Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

for a world without hunger

Fisheries and
Aquaculture Department

Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme

Hippocampus comes (Cantor, 1849)

I. Identity

a. Biological Features
b. Images Gallery

II. Profile

a. Historical Background
b. Main Producer Countries
c. Habitat And Biology

V. Status And Trends

VI. Main Issues

a. Responsible Aquaculture Practices

VII. References

a. Related Links

III. Production

a. Production Cycle
b. Production Systems
c. Diseases And Control Measures

IV. Statistics

a. Market And Trade

Identity
Hippocampus comes Cantor, 1849

[Syngnathidae]

FAO Names: En - Tiger tail seahorse, Fr - Hippocampe queue tigre, Es - Caballo de mar
ocenico

Biological features
Trunk compressed, more or less elevated, belly gibbous. Coronet small and rather low, with five rounded
knobs. Anal minute. Pectoral short and broad. Dorsal moderate, situated on two trunk rings and one tail ring.
Spines range from knob-like and blunt to well-developed and sharp; often with dark band near tip. Cheek
spines are double. Double spines below and sometimes above eyes. Prominent, sharp nose spine; long, slender
snout. Colour yellow and black body, sometimes alternating; striped tail; mottled or blotched pattern on body;
may have fine white lines radiating from eye.
Images gallery
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

Hippocampus comes
(courtesy: Truong Si Ky. 2009)

Large scale production of seahorses

Nha Trang, Viet Nam

Large scale production of seahorses

Nha Trang, Viet Nam

Fry production tanks (Viet Nam)

Profile
Historical background
Seahorses are under threat worldwide because of the global demand for them and products arising from them.
It is claimed that nearly 80 nations trade 24 millions seahorses annually. Currently the largest threat to
seahorses is their use in traditional Chinese medicines. Dead seahorses are milled and used as cures or remedies
for human skin ailments, high cholesterol levels, excess throat phlegm, goitres, heart disease, lymph node
disorders, incontinence and impotence. As seahorses retain their shape after being dried many are also sold as
souvenirs. The largest markets for these products are North America, Europe, Japan and Taiwan Province of
China. Many are also taken for home aquaria but, being difficult to rear, most are lost. The tiger tail seahorse
Hippocampus comes is listed in Appendix II of CITES, effective May 2004. This species is particularly targeted by
fishers for medicinal and aquarium purposes; it is also incidentally caught by trawlers. In the Philippines the
population of this species has been reported to have decreased by up to 70 percent over the decade 1985-1995.
Culturing seahorses is one of the measures being taken to sustainably recruit this species and also to meet the
demand for Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCM) and the aquarium trade. In Viet Nam, for conservation
reasons, F1 broodstock are kept in cages where they produce a lot of fry daily for release into the sea.
Main producer countries
Although many countries, including Australia, China, India, Indonesia, New Zealand and the United States of
America are reported to culture seahorses, primarily for the aquarium trade, the tiger tail seahorse is currently
cultured only in Viet Nam.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

Habitat and biology

Tiger tail seahorses are mainly found in coral reefs, sponges and seagrasses, at a depth of 10-20 m. Juveniles
prefer to live amonst Sargassum and move to corals and sponges when they become older. Seahorse fry are
pelagic and settle to the bottom when they are 35-40 mm. The fry feed on zooplankton, mainly copepods,
while adults prefer to catch benthic organisms (Amphipoda, Palaemonidae).
This species is found in the Western Central Pacific area, in China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam.
In its natural environment, Hippocampus comes spawns throughout the year but the peak spawning season varies
according to their distribution. In Viet Nam, peak spawning lasts from August to November, but in Philippines
it is later - from September to December. The first maturing size of H. comes is 119 mm in Viet Nam and 102
mm in Philippines. Eggs diameter averages 1.2-1.5 mm; gestation duration is 10-14 days; length at birth
averages 8-9 mm. In captivity the life cycle has been closed.
The von Bertalanffy equation shows H = 165.9 mm and k = 0.78/year (Viet Nam) and SL = 205 mm, k =
1.7/year (Philippines).

Production
Production cycle

Production cycle of Hippocampus comes

Production systems
Seed supply

Broodstock are obtained by divers from the wild or from F1 generation animals maintained in captivity. The
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

broodstock animals are kept in cages (2 x 2 x 4 m), located in calm sea in a bay or in indoor tanks (2 x 2 x 1.5
m). The feeding regime is the same as the maintenance feeding, but some vitamin A, C and E is added to the
food. Broodstock become mature after six or seven months. In captivity, H. comes spawns many times per year
(5-8 times) and the brood size ranges from 195 to 626 eggs (average 360). In the spawning season, females
transfer their ripe eggs to the pouch of the males. Embryo development takes place in this pouch within 10-20
days, depending on the temperature of the water, the optimum being 26-28 o C.
One day after spawning, the fry are transferred, using a 1 mm mesh net, to 0.5 m3 plastic indoor tanks supplied
with a biofilter, combined with UV and ozone treatment. The fry are stocked at 1-2/litre and the environmental
conditions are maintained at 30-35; 4-5 ppm DO 2 ; pH 8.0-8.3; light 12D/12L and 1 000-2 000 lux; zero
ammonia-N and nitrite-N; <20 ppm nitrite-N.
The fry are fed from birth to 40-days old with copepods at a density of 3-5/litre/day. In addition, enriched
Artemia nauplii (A1 DHA Selco, INVE) are fed to fry from 10 days onwards at the same as copepods. Some
authors have described feeing seahorse fry with enriched rotifers and Artemia; however their survival rates are
low, (20-30 percent), whereas feeding with enriched Artemia achieves >80 percent survival.
Ongrowing techniques

After 40 days of fry rearing the seahorses are transferred by net for rearing to commercial size in larger indoor
tanks (2-4 m3 ) or outdoor cages placed in calm bay waters with high transparency. Initially the stocking rate is
500/m3 but is decreased as the fry grow to 200/m3 by the end of the rearing period. Tiger tail seahorses grow
rapidly, reaching commercial size for aquaria (6-8 cm) in three months. The survival rate from birth to adult is
>70 percent. It takes 10-12 months to rear them to their maximum size (12-16 cm).
Feed supply

During the grow-out phase the seahorses are weaned to frozen feed (Mysis and Acetes collected from the wild)
twice per day fed ad libitum. If available, adult enriched live Artemia can be used, giving good growth and survival.
Harvesting techniques

All seahorses are harvested by net (typically with a 40 cm diameter and a 1 mm mesh size).
Handling and processing

All cultured seahorses in Viet Nam are packed in seawater with additional oxygen and transported at 3-5/litre
for live sale to exporters, who sell them in the United States of America, European Union, Taiwan Province of
China and Canada.
Production costs

Production costs to rear live 8-10 cm seahorses in Viet Nam is ~ USD 1.00 (2009).
Diseases and control measures
In some cases antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals have been used in treatment but their inclusion in this table does not imply an FAO
recommendation.

DISEASE
Ciliate infestation

White spot
External Gas
Bubble Disease
(EGBD) and

AGENT
Zoothamnium

sp.

Ichthyophthirus

sp.

Not stated

TYPE
Protozoan

Protozoan

SYNDROME

MEASURES
Dip in 100-200 ppm
Occurs on seahorse tail; appears
formaldehyde for 12 hours,
like cotton
repeating daily for 3 days
Dip in 100-200 ppm
White spots on body
formaldehyde for 12 hours,
repeating daily for 3 days

Said to be
caused by gas Interferes with bouyancy and
saturation in the swimming; stresses the fish,
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

Submerge below 2m; or

use Diamox 250 mg at a
dose of 1 tablet/200 L,

Internal Gas
Bubble Disease
(IGBD)

Vibriosis

Snout and tail rot

Lymphocystis;
cauliflower disease

Not stated

Vibrio harveyi

Costia spp.;
Saprolengia

spp.

Iridovirus

water or by
infected
bacteria

dose of 1 tablet/200 L,
weakening them and eventually
repeating treatment daily
causing death
for 5 days

Bacterium

External haemorrhages;
haermorrhagic liver; ascitic fluid
accumulation in intestinal cavity

Bacteria and
fungi

First symptoms are

discolouration and swelling in
snout and tail; refusal to eat and
swim; lethargy; later, tip of snout
becomes inflamed and eroded

Virus

Variably sized white to yellow

lumps (appear cauliflower
shaped) on skin

Improve environment by
using probiotic (Baccilus
spp.) or using UV and
ozone; antibiotic treatment
(Ciprofloxin 5-10 ppm)
Improve environment by
using probiotic (Bacillus spp.)
or using UV and ozone;
antibiotic treatment
(Ciprofloxin 5-10 ppm)
Improve environment by
using probiotic (Bacillus spp.)
or UV and ozone; antibiotic
treatment (Ciprofloxin 5-10
ppm)

Statistics
Market and trade
Dried seahorses are used for traditional medicine and as curios. Live seahorses are sold for aquarium or
hobbyist purposes. For aquaria the seahorses are marketed at >6 cm, but for TCM (Traditional Chinese
Medicine) at 12-16 cm. Most dried seahorses are exported to China and to China, Hong Kong SAR. The value
is USD 100-300/kg (2008), depending on the size and species; the larger animals are the most valuable. Live
seahorses are exported to the United States of America and the European Union, mainly from Asian countries.
The value of live seahorses ranges from USD 100-900/animal (www.seahorse.com), depending of their colour,
size and type of market. Annual live production has been relatively static at 2 millions individuals, while the
dried seahorse production is said to be >20 millions (70 tonnes). Viet Nam and China are the major producers.
This species has been bred successfully only since 2006 and only in Viet Nam. Until 2009, specific trade data
on tiger tail seahorses is lacking but it is clear that most of the estimates 2 millions live animals destined for the
aquarium trade come from the wild. Viet Nam is currently exporting about 50 000 live seahorses, of which
about 10 000 are cultured.

Status and trends

The demand for live seahorses for aquarium use, as well as dried seahorses for TCM, is increasing globally;
until now (2009) demand exceeds supply. The demand fo aquaria is relatively small but for TCM is
considerable.
The following developments are required:
Selective breeding programmes for improving disease resistance.
Improved techniques of aquaculture, in order to avoid overfishing.
Increased awareness on the importance of seahorse conservation in communities to encourage the
sustainable exploitation of seahorse resources.

Main issues
Seahorses are mainly caught from the wild but these are threatened by overfishing and the degredation of their
habitat. Seahorse resources have been reported to have declined by significant amounts during the first half of
the 1990s (15-50 percent, depending on the specific areas or countries). Demand up to now exceeds supply
and now many seahorse species are listed in CITES, Apendix II.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

Responsible aquaculture practices

Hippocampus comes is

included in the IUCN Red List as vulnerable.

There are some programmes in Viet Nam releasing seahorses produced through aquaculture to the sea for
enhancement. However, this may cause disease transfer to the wild seahorse population if not carefully
controlled. Using many broodstock seahorses for aquaculture may also affect the recruitment population.
About 1 000-2 000 juveniles are released annually in Viet Nam to marine areas where wild seahorses were
formally found but have now disappeared.

References
Bibliography
Belli, M., Driscoll, C., Lamont, M. et al. 2006. Working notes: a guide to seahorse diseases. Creative Licence
Publishers, USA.160 pp.
Foster, S.J. & Vincent, A.C.J. 2004. Life history and ecology of seahorses: implications for conservation and
management. Journal of Fish Biology, 65:1-61.
Lourie, S.A., Pritchard, J.C., Casey, S.P., Ky, T.S., Hall, H.J. & Vincent, A.C.J. 1999a. The taxonomy of
Vietnams exploited seahorses (family Syngnathidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 66:231256.
Lourie, S.A., Vincent, A.C.J. & Hall, H.J. 1999b. Seahorses: an identification guide to the world's species and
their conservation. Project Seahorse, London. 214 pp.
Morgan, S.K. & Lourie, S.A. 2006. Threatened fishes of the world: Hippocampus comes, Cantor 1850
(Syngnathidae). Environmental Biology of Fishes, 75:311-313.
Morgan, S.K. & Vincent, A.C. 2007. The ontogeny of habitat associations in the tropical tiger tail seahorse
Hippocampus comes Cantor 1850. Journal of Fish Biology, 71:701-724.
Perante, N.C., Pajaro, M.G. & Vincent, A.C.J. 1998. Demographics of the seahorse Hippocampus comes in
the Central Philippines. In B. Morton (ed.), The marine biology of the South China Sea. Proceedings of the
Third International Conference on the Marine Biology of the South China Sea, Hong Kong, 28 October - 1
November 1996, pp. 439-448. Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong.
Perante, N.C., Pajaro, M.G., Meeuwig, J.J. & Vincent, A.C.J. 2002. Biology of a seahorse species
Hippocampus comes in the central Philippines. Journal of Fish Biology, 60:821837.
Salin, K.R., Yohannan, T.M. & Nair, C.M. 2005. Fisheries and trade of seahorses, Hippocampus spp., in
southern India. Fisheries Management and Ecology, 12:269-273.
Truong, S.K. 1998. Prospects for community-based seahorse aquaculture in Viet Nam. In B. Morton (ed.) The
marine biology of the South China Sea. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on the Marine
Biology of the South China Sea, Hong Kong, 28 October - 1 November 1996, pp. 465 474. Hong Kong
University Press, Hong Kong.
Truong, S.K., Ho, T.H., Hoang, D.L. & Pham, V.L. 2009. The effect of different kind of feed on the growth
and survival rates of adult tiger tail seahorse (Hippocampus comes, Cantor, 1885). Journal of Marine Science
and Technology, 2:71-80.
Vincent, A.C.J. 1996. The International trade in Seahorses. Cambridge, UK: TRAFFIC International. 163 pp.
Vincent, A.C.J. 2004. Summary of the 2003 IUCN Red listings for family Syngnathidae. Proceedings of
International wookshop on CITES implementation for seahorse conservation and trade. February 3 5. 2004.
Mexico.
Related links
FishBase
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

FAO FishStatJ Universal software for fishery statistical time series

Project Seahorse
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
Seahorse
Vietnamese academy of science and technology

FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department