Protocolos sobre IP

Fausto Vasco

Objetivos
Queremos hacer una descripcin rpida de los protocolos
de comunicaciones que ms influencian el mercado
actual:

Frame Relay
X.25
MPLS
SIP
H323
NGN

X.25

X.25 is an ITU-T standard data link layer protocol for packet

switched WAN communication.
An X.25 WAN consists of packet-switching exchange (PSE) nodes as
the networking hardware, and leased lines, POTS connections or
ISDN connections as physical links.
X.25 is part of the OSI protocol suite, a family of protocols that was
used especially during the 1980s.
X.25 is today to a large extent replaced by less complex protocols

Addressing and virtual circuits

X.25 supports two types of virtual circuits:

Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC) which are established as and when required
through a call establishment and clearing procedure
Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC) which are preconfigured into the network.

VC may be established using X.121 addresses.

The X.121 address consists of:
three-digit Data Country Code (DCC) plus a network digit, together forming the
four-digit Data Network Identification Code (DNIC),
followed by the National Terminal Number (NTN) of at most ten digits.

Note the use of a single network digit, seemingly allowing for only
10 network carriers per country, but some countries are assigned
more than one DCC to avoid this limitation.
One DTE-DCE interface to an X.25 network has a maximum of
4095 logical channels on which it is allowed to establish virtual
calls and permanent virtual circuits.
5

Architecture
The general concept of X.25 was to create a universal and
global packet-switched network.
Much of the X.25 system is a description of the rigorous error
correction needed to achieve this, as well as more efficient
sharing of capital-intensive physical resources.
The X.25 specification defines only the interface between a
subscriber (DTE) and an X.25 network (DCE).
Replaced by Frame Relay is now considered an obsolete
protocol.
X.25 was the base to new protocols like Frame Relay and
ATM which use extensively the Virtual Circuits.

An Efficient and Flexible WAN Technology

Frame Relay has become the most widely used WAN technology.
primarily because of its price and flexibility.

Frame Relay reduces network costs by using less equipment, less

complexity, and an easier implementation.
With increasing globalization and the growth of one-to-many
branch office topologies, Frame Relay offers simpler network
architecture and lower cost of ownership.

The Frame Relay WAN

Frame Relay has lower overhead than X.25 because it has
fewer capabilities.
Frame Relay does not provide error correction.
This is left to higher layers.

The Frame Relay node simply drops packets without notification when
it detects errors.

The Frame Relay WAN

Frame Relay handles volume and speed efficiently by
combining the necessary functions of the L2 and L3 into one
simple protocol.
As a data link protocol, Frame Relay provides:
Access to a network,
Delimits and delivers frames in proper order, and
Recognizes transmission errors through a standard CRC.

As a network protocol, Frame Relay provides:

Multiple logical connections over a single physical circuit and
Allows the network to route data over those connections.

Frame Relay operates between an end-user device, such as

a LAN bridge or router, and a network.
Some networks use Frame Relay itself, but others use digital circuit
switching or ATM cell relay systems.
10

Virtual Circuits
The connection through a Frame Relay network between two
DTEs is called a virtual circuit (VC).
There is no direct electrical connection from end to end.
The connection is logical.
With VCs, Frame Relay shares the bandwidth among multiple users
and any single site can communicate with any other single site
without using multiple dedicated physical lines.

There are two ways to establish VCs:

SVC
PVC

11

Local Significance
VCs provide a bidirectional communication path from one
device to another.
VCs are identified by DLCIs.
Typically are assigned by the service provider.
Local significance, which means that the values themselves are not
unique in the Frame Relay WAN.
Two devices connected by a VC may use a different DLCI value to
refer to the same connection.

12

Local Significance

13

Multiple VCs
Frame Relay is statistically multiplexed, meaning that it
transmits only one frame at a time, but that many logical
connections can co-exist on a single physical line.
The router connected to the Frame Relay network may have
multiple VCs connecting it to various endpoints.
Multiple VCs on a single physical line are distinguished because each
VC has its own DLCI.
Very cost-effective
Each endpoint needs only a single access line and interface.
Average bandwidth requirement of the VCs, rather than on the
maximum bandwidth requirement.

14

The Frame Relay Encapsulation Process

Frame Relay is a Layer 2 protocol.
Frame Relay accepts a packet from a network layer protocol such as
IP.
It then wraps it with an address field that contains the DLCI and a
checksum.

15

Frame Relay Topologies

When more than two sites are to be connected, you must
consider the topology of the connections between them.
Every network or network segment can be viewed as being one
of three topology types:
Star (hub and spoke)
full mesh, or
partial mesh.

16

Frame Relay Address Mapping

Before a router is able to transmit data over Frame Relay, it
needs to know which local DLCI maps to the Layer 3
address of the remote destination.
This address-to-DLCI mapping can be accomplished either
by:
static mapping
By entering a static map

dynamic mapping.
Inverse ARP.- The Frame Relay router sends out Inverse ARP requests on
its PVC to discover the L3 address of the remote device.

17

Local Management Interface (LMI)

The Frame Relay original design provides packet-switched data

transfer with minimum end-to-end delays.
The original design omits anything that might contribute to delay.
When vendors implemented Frame Relay as a separate
technology rather than as one component of ISDN, they decided that
there was a need for DTEs to dynamically acquire information
about the status of the network.
The original design did not include this feature.
A consortium of Cisco, DEC, Northern Telecom, and StrataCom extended the
Frame Relay protocol to provide additional capabilities for complex
internetworking environments.
These extensions are referred to collectively as the LMI.

Basically, the LMI is a keepalive mechanism that provides status

information about Frame Relay connections between the router
(DTE) and the Frame Relay switch (DCE).

18

Local Management Interface (LMI)

19

LMI Extensions
LMI extensions are extremely useful in an internetworking environment.
VC status messages
Informs PVC integrity by communicating and synchronizing between
devices, periodically reporting new PVCs and the deletion of PVCs.
Prevent data from being sent into black holes (VCs that no longer exist).
Multicasting
Multicasting supports the efficient delivery of routing protocol messages
and address resolution procedures that are typically sent to many
destinations simultaneously.
Global addressing
Gives connection identifiers global rather than local significance
This makes the Frame Relay network resemble a LAN in terms of
addressing, and ARPs perform exactly as they do over a LAN.
Simple flow control
Provides for an XON/XOFF flow control mechanism that applies to the
entire Frame Relay interface.
20

LMI

The three possible PVC states are as follows:

Active state Indicates that the connection is active and that routers
can exchange data.
Inactive state Indicates that the local connection to the Frame Relay
switch is working, but the remote router connection to the Frame Relay
switch is not working.
Deleted state Indicates that no LMI is being received from the Frame
Relay switch, or that there is no service between the CPE router and
Frame Relay switch.
21

Frame Relay Key Terminology

There are some key terms and concepts to learn:
Access rate or port speed
The speed of the line is the access speed or port speed.
Access rate is the rate at which your access circuits join the
Frame Relay network.
Port speeds are clocked on the Frame Relay switch.
It is not possible to send data at higher than port speed.

Committed Information Rate (CIR)

Customers negotiate CIRs with service providers for each
PVC.
The service provider guarantees that the customer can send
data at the CIR.
All frames received at or below the CIR are accepted.
22

Frame Relay Key Terminology

A great advantage of Frame Relay is that any network capacity that is

being unused is made available or shared with all customers, usually at
no extra charge.
This allows customers to "burst" over their CIR as a bonus.

Oversubscription
Service providers sell more capacity than they have on the assumption
that not everyone will demand their entitled capacity all of the time.
Because of oversubscription, there will be instances when the sum of CIRs
from multiple PVCs to a given location is higher than the port or access
channel rate.

This can cause traffic issues, such as congestion and dropped traffic.

23

Paying for Frame Relay: Bursting

Frame Relay can allow customers to dynamically access this extra

bandwidth and "burst" over their CIR for free.
Various terms are used to describe burst rates including the Committed
Burst Information Rate (CBIR) and Excess Burst Size (BE).
CBIR
Is a negotiated rate above the CIR which the customer can use to transmit
for short burst. It allows traffic to burst to higher speeds, as available
network bandwidth permits.

However, it cannot exceed the port speed of the link.

The duration of a burst transmission is the Committed Time.

Frames submitted at this level are marked as Discard Eligible (DE).

BE
The BE is the term used to describe the bandwidth available above the
CBIR up to the access rate of the link.

BE, is not negotiated.

Frames may be transmitted at this level but will most likely be dropped.

24

Paying for Frame Relay: Bursting

25

Frame Relay Flow Control

Frame Relay reduces network overhead by implementing
simple
congestion-notification mechanisms.
Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN)
Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN).
Discard Eligibility (DE) bit, which identifies less important traffic that
can be dropped during congestion periods.

26

27

Objectives
Describe Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) features and
operation.
Identify the fields and format of an MPLS label.
Describe the purpose of the control and data planes in the
MPLS architecture.
Describe the function and architecture of Label Switch
Routers (LSRs) and Edge LSRs.

28

WAN Topologies
With MPLS, a site requires only one connection to the
MPLS SP.
High-performance method for forwarding packets through a network.
Enables routers at the edge of a network to apply simple labels in the
form of numbers to these packets.
Routers can then switch packets according to labels, incurring minimal
overhead for routing lookup.

29

Basic Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) Features

MPLS reduces routing lookups.

MPLS forwards packets based on labels.
Labels usually correspond to IP destination networks (equal
to traditional IP forwarding).
Labels can also correspond to other parameters:

Layer 3 VPN destination

Layer 2 circuit
Outgoing interface on the egress router
QoS
Source address

MPLS supports forwarding of all Layer 3 protocols, not just

IP.

30

MPLS Operation

Only edge routers must perform a routing lookup.

Core routers switch packets based on simple label lookups
and swap labels.
31

Cisco IOS Platform Switching Mechanisms

Process switching, or routing table-driven switching:

Full lookup is performed at every packet

Fast switching, or cache-driven switching:

Most recent destinations are entered in the cache
First packet is always process-switched

Topology-driven switching:
CEF (prebuilt FIB table)
incorporates the best of the
previous switching mechanisms.
CEF

CEF

CEF

CEF

Cisco Express Forwarding

Forwarding Information Base 32
(FIB)

Standard IP Switching Overview

33

CEF Switching Overview

34

MPLS Switching Overview

IP Domain
R4 LSR

R5 LSR
Station B

Station A
R6
Edge LSR

R1
Edge LSR
R2 LSR

R3 LSR

LSR
IP

MPLS

MPLS

MPLS

Label
Instructions
L

Edge LSR
Internal Table

35

MPLS Characteristics
MPLS technology is intended to be used anywhere,
regardless of Layer 1 media and Layer 2 protocol.

MPLS uses a 32-bit label field that is inserted between Layer 2

and Layer 3 headers (frame mode MPLS).
MPLS over ATM uses the ATM header as the label (cell mode
MPLS).

36

Label Format

Field

Description

20-bit label

The actual label. Values 0 to 15 are reserved.

3-bit experimental (EXP)

field

Undefined in the RFC. Used by Cisco to define a class of

service (CoS) (IP precedence).

1-bit bottom-of-stack
indicator

MPLS allows multiple labels to be inserted. The bottomof-stack bit determines if this label is the last label in the
packet. If this bit is set (1), the setting indicates that this
label is the last label.

8-bit Time to Live (TTL)

field

Has the same purpose as the TTL field in the IP header.

37

Label Stack

PID in a Layer 2 header specifies that the payload starts with a

label (or labels) and is followed by an IP header.
The bottom-of-stack bit indicates whether the next header is
another label or a Layer 3 header.
Receiving router uses the top label only.

38

Frame Mode MPLS Operation

Note: The type or protocol ID field indicates as MPLS enabled layer-3 protocol.
39

Major Components of MPLS Architecture

Control plane:
Exchanges routing information and labels
Contains complex mechanisms, such as OSPF, EIGRP, IS-IS, and BGP,
to exchange routing information
Exchanges labels, such as LDP, BGP, and RSVP

Data plane:
Forwards packets based on labels
Has a simple forwarding engine

40

Control Plane Components Example

Information from control plane is sent to the data plane.

41

Label Switch Routers (LSRs)

LSR primarily forwards labeled packets (swap label).

Edge LSR:
Labels IP packets (impose label) and forwards them into the MPLS domain.
Removes labels (pop label) and forwards IP packets out of the MPLS domain.

42

Functions of LSRs

Component
Control plane

Function
Exchanges routing information
Exchanges labels

Data plane

Forwards packets (LSRs and Edge LSRs)

43

Component Architecture of LSR

This graphic shows the component architecture of an LSR.
The primary function of an LSR is to forward labeled packets.
To accomplish this, every LSR needs a Layer 3 routing protocol and a
protocol to exchange labels.

LDP populates the LFIB table in the data plane that is used to
forward labeled packets.

44

45

SIP Overview
New generation of IP based services is now being quenched
by SIP the Session Initiation Protocol (RFP 3261)
SIP-based services:

local and long distance telephony,

presence & Instant Messaging,
IP Centrex/Hosted PBX,
voice messaging,
push-to-talk,
rich media conferencing, and more.

SIP utilizes its own unique user agents and servers, but it does
not operate in a vacuum.
Comparable to the converging of the multimedia services it
supports, SIP works with a myriad of preexisting protocols
governing authentication, location, voice quality, etc.
46

A New Generation of Services

Flexible, extensible and open, SIP is galvanizing the power of
the Internet and fixed and mobile IP networks to create a new
generation of services.
Able to complete networked messages from multiple PCs and
phones, SIP establishes sessions much like the Internet from
which it was modeled.
SIP operates independent of the underlying network transport
protocol and is indifferent to media.
Defines how one or more participants end devices can create,
modify and terminate a connection whether the content is
voice, video, data or
Web-based.
SIP is analogous to HTTP in the way it constructs messages.
Developers can more easily and quickly create applications using popular
programming languages such as Java.
47

A New Generation of Services

While some pundits predict that SIP will be to IP what SMTP
and HTTP are to the Internet, others say it could signal the end
of the AIN.
To date, the 3G Community has selected SIP as the session
control mechanism for the next generation cellular network.
Microsoft has chosen SIP for its real-time communications
strategy and has deployed it in Microsoft XP, Pocket PC and
MSN Messenger.
MCI is using SIP to deploy advanced telephony services to its
IP communications customers.
Presence will also enable users to instantly set up chat sessions and
audioconferences.

48

The SIP Advantage: Open, Extensible Web-Like

Communications

Like the Internet, SIP is easy to understand, extend and implement.

SIP extends the open-standards spirit of the Internet to messaging, enabling
disparate computers, phones, TVs and software to communicate.
SIP message is very similar to HTTP.

Much of the syntax in message headers and many HTTP codes are
re-used.
For example, the error code for an address not found, 404, is identical to the Webs.
A SIP address, such as sip:guest@sipcenter.com, has the exact structure as an email
address.

Using SIP, service providers can freely choose among standards-based

components and quickly harness new technologies.
Users can locate and contact one another regardless of media content and
numbers of participants.
SIP negotiates sessions so that all participants can agree on and modify
session features.
It can even add, drop or transfer users.
49

SIP is not a cure-all

It is neither a session description protocol, nor does it provide
conference control.
To describe the payload of message content and
characteristics, SIP uses the Internets Session Description
Protocol (SDP) to describe the characteristics of the end
devices.
SIP also does not itself provide Quality of Service (QoS) and
interoperates with the Resource Reservation Setup Protocol
(RSVP) for voice quality.
It also works with a number of other protocols,

Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) for location,

Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) for authentication
RTP for real-time transmissions,
among many others.
50

SIP: basic requirements in communications

1.
2.
3.
4.

User location services

Session establishment
Session participant management
Limited feature establishment
An important feature of SIP is that it does not define the type
of session that is being established, only how it should be
managed.
This flexibility means that SIP can be used for an enormous
number of applications and services, including:
interactive gaming,
music and video on demand
voice, video and Web conferencing.

51

SIP features
Below is are some of other SIP features that distinguish it among new
signaling protocols
Messages are text based and hence are easy to read and debug.

Programming new services is easier and more intuitive for designers.

Re-uses MIME type description in the same way that email clients do, so
applications associated with sessions can be launched automatically.
Re-uses several existing and mature internet services and protocols such as
DNS, RTP, RSVP etc.

No new services have to be introduced to support the SIP infrastructure.

Extensions are easily defined, enabling service providers to add them for new
applications without damaging their networks.
Older SIP-based equipment in the network will not impede newer SIP-based
services.

For example, an older SIP implementation that does not support

method/ header utilized by a newer SIP application would simply ignore it.

52

SIP features
Below is are some of other SIP features that distinguish it
among new signaling protocols
Is transport layer independent. Therefore:
The underlying transport could be IP over ATM.
SIP uses UDP as well as TCP protocol, flexibly connecting users
independent of the underlying infrastructure.

Supports multi-device feature levelling and negotiation.

If a service or session initiates video and voice, voice can still be
transmitted to non-video enabled devices, or other device features can be
used such as one way video streaming.

53

The Anatomy of a SIP Session

SIP sessions utilize up to four major components:

SIP User Agents

SIP Registrar Servers
SIP Proxy Servers
SIP Redirect Servers.

Together, these systems deliver messages embedded with the SDP protocol
defining their content and characteristics to complete a SIP session.
SIP User Agents (UAs)
Are the end-user devices, such as cell phones, multimedia handsets, PCs,
PDAs, etc. used to create and manage a SIP session.
The UA Client initiates the message. The UA Server responds to it.
SIP Registrar Servers
Are databases that contain the location of all UAs within a domain.
In SIP messaging, these servers retrieve and send participants IP addresses
and other pertinent information to the SIP Proxy Server.

54

The Anatomy of a SIP Session

SIP Proxy Servers
Accept session requests made by a SIP UA and query the SIP
Registrar Server to obtain the recipient UAs addressing
information.
It then forwards the session invitation directly to the recipient
UA if it is located in the same domain or to a Proxy Server if the
UA resides in another domain.
SIP Redirect Servers
Allow SIP Proxy Servers to direct SIP session invitations to
external domains.
SIP Redirect Servers may reside in the same hardware as SIP
Registrar Severs and SIP Proxy Servers.
55

Establishing A SIP Session Within the Same Domain

56

Establishing A SIP Session In Dissimilar Domains

57

58

VB
H.225
H.225
H.225E
H.235
H.323 SET
H.245
H.450
H.460
H.261
H.263
Q.931
RAS
RTCP
RTP
T.38
T.125

Digital Video Broadcasting

Covers narrow-band visual telephone services
Annex G
Security and authentication
Negotiates channel usage and capabilities
Series defines Supplementary Services for H.323, call transfer, hold,
park, message waiting, etc.
Optional extensions that might be implemented by an endpoint or a
Gatekeeper, including ITU-T Recommendations NAT/Firewall traversal.
Video stream for transport using the real-time transport
Bitstream in the Real-time Transport Protocol
manages call setup and termination
Manages registration
RTP Control protocol
Real-Time Transport
IP-based fax service maps
Multipoint Communication Service Protocol (MCS).
59

H.323 standard

The H.323 standard provides a foundation for audio, video, and data
communications across IP-based networks, including the Internet.
H.323 is an umbrella recommendation from the ITU that sets standards for
multimedia communications over LANs that do not provide a guaranteed
QoS.
Therefore, the H.323 standards are important building blocks for a broad
new range of collaborative, LAN-based applications for multimedia
communications. It includes parts of :

H.225.0 - RAS, Q.931, H.245 RTP/RTCP and audio/video codecs, such as the audio codecs
(G.711, G.723.1, G.728, etc.) and video codecs (H.261, H.263) that compress and
decompress media streams.
Media streams are transported on RTP/RTCP.

RTP carries the actual media and

RTCP carries status and control information.

The signalling is transported reliably over TCP.

It is a part of the ITU-T H.32x series of protocols, which also address

multimedia communications over ISDN, PSTN or SS7, and 3G Mobile.

60

Codecs
H.323 utilizes both ITU-defined codecs and codecs defined
outside the ITU.
Codecs that are widely implemented by H.323 equipment
includes:
Audio codecs: G.711 (64kbps per call), G.729 (including G.729a, 8kbps
per call), G.723.1, G.726
Text codecs: T.140
Video codecs: H.261, H.263, H.264

The main feature of codecs is the bandwidth that the can safe
mantaining a good quality of video, audio, etc..

61

H.323 Architecture
The H.323 system defines several network elements that work
together in order to deliver rich multimedia communication
capabilities.
Those elements are

Terminals
Multipoint Control Units (MCUs)
Gateways
Gatekeepers
Border Elements.

Endpoints

While not all elements are required, at least two terminals are
required in order to enable communication between two
people.
In most H.323 deployments, a gatekeeper is employed in order
to, among other things, facilitate address resolution.
62

Terminals
The most fundamental elements in any H.323 system.
They might exist in the form of a simple IP phone, a powerful
high-definition videoconferencing system, or simply a PC
Inside an H.323 terminal is something referred to as a Protocol
stack, which implements the functionality defined by the H.323
system.
The protocol stack would include an implementation of the
basic protocol defined in ITU-T Recommendation H.225.0 and
H.245, as well as RTP or other protocols described above.
The diagram, depicts a complete, sophisticated stack that
provides support for voice, video, and various forms of data
communication.
In reality, most H.323 systems do not implement such a wide array of
capabilities, but the logical arrangement is useful in understanding the
relationships.
63

Terminals

64

Multipoint Control Units

A MCU is responsible for managing multipoint conferences and
is composed of two logical entities:
Multipoint Controller (MC)
Multipoint Processor (MP).

In more practical terms, an MCU is a conference bridge not

unlike the conference bridges used in the PSTN today.
The most significant difference, however, is that H.323 MCUs
might be capable of mixing or switching video, in addition to the
normal audio mixing done by a traditional conference bridge.
Some MCUs also provide multipoint data collaboration
capabilities.
End user by placing a video call into an H.323 MCU might be able to see
all of the other participants in the conference, not only hear their voices.

65

Gateways
Enable communication between H.323 networks and other
networks, such as PSTN or ISDN networks.
If one party in a conversation is not an H.323 terminal, then the call must
pass through a gateway in order to enable both parties to communicate.

Gateways are widely used to:

Enable the legacy PSTN phones to interconnect with the large,
international H.323 networks that are presently deployed by services
providers.
Used within the enterprise in order to enable enterprise IP phones to
communicate through the service provider to users on the PSTN.
Enable videoconferencing devices based on H.320 and H.324 to
communicate with H.323 systems.
Most of the third generation (3G) mobile networks deployed today utilize the
H.324 protocol and are able to communicate with
H.323-based terminals in corporate networks through such gateway devices.

66

Gatekeepers
Optional component in the H.323 network that provides
services to terminals, gateways, and MCU devices.

Endpoint registration
Address resolution
Admission control
User authentication, and so forth.

Address resolution is the most important task as it enables two

endpoints to contact each other without either endpoint having
to know the IP address of the other endpoint.
Gatekeepers may be designed to operate in one of two
signaling modes:
Direct routed mode
Gatekeeper routed mode.

67

Gatekeepers
Direct routed mode. Most efficient and most widely deployed.
Endpoints utilize the RAS protocol in order to learn the IP address of the
remote endpoint and a call is established directly with the remote device.

Gatekeeper routed mode. In this mode, call signaling always passes through the gatekeeper.
Requires more processing power
Gives the gatekeeper complete control over the call and the ability to
provide supplementary services on behalf of the endpoints.
H.323 endpoints use the RAS protocol to communicate with a
gatekeeper.
Likewise, gatekeepers use RAS to communicate with other gatekeepers.

A collection of endpoints that are registered to a single

Gatekeeper in H.323 is referred to as a zone.
68

Border Elements and Peer Elements

Border Elements and Peer Elements are optional entities similar to

a Gatekeeper, but:
Do not manage endpoints directly
Provide some services that are not described in the RAS protocol.
The role of a border or peer element is understood via the definition of an
"administrative domain".

An administrative domain is the collection of all zones that are

under the control of a single organization, such as a service
provider.
The border element is a signaling entity that generally sits at the
edge of the administrative domain and communicates with another
administrative domain.
Peer elements are entities with the administrative domain that,
more or less, help to propagate information learned from the border
elements throughout the administrative domain.
Such architecture is intended to enable large-scale deployments.
69

Border Elements and Peer Elements

70

71

NGN: Next Generation Networking

NGN is a broad term to describe some key architectural evolutions

in telecommunication core and access networks that is being
deployed and will revolution the networking over the next 5-10
years.
The general idea behind NGN is that one network transports all
information and services (voice, data, and all sorts of media such
as video) by encapsulating these into packets, like it is on the
Internet.
NGNs are commonly built around the Internet Protocol, and
therefore the term "all-IP" is also sometimes used to describe the
transformation towards NGN.
Next Generation Networking ensures telecom services are
always accessible anywhere via any type of terminal.

72

NGN Characteristics
The following characteristics are fundamental to NGN:
Packet-based data transfer
Separate control functions for bearer capabilities, calls/sessions and
applications/services
De-coupling of service provision from the network, and provision of open
interfaces
Support for a wide range of service applications and mechanisms based
on service building blocks (including real-time/streaming/non-real-time
services and multi-media)
Broadband capabilities with end-to-end QoS and transparency
Interworking with legacy networks via open interfaces
Generalized mobility
Unfettered access by users to different service providers

73

NGN Characteristics
The following characteristics are fundamental to NGN:
A variety of identification schemes that can be resolved to IP addresses
for the purposes of routing in IP networks
Unified service characteristics for the same service as perceived by the
user
Converged services between Fixed and Mobile networks
Independence of service-related functions from underlying transport
technologies
Support of multiple last mile technologies
Compliant with all Regulatory requirements (e.g. concerning emergency
communications and security/privacy, etc.)

74

Underlying Technology Components

NGN are based on Internet technologies including IP and MPLS.

At the application level, SIP seems to be taking over from H.323.
Initially H.323 was the most popular protocol, though its popularity
decreased in the "local loop" due to its original poor traversal of
NAT and firewalls (now possible for H.323 devices to easily and
consistently traverse NAT and firewall).
For this reason as domestic VoIP services have been developed,
SIP has been far more widely adopted.
However in voice networks where everything is under the control of
the network operator or telco, many of the largest carriers use
H.323 as the protocol of choice in their core backbones.
So really SIP is a useful tool for the "local loop" and H.323 is like
the "fiber backbone".

75

Underlying Technology Components

For voice applications one of the most important devices in NGN is a

Softswitch - a programmable device that controls VoIP calls.
It enables correct integration of different protocols within NGN.
The most important function of the Softswitch is creating the interface to the
existing telephone network, PSTN, through Signalling Gateways (SG) and Media
Gateways (MG).

One may quite often find the term Gatekeeper in NGN literature.
This was originally a VoIP device, which converted (using gateways) voice and
data from their analog or digital switched-circuit form (PSTN, SS7) to the packetbased one (IP).
It controlled one or more gateways.
As soon as this kind of device started using the Media Gateway Control Protocol
(and similars), the name was changed to Media Gateway Controller (MGC).

A Call Agent is a general name for devices/systems controlling calls.

The IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) is a standardised NGN
architecture for an Internet media-services capability.
76

NGN Facts
Impacts of NGN
NGN has numerous impacts on the telecom industry, not least of
which is the requirement to conform to NGN standards and to
support
NGN-compatible technologies.
Evolution of Networks to NGN
The ITU-T states: The evolution of networks to NGNs must allow
for the continuation of, and interoperability with, existing networks
while in parallel enabling the implementation of new capabilities.
As NGN deployment is an evolutionary process, with numerous
networks being launched from various technological positions, it is
necessary to clearly identify stages of NGN compatibility or lack
thereof.
In this regard, the NGN Enabled logo makes a great deal of sense.

77

NGN Facts
QoS (Quality of Service)
There are no standard QoS criterion in the industry and it is best defined as
a subjective measure of user satisfaction (e.g. speed, accuracy, reliability,
and security).
This involves identification of parameters that can be directly observed and
measured where the service is accessed by users and network providers.
Flexibility within the global end-to-end NGN architecture is essential in order
to allow for each recognized operating agencys different regulatory
environment, service offerings, geographic span and network infrastructure.
These factors need to be taken into account when setting parameters for,
and levels of, QoS in NGN.
Interoperability
NGN includes a wide range of protocols (including various profiles) at both
service and network levels.
Thus it is essential to ensure interoperability between different systems and
networks. Interoperability is, in fact, a corner stone for the OSS industry
regarding NGN.
78

NGN Facts
Security
Security is as crucial to the NGN as it is to current and legacy
network environments.
Within the NGN, security issues interrelate to architecture, QoS,
network management, mobility, charging and payment.
Generalized Mobility
NGN enables users and devices to access services irrespective of
change of location or technical environment.
The degree of service availability may depend on several factors,
including access network capabilities, service level agreements
between the users home networks and visited networks, etc.
It includes the ability to communicate from various locations using a
variety of terminal equipment, with or without service continuity while
in transit or while changing access means.
79

NGN Facts
Service Capabilities and Architecture
NGN should provide and maintain a distinction between
services and the networks they run on, and ensure the
service architecture focuses on the interfaces to support
different business models and seamless communication in
different environments.
Lastly, NGN must support critical legacy technologies (i.e.
PSTN) as they evolve to fully compatible NGN technologies.

80

NGN Facts

81

Mayor informacin
IMAGINAR
Centro de Investigacin para la Sociedad de
la Informacin
P.O.Box: 17-04-10681
Quito-Ecuador
Telfono: 2400-937
Email: info@imaginar.org
Site: www.imaginar.org

82