunBlush Technologies Maptek FreshTM is a post-harvest biotechnology where specic features and
Inc.)
conditions are applied for each type of product to stabilize the produce and
place it in a state of hibernation.
This system incorporates the optimal atmosphere by testing, to choose
MAPAX (AGA, Sweden)
the exact gas mixture and the best lm for each product considering
respiration rate, temperature, packaging lm, pack volume, ll weight and light.
FreshHold (Hercules Chemical Co.)
Polypropylene label with calcium carbonate embedded in it.
P-Plus lms (Courtaulds Packaging)
Laminated boxes (Georgia Pacic,
Weyerhaeuser and Tamfresh Ltd.)
Spark perforated lms which result in non-uniform perforations throughout

the lm to facilitate gas exchange.
Cartons with lms laminated within the cardboard or coated on the inside of the
cardboard liner. Reduces moisture loss and potentiates air ow
Edible lms
TAL Pro-Long (Courtaulds Group)
Blend of sucrose esters of fatty acids and sodium carboxymethylcellulose;

depresses internal O2 and is edible.
Nutri-Save
N, O-carboxymethychitosan edible lm.
PacRite products (American Machinery Variety of products, water-based carnaubashellac emulsions, shellac and resin
Corp.)
water emulsions, water-based mineral oil fatty acid emulsions, and so forth.
Primafresh Wax (S.C. Johnson)
Carnauba-based wax emulsion.
FreshSealTM (Planet Polymer
A patented coating that slows the ripening process by controlling
Technologies Inc. has
the O2 and CO2 and water vapour owing in and out of the product.
licensed CPG Technologies of Agway, It can be tailored to the individual respiration rates of different fruit and
vegetable varieties.
Inc. to produce)
Intelligent systems
Activated Earth Films
Temperature Responsive Films (Landec

Labs)
Apples, pears and other perishables
Various perishables
Avocados, tomatoes, mangoes

Fresh-cut produce: pineapple, fruit salad, cut
tomatoes, mango, kiwi, melon, citrus fruits
Fresh-cut produce, lettuce, mushrooms,
prepeeled potatoes
Broccoli, asparagus, cauliower and
cherries
Brussels sprouts, lettuce, broccoli, fresh
mushrooms, and bean sprouts
Strawberries, broccoli, and other
perishables
Pears
Pears, apples
Apples, citrus, tomatoes, cucumbers, green
peppers, squash, peaches, plums, nectarines
Apples, citrus and other rm-surfaced fruit
Currently available for avocado, cantaloupe,
mangoes and papaya.
Use on limes, pineapples and bananas is
currently under investigation.
Typically polyethylene bags with powdered clay material made of powdered

Variable
aluminum silicates, incorporated into the lm matrix. Possibly reduces ethylene
concentration by facilitating its diffusion out of the bag.
Films increase their gas permeabilities in response to temperature increases as
Specic for each product
well as increases in respiration. Stabilizes the modied atmosphere so it remains
the same under various temperatures.
Sachet type product which is placed directly in the package and absorbs both
Fruits and vegetables, coffee
carbon dioxide and oxygen.
CO2 Scavengers FreshLock (Mitsubishi

Gas Chemical Co.), Verifrais
(Codimer Tournessi, Gujan-Mestras)
Ethylene absorbents Ethysorb (StayFresh Sachet type product which is placed directly in the package and absorbs
Ltd), Ageless C
ethylene. They are composed of a variety of products such as aluminum oxide,
(Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Company), potassium permanganate, activated carbon, and silicon dioxide.
Freshkeep (Kurarey), Acepack
(nippon Greener), Peakfresh (Klerk
Plastic Industrie, Chantler Packaging
Inc.)
Fruits and vegetables
Source: Baldwin (1994), Church (1993), Han (2000), L. Lee, Arul, Lencki, & Castaigne (1996), Padgett, Han, and Dawson (1998), Raghavan, Alvo, Gariepy, and Vigneault (1996),
Smith and Ramaswamy (1996), and Zagory (1995).
of production to monitor the cumulative time/temperature

exposure. TTIs are used for monitoring time and temperature
exposure of a wide variety of items including perishables intransit, consumer packages, and medical perishables. TTIs are
typically more reliable in monitoring the remaining shelf life of
a perishable product than expiration dates such as sell-by or
use-by dates. Expiration dates assume a certain temperature
history, and temperature histories that vary from this assumption
result in either the sale of a spoiled product or the premature
disposal of a good product. In contrast, TTIs respond directly to
temperature and reect the temperature history of the product.
TTIs are commonly attached to shipping boxes for use by
commercial distributors in the distribution of food and pharmaceuticals. The most common use is to ensure the integrity of the
cold chain up to the supermarket. Prepared TTIs have the disadvantage in that they must be stored at low temperatures or
protected from actinic radiation prior to use. This requirement

greatly increases the cost of production of TTIs and introduces an
element of uncertainty as to the reliability of the indicators.
Therefore, there is a need for TTI labels that can be activated at the
site of application, thereby obviating a need for protection of the
labels prior to use.
Radio Frequency Identication (RFID) systems are an electronic method of identifying a person or object over distances
using radio waves without depending on direct line of sight. This
technology has been used to track, trace, locate and identify
many objects either living or inanimate and offers a new
approach to asset traceability in almost any industry. Its ability to
wirelessly transfer data renders the conventional bar code old
fashioned. This characteristic provides a reduction in inventory
cost (d Hont, 2001) and offers real time analysis proving useful
in product recall situations should such a situation arise. A new
389
low O2 environment. Antimicrobial compounds that can be

incorporated into the coating need to be investigated.
8. Conclusions
Fig. 1. Timetemperature loggers integrated sensor.
way of embedding RFID tags into pack cases could reduce the
cost of using the tracking technology, according to the companies
involved in the project (ElAmin, 2007). RFID test on reusable
containers has also been launched.
For fresh products the quality of the product can vary
considerably during shelf life. Monitoring the quality during
transport and storage in the production chain gives additional
information for better predicting the product quality and can
give important information for logistic control of the chain.
Monitoring can be done by sensors that measure environmental
conditions, like timetemperature loggers integrated with the
package (Fig. 1). The signal of this logger has to be translated into
product quality by a suitable predictive model with the data on
time and temperature as input together with quantitative information on the mechanism and kinetics of quality decay in the
specic product. More sophisticated direct quality sensors can
monitor compounds in the product/package that are directly
related with product quality.
7. Research needs
1. The use of intelligent packaging systems has to be evaluated.
2. The combination of novel methods of food treatment and packaging needs to be examined, for example, irradiation used with
MAP and antimicrobial lms used in combination with MAP.
3. There is a need to investigate the antimicrobial effect of superatmospheric O2 in the fresh-cut produce safety.
4. There is a need to investigate the inuence of storage temperature and atmosphere on post-cutting shelf life of fresh-cut fruit.
5. Although work has been initiated, more work on the inuence
of storage temperature and atmosphere on prepared salads and
cut owers of different varieties needs to be carried out.
6. There is a need to explore the survival of the enteric pathogens
and the behaviour of food borne viruses and protozoan parasites on MAP produce.
7. Edible lms for use in MAP systems are an active area of
research. However, as with other MAP, they can create a very
1. The greatest extension of shelf life occurs at the lowest possible

oxygen concentration before anaerobic respiration is initiated.
2. The recommended percentage of O2 in a modied atmosphere
for fruits and vegetables for both safety and quality falls
between 1 and 5%, although the oxygen level will realistically
reach levels below 1% in MAP produce.
3. It is generally believed that with the use of permeable lms,
spoilage will occur before toxin production is an issue; MAP of
produce, however, should always incorporate packaging
materials that will not lead to an anoxic package environment
when the product is stored at the intended temperature.
4. Successful control of both product respiration and ethylene
production and perception by MAP can result in a fruit or
vegetable product of high organoleptic quality; however,
control of these processes is dependent on temperature
control. Along the whole food continuum, that is, processing,
storage, transportation and retailing, one needs to maintain
optimum temperatures. Maintaining proper storage temperatures is often most difcult at retail level.
5. Oxygen, CO2, and N2, are most often used in MAP/CAS. Among
them, CO2 is the only one with a direct antimicrobial effect,
resulting in an increased lag phase and generation time during
the logarithmic phase of growth. Although other gases such as
nitrous and nitric oxides, sulphur dioxide, ethylene, chlorine, as
well as ozone and propylene oxide have been investigated, they
have not been applied commercially due to safety, regulatory,
and cost considerations.
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LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

LWT - Food Science and Technology

under ambient conditions is very limited. The respiration of fresh

2. Modied atmosphere packaging (MAP)

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

product. MAP is used with various types of products, where the

food product being packed. Used singly or in combination, these

2.1. Gases used in modied atmosphere packaging

The three main gases used in modied atmosphere packaging

An important fact when dealing with vegetables (and all other

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

& Winkler, 2006). This review looks at the effects of temperature,

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

signicantly affected the changes of in-package atmospheres

proliferation of spoilage microorganisms on lightly processed and

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

combination with natural antimicrobial compounds had also been

3.3. Prepared salads

3.4. Cut owers

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

Fresh-cut processing increases respiration rates and causes

contamination. The properties of some of the packaging lms are

5. Packaging technology for fresh produce

Strength; rigidity; opacity; printability.

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH)

Permeability (cm3/m2 d atm for 25 mm lm at 25 C)

rates (Lange, 2000). High gas transmission lms are obtained by

and sweet corn (Geeson, 1988) and apple (Watkins, Brookeld,

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

Pallet Package System

Pallet box wrapped in heavy gauge polyethylene, with a silicone membrane

Spark perforated lms which result in non-uniform perforations throughout

Blend of sucrose esters of fatty acids and sodium carboxymethylcellulose;

Temperature Responsive Films (Landec

Apples, pears and other perishables

Avocados, tomatoes, mangoes

Typically polyethylene bags with powdered clay material made of powdered

CO2 Scavengers FreshLock (Mitsubishi

Fruits and vegetables

of production to monitor the cumulative time/temperature

protected from actinic radiation prior to use. This requirement

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

low O2 environment. Antimicrobial compounds that can be

Fig. 1. Timetemperature loggers integrated sensor.

1. The greatest extension of shelf life occurs at the lowest possible

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

Artes-Hernandez, F., Tomas-Barberan, F. A., & Artes, F. (2006). Modied atmosphere

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

Sandhya / LWT - Food Science and Technology 43 (2010) 381392

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