ARCHITECTURAL

UTILITIES 3
LIGHTING AND ACOUStiCS
THE NEW LADDER
TYPE CURRICULUM

GEORGE SALINDA SALVAN

fuap

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

College of Engineering and Architecture

Baguio CoMeges Foundation 1980-1988
First and lone graduate of B.S. Architecture, 1963
North of Manila, St. Louis University Baguio City
Former instructor 1965-1969 at St. Louis University
Recipient of various ACE certificates, Architects Continuing
Education Program
A licensed Architect, active practitioner and
a licensed building constructor, inventor and a board topnotcher.
Past president of United Architects Phils. Bagu io Chapter 1982 and 1983
Elected National Director; UAP, Regional D.istrict I for the year 1987.
Conferred the title of " FELLOW" United Architects Phils.
Colege of Fellows, October, 1988

JMC PRESS~ INC.

388 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City

Philippine Copyright 1999 by:

: :
,.
and

JMC PREss: INC: -

GEORGES. SALVAN
All ri ghts reserved.

No part of this t?ook may be reproduc;ed In any .

manner wlthOot pef'mjssion of the put)lish'er.

REVISED EDITION
ISBN: 971-11-1028-8
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....
'

..

Dedicated to all future

Architects and Engineers
The hope for a functional, comfortable
and convenient designs for better living.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this book was made into reality through the patient and consistent cooperation and efforts of my draftsmen and BCF graduates in architecture, Mr. Rey Puno for
heading the overall layout and paste-up dummies and his assistants, Mr. Jerry Jun Suyat
and Edgar Peralta, who spent sleepless nights to meet this deadline.
Special thanks are also acknowledged to Mr. Roy Pagador, who designed the cover page
and to Frederick Palasi who designed the chapter covers.
To the ones who lent unselfishly their Books, like Dean Avelino Cruz of the Baguio Colleges
Foundation Engineering and Architecture department, and most especially to Mr. Val S.
Gutierez who lent his acoustical Design for architects Book.
To the ladies, Miss Reesa Angela Palaganas, Teresa Cuares and Imelda Dumasi, who helped
in the typing of the lengthy manuscripts and who also helped in the proofreading of the
texts, with Mr. Fiorito Amon.
To Mr. Luis V . Canave, who guided me on the complete process of publishing and printing a
book, and to Mr. FranCisco C. Mali.csi, Teresita G. Espinoza, Eduardo C. Villanueva and
Paraides G. Aragones for their untiring cooperation in preparing the manuscripts in com
puterized typesetting.
To the many students of architecture whose curiosity and interest in lighting and acoustics
to be in a book form have been a source of inspiration.
And lastly the author wants to acknowledge his heavy indebtedness to the various authors
listed in the Bibliography.

PREFACE

Ar~l~tural acoustics and lighting is an exact science and practical art. The architect who
oas..;a .working knpwledge of these subjects can plan adequately for .t he acoustics and
lighting o(the buildings he designs. It is .the purpose of this book to present t~e working
principles of this .science and art in a simple, useful, and convenient form. Architectural designing based on these principles wiU ,assure the constr.uction of rooms and buildings which
are fr~e. from disturbing glare I')Oises and whi~h provide the optimum conditions for reading,
produqi~and listening to either speech or music. Functional acoustical and lighting design
demands scientific, aesthetic, and practical planning.

Acoustical designing in architecture begins with the preliminary sketches on the dratting
board and continues throughout all stages of planning and construction. Good acoustics will
be assured in the buildings an architect designs if he has an understanding of the
technological principles of architectural acoustics and knows how to apply them.
For many years an artificial dichotomy existed in the field of lighting design, dividing it into
two disciplines: architectural lighting and utilitarian design the former trend found expression in architectural building design that took little cognizance of vision needs, but that displayed an inordinate penchant for incandescent wall washers and architectural lighting
elements while regarding the added-on utilitarian lighting with partially justified asperity. The
latter, trend saw all spaces in terms of room or cavity ratios and designed lighting with
foocandles and f inancial consideration (peso or dollar) as the ruling considerations. That
both these trends have in large measure been eliminated is due in large measure to the work
of the Illuminating Engineering Society liES}, and its members and new found energy consciousness that followed the 1973 arab oil Embargo. The latter spurred research into satisfying real vision need within a framework of minimal energy use, and convinced architects that
in addition to seeing the building, it must be possible to see within the building. The architectural designer must then take cognizance of these factors:

1. The manifold ramifications of daylighting

2. The intimate interrelation between the energy aspects of artificial and natural
lighting, heating and cooling.

3. The effect of lighting needs on interior space arrangement, for example, the
desirability of grouping similar lighting requirement tasks.

4. The characteristics, means of generation, effects, and utilization techniques of artificial lighting.
As a result of the need to consider these and other interrelated factors, many of which are
mutually incompatible, the architect is faced with many tread-off type decisions. The purpose of this book is then twofold: to provide the background that will help the architect
make these decisions correctly and to make him or her proficient in the use of lighting as a
design material.
This book is intended as a practical guide to good acoustical and lighting design in architecture. It is written primarily for architects, students of architecture, and all others who wish a
non-mathematical but comprehensive treatise on this subjects. Useful design data have
been presented in such a manner that the text can serve as a convenient handbook in thP.
solution of most problems encountered in architectural acoustics and lighting.
vii

This book is compased of two sections. The first section discusses about "Acoustics" and is
further divided into two parts. The general principles and procedures on which all acoustical
designing sliould be based considered in chapters 1 to 10 specific applications of these principles and procedures are described in chapter 11 these applications include the design of
auditoriums, theatres, school buildings, commercial and public buildings, homes, apartments and hotels, churches, radio and television, sound-recording studios.
The second section discussed "LIGHTING" and is also further divided into two parts The
general principles and procedures lightsources on which all the lighting designing should be
based are considered in chapters 12 to 15. Specific applications of these principle$ and procedures are described in chapter 16. These applications include the lighting applications on
Residential occupancies, Institutional and Educational buildings, Commercial Interiors, Industrial lighting, and other Design Topics such as Automatic energy control, Emergency
lighting. Building retrofit, Roodlighting and Streetlighting. A :short discussion follows on
Disco-lighting.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART 1 ACOUSTICS .
Chapter

FUNDAMENTALS OF ARCHITECTURAL
ACOUSTICS .............................................. .-:... ..... ... ... .. ...... .....

Sound Theory, 2
General, 2
Wl'lat iS Sound, 2
Propagation of Sound, 4
Velocity of Propagation, 5
Speed of Sound. 5
Frequency, 6
Wavelength, 8
Wave Form, 10
Sound magnitude; 12
Sound pressure, 12
Acoustical power, 14
Sound Intensity, 14
Intensity level, the Decibel; 18

Chapter

Chapter

HUMAN RESPONSETO SOUND

SOUND SOURCES ................................................................. .

23

How we hear, 24
Sensitivity of the ear, 26
Sound pressure level, 27
Loudness level, Phon scale, 31
The Sone Scale, 33
Sound Fields in an Enclosed Space, 35
Sound Power and Preuure levels in Free Space, 39
Other Factors in Hearing, 40
Effects of Noise on Hearing, 41
Calculation of Masking Spectra from Sound-Pressure Spectra, 42
Loudness. Calculations for a Case of Typical Room Noise, 46

Directionality of Sound Sources, 48

Speech and Music, 49

Noise, Music and Speech, 49

Speech; 51
Speech Power, 53
Other Sounds, 56 . .
Properties of Musical Sounds, 56
Effects of a Room on Speech and Music, 58
Noise Criteria, 60
Negative effects of noiee, 60
Noise and Annoyance, 60

ix

47

Chapter .

ACOUSTICS ..! .. ......... . . . ... . . : :. . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

Sound in Enclosures, 66
Sound Absorption, 66
Reverberation, 07
Reflection and Diffraction of Sound in Rooms, 69
Ref1ectioo of -Sound, 70

Diff~;of Soim<t.

'11-

"

Diffraction of Sound Transmitted through Openings, 73

Diffraction of Sound from Reflective and Absorptive Surfac~s. 74
Criteria ~~or-~peech Rooms, 76
Criteria for Music Performance,
Ray Diagrams and Sound Paths, 79 :.-:. . : ! ,

Chapter

ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES OF .BUJlOING .

MATERIALS .............. ....... :.... ..... .-....... ......... ;.. .........................

f57

Absorption, 88
How Sound is Absorbed, 88
Mechanics of Absorption, 89
Absorptive Materials, 92
Types of Acoustical Materials, 93
Prefabricated Acoustical Units, 93
Acoustical Plaster and Sprayed-on Materials, 100
Acoustical Blankets, 101
Perforated Facings, 102
Mounting Acoustical Materia~ . 103Absorption by Patches of Materials, 106
Special Sound-AbS()rptive Gonstructions, 107
panel absorbers, 107
draperies, 107
variable absorbers, 107
suspended absorbers, 109

Chapter

ACOUSTICAL DESfGN OF ROOMS ........... .................. ......... .

11 1

Planning for Good Acoustics, 112

Requirements for Good Acoustics, 112
Design of Room Shape, 114
Floor -Ptan, 114
Elevation of Seats, 116
Cejijngs, 117
Side Walls, 119
Rear Walls, 119
Balcony recess, 121
Volume Per Seat, 123
.
Control of Reverberation Characteristics, .123.

Chapter

SOUND REINFORCEMENT SYS:f.EMS- <-~.:. : ..-, .................... ..

Objectives and Criteria; 130
Components:and Specifications; 130
!nput Devices, 130
Amplifier and Controls, 130
Loudspeakers, 132
Loudspeaker Considerations, 133
)(

129

Chapter

Chapter

NOISE CONTROL ......................................................... ; ........... . .

AIR-BORNE NOISE REDUCTION

Chapter

Chapter

10

11

12

145

Principles of Noise Reduction, 146

Howsound is Transmitted, 147
Transmission Tlirough Openings, 150
Sound Transmission Loss Tl and noise Reduction NR, 150
Rigid Partitions, 152

Compound Wall Construction (cavity waHs), 153

Windows and Doors, 154
Noise Insulation Requirements, 156
Flanking, 158
.
Sound-Insulation Data (Examples). 160
Noise Reduction. by Sound-Absorptive Treatm~nt. 162
Absorption Recommendations, 171

Chapter

137

Introduction, 138
Noise in BuildingS, 139
Outdoor Noise, 140
Acceptable Noise levels -In Buildings, 141
Siting and Planing Against Noise, 142
Grading and Landscaping, 142
Building Layout, 142

. :;

SOLID-BORNE SOUND REDUCTION

Reduction of SoW~-8orne Noise, 176
Floors and Ceilings, 116
Floating Floors, 181
Control of Impact Noise, 183
Mechanical System Noise Control, 187
Quieting of Machines, 187
Building Siting, 192
Room Arrangement, 194

175

. ..

AUDITORIUMACOUSTICS ............. ......................................

195

Auditorium Design, 196 .

Room Acoustics, 197
Planning the Auditorium, 198
The Little Theater, 199
The legitimate Center, 206
Motion Picture Theaters, 209
School Auditoriums, 212
Civic Auditoriums, 215

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTlNG .....:1 - . -

Light as Radiant Energy, 218
Fundamental Laws of Ligh~ .219
Terminology and Definitions, 221
Considerations of Lighting Quality, 2Z7
Direct Glare, 2Z1 .
Reflected Glare, 228
Control of Reflected Glare, 235
Patterns of Luminance, 241

xi

217

Chapter

13

LIGHT SOURCES ..... ......... ........ .................... ........... .................

245.

General Remarks, 246

Daylighting, 247
Characteristics of Outdoor Illumination, 248
Factors in Interior Oaylighting, 254
Incandescent Lamps, 261
Construction, 261
Operating Characteristics, 2e6

Other Characteristics, 266

Advantages and .Disadvantages, 268
.
Special Incandescent lamps, i(lcluding Tungsten~Halogen,
Reflector Lamps, 269 .

Interference (Dichroic) Filters, 272

Low Voltage lamps, V2
KrYpton Gas, 273
~nergy .Saving Lamps, 273
Tungsten-Halogen (Quartz) lamp, 273
Fluorescent Lamps. 275
Preheat lamps, 276
rapid start ,lamp, 2n
. lr:t5tant Start Fluorescent ~njps, .200
Characteristics and Operation, 281 . .
Special Fluoresce.n t lamps, 284
U-shaped Lamps, 284
Reflector and Aperture Lamp, 285 .
Energy Conserving i..arr\ps, 286.
Neon Lamps, 287
High-Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps; '2137
Mercury Lamps, 287

Lamp Desi'gnations, 288

Lamp Life, 288
Color Correction, 288
Ballasts, 289
Dimming, 289
Application, 289
Special Mercury lamps, 289
Metal Halide lamps, 290
High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lamps, 290
Low Pressure Sodium Lamps, 291

Chapter

14

268

LIGHTING DESIGN .......................: ......... ... ... ....................... .

Goals of a Lighting Design, 294
Lighting Design Procedure, 294
..
Energy Considerations, 297
Design Guidelines, 2!!fl
Preliminary Design, 301 .
J
'
Illumination Methods, 30 '
General Lighting, 304
Local and Supplementary lighting; 304
Combined General and Local Lighting, 305
Types of Lighting System, 306
Indirect Ughttng, 306
Semi-indirect lighting,- 308
<#

xii

.'

293

General Diffuse and Direct-Indirect Lighting, 309

Semi-Direct Lighting, 31~
Direct lighting, 313
Size and Pattern ofLuminances, 317

Chapter

Chapter

15

DETAILED LIGHTING DESIGN PROCEDURES

16

LIGHTING APPLICATION

325

Design Decisions,.. 326

Direct-lighting Luminsire Characteristic, 326
Lighting Fixture Distribution Characteristics, 330
Uniformity of IUumination, 331
Luminaire Mounting ,Height 334
Lighting Fixtures, 335
Lighting Fixture Construction, 335
Lighting Fixture Installation. 336
Standards for Recessed Fluorescent Luminaires, 337
luminaire Diffusing Elements, 338
Light Loss Factor (LLF) in lumen CalculatiOns; 351
Zonal Cavity Calculation Method; 352
Illustrative Examples. 358

Residential lighting, 366.

Energy Considerations, :,366
Sources, 366
Recommendations, 368
Fixtures and luminous Elements. 370
Architectural lighting Elements, 373
Portable Lighting, 378
Decorativ9 Lamps, 378
Floor Cans, 378
Picture Ligths. 379
Portable Spots, 379
General Lighting, 379
Incandescent Wall Lighting, 382
Fluorescent Wall Lighting, 385
Recessed Lighting, 387
Tracklighting, 389
Accent Lighting, 392
Educational Facilities, 405
Institutional Buildings, 405
Art Rooms, 410
Assembly Rooms, Auditoriums, 410
Gymnasium Lighting, 412
Classrooms, 412
Lecture Hall lighting, 416
Laboratory Lighting, 416
Library lighting, 417
Specialty Room Lighting, 420
Corridors and Stairways, 420
Commercial Interiors, 421
Office lighting, 421
Non-uniform' Office lighting Design Using
Ceiling-mounted units, 426

xiii

365

Non-uniformOffice lighting Using Fumlture-lntegrated

Luminaires, 430
lntegtated and Modular Ceilings, 435
Lighting and Air-conditioning~ 440
Industrial lighting, 440
11"idu6tri61 lillttting Levels and Soorces, 440.
!
Industrial ~ Brightness ratios, 44 ~
lndoltrial.l.jgheing Glare, 442
.
tnduMfial Ughting Equipment. 443
Vertical Surface tlumil'\eltion, 445
Special Ughting Application Topics,. 446
Emecgeucy lighting. 446
Building Retrofit; 450.
Aoodlighting, 451
Streedighting, 454
Disco-lighting, 460
lighting Summary, 461
Types of lighting, 463
Down lights, 463
Uplights, 464
Spotlights, 464
Conventional lights, 466
Fluorescent lighting, 401
lighting Different Areas, 474

Insulation and Sound-Proofing, 483

Bibliography. -499
.

'

. . .; .

xiv

..

:. :

SOUND THEORY

General

Architectural acoustics may be defined as the technology of designing spaces, structures, and mechanical systems to meet hearing needs. With proper design, "wanted"
sounds can be heard properly and "unwanted" sounds or "noise", can be attenuated to
the point where it does not cause annoyance. However, achieving good acoustics has
becom~ increasingly more difficult for a variety of reasons. To cut costs. the weight of
construCtion materials used in many of today's buildings is reduced. Since light structures generally transmit more sound than heavy ones. this practice poses major
acoustical problems. Forty percent or more of a building budget may be allocated for
mechanical systems-most .of which makes noise. Outside noise sources such as cars,
trucks, trains, and airplanes present problems in isolating interior spaces from exterior
sound.
All acoustics situations have three common elements- source, transmission path, and
receiver. The source can be made louder or quieter and the path can be made to transmit
more or less sound. The listener' s reception of sound also may be influenced.

Whatis Sound?

Sound is a physical wt!Ne, or a mechanical vibration. or simply a series of pressure variations, in an elastic medium. For airborne sound, the medium is air. For structure-borne
sound the medium is concrete_. steel, wood, glass and combinations of all of these.
For architects, we simply define sound as an auclbte signal. This does not mean that
subsonic or supersonic signals are not sound, nor does it mean that we are taking a stand
on the existential question -of whether unheard sound exists. It simply means that the
science of architectural acoustics is concerned with the building occupants, and sounds
which he or she cannot detect are generally nor our concern.
To further clear the air, it is always assumed that the hearer has a pair of healthy young
ears with a detection range of 20 to 20,000 Hz. With the~ givens, It is probably best to
view sound as a series of pressme variations. In air,>ttaeS"e pressure variations take the
form of periodic compressions and rarefactions.

-~, ..
~.:

Figure of Sound Pressure Waves

Ranfaction~

......I

--------.,..;;~

r[;:l:~i:flj:~;l:ftli
r

~~on

~JH-.fmJI-H'-----r----. Com~on.L.---""

Rarification

Period (time)
Waefength ldistributionl

-~Amplitude
Atmospheric

Vibtatin9 bel

Compression-~

Direction of

Section 1-1

(a) This is a continuous vibration that causes a series of compressions and

rarefactions to travel outward longitudinally from the source. Amplitude information is carried by pressure, that is, greater amplitude means greater
compression and greater rarefaction.

Loud

J\

Soft

/\
1o

Atmospheric
preuure

111111111!: : ; i Ill i11111!;!11::! :; : ; i !!Ill ! I i !

i ,; 'I
l i;~ ! IIi
: ~ : .: . ~

(b)

"C Sound

pulse
Travel

(b) Two single impulses of different magnitude (amplitude) are shown traveling
away from the source. Note how amplitude information is carried by difference in pressure.

The bell radiates a pure tone in 8&1 directions llqually, that is, it creates a pure tone in all
directions equally, that is, it creates a circular wave front. As the bell vibrates it sets up
vibrations in the air, of the same frequency, which can best be seen in the sectional view.
Notice that the pressure changes containing the sound information travel in the same
direction as the wave front-longitudinally. This is unlike a radio signal for instance in
which the wave travels longitudinally but the information, that is, the wave height and
shape, is transverse. Sound is therefore longitudinal mechanical wave motion.

Propagation of Sound

A falling tree generates sound. This is a physical disturbance, or an alteration or pulsation of pressure of being detected by a normal ear by traveling through air. In any case,
a medium possesing inertia and elasticity is needed to propagate it. Sound waves do
not travel through a vacuum.
The auditory sensation produced by sound waves will be called sound sensation. The
crashing tree produces a sound sensation only when an ear hears it.
Sound has its origin in vibrating bodies. A plucked violin string or a struck tuning fork can
actually be seen to vibrate. In the sounding board of a piano and the paper cone of a loud
speaker, as in most other sound sources, the amplitude of vibration is too small to be
observed visually but ofteri the vibration can be felt with the finger tips, consider a body
vibrating in air. As it moves in an outward direction, it pushes a "layer" of aircrlt>hg with
it; this layer of air is compressed, and its density and temperature are correspondingly increased. Since the pressure of this layer is higher than that in the undisturbed surrounding atmoshpere, the particles (that is, the Molecules) in it tend to move in the outward
direction and transmit their motion to the next layer, and so on. As the vibrating body
moves inward, the layer of air adjacent to it is rarefied. This layer of rarefaction follows
the layer of compression in the outward direction, and at the same speed; the succession
of outwardly traveling layers of compression and rarefaction is called wave motion. The
speed of propagation is determined by the compressibility and density of the medium-the
less the compressibility of the medium and the less its density, the faster will the wave
motion be propagated.
The changes in pressure, density, and temperature due to the passage of the sound wave
through air are usuaHy extremely smatl. For examp4e, the effective sound pressure, the
root-mean-square of the pressure varietions, in the air 3 feet from a trumpet is about 9
dynes per square centimeter. This means that the pressure fluctuations are only about
nine millionths of the normal atmospheric pressure, which is 1. 01 x 1()6 dynes per
square centimeter, or 14.7 pounds per square inch (see appendix for conversion factors
of units)

Velocity of Propagation

Sound travels at different velocities depending upon the medium. In air, at sea level,
sound velocity is 344m/sec or 1130 fps. This corresponds to 770 miles per hour (mph)
or 4 78 kilometers per hour (kmph) - slow indeed when compared to light at 186,000
miles per second. Since sound travels not only in air but also through parts of the structure it is of interest to know the velocities in other ~edia. Sound travels much faster in
liquids and solids than it does in air.

Sound Propagation Velocity in Various Media

Medium
Air
Water
Wood
Brick
Concrete
Steel
Glass
Aluminum

Velocity
Meters per Second
Feet per Second
344
1130
4625
1410
10,825
3300
3600
11,800
12,100
3700
4900
16,000
5000
16,400
19,000
5800
at 22.2C

at 72F

Speed of Sound

As sound travels much slower than speed of light, the resulting defects in many rooms
are echoes and reverberations. Experimental data show that when the reflected sounds
which reach an observer are delayed more than about 0.058 second, relative to direct
sounds, they are distinguished as echoes. (sound travels approximately 65 feet in this
time interval.) Reverberation, as most simply interprttted, consists of successive reflections of sound in a room. and since sound travels only about 1130 feet or 344 meters
per second these usually will be a rather long succession of these reflections before the
sound dies away to inaudibility.

Thus we see that the speed of sound plays a significant role in architectural acoustics.
For all practical purposes in architectural acoustics, the speed of sound is independent of
frequency, intesity, and changes in atmoshperic pressure. Temperature does have a
significant effect on the speed, increasing tt about 1 . 1 feet or (3 centimeters} per second
per degree Fahrenheit rise in temperature. The dependence of the speed of sound on
temperature is one of the prime causes of the bending of sound rays in the atmosphere.
This bending (refraction) of sound waves sometimes affects the distribution of s<>und
reaching an audience, especially in open-air theatres.

The speed of sound in air is given by -"' 1.40 Ps/p

Ps = atmospheric pressure

e ""its density

The term velocity of sound is often used interchangeably_with speed of sound although,
strictly speaking, the two are not the same. Velocity includes both speed and direction of
propagation; velocity is speed in a specified direction; that is velocity is a vector quantity.
The direction of propagation is the direction of the advance of the wave, defined more accurately by the perpendicular to a wave front (surface of constant phase) of the advancing wave.

Frequency

The number of times the cycle of compression and rarefaction of air (or to and for vibrations that the source) makes in a given unit of time or 1 second is described as the frequency of a sound (or vjbration}. For example, if there are 1000 cycles in one second,.the
frequency of the sound is 1000 cps [1000 hertz (Hz} in the standard nomendature).
Thus, in the figure higher frequencies woutd be shown by compressions and rarefactions
that are closer together and lower frequencies by those that are further apart.

Loud

Soft

1\

J\

AtmoSPheric
P""Wfl

,, llllllllllliiiiJIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
'

111.1 111111 111 111; I!IIIIIIJilll!ll l ll

ill. l l \11

Sound pulse

Tr-1

(b)

hi sound. frequency is often referred to by a term borrowed from musical concepts pitch. The higher the frequency the higher the pitch. and vice versa. As stated, the approximate frequency range of a healthy young person's hearing is 20 to 20,000 Hz. This upper limit decreases w ith age as a result of a process called presbycusis. Recognition of
this phenomenon can be of importance to schools, since very high-pitched sounds that
are inaudible to most adults, can be a source of extreme annoyance to students.
The human speaking voice has a range of approximately 100 to 600Hz in fundamentals,
but harmonics (overtones) reach toapproximatety.7500 Hz. Most speech informat ion. is
carried in the upper frequencies while most energy exists in the lower frequencies while
most energy exists in the lower frequencies. The critical range of speech communication
is 300 to 4000 Hz. Overtones outside these frequencies give the voice its characteristic.s
sound . and specific identity.
A sound composed on only one frequency is a pure tone. Except for t he sound generated
by a tuning fork, few sounds are truly pure. Musical sounds are composed of a f~nda
mental frequency and integral multiples of the fundamental frequency (harmonics) . Most
common sounds are complex combinations of frequencies.
The source and the observer are at rest with respect to the medium - the usual assumption in room acoustics. Frequency is a physical phenomenon. It can be measured by instruments, and it is closely related to, but not the same as pitch - a psychological
phenomenon . Frequency is usually designated by a number followed by cycles per second or CPS .
Most common sounds are complex combinations of frequencies. The figure below
shows examples of pure tones, musical notes, and common sounds; (speech, music, and
noise), showing ttie variation of sound pressure with time and frequency .

ft f2 fa f, fe

(2ft) (3fJ.I (4ft) M>

f....-,
Tuni"' forti (pure tone)

Musical nota (combination of several pure tones)

The following figure shows the frequency ranges of some common devices and
phenomena . The frequencies shown in the figure all stand in the ratio of 2: 1 to each
other, that is-, 16 :32 :63:125 :250 and so on. Borrowing again from musical terminology,
they are one octave apart.

Frequeocv lhertzl and wavelength (em)

of common audio items
A$SUmed velocity: 344 mJSec

Piano
..._Middle

2H

4186

Pipe organ
Svmohony orchestra
Speech

Funclamentals

Overtones

Telephone
conversation

20

Hearing ran9e
Hi
Fi

..
(!

(!

5 5

"'~

s~

~8.

20,000

16,5 31.5
2200 1100

Hertz

:>., c:m

Figure of Frequency Ranges of Common Instruments.

Wavelength and Types of

Propagation

The wavelength of a sound may be defined as the distance between similar points on
successive waves or the distance the sound travels in one cycle of vibration, That is, in
1/second. is called its wavelength and is denoted by the Greek letter lambda ).. The reia
tionship between wavelength, frequency, and velocity of a sound is expressed as

or

where

).f

=c

>. ""' wavelength, in ft or M

c =velocity of sound, in fps or min/sec
f =frequency of sound Hz

Low-frequency sounds are characterized by long wavelengths and high-frequency

sounds by short wavelengths. Sounds with wavelengths ranging from Y:z inch to 50 feet
or 1.25 em to 15.25 m can be heard by humans. A simple nomograph is shown in the
figure, which permits rapid determination of wavelength given f requency, and vice versa.

Wavelength in

Frequency

feet and inches

113

in hertz

TO
15

56 -

20

- 50

30
22.6
11 .3

20

50
70
100

10

2.3

5
-4
3
2

200
300

Ike
Bin.
6 in.
4 in.

2 kc
3 kc

3.44

2.0

1.72

1.0

1 meter
69 em

0.5
0.4
0 .2

34 em
17cm

0.1

0.23

7 em

5 kc

2 in.

17.2

6.88
5.0
4.0
3.0

500

700

1.1
0.56

20
10

150
6.6

Wavelength
in meters
34.4

0.05

7 kc
10 kc

0 .11

3.4 em

Wave Form

The wave form of sound wave describes, by means of a graphical representation, the
precise nature of a complete to and-fro oscillation of the vibrating particles in a sound
field. Thus below is a graph of the simple harmonic wave form of the sound generated by
a gently struck tuning fork; it gives as the function of the time the instantaneous
displacement (plotted vertically) of a typical vibrating particle.

Sine Wave

each complete cycle in the sine wave graph corresponds to a complete cycle of the tuning fork or of the sound wave it generates. Although the displacements are represented
as transverse to the time axis, the actual displacements of the particles in the sound field
are parallel to the direction of propagation of the sound wave. that is. the wave motion is
longitudinaL

The wave forms of musical tones are somewhat more complicated. For example the next
figure shows the wave forms of sustained tones producedby a tuning fork, a violin and
an oboe. These records are for sustained musicaf tones of the same fundamental frequency and appro ximately the same amplitude of vibration. However, they differ
markedly in their wave forms. Although not simple harmonic. the wave forms for these
tones are periodic; they repeat at definite intervals. They are called complex waves in
contradistinction to simple harmonic waves. It is possible, by mathematical or instrumen.tal means, or both, to analyze complex wave forms, like those characteristic of the oboe
or any other instrument. into a series of simple harmonic vibrations. Thus, a complex
tone (or its graphical representation as a complex wave form) may be regarded as made
up of a series os Simple harmonic tones (or waves). Usually the frequencies of these component simple harmonic tones are integral multiples of the frequency of the fundamental
component. which is sometimes referred to as the gravest component.

10

TUNING FORK

VIOLIN

OBOE

11

Sound Magnitude
When we speak of sound magnitude, we think of loudness, which is a subjective, earoriented reaction not linearly related to the physical quantity of sound. The level (quantity) of sound pressure, sound pre$sure level (SPL), sound intensity, and sound intensity
level (ll), all of which are different from each other, and from subjective loudness. To
clearly understand these concepts, a comprehension of how we hear and how sound is
propagated in free space is necessary.

Sound Pressure
The most elementary type of vibration is that which has a single frequency and is called
simple harmonic motion. It is the form of vibration which characterizes a "pure" tone; for
example, that given by a good tuning fork which has been struck gently. The form of this
vibration and the corresponding form of the pressure variation which is propagated outwardly in the surrounding medium as a sound wave is shown in this figure .

Sine Wave

This is a sine wave; a curve having this shape can be obtained by plotting, on rectangular
coordinate paper, the sine of an angle against the angle itself. Thus a tone produced by a
simple harmonic sound source is often called a "pure" tone because it contains only one
frequency.
The total pressure in a sound field, at a specified point and instant of time t, is given by
the sum of the undisturbed atmospheric pressure Ps and the alternating pressure due to
the sound wave.

12

The latter is given by

P 8 sin (21rlt

+ 9

where:
P8

==maximum pressure amplitude

=frequency of vibration

=time
phase angle
when t==O

e ;: :

This particular (simple harmonic) type of wave motion is important because all sound
waves can be shown to be made up of a number of different simple harmonic waves. The
effective sound pressure P is the square root of the time average of the square Pa sin
(2tc ft + 9). The term sound pressure is generally used to designate the effective value of
the sound pressure. An extraordinarily small sound pressure can be detected by the ear.
The following figure indicates the pressure due to noise in various locations; it shows
that at the threshold of audibility the sound pressure is on 0 .0000000035 pound per
square inch.

SOUND

SOUND PR'e!ISURB PRE:ilUI1f

rm~

l~VEL

ucf4NNf'JN..IZ 'IH FRONT

N'/1> B ELOW MUZZLE

(e(Jli!VIILENT MJRNftl

1\TJ.~SfflERJt: PRESSURE}

l'tfRe.SHC:>LD <>P PAIN

NOI~Y

ELECTRIC POWER .SUBSTAne>l'f

Sl/8WAY ST/ITIC>N, .I:X~f:3.S TRI\IN PASSING

f:I.ECTRIC P<>~R .ST~T10N

VENTil~T I NO
E{~l/lPMf:NT
RO<>M f O R I../IRGc HOTEL
1\Vf:RAGI!': FAC"K->RY

AVERAGe RE:Sit>f:NCE WJllf RA.DK,

AUDIENCf: N<>l:SI!:. MOTIOI'C PICTWU: THfATER
{AVfR....Ce Rf.SIDI!NCE. WITH0VT RADIO

000
....._;;..
CI=
=::.'!:..&.....-0
;:;.....~ TH/t/!.SHOLD OF AYD/8/UTY

L..__ _

13

Acoustical Power
The rate of emission of acoustical energy from most sources of sound, and the corresponding pressures in their resulting sound fields, are verv small. For example, the
average acoustical power radiated by a person speaking in an auditorium is of the order
of 25 to 50 microwatts (a microwatt is one million of a watt). It would require, therefore,
no fewer than 1 5 ,000,000.such speakers to generate a single horsepower of acoustical
energy. With such minute amounts of sound power in unamplified speach. the resulting
sound pressure in an auditorium is correspondingly small; often the average sound
pressure is less than 0.1 dyne .per square centimeter. In contrast with the mere 50
microwatts output of a typical speaker, the acoustical power required for good hearing
conditions for speech throughout an auditorium, is 10,000 microwatts in a room having
a volume of about 100,000 cubic feet .
Most musical instruments radiate a somewhat greater power than does the average
human voice. The table below gives the approximate peak power for a number of typical
instruments. These values are small compared to the' 37~kilowatt acoustical power output of a large air-raid siren develOped during world war II.

The Approximate Peak Sound Power Output of Conversation Speech

and of Several Musical Instruments
(Bell Telephone laboratories)
Source

Peak Power in Watts

Conversationnl Speech female

male
Clarinet
Bass Viol
Piano
Trumpet
Trombone
Bass Drum , 0 .90 x 0.38
Orchestra, 75 pieces

0 .002
0.004
0.05
0.16
0.27
0.31
6.00

25.00
10 to 70

Sound Intensity
The sound intensity in a specified direction at a point in a sound f ield is defined as the rate
of flow of sound energy through a unit area at that point, the unit area being perpendicular to the specified direction. Sound Intensity is usually expressed in watts per square
centimeter.
As an illustration , we . shall calculate the ~ntensity 100 centimeter from the bell of a
clarinet. For low-frequency tones, the clarinet approximates a point source; that is, it
radiates sound nearly uniformly in all directions. (The sound waves from a perfect point
source, which is far from any reflecting surface are spherical.) let us assume that the
total power output W for a sustained tone from the clarinet is 0.002 watt. Since the area

14

Sofa sphere is 4'lr times the square of the radius; the area of a sphere 100 centimeters in
radius is 125,600 square centimeters. Thus the power passing through each square centimeters. Thus the power passing through each square centimeter of this sphere. flowing
in the outward directiot'l - the intensity I - is

I -~ = 0 .002 watt/125,600 cm 2 =1.59 x 1o-s watt/cm2

Since the area of a sphere increases as the square of its radius, we note that the intensity
of free3 sound waves originating at a point source diminishes inverse.ty as the square of
the distance from the source.
The sound intensity at any distance from the

sou~ce

is expressed also as

Where I =the sound intensity in w /cm2 or w / m 2

P = acoustic power in watts
A =area in cm 2 1m2 )

Since the sound radiates freely in all directions,

w/cm2

Where

= -

r is. the radius of an imaginary enclosing sphere (in English units this is

--'-P_ _

930

4..-2

w/ft2

since there are 930 cm 2 in one sq. ft.} The intensities at distances r 1 and r2 from the
source stand in the ratio of

15

which is the formula for the classic Inverse Square Law, stating that intensity is inverse
ly proportional to distance from the source.

Another figure below show graphically how a sound pulse is attenuated in strength
(but not in wave form) as it travels outward from the source by action of distance.
The threshold of hearing, that is, the minimum sound power intensity that a normal ear
can detect. is , o- 1 6 w/cm2 (actually the ear responds to pressure, as will be explained.
The maximum sound intensity that the ear can accept without damage is approximately 10-3 w/cm, this gives a range of 1013 or 10 million million to one 10,000,000,000,000: 11.

0...
0

~--..........___ _

Distance

16

The table below gives the reader an idea of the physical significance o f these numbers.
Two problems arise immediately when dealing w ith quantities of this type; t he numbers
themselves are very small and the ratios are very large. Furthermore. the human ear
responds logarithmitically, not arithmetically to sound pressure (and intensity); that is
doubling the intensity of a sound does not double its loudness - the change is barely
perceptible.

To solve these problems it w ould be much more convenient if we were to construct a

scale that:

a. Started at zero for the minimum sound !intensity or pressure) that we could
hear.
b. Used whole numbers rather than negative powers of 10.
c. Had some fixed relationship between an arithmetic difference and a loudness
change; say 10 units equals a doubling or (halving} of loudness. Thus. on
such a scale. the difference between 20 and 30, and 60 and 70, would
always be a doubling of loudness.

Such a scale is the decibel scale.

TABLE
Intensity
Level-

Intensity (w/cm21
Decimal
Notation

Exponential
Notation

0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
0.0000001
0. ()(X)()()00)1
0.00000000001
0.0000000000001
0.00000000000001
0.000000000000001
0.0000000000000001

10-3

Log~~rithmic

Notation

130 db
120 db
110 db
100 db
90 db
70db
50 db
30 db
20 db
10 db
0 db

10- 4
10-5
10- 6
10-7

10-9
10-11
10- 13
10- 14
10- 15
10- 16

17

Examples

Painful
75-piece orchestra
Shouting at 5 ft
Speech at 3ft.
Average office
Quiet unoccupied office
Rural ambient
Threshold of hearing

Intensity level (ll)

the Decibel (db)

The word "level" indicates a quantity relative to a base quantity. Intensity level is the
ratio between a given intensity and a base intensity. If we express intensity level as

IL =10 loglo

where:
IL = intensity level in decibles
= intensity in watts per square centimeter
10 = base, that is, 1016 w /cm2
(threshold of hearing)

then we have established a scale that satisfies the three conditions set forth in the
previous section. The quantity IL. intensity level. is dimensionless, since it indicates
simply a ratio between two numbers. It is measured in decibles (dbl for convenience in
expressing the large numbers involved. The previous table above show the great convenience of using the logarithmic decibel scale as compared to either decimal notation or
exponential notation. The table below gives a short listing of subjective loudness
changes expressed in db . Note that 10 db indicates a doubling of loudness, as specified;
20 db is loudness doubled twice, that is, four times as loud. The difference in db between
any two intensity levels, expressed as a function of these respective intensities, is

'2

,,

'o

lo

10 log - - 10 log 12

10 (log

A ll

= ll2 -

IL,

iO -

,,

log

iO)

12

10 log J,

Example: Two sound sources produce intensity levels of 50 and 60 db, respectively, at a point. When functioning simultaneously. what is the total
sound intensity level? (We assume identical frequency content and random
phase; that is, the phase relationship between the two sources changes in a
random manner.)

18

Solution:
(a)

rL

= 10 log _ 1_
10

so 60

6.0

1= 101ogto-t6
I

::: log-110-16
= -

,,
and 50

5.0

=
=

It

10 - te
(l0- 16)106 =10-10 w/cm2
12

10 1og -1o-16

'2 .
= log -----:---+-16
10

105

12
-

lo- 16
=- 10- 11 w/cm2
= 10-10 +l0-11

(10 X l0-11) +10- 11

11 X 10- 11 W/cm2

(c) ll combined =10 log

=
=
=

tlxto- 11
10-16

10 (log 11 + log 195)

10(1.04+5)
10 (6.041
60 .4 db

which is a fraction larger than the original 60 db of the stronger sound.

Example: Assume two noise signals of 60 db each. What is the combined

strength in decibels?

Solution: One method would be to calculate levels as in the example above.

A shorter method is to find the difference between the two signals and to
add it to either one. Using the equation;

6 1L

ILcomb- IL 1 == 10 log+

10 log I comb

,,

10 log ..

21 1
-

11

= 10 log 2
= 10 (0.3010)
= 3 db

19

This answer gives us the extremety important fact that doubling a signal intensity
raises the intensity level by 3 db. Un our case, the combined intensity level would be
60 db + 3 db or 63 db). Similarly, quadrupling a signal's intensity raises the received
level by 6 db (see table below).

TABLE
Change in

Subjeotive Change

Level. Decibels

In Loudness

Barely perceptible
Perceptible
Clearly perceptible
Twice or half as toud
Four times or one-quarter

sa

7
10

20

as loud

Example: Given a sound source that produces sound intensity IL at a distance

d 1 from the source (the reader can substitute any numbers desired, or follow
the problem with symbols), what are the intensities at twice the distdnce?
Three times? four times?

Solution:
from the equation .61L
.,

and equation __

101og+
1

12

....!.L
or

12
:

(2d11 2
ld1 )2

d22
d12

4
..

substituting in the first equation, we have

IL

=
=
=
=

10 log+
2

10 log 1/4.
10 1-0.6)
-6 db

Which tells us that sound intensity level (not pressure) is reduced by 6 db. Similarly,
when distance is tripled, intensity level is reduced by 9.5 db, and when distance is
quadrupled, it is reduced by 12 db.

20

To summarize, then, intensity level increases I decreases) 3 db with every doubling

(halving) of power and decreases (increases) 6 db with every doubling (halving) of
distance. The following figures illustrate these relationships. The ear responds to sound
pressure, not in~..:.:Sound pressure level (SPU is equal numerically to intensity
level (at least for normal temperature and pressure, ex.; for our use in architectural
acoustics), so that the foregoing examples and manipulations of intensity level are
equally applicable to sound pressure level.
The combined effect of two sounds depends upon their frequency content. In the
above examples, we assumed signals either of identical frequency and random phase,
or of very wide-frequency spectrum wide that phase phenomena are not significant. In architectural acoustics work, such an assumption is generally valid.

so

100

I i

90

80
7\l

I -t-l--

60

50

40

VI

t-1{

20
10

r-

l
I

I
I
I

!
I

! I

30

kv

/11

I
I

01
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14
Ri!duction in sound intensitv level II L) and sound prll$Sllre level (SP Ll in decibel!

10 X

~
~

0
c:l.

8X

"0

..
::J

-T-

6X

.5

el
"'....
:!!
.5 4X

4
5
6
7 8
9 10
1ncrease in sound prt!$Wre le>~el (SPl) in decibels

21

Sound levels

Bell

/n:~-6db

Sound~
\IL -12 db
10urce ~))--..,;;.._ _...:.,:...__ _ _ _~
"---~So~und~
+--tl---+

2d----

22

:.:

~"

..

.
.

.. . ~ ..

Sound Propagation Acoustic Power and

Sound Pressure level

HOW WE HEAR
The hearing mechanism, shown in cross section in the figure below can be divided into
three parts: the external ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The external ear consists
of an external appendage. called the pinna, and the ear canal. which is closed at the inner
end by the eardrum. The outer ear is funnel shaped and serves as a sound-gathering input
terminal to the auditory system,. Sound energy travels through the auditory canal (outer
ear} and sets in motion the components of the middle ear.
The middle ear contains three tiny bones or ossides which transmit vibrations from the
eardrum to the inner ear. These bones- the hammer, anvil, and stirrup- constitute a
lever mechanism that communicates the vibrations of the drum to the membrane of the
oval window, which is the entrance to the inner ear. The stirrup acts as a piston to
transmit vibrations into the fluid of the inner ear. This fluid motion causes movement of
hair cells in the cochlea, which in turn stimulates nerves at their bases, which in turn
transmit electrical impulses along the eight cranial nerve, to the brain. These impulses we
unde~tand as SOUND. Thus the action of the middle ear is that of an efficient
mechanical transh>rmer coupling vibrations in the air to the liquid in the internal ear.

, . .
,:.
\'.

24

3 . Thr footpt01r ~ thf: nnt:r end of

When you hear:

1;

SoUncl -

n voo- .... tr..,.!

tht0<19h tht eudtorv ca,.l, nd ,.,

uo "YibrattOftl in the ur<lrutn .

th9 ~~ move\ n nd out of the

ov w.ndow .et the wme rat~ that
..thl' Nldtum s "Yibf.tttftt.

6.. tn tt'tt br1if'l the tmpui.M it

tran1bt.cl . tnto the MnMtion

2.. The: vfbra~tons o.f 1h~ ewdrum

~- 1~ bone$ in the miclcMe:

.-ou know

to.c:k end forth

This -~ IOCIIO"
KIOOfi . CD-U lftl lofge

. ., 10 -

like, tiny

tound .

-ts.

mottont o1 tb .-drum i"'O

,.,. llhol'l... mono l....:et.,ll
motion ol ,.,. ot--.

&.
c. The .,.,.,_, of '1M foo&pa.te ...,
i.p ....,._ in thf: fluid tiWI fills

,.,. coo:,_,

T~

. . _ _.. , ot

ttuiC)

.-on

the hars t'I'W'IWI'Md i-n the tlutd 10

moft. Tbc mcwetflltftt aumutacn
tne attK~ ~u to tend a

""V

impt~IW

.udnory

tlontl tht liMN of ,,.

I'Wf'YR to

bfn.

The inner e.ar has two distinct functions: 11) the maintenance of body equilibrium, accomplished by the vetibular portion of the ear. which is made up principally of three
semicircular canals; and (21 the perception of sound, which is accomplished by the
cochlea and 'its associated apparatus.
The cochlea is where frequency rer:ognition is accomplished by the basilar membrane.
This membrane resonates at one end at about 20 Hz and at the other at 20 KHz, giving
the ear its frequency range.
The cochlea is a liquid -filled spiral canal, subdivided :along its length into two canals by
abony structure and a tough membrane. The end on one of these canals is closed by the
oval window: It is through this window that the vibration of the ossicles is transmitted to
the liquid in the cochlea. Sensitive nerve endings; associatted with tiny cells in a third
canal, ate excited by the vibratin set .up in the cochlear liquid, and they send impulses to
the brain by way Of the nerve fibers. lt is believed that the rate at which the total number
of these nervous impulses are communicated to the brain determines the loudness. This
rate depends on the number and activity (pulsing rate) of the nerve endings stimulated. It
increases with the sound pressure of the wave striking the ear.
The Pftr:h of the sound sensation is determined principally by the location of the nerve endings that are most excited by the resonant vibration of various sections of the basilar
membrane; however, at low pitch the frequency of arrival of the nervous impulses at the
brai'n may be the chief determinant.

25

Tonal Quality is determined largely by the number, location and extent of the excited
nerve endings and is comp1exty retated to the wave form and pressure ofthe sound wave
striking the ear.

Sensitivity of the Ear

A sound wave must have a certain minimum value of pressure in order to be heard by an
observer. This v~iue for selected observers, who have good hearing, who are facing the
source of plane progressive waves and listening with both ears, is called the minimum
audible threshold 'for a free field. It i8 shown in 'tlie lower curve of this figure.
....

:r,

, ....

'.

"'
~

'~

10011-1--+H

~_,
~

..."'
~

<>.

Frequency is indicated along the horizontal axis, and the pressure level of the plane pro.gressive sound wave that is just barely audible is indicated along the vertical axis. One
notes that the sensitivity of hearing varies enormously for sounds of different frequencie.s. Fortunately, the ear is most sensitive in the frequency range that is most important
for th~ intelligibility of speech sounds. Since, in the evolution of man, speech and music
were developed later than the sense of hearing, it appears ttiat speech and music have
developed in such a manner as to b~.well adapted to the sensitivity ch~racteristfcs of the
ear .

will

An observer in the fiel<!. of a free ptar\e pi.ogressive w~ve

~~ice that, as the p.ressure
of the wave is increased, the resulting sound becomes louder and louder until it attains a
level.at which the sound can be felt (a sort of tingling ..sensation) as well as .heard. This
level is called the Threshold ofFeeJing. Above this threshold, the observer experiences a
mixed sensation of sound, feelit,"g, and pain. The figure above shows that, urllike the
minimum audible threshold, the threshold of feeling varies reJatively little with f~equency.

26

The ear hears .and recognizes distinct frequencies, yet the hearing mechanism has the
ability, apparently as directed by the brain, to either hear individual frequencies or to
combine them into a single sound. Thus whenwe hear a string quartet we can, at will,
either hear the entire quartet or each instrument individually. With concentration (vision
helps in this), a "trained" ear can pick out a single instrument in an orchestra of 1 20
pieces, even if there is more than one such instrument in the group. Conductors do this
regularly. Similarly, the ear can perform the selection known as the "cocktail party effect," that is, pick out one voice in background noise that can be 20 db louder than the
wanted signal. In effect, the ear is attenuating the unwanted signals.
The minimum perceptible increment of sound-pressure level of a pure tone varies with
both pressure and frequency, but, for levels greater than about 40 db above the
threshold of audibility and for frequencies between 200 and 700 cycles, the minimum
perceptible increment in pressure level var~s from one 7000 to three quarters of a
decibel. The smallest perceptible change in frequency that the ear can detect is different
for different pressure levels and frequencies, but, for pure tones more than 40 db above
threshold and for frequencies greater than 500 cycles, it is of the order of 0.3 percent for
monaural listening with an earphone. In the discussion of the acoustics of rooms in later
chapters, we shall see that a variation of the frequency of a sound source in a room may
produce a marked variation in the pressure distribution within the room. Therefore we
should expect, and rightly. that an observer could detect a smaller change in the frequency of a source in a room than in the open air.

Sound Pressure level

At the threshold of hearing (approximately 0 db) the displacement of air molecules impinging on the eardrum, and the eardrum excursion, are approximately one Angstrom
unit ( 1 oS em), which is approximately the diameter of an atom. Were the ear an order of
magnitude more sensitive, it would hear thermal noise; which is approximately at 1
micropascal (uPa). The human ear is thus close to the practical limit of sensitivity. At the
other end of the pressure spectrum, the threshold of pain corresponds to 130 db, 1
uPa, and a molecular and eardrum motion of approximately % mm. An astonishing range
indeed! the pressure that corresponds to the threshold of hearing is taken to be 20 uPa or
2 x 104 microbars (ubar). As with intensity, this pressure is established as odb, for
sound pressure level (SPL). Since the ear" responds Logarithmitically to intensity and
since pressure varies as the square root of intensity, we can write the expression

os

p2
SPL == 10 l o g - Po2

or.
SPL =201og - P_

'

Po

Where SPL
P
and
P0

= sound pressure levei in decibels

= pressure in Pascals or Bars
reference base pressure in pascals or bars
XI

We have thus equalized the db scales for sound pressure level (SPL) and intensity level
(IL) and the db values ofthe two can be used interchangeably. Obviously through, the actuaf intensity' and the actual pressure corresponding to a particular decibel level are different - completely different, in magnitude and units.

Example:

Find the sound

db.

intensitY end pressure corresponding to a level of 70

.....

Solution:
(a)

ll
where 10

~.

= 10
log - 1.
lo
= 10-16 w/cm2

therefore
70 =101og-1-

lo

=log-1lo_
lo

= 107 110-16) =10-9 w/cm2

(b)

SPL =201ogPo
=201og_P_.
70
Po
p

3.5 =log-Po

103.5 ,.._P_
Po

Since P0 ~ 2 x1 o-4 ,bar

, P =(2.x1Q-4)(1o35)
.. =2 xto-0.6
2
: --../10

=0.63 p.bar

= 0.063 Pa

Assigning a single-number decibel level to a sound presents two difficulties:

1. The sound pressure level varies with time.

2. The different components of the sound
~ary . in.. pressure lev~t
.
Indeed, this is the situation that normally exists, since single-frequency, constant level
sounds are unusual. To overcome this problem two tech!'liques are used. If a sound has a
dominant frequency, that frequency's level can be used.

28

Air reid sirtn

+110

+100
....

+90

+80

~ +70
Ql

a:

+60

+30

:I

"'

"'
~

c. +20

20

so

100

1,000
Frequency, hertz

5,000

10,000-- 20,000

.<

This .would be the case for a relatively constant sound such as a motor, or a fan or
blower. Other sounds that vary widely in level and frequency can be plotted on an octave
band chart with maximum level for a minimum percent of time see figure next page.

29

110r----r---.,---~---.----r----r----r---,

!ao~---+-----1t""-afC-+

a:

~~--~--~~~~--~--~~~~~~~~
31.5
63
125
250
500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Octave-Band center frequencin in Hz

(cps~

Thus vehicular traffic is shown by the level exceeded only 10% of the time. Speech
sounds are those that will be exceeded only 1% of the time. The single-number levels in
the table below have been assigned on this basis, and are primarily useful to establish a
mental-aural comparison base and to use in maximum exposure calculations, as are
discussed In the next few pages under High noise levels; Where the position of the
listener is not specified in the table, it is assumed to be at normal close distances, that is,
10 to 20 ft (3.00m to 6.00m) from a train, 3 to 5 ft (0.90 to 1 .50m) from a radio and
the like. The somewhat tedious calculations involved in combining decibel levels of either
sound pressure level or Intensity level are eliminated by using the curves of the figure
below; keeping in mind that this technique is only completely accurate for uncorrelated
sound sources.

30

EXAMPLfS:

=Addilio"

\~
8 H ."',~

Lc ..

""-L_.. + L

'

L,. 45

Suhtractitm
Lr 72 db
L, ,. 66 db

6 :-- '1- 1- Answer

L2 7

ti.L .. 1.28 db
L2 72 -1.28 70.72 db

1\
1\

l'I \

54 db..

8 48 + 1.8 "' 49.8 Subtotal

LS!ob + I.e .. 54 + 1.38 55.38 db To\111

\
\
I

~5

d1 .

Ls 48 db l.,r"' 7

I
co

\\
3

COMBINING DB LEVELS

t\

~"_":lt'-..
\

2. 0

1'.

'

f--1.8-

1.5 1--1
t- - 1.38- 1- -,t- - 1.28 - -- ~
1.0
- 1

N~

)'.; 1.28

&'

f'- ~ r--...

o.l
i'
!H-.-~

0. 5

U)l

rr......

_l
I

-~

_l
5

8
7
8
9
Add L 1 - L 2
- - - Subtract Lr - L~

10

11

12

l oudness level The Phon Scale

The loudness of a sound (that is, the magnitude of its sensation) depends not only on the
pressure of the sound but also on its frequency spectrum. Loudness can be described
quantitatively in terms of another subjective characteristic of sound, the so-called
loudness level, which rtself is defined in terms of the sound pressure and frequency of a
pure tone; see figure next page.

31

N
0

100

20

100

1000
Frequency-cps.

These curves are the well-known Fletcher-Munson contours of equal loudness. They
were obtained by employing a pure 1000-cycle tone as a reference tone and adjusting
the sound-pressure level of tones of other frequencies until t hey were judged to be of the
same loudness as that of certain arbitrarily chosen pressure levels of the reference tone.
Thus, by definition, the loudness level, in Phons, of a sound is numerically equal to the
sound-pressure level, in decibels, of the 1000-cycle reference tone which is judged by
listeners to be equal in loudness. For example the figure above shows that 500-cycle
tone having a sound level of only 25 db sounds equally as loud as a 50-cycle tone having
a sound level
64 db . Both have a loudness level of 20 phons. Notice that at low frequencies a given change in sound level produces a much larger change in apparent
_loudness than does the same change in sound level at higher frequencies.

of

The human ear is not uniformly sensitive over its entire frequency range of 20 Hz to 20
KHz. At the upper limit the 1 20 to 1 30 - db pain threshold occurs at all frequencies.
However, at the lower limit, the 0-db threshold only occurs at 1000Hz, at which frequencies the threshold is about - 5 db. This nonlinear response-exists throughout the ear's
entire range. To determine the nature of this nonlinearity a great number of tests were
conducted with pure tones at different frequencies, in which the Jister)er .was ~sked to
equate loudness of signals. These tests resulted in a family of curves ~ailed equal
loudness level contours or, alternatively, Fletcher Munson equal loudness contours {after
two of the principal researchers). These curves as shown in the above figure, are internationally recognized and standardized, and are used as the reference for normal'. hearing
response . They .are.also-used to ."weight" measUf'ing devices as is explained In-the next
pag~, me~st,~rement of sound _pressure level (SPl): Note that by dE!finition.
1 . AH points ina single contour hav~ the same sub)ectfve sensation o~ t6udness.
2. The loudness level in phons is defined as the db level of that contour at
1000Hz.

32.

The Sone Scale

The loudness of a sound is related to the total nerve energy produced by the sound in the
ear, whence it is sent to the brain. It is measured in sones, niillisones, toudness units ( 1
sone =1000 millisones =1000 loudness units). A loudness of 1 millisone corresponds to
the t hreshold of hearing, a loudness of 10 sones is twice as loud as a loudness of 5 sones
and 10 times as loud as 1 sone, etc. The relationship between loudness and loudness
level is given in this figure .

or

ro~-i' ~~: r:l~ ::~:c;. ~~-~~-=I~~~~.

'-

It> ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ =====-~

--

- - -1--- .... - -

~tO't=~

r=== ~.

v.

-~

-- - -- --r-

1---- .

-- f-

. f-7---

~
~

1-

--

---,1- - - i

1----:::

- - + --

1 - -1----11---1

--

1-

:_~

=-:::: -~ ~

_1 - .

r-

-----i---1-=-~-+---+---+---+--i

r- ..... - - - - -

~ ~~ v-

f--

?'
;:::=10' :- --.
%:-.-= - -.

--t-

- .

~~---.

IIJ

-- - +-

--~---+,..----1---

- - - - --

--

--

10 ,~~
~~:~~~:-~= --- - ---~~---:.
~. - - - - ---~----=~
..... - ------ - -- f-- - -- - -- ---- - -- - - -- - - - - r - r - ---t---t- --J ---1- --l-- -+- -f-

1-

- - - - l- -1-- t -~

--1- --1
+ - -+---1-- -i

LOIJDNI:SS L..EVEL IN PHON3

This curve applies to sounds of any frequency, or any combination of frequ~ncies . For
example, if the loudness level of a sound is 40 phons, it will have a loudness of 1 000
millisones or 1 sone; if the loudness level of a sound is 70 phons, it will have a loudness
of 1 0 sones. In the range above 40 phons (the range of chief interest in architectural
acoustics), a change in loudness level of 30 phons corresponds to a tenfold change in
loudness, and a change in loudness level of 9.phons corresponds to a twofold change in
loudness . This relationship is of consider~ple interest in regard to the reduction of noise
in rooms by sound absorption or by sound insulation. Thus, a reduction of loudness level
in a room from 60 to 51 phons will'be judged by the av~ra_ge listener as a reduction in
loudness of one half.

Since the phon scale is based on decibel levels at 1000 Hz, it too is a logarithmic scale in
which a doubling of loudness corresponds to an increase of 10 phons. The sone scale was
developed because most people much prefer an arithmetic scale, that is, one where doubling loudness, would result in doubling the loudness index . The relation between the
logarith.rl1ic scale phon and the arithmetic scats sone is

S=2(P-40)
10

or

log

0.3 p - 1.2

= loudness ln sones

wher& : S

loudness in phons

A nomograph and curve are given in the following figure for conversion between the two
quantities. Although both are in use, single-number decibel A ratings are most frequently
found in the literature.

300

200
100

Phon/Sane

conver~on

~
i 10

.E
;

-t~A
...
: I

--

f--

50 pnons/2 sooes

f-

II I:

phons/1 tone
. ..

...,/
/

0.1

i .

I
. I

- ~

.l

10

20

30

~- 50 60 70 80
\..OUdneSs in phons

~.

.,....
...0
~

It)

10

""q :z
...

34

..

2~~

90

100 110 120

~....

fQ

co
~

:8
N

Sound Fields in an
Enclosed Space
Whim a sound propagated in an enclosed space reaches a wall or other large (with
res'p ect to wavelength) obstruction, part is reflected and part absorbed . The sound at any
point in the room is then the combination of direct sound from walls and other obstructions. If the reflections are so la'rge that the sound level becomes uniform throughout the
room, the fi'eld within the room is termed a diffuse one (no shadows). and intensity
measurements with respect to a specific source are meaningless. Of course, it is our intention to measure sound pressure level at a specific point, such as a seat in an
auditorium, then the type of field in the room is irrelevant. Most rooms do not have such a
high level of reflection that a diffuse field is created. Instead, there is a near field near the
source, a free field at a distance, and a reverberant field near the walls.

:
Reverberant
,J..__,.Near----.l<-F

f 1eld

ree f oe ld______!._
------,- fi1lld _,
I

--~~~

I
I

I
I

1
I

r
I

Source distance !log scale}

(b)

Distance from 50urce- r, ft.

10
100

1000

I
-10

Room 80 ft wide, 120 ft long, 30 ft high

Surface area .~ 31 ,200 sq ft
Q
l

o.l

-30

Medium

} oead

6 "' 10 log(.:r2 +
R ~ ~
\ - ol

36'

j) +0.5

They can be recognized as follows.

1 . The near field is generally within one wavelength of the lowest frequency ot
sound produced by the source. Within this distance sound-pressure-level
measurements vary widely and are not meaningful. (The maximum
wavelength for the human male voice is about 3.30 m or 11 ft .)
2. Near large obstructions such a& walls, the reverberant field is dominant and approaches a diffuse condition. In auditoriums the reverberallt (diffuse} field
predominates and sound pressure level remains relatively constant beyond the
free field area.
3 . The free fieki exists between the near and reverberant fields, and there intensity varies as pressure squared and inversely with distance. In this field, sound
pressure level drops 6 db with each doubling of distance from the source, and
it is in this field that meaningful sound-pressure-level measurements can be
made.

Many enclosed spaces are so small or so reverberant that no free field exists. In such instances it is possible to measure acoustic power output from whic h intensity levels can
be calculated . Indeed, b ecause accurate measurement of sound pressure level due to a
single sou rce is difficult, manufacturers very frequently supply sound power and/ or
sound power-level data for their equipment . These figures are derived by suspending the
equipment in a reverberant chamber so as to establish a spherical wave in a diffuse field.

Then
Where

W
v

total sound power in watts

volume of the reverberant chamber

c
344 m/sec. sound velocity in air
T, = reverberative time in seconds (measured}
P = sound pressure in Pascal (NewtonsJm2)

Quantity p is calculated from measured sound pressure level.

Since SPL =20 log _P_

Po

and Since Po is base pressure of 2 x1 o - 5pa,

SPL

= (20 log p + 94)db

36

Sound pressure level (SPLl as the resultant "noise" or sound in. an enclosed space,
resulting from a source in that space, and affected by the characteristics of the space and
the position of the listener. It is thus an end effect. The sound power level (PWU is a
measure of the amount of sound generated by a source, independent of its environment.
In free space the two quantities are simply related by the inverse square law SPL =PWL
-20 log 4 + (Q -1 }db whereas in enclosed spaces the room characteristics come into
play .
Roughly speaking, an analogy to lighting can be drawn: SPL corresponds to room illumination, that is, footcandles, and PWL corresponds to the lumen output of the source.

Reverberation Time is defined as the time necessary for the sound to drop 60 db, that is,
to effectively become inaudible, after power is shut off. (Reverberation t ime can also be
calculated in terms of a room's dimensions and absorption coefficient, as will be discussed in the next pages on Reverberation.
Once W , the sound source's power level is determined, it in twin can be used to calculate
the sound power level, PWL, in decibels:

10 log ..:!:!__ db
wo

PWL
Where
PWL
W
W0

= sound power level in decibels

= sound power of source, in watts

basepower.1o - 12 w

In general, manufacturers wnl furnish Wand PWL for equipment . It is only necessary to
calculate these parameters when measurements are taken on a source of unknown
power output and level. Given PWL (either listed or calculated) the sound power level it
would generate in an enclosed space can be calculated as:

(a)

for a sound souurce witt no directivity, in a large space,

SPL = PWL

+10 log ( -

Wttere

1
-

12.5r 2

0.---

) .+0.5

SPL = sound level in db

PWL = sound level in db

r "" distance from source in feet

R = room constant in square feet
the factor R can be calculated from

R "'

Where
R = room constant in square feet
S = total room surface area in square feet
a = average absorption coefficient of all materials, in sabins (as
discussed in the \atef sections on Barrie r Mass, Building noise
control}

(bl For a sound source with directional characteristics, the applicable equation is

;.

SPL

= PWL
+ 10 log (

~ )+0.5db

12.5T2

Where Q is a directivity factor and all other factors are as in equation (a)
above. The directional constant is either inherent in the sound source, and as
such will be part of the given data, or can be obtained from the figure below
for a nondirectional source made directional by adjacent, reflecting surfaces.

Q::2.

Q=438

Sound Power and

Pressure Levels
In Free Space (outdoors)

Although the propagation of sound outdoors may not appear to be of immediate importance in architectural acoustics, outdoor noise sour.ees such as traffic, cooling tower,
and aircraft are frequently loud enough to disturb activities within or immediately adjacent to a building. Conversely, the noise made by building equipment, such as cooling
towers, heat pumps, and even windoW air conditioners may be sufficiently loud to
disturb neighbors in a nearby building. For this reason, it is desirable to have some basic
understanding of outdoor sound propagation.
For preliminary evaluation of an outdoor noise problem, assuming a nondirectional
source, one needs to know only the power level radiated by the source as a function of
frequency and time; from this one can establish the intensity level of sound at the appropriate distance as follows:

SPL

= PWL

SPL

:::::

PWL

- 20 log r +{Q-1) db

Where

sound pressure level

equipment power level

= distance from the source, in feet

0

= directivity factor
(see figure, Diagrams above)

This formula is fairly accurate tor a small source. For large sources such as cooling
towers and traffic, which do not exhibit inverse square properties, sound level estimates.
are best made, on the basis of experience and empirical data beyond the scope of this
book . For small outdoor sources, the equipment power level can be estimated by measuring the sound power level at 5 f t and adding 15 db. Other factors, such as moisture in the
air, the presence of trees. wind, and temperature gradients, will affect outdoor sound
propagation to some extent but t~ey can be ignored except when great distances (ex :
over 1000 ft. ) are involved. Barrier walls (such as solid fences) are an influence only
when.the waU is high, wide, and near the source, or near the listener. The reader is cautioned to be chary of simple solutions to barrier attenu~tion problems. Noise travels
through, around, and over barriefs. Simple graphical solutions most often assume point
sources and infinitely long barriers; situations that are not even approximated by actual
field situations, and that yield misleadingly high attenuation figures, particularly at low
frequencies.

39

Others Factors in
Hearing
(a) Masking
When two separate sources of sound are perceived simultaneously. the perception of
each is made more difficult by the presence of the other . This is known as masking,
which is defined as the number of decibels a sound has to be raised above its threshold
when perceived alone, to be perceived in the presence of another sound. Effectively
then, masking is greatest when two sounds are close in frequency or frequency content,
since the ear has greater difficulty separati:@li J tJP. Also. a tow frequency will more eff~ctively mask a high frequency than the reverse,
lil~e decibel levels. With broadfrequency sounds the masking effect is difficult to predict. Since it depends in part on
how "hard" the listener is listening. Masking is an extreme{y important technique in
noise control where background noise levels are deiiberately manipulate to mask unwanted sounds. The background noises used for this purpose are of the broadband continuous variety, which are themselves noinformation bearing. They serve to obliterate
lower-level, information-bearing sounds that would cause annoyance.

ht

(b) Time

As stated above, impulse sounds are apprehended at lower levels than the same sound
intensity over a longer period. Similarly, because of the time-constant of the ear's
mechanical linkages, sounds closer than 10 msec apart cannot be distinguished from
each other, and those up to 50 msec apart are poorly distinguished (see criteria for
speech rooms in the next pages). Beyond this point differentiation becomes increasingly
c lear. This effect is of particular importance in the design of halls and auditoriums, with
respect to reception of echoes.

(c ) Directivity
The exact mechanism by which the binaural aspect of hearing detects direction is not
clearly understood. The single ear is not phase sensitive, but it may be that binaurally,
phase sentivity exists, at least at low frequecies, and that this assists in detection of
direction. At high frequencies, phase detection is clearly nonexistent and sense of direction may be due to diffraction effects around the head. These effects would also explain
the accuracy of detection in a horizontal plane, which research indicates to be in the
order of 5 change. It would not explain how the ears detect changes in the vertical plane
immediately in front of the listener. This latter situation, although much less; accurate
than horizontal plane detection, definitely exists. In enclosed space, reverberation will
blur most phase differences and "stereo" information will be almost completely dependent upon high frequencies in the near field.

(d ) Concept of Reverberation

Alt hough this is not strictly a hearing phenomenon it is one of the most pronounced hearing reactions in an enclosed space. Simply, it is the ear's reaction to echoes in an enclosed spaced, giving an impression of "liveness" or " deadness". We can obtain a good approximation of the subjective feeling of liveness of a room, for purposes of speech, from
the relation

40

T
Where

T
V

v
0.3 log-10

optimum reverberation time in seconds,

for speech
room volume in cubic meters

for instance, a typical classroom might have a volume of 1 50 m3 ( 5300 cu ft.). Optimum reverberation time is
. 'i ...

0.3 log 15

= 0.35 sec.
Reverberation times longer than this would sound live; shorter ones dead and flat. Indeed
an increase of 20 % in reverberation time would make the room excessively live and
boomy and would negatively affect speech intelligibility. (see next chapter under
reverberation and criteria for speech rooms).

Effect of Noise on Hearing

Many auditoriums and theaters are not adequately insulated against noise . Everyone has
probably had the experience of being unable to hear some critical lines in a play because
noise from the foyer or street often occur just as these lines are spoken. lnspite of the apparent correlation, no one has demonstrated the existence of a "masking demon" that
knows the play and takes delight in making noise at these most crucial moments.
However, one may legitimately conclude that, aside from the annoyance that it causes.
noise has the effect of reduchig the acuity of hearing; that is, it elevates the threshold
of audibility. This shift in threshold of acuity is called masking, as explained earlier, and
the shift, in decibels, defines the amount of masking_ Unless the loudness of speech or
music cannot be fully recognized or appriciated because of the masking effect of the
noise; it is impossible to ignore completely a loud noise and listen only to the wanted
sound.
The subject of the interfering effect of noise is so pertinent to the hearing of
speech and music in auditoriums that considerable space will be devoted to it in subsequent chapters. Only a few of the fundamental properties of auditory masking are
presented in this section.
Masking data are generally represented in the form of a curve called a masking spectrum
(sometimes called a masking audiogram) which gives the number of decibels at each frequency that the threshold level of a pure tone is shifted when heard by a normal observer
in the presence Of masking sounds. As an illustration, the masking spectrum due to
''average room noise" is given in this figure.

41

~~

1/

v r-....1\
\
\

,__.

. --.

"~
...

5000

\00 .

10.000

For instance, a tone of 1000 cycles would have to be raised 25 db above the minimum
audible threshold to be heard in the presence of this average room noise. The masking
spectrum in this case, and in general, is not constant with frequency. It depends.on the
pressure level and the nature of the masking sounds. Here we shall discuss two types .of
masking sounds: first, a sustained pure tone; and second; a continuous noise spectrum
typical of those which occur in auditoriums.
Experiments indicates that low-pitched tones. especially if they are considerable
loudness, produce a masking effect upon high-pitched t.ones, whereas high-pitched
tones produce only little masking upon low-pitched tones. The auditory masking of one
tone upon another is greatest when the masking ~one is almost identical with the masked
tone. In general, all tones, especially if they are. loud, offer .considerable masking for all
tones of higher frequency than the Masking tone; Therefore, very intense low-frequency
hums or noise are especially troublesome sources of interference for the hearing of speech or
music since they mask nearly the entire audible range of frequencies.

Calculation of Masking Spectra

from Sound-pressure Spectra
The level of the noise surroundings the jistener
not. his threshold of audibility
generally determines the lowest value of sound pressure he can hear; that is, the noise
elevates his apparent threshold audibility . The effect of this increase in the threshold of
audibility is the reduction of intelligibility of speech for him, especially when the speech is
at low levels. It is important, therefore , that we should be able to predict, at least approximately, the masking effect in the average room or auditorium.

42

The masking of noise depends not only on its total sound pressure. but also on its frequency or spectral distribution. This distribution can be obtained by the use of a sound
analyzer, a device which measures the sound pressure within a limited frequency range
call ed a band. By "sweeping" t~is band across t he entire audible range it is possible to
determine how the sound pressure is distributed with respect to frequency. Not all
analyzers have the same band width; in order to make sound frequency analysis comparable sound pressures p w for a band having a f requency width of w cycles are frequently converted to pressure-spectrum levels ~s (that is, the pressure level for a band 1
cycle wide) by the equation.

Pwl 0.0002

10 log 10 (

A graph of pressure-spectrum
level vs fre.quet'lcy is called
sound spectrum or a noise
spectrum. The spectrum for
average noise is shown in the
figure.

....___
1--.

f)

) 2 db

--

r-r--

__.__

IV<.J

80

:::1
~

1'-

70 ...

:r:060 r-; '

'
;...

,,
b >

...,
'., ...... ~....... .... i~ ~ ~
~-

.. .

....---~
...... -~~ !'-;.
.......
. ~ ~I' ~ 1'-........

t~

......

~~-!<.....
r-;

' r-...
~
~ "~ '"

~~' I'
~.

- . -- --
-.3060

100

" j'-..

.....,!:!:'
~... ...
.... ...!!. . .

,,

:,
~
~ 10

. ~-;;-......
~0

j'-..
' I'

r-.....

" j'-..

!'....

'

..... !'-...
;--.....

......

MA~IN<:

- ...

I'-

1--'
,-- -lr"
r-- , '
'
r- .,.. .... ~
;

..... ~

.... .... ~

~
t-~
I'- .... .....
~
....
~
~
~ to
!$......

-~

........

'i'--

,.

:.,...

.... ~

-i'-....
-

!'-....

~~ .
~-

500
1000
FII!CQ'Jf:NCY IN CYCLeS f'ER 3Bt'OND

IO.<XlO

43

lu<JO
IN C(CLJ!~ PfP. !IECCJND

SOO

r t.et:(~UENCY

90

1--- 1---.

()

........

.......... !'-

;
.h'JU

I
V!!Jf)O

The first step in computing the masking effect of noise is to determine the
spectrum level of the noise, using the
above equation. Having obtained the
sound spectrum of the noise, the
masking M at every frequency is determined from this figure .

:-.

-f'-:,::::-,
:
. .....,.

::

----

ii!TTi----1--i--rlriT]l

iH
~ li
~--.
--~- .--41
I \ i l ' ;r--1--.t ! ! I I< I
:

; . !

~
:---:..-- : ... : ! ' : : .
:
-1'
.\-------. --LI
"''
. ._... I
.
I
I

'
..... __ -----

i ~

. . 1 i i .,;

. I

11

~"t--~-.__l__ ~ -i-t:.f~~---i-+;~l
.; ;
.l.,

.!:
.. .

.t ,,. .'

I i ~ ; !! !
'

~ t ! .: i ~

-L..... J,........ ...L ...-a.

:': ,\
: .. '.~
f!-~Pr-i:![iiC.,' t~ C'f'":~ !-:'.;

;:-r:,;

! ! !

,!

.t

.i

.r.:. } :

l I:

As an illustration we shall calculate the

masking spectrum due "to typical
room noise". Surveys of room noise in
telephone suboribers locations have
been by the bell telephone laboratories.

:.' ; ;
----.J

~~

.. .:~:) >

,:);.:;::():.it:"

The average sound-pressure level in residences with radios turned off, as measured with
db frequency weighting network) was found to be
43 db. About half of the residences had sound levels between 38 and 47 db, and 90
percent had levels between 33 and 52 db. The noise spectra for all types of rooms are
similar, and they have the shape shown in this figure.

a sound-level meter (using the 40 -

40

~
(}1------

t--. ..._
t-

r-

~""'

r---.. t-...

-"

r-....

100
J'R~QUeNCY

500
1000
IN ~ Ptfi: :JfCONO

5000

10,000

Closely to what is recognized by the ear, physiological units, such as loudness of a sou~d
whose spectra does not change abruptly in magnitude from one frequency region to
another, such as average room noise.

44

( 1 ) Determine the masking spectrum from the sound pressure spectrum by the
method given above.
(2 ) Plot the masking M on the special loudness computing chart on figure (a) or
(b) below.

IJJ .L

- -..

i-- 1-- I

TOTh!.. AP.t=A

1- f--

CO~RESP<JND 3

1- 1- 1- 1- f--

T037 SONr!l

1-1-

1- 1-

r-

1--- 1--

1- 1-

- 1-- 1--

t-- t--

--- ---- -

f-- 1- - --1-

--- 1-

1- 111-i!~ 1-

../

1- -

.L

li

--

-
-

I - - 1 -1-

I ..

1-

1-

1-

... 1-1--

b. 1-

r-

-
1-t--

1 -1-

- 1- --

125

1- --

1-

t-

--

---

1-

1- 1- - 1- 1-- 1-,.... 1f--

,- -

1-

..

1-

1-

..

..

1-

1-

~ 1.::.
I

E~~~H~i
zooo
zo.ooo
.

1000 .

5000

FREQUENCY IN CYCL~~ P'"R 3 0COND

10.000

(a)

~-L!-1-U

,
7,

1 .. ....

t--

1---

I--

r--- 1-...

1-

t -1-

t - t-

, ... t - ,.... 1-- --- 1' "1-

-- -

- - 1- -

10

1-- 1-

-~-

1-1-

[!:. --- - :-:; ~::::

:--

-:-7.- :: . ' "-"

- . ..

zoEL --i-t-- t- H-tt- 1 - 125

. _ :_: 1:::::.
- --. ...

...

1000
I'REr~NCY

~.-:-- ,

..- :-

2.()( >()

_= 1--- ~ r- :-

t::l=
t : 1--
')IJ(~J

IN C"Y'CLES PER 5E<Xlrl0

(b)

45

- .

- l.~ r-~

~
_-:_. :..::.:--_::_ 1::::

;;~

1-

t- CC)f>P.I:;';POlJ03
_ T() ,!ln 0' HH :5

1-- - t-
t--- --- t--

1-

t-- 1- -

t-

T(lTAL 1\P.I::I'\

..:~ '-7.:

.::.
.. . ~~

~
-=t=-n

10/..KJO

20,000

We have chosen the ordinates of this curve so that the total sound level, {that is, the level
of the integrated value of LP 5 ) corresponds to 43db, the average sound level in
residences. The masking spectrum (shown in the first figure on Masking spectrum due to
"average room noise") for this noise distribution is then obtained from the other figures
shown earlier (fig. on masking vs frequency}.
For example, in the first figure, at 200 cycles, the pressure spectrum level is 20 db. Then
in the figure page no. 43, the value of M for Lps equal to 20 db at 200 cycles is 13 db.
Other points for deriving the curve in the first figure were obtained similarly. The application of these data is limited to portions of the noise spectrum that do not exhibit abrupt
changes with frequency.

Loudness Calculations for a

case of Typical Room Noise

The reduction of room noise is a routine task in architectural acoustics. It is most advisable to stop the noise at its source, but frequently this procedure is impossible or impractical. Then the room noise is usually decreased by the installation of soundabsorptive material. The over-all reduction in the level of the noise can be given in
decibels, but in order to express the decrease in terms which correspond more.
(3) Determine the area under this curve; the area is directly proportional to the
loudness, the constant of proportionally depending on the unit of area used.
The total area of the loudness computing chart in figure (a) above corresponds
to 37 sones. Thus, if the area under a curve plotted on this chart is 10 percent
of the total area of the chart, it represents a loudness of 3. 7 sones. The total
area of the chart in figure (b) corresponds to 390 sones; This chart should be
used when the other one is not large enough to accomodate the masking
spectrum.
As an illustration we shall calculate the loudness of the average room noise
spectrum shown in the figure (average room noise spectrum) previous pages.
Its masking spectrum was determined and plotted in the other figure on
(masking spectrum due to" "average room noise''). Replotting this data on
the figure (a) above, we find that the area under this curve is 21% of the
total area of the loudness computing chart. Hence, the loudness due to
typical room noise in 21% of 37 sones, or 7.8 sones. A method is given in
the later chapter on {Reduction of Air-Borne noise) for the calculation of the
loudness reduction of room noise resulting from the installation of soundabsorptive material.

46

DIRECTIONALITY OF
SOUND SOURCES
One of the important characteristics of a sound source is its directionality, that is, the
way in which it distributes sound in a region free from reflecting surfaces. For good
listening conditions, this characteristic must receive special consideration in the placement of loudspeakers in all sound-amplication systems. Although the radiation panerns
of different sound sources vary considerably, most sources have the following properties:
(1} When the wavelength of the emitted sound is very large in relation to the
dimensions of the source, energy is radiated uniformly in all directions.
{2) On the other hand, when the wavelength is small in relation to the dimensions
of the source, most of the radiated sound is confined to a relatively narrow
beam, the higher the frequency, the sharper the beam. As a resuft, all the
listeners in an auditoruim may receive almost the same amount of power for
the low frequencies emitted by the loudspeakers of the sound-amplication
system. However, those away from the axes ofthe loudspeakers may not
receive an adequate amount of sound at the higher frequencies.

The distribution of sound pressure

emitted by an ordinary loudespeakers
12 inches (0.30 M}, m?unted in a very
large baffle, is shown in the figure.

J(!(l

ljf)

6lJ

40

2(l

'8'

,II.}

40

{..(J

b(J

lotf;IIIJI'Jf; f'Jo>r.:>:><JPf. HI l'fP CrJIT

In this figure, the distance from the origin of any point on a curve is a measure of the
relative s<XJnd pressure in the direction c~rres~ding to that point. Thus, a circle, with
its center at the speaker, would indicate equaJ radiation in all directions. Notice that at
100 cycles the sound pattern approximat$s this condition; at 1000 cycles {where the
wavelength is about equal to the diameter of the loudspeaker). The distribution of sound
shows a marked directional effect; at 2000 -cycles the beam is quite sharp and fs centred
around the axis. The acousticar radiation pattern becomes more "beam-like" as the ratio
of the wavelength to the diameter of the loudspeaker diminishes.

48

Measurements of the sound-pressure field around the human head during speech shows
a similar effect;

The figure gives the sound pattern around

the lips of a speaker for three bands of
speech centered at frequencies of 200, 600,
and 3400 cycles.

The low-pitched vowels of speech spread out quite uniformly in all directions around the
head of the speaker, but the high-pitched sounds are confined to a narrow beam in front
of the mouth of the speaker. It is well known that a " hiss" is a very directional.

Speech and Music

In order to predict and control the behavior of speech and music in auditoriums, theaters,
music rooms, ad lecture halls, it is, of course, necessary to know the physical properties
of speech and music. Thus, the characteristics which distinguish speech sounds must be
known so that rooms in which these sounds are to be heard can be designed in such a
way that their essential characteristics will be preserved as they are transmitted from
their source to the listeners. Similarly, if a room is to be designed to enhance the beauty
of music, the properties of the sounds which issue from musical instruments must be
known. As we shall see, the physical properties of speech differ considerably from those
of music; hence, it is to be expected that the acoustical properties of speech rooms
should differ appreciably from those of music rooms.

Noise, Music, and

Speech
:

Sounds are frequently classified into three types: (a) noise (b) "music and (c) speech.
However, this classification is not always clear-out. It is sometimes questionable, for example, whether a sound should be classified as music or noise. In general, noise may be
defined as unwanted sound. Thus, if one is listening to a concert in an auditorium, a con-

49

versation in the next row may be regarded as noise. On the other hand, if one is trying to
converse on the telephone while "junior's rock and roll" is holding forth in the living
room, this music, as far as the person on the telephone is concerned, very definitely falls
under the classification of noise.

Sound may also be classified as ordered or disordered. In an ordered sound the instantaneous pressure follows a regular pattern. Furthermore, a frequency analysis of such
sound will show a definite overtone structure; That is, the sound can generally be resolved into a fundamental frequency and a series of overtones, the latter having frequencies that often are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. Overtones possessing this simple relationship of frequencies are called harmonics. On the other hand, the
peaks of acoustic power in disordered sound ,Uor example, the background noise in a
large auditorium) occur more or less at random. In such sound, practically all audible frequencies, from the lowest or highest, are present. The periodic qualities of ordered sound
are lacking.
Street noise is an example of disordered sound. A spectrum analysis of this noise will
show that practically all frequencies are present and that it is highly irregular in nature.
This irregularity can be illustrated by means of sound spectrograms. These visual records,
obtained with a sound spectrograph - an instrument developed by the Bell Telephone
Laboratories - provide a frequency analysis of a sound source as a function of time. As an
example, a sound spectogram of street noise in a busy city is given in this figure.

~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-J
0.1
OA o.!>
o.11 o.1 o.e o.9 , o ' '
t.;!

o..-

fi~E

'IN SE!;ONO!>

The frequency scale of the spectrogram is linear, and it covers 3500 cycles, as shown by
the vertical scale to the left of the figure. The time stale is also linear and is marked in
seconds along the horizontal axis. Thus, on the spectrograms, a sustained pure tone of
1750 cycles produces a single dark horizontal line mid-way between the top and bottom
of the record. The greater the pressure of the sound, the darker is the line. The spectrogram of street fl9ise shows that the peaks of power occur at random. The figure below
is the spectrogram of noise from a ventilating fan. Note the regularity of the pattern and
also the predominance of certatr frequencies.

50

0 .1

0.2

o.3

0.4

O.!o

0.5

TIME IN

. 0 .7

0.8

O.jj

1.0

1.1

~[CONO!o

~
I

M usic is generally, though not always, made up Ordered sound. The powef peaks co: 1:
at periodic intervals, as illustrated in the f igure below which is a spectrogram of a portion
of a clarinet solo. This record also indicates another characteristic of most musical
tones. The overtone structure is harmonic. The component frequencies in this figure are
integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.

1/

v~
'>

vz

Bb

---:.:':::--:-. ~--:: .:.;;;: ~ - .

Eb

--:; - . . .,.'""';"'_ . :

......

~;_,--~- ~
._,;----- -~__~--- -

,,.
Q- '~
--.;...:.;.---~-_,._.,.~
._";:__ .
ZCOO
-.
yal .:r'*.

...

3000

'

-- - .

81>

-"".-'::::::-----.

r:.
. ~
;:
.
~::::::~~----~~:::::::;.~
. .~~~~~~~::::~::::::::~

~ :ooc~ ~~::::~------~~=---~--~----~~------~--~::::::::::::::~~~

~ ol--------------------------------------------------------------. . ... ------- ._-_-__;_-___.

.. __,.__....___.__
__..._....;..__.__

c.1

o.s o.o

:..:...-~
- :..:..
~
-- _.....___~.

o .2 o.3 o.4

;_
'

o.7 o.a o.9 1.0

1.1

1.2 1. .:1 1.4 1.s 1.6

1.1

1.e

__
1.9

2.0 2.1

TIME IN SECONDS

Speech
The ear's sensivity is maximum in the speech frequency and normal energy range.
Speech sounds vary in the length between 30 and 300 msec so that the ear perceives
them individually and clearly. Speech is comprised of phonemes, which are individual and
distinctive sounds that to an extent vt~ry from language to language, that is, certain ones
exist in one language not in another, Since certain phonemes carry more information than
others, it is _these which good architectural acoustics must be particularly careful to
preserve intact, to preserve intelligibility. In English, consonants carry much more information than vowels, as can readily demonstrated by writing a sentence first without con~
sonants and then without vowels:

51

Most speech energy is concentrated in the

100 - to 600 - Hz range

ee

ee

ae

tOO- 600

oeae

Mst spch nrgy S cncntrtd n th

100 - 600 Hrtz rng

._..
10~~~~----------~~----~----~

40 50

100

500

200

1000 2000
heru

Fri!Quencv in

5000 10,000
162351

The male voice centers its energy around 500 Hz; the female about 900 Hz. It is,
however, in the high frequencies that consonants have most of their energy. Phonemes
such as "s" and "sh" have most of their energy above 2khz and both are particularly important in conveying Intelligence.

Speech consists of both ordered and disordered sound . The spectrograms in this figure
below iflustrate the spoken words, Acoustical Designing in Architecture. Note that the
hiss "s" in the word ''acoustical" (Akussss) produces much the same record as street
noise does. This "s" sound is non-periodic as contrasted with the vowel sounds, which
show a definite overtone structure with the bursts of peak power coming at regular intervals of time, as shown by the vertical striations.

52

RESONANCE
PLOSIVE

BARS

vi
0.:

u 30 00

z
>- 2000

w lOCO
~
0

w
u.

a:

0,2

0.4

0.6

0.8

LO

1. 4

1. 2

2.0

1.8

1. 6

TIME . IN SECONDS
A

c ou

S T I C A L :; . D...;;E;..._S::......._..;,.._..;G;..._N
_ _I _ N..;.G
.;;.

R CH r

CT

Nomal speech averages between 4 0 and 50 db sound pressure level at 3 to 4 ft, with a
dynamic range of from about 30 db for a soft speech to about 65 db for loud speech at
the same distance. Extremes of speech are 10 db for a Whisper and 80 db for a shout,
but in both these instances intelligibility is sharply reduced because of lack of consonant
power. Indeed, in shouting. emphasis is necessarily on vowels so that it is generally accepted that 70 db SPL is about the upper limit of fully intelligible human speech. Note
that singers who frequently exceed 90 db so at great loss of intelligibility} . Another result
of the high-frequency content of consonants and hence intelligibility is its directiveness.
The higher the frequency the greater its directivity and the less its diffraction (ability to
turn corners). Therefore, intelligibility of speech is greatest directly in front of the speaker
and least behind him. The high-f,requency tones are most easily absorbed and least
reflected and deffracted.

Speech Pow er
The average person is surprised at the exceedingly minute amount of energy contained in
speech. As mentioned in chapter I. approximately 1 5,000,000 lecturers speaking at the
same time generate acoustical energy at a rate of only 1 horsepower. When the speech
power of a single speaker is diffused in a large auditoruim, the sound pressure in the room
is reduced to extraordinarily small values. Under such circumstances, it is easy to understand why it is difficult to hear well in a large room, and why very feeble sources of extraneous noise may produce serious interference with the speech . For example, the noise
of a distant ventilating fan or motor, the shuffling of feet on the floor, the jarring of a
nearby door, or the whispering or coughing of inconsiderate " spectators" may be sufficient to mask many of the speech sounds, and. especiallY the feeble consonants, which
reach an auditor in a large auditorium.

Since the amounts of acoustical power generated in speech are very small, the acoustics
of auditoriums used primarily for unamplified speech must be carefully controlled to

53

RE

make the best possibl~ use of the usually inadequate speech power. In large auditorium,
as might be expected, the amplification of speech is an indispensable requirement.

The instantaneous speech power, the rate at which sound energy is radiated by a
speaker, varies considerably with time. Its maximum value in any given time interval is
the peak speech power. The average speech power has, in general, a very much lower
value than the peak value and depends on the method of averaging (That is, on the length
of time over which the average is taken) and on the inclusion or omission of the pauses
between syllables and sentences in this time interval.

An extensive investigation of the conversational speech power output of individuals of

two groups, 6 men and 5 women, was conducted by Dunn and White. "Long-time-interval averages" were obtained by averaging data over time intervals of a minute or mor.e of
continouous speech, including all natural pauses between syllables and sentences. Their
results show that the long-time-interval average power output varied from one individual
to another within the group of 6 men, ranging from 10 to 91 microwatts. The short-timeinterval average and peak power outputs of typical speakers, speaking at a conversational level, can be and often are much higher. Calculations of these quantities were
made for 1/8 second intervals, a length of time of the order of magnitude of the duration
of a syllable. At least 1 percent of the 1/8 second intervals had an average power in ex
cess of 230 microwatts for men and 150 microwatts for women, and a peak power in excess of 3600 microwatts for men and 1800 microwatts for women. This study indicates
that the average male person produces a long-time-interval average sound-pressure level
of about 64 db at a distance of 1 meter, directly in front of him, when he talks in a .normal
conversational voice; the average for women, is about 61 db at a distance of 1 meter.

The above data are for conversational speech in a quiet location in the absence of
reflecting surfaces. Noise, the size of the room in which a person is speaking, his
distance from the auditor, the acoustical condition of the room, and other factors affect
the power a output of his speech, and especially the sound-pressure distribution
throughout the room. If a noisy condition prevails, He will raise his voice in order to
"override" the noise. He will, in general, increase his power output as his distance from
an auditor is increased. Furthermore. it is well known that a speaker attempts to raise
the power output of his voice when he is speaking in an auditorium, and the larger the
auditorium, the more he exerts himself.

Tests conducted in a small auditorium (27,000 cubic feet) approximately 25ft x 80ft x
13 ft high or 8 m x 25 m x 4 m high. indicate that the average speech power in this large
auditorium was approximately 50 microwatts. These results confirm a reasonable expec
tation based upon everyday observations, namely, that a speaker increases the power of
,his voice in his attempt to discount the effect of the size of the auditorium in which he is
!speaking. He attempts to speak so that he will be heard by all auditors in the room. That
.he falls short of the requirements for good hearing in large auditoriums will be made
manifest in the chapter on auditoriums.

The percentage of the speech power lying below a given frequency, for the average
speaker is given in this figure.

54

..-

1- - --

The percentage of the speech

power lying below a given frequency, for the average speaker is given
in this figure.

There is relatively little power In the frequencies of 1000 cycles, the frequency range that
characterizes most consonants . The figure below shows how the total power of average
conversational speech is distributed in frequency. The level of speech power per cycle
is plotted as a function of frequency. Since theSE! curves represent data averaged over a
long time interval, their shapes are affected by the frequency of occurence of the speech
components as well as by their acoustic power. If these curves were "corrected" for the
sensitivity of the ear so that the ordinates represented the loudness of the various frequency components as heard by the ear, the maximum would occur between 500 and
1000 cycles.

- 10

v~l\

tHv-=-,-*....q"' ':::
.... l - -

60

1()0

i---1--- 1-

- - -

zoo
500
1000 2()()()
:;,o()()
f'ReQI.Jel'lCY IN CYCLE8 PER Sl:c<>NO

55

10,000

Other Sounds
~usic

is much broader and complex than speech in frequency and dynamic range. It has
no direct parallel to intelligibility. "Reception" of music is a combination of physiological
and psychological phenomena. As such, it is beyond most of the purposes of this study,
but will be briefly examined in the discussion of room acoustics, auditoriums, and halls.
Noise is variously defined as unwanted sound, sound with no intelligence content. and
broadband sound depending on the listener and the situation.

Properties of
Musical Sounds
The physical characteristics of musical sounds differ from those of speech in several important respects. In genera~ they are not so transientJ~.. !'!.~ture. The separate tones of
music often are sustained for an appreciable f;action of a second or longer, and the
change in frequency is nearly always ordered in conformity with the relations among the
frequencies which make up the musical scale. This is illustrated by a comparison of the
speech spectrogram in the figure on page 53 with one of a portion of a clarinet solo, figure
on page 51.

The separate tones that comprise music are in general made up not of a single simple harmonic vibration, but of long and complex series..ofsucn \iibrations. In some instances,
the overtones may be much more prominent from the furiaamental. The number and
prominence of these overtones, together with the differences in their rates of build-up
and decay, are the chief determinants of the tonal characteristics of various musical instruments. The overtones from most string and pipe instrument are, at least very approximately, harmonic. The differences in the overtone structure of different musical tones on
the same pitch are illustrated in the figure below.

ClARINET

cr.ARINA

~3RO

ACCORDION

------

<..)

~t.&+O
f--

(; 174&0

I:

--

-~

~--+

56

Portions of spectrograms of sound from three musical instruments are shown. In each
case the lower horizontal dark line represents the fundamental component - a frequency
of about 440 cycles. Dark bands above it correspond to the harmonic overtones. Some
of the harmonics are "stronger" than others, and some do not exist at all. Thus, in the
clarinet solo tone the fourth and sixth a harmonics are particularly weak, and in the
ocarina tone all higher harmonics appear to be absent.

The spectrogram of the accordion tone shows that its even harmonics are very weak.
This record is especially interesting because it furnishes an excellent illustration of
"amplitude vibrato", a rapid periodic variation in the acoustic output as a function of
time.

The acoustical power generated by musical instruments; including the singing voice, is in
general considerably greater than that generated in speaking. Thus, whereas the average
speaker generates in the same auditorium about 100 microwatts, and often 500 to 5000
miocrowatts {see table below);

THE APPROXIMATE PEAK SOUND POWER OUTPUT OF

CONVERSATIONAL SPEECH AND OF SEVERAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
(Belt Telephone Laboratories)
Source

Peek Power In Watt

Conversational speech
Female
Male
Clarinet
Bass viol
Piano
Trumpet
Trombone
Bass drum, 36 in. x 15 in.
Orchestra, 75 pieces

0.002
0.004

0.05
0.16
0.27
0.31

6.

25.
10-70

Therefore, the sound-pressure level of music in a room is usually several decibels higher
than the average pressure level of speech. For this reason, less difficulty is encountered
in hearing music than in hearing speech. The power generated in singing, or in the playing
of musical instruments, is usually adequate for satisfactory hearing, even in auditoriums
cOnsiderably larger than those in which the listening conditions for unamplified speech
are just barely tolerable.

The frequency range over which this power is distributed in considerably wider than that
used in speech.

57

Some Effects of a
Room on Speech and Music

When sound waves strike the boundaries of an enclosed space they are reflected back
and forth until their energy is finally dissipated. The persistence of sound in an enclosure
as a result of these repeated reflections is known as Reverberation. This phenomenon
has a very pronounced effect on both speech and music. For example, the sound
pressure at a given dis~trom a source in a room, is, in general, greater than it would
be at this same caltence from th'e source in the open air. This increase in level is quite
helpful where sound sources, such as the voice, nave relatively weak outputs. Furthermore, a certain amount of reverberation will contribute to the acoustical quality of a room
intended for music. Indeed, listener (and especially performer} preference has shown
that, properly controlled, it is a desirable property.

(a) Effects on Speech

The normal rate of speech is about 10 individual sounds per second. Thus,
each sound has about one tenth of a second in which to make its impression
upon the auditory mechanism. Since the time of reverberation in a room is
nearly always in excess of 1 second, a number of sounds preceeding the one
upon which attention is focused will yet remain audible and will produce a
masking effect that is dependent on their loudness and frequency composition and similar to that of noise. This is illustrated by the sound spectrograms
in the figure below.

::'!

3000
0

EVcRBER

A :-J A

L Y

2000 1I

1000 l~
<I)

o',. M.

a::
w
0..
<I)

300C I.

2000

>-

JL

z 1ooo 1
v

I
I

:::>

aw

0::

300C

u... 2000 r

IOCC!
Ol

:a1fjil,l
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

. 0.8
1.0
1.2
TIME IN SECONDS

58

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

All three spectrograms were made from the same magnetic tape recording of
the words "reverberation analysis". The record shown in the above figure (a)
is a direct analysis of the original record. The next two records show the effects of adding reverberations. As a little reverberation is added, on figure (b)
the individual sounds begin to overlap. After still more reverberation time of
about 3 seconds - the condition for the record in figure (c) - only a few of
the more prominent identifying bars of the vowels can be recognized. This
record has a greater resemblance to that of street noise than it does to the
original record. It is indeed remarkable that the ear can resolve, as well as it
does, .such a jumble of sound. But even an instrument as extraordinary as the
human ea~~ia -not infallible in resolving the confusions of sounds in excessively
reverberant rooms.

(b) Effects on Music

It is obvious that in order to preserve the original quality of a musical tone it is

necessary that the relative magnitudes of all harmonic components be
unaltered as they are transmitted from their source to the listerners in an
auditorium. This is strictly impossible in an auditorium or in any other enclosed
space. The air within the enclosure acts as if it were an assemblage of
resonators that respond to certain (resonant) frequencies more than to others.
Furthermore, the rate of absorption of sound by the boundaries and contents
of the room, and even by the air in the room, may be greater for certain frequency components than for others. Many acoustical materials are of such a
nature that the high-frequency components will be absorbed more rapidly
than the low-frequency ones, and the air itself is highly absorptive at very
high frequencies. For these reasons sounds at some frequencies are enhanced
while others are suppressed.

It is most fortunate for the hearing of both speech and music in auditorium that these frequency distortions can be tolerated to a considerable degree of without sacrificing the
characteristics that are essential for the correct auditory recognition of sounds of speech
or for the enjoyment of music. Thus, one is able to recognize a given sound when it is
spoken by different men women even though the frequency spectra of this sound, as
spoken by these individuals, may be quite different. Except for the absorption in air, frequency distortion of the above types is not encountered outdoors.

Music in the open, however, lacks the beneficial effects of reverberation; also, the
loudness level may be too low for optimum listening conditions. It is apparent from the
foregoing qualitative considerations of the effects of enclosures on speech and music
that the acoustical properties of rooms are greatly dependent on such factors as noise,
reverberation, loudness, and room resonances. These factors will be considered
qualitatively in subsequent chapters, wheregeneral principles will be described to guide
the architect and the engineer in the acoustical designing of all speech and music rooms.

59

NOISE CRITERIA

Negative Effects of Noise

Although noise effects and their control are discussed in the later chapter on Noise Control, noise criteria and their background are discussed here as part of the overall study of
hearing and sound sources. There are two basic approaches to the negative effects of
noise, a p~ical practical one and a purely physiological one . The latter is concern~ the physical impact of noise on the body including hearing loss and other
deleterious conditions (see high noise levels in the next pages. )

The former is concerned with noise levels that cause annoyance and disturbance to daily
activities including work, relaxation, and rest, and is discussed herein below.

Noise and Annoyance.

Tests-have show.n that in general, annoyance. (which is subjective and psychological) as
a result of noise is:
(a) Proportional to the loudness of the noise
(b) Greater for high-frequency than low-frequency noise
(c} Greater for intermittent than continuous noise
(d) Greater for pure-tone than for broadband noise
(e) Greater for moving Of unlocatable (reverberant) noise than for a fixed-location
sound.
(f) Much greater fOf an intelligence-bearing noise (neighbor's radio) than for a nosense noise.

In order t~ es.!9.bJistu~riJ:eria..4oJ aeeeptilbl~ ba~d.noi_se,_ certain of these effects

must be neglected for the sake of simplicity ... We thus ignore:
factor (cl since design is based on continuous sounds
factor (dl since broadband noise is assumed
factor (e) since the noise source is assumed to be fixed in location
factor (f)

since we consider noise level rather than content

Thus the particularity and special characteristics of noises such as a barking dog {c), a
whistle (d) a single passing vehicle (e), and intelligible sounds (f) are not considered. Consideration of the remaining factors (a) and (bl or interference with speech communication
resulted in concepts called the Articulation Index (All and Speech Interference Level
(SILl. This was determined by reading a carefully selected Set of Phonetically balanced in
the nonsense syllables to a test audience in the presence of different levels and compositions of background noise.

The ratio of correct answers to total syllables was the Articulation Index. An Articulation
lndex11 in excess of 0 .6 indicated a condition in which perfect intelligibility could be expected . A simplified Version of the AI called the Speech Interference Level (SILl was
devised by Beranek. The SIL consists simply of the arithmetic average in decibels of the
background - noise sound leveis in three octave bands, 600 to 1200, 1200 to 2400.
and 2400 to 4800 Hz , since it was found that correlation between intelligibility and the
sound power in these three bands could be established. The results of this and similar
studies are shown in this figure and the table.

'

Sl ,. Sentence Intelligibility

0.33

, .65

3.3

16.5

~-lng

61

distMlce

90

_._

_.......

:::::t::

-=E~

::;=

-+......._
~
-

No ise crite"il
NCcunti!S

=+=
~
-

::i::

==

'"'F.
"'

--

----------+- --..
-==
--

-I
--+-

1"'
~
~

>

............

--

E
~

~
,.

=+=
_._

__.__

..
~

__.___

-----

- -

--

-t-

--+---

--+-

soecvum

--+-

10

500

1000

2000

8000

Octave-Band center frequencies in cycles per lii!Cbnd (herttl

Approx imate
threshold of
hearing for
co ntinuoug noise

On the basis of Sll data and loudness level (LL} Informat ion, Banadek developed t he wellknown and w idely accepted Noise Criteria tNC) curves shown in t his figure.

62

These curves take cognizance of the field-determined fact that most people prefer to
speak at a level no greater than 22 phons above the background noise by combining the
SIL levels in decibels with this fact, the NC curves are derived, that is, they represent a
loudness level 22 phons higher than the SIL in db. These contours represent then the
tfT!aximum continuous background noise that will oe considered acceptable in the en:
vironment specified and correspond fairly accurately to background noise level in commercial environments. A similar set of curves called Noise Rating (NR) curves has been
proposed by the International Standards Organization (ISO), see figure below.

These curves are less stringent than NC curves in the low frequency and more stringent
in the high frequencies.

In application, the octave-band spectrum of a noise over the range of 63 to 8000 Hz is

measured and planed on an NC curve sheet. The lowest NC curve that is not exceeded
by any portion of the plot is the f)IC rating of the noise. Thus a specification of maximum
noise levels of NC-30 means. that no portion of sound power level of any continuous
background noise in the area may cross the NC-30 contour. Conversely, a piece of equipment rated NC-35 has an octave-band spectrum completely below NC-35.

63

SOUND IN ENCLOSURES
When a continuous sound is generated in an enclosure, fields are set up as described in
chapter 3 (sound fields in an Enclosed Space). When the sound is not a continuous tone or
noise but a series of discrete sounds, following one upon the other and containing intelligence, as in speech or music, the room must be designed to maintain and enhance
this intelligibility. That is what is meant by design of room acoustics.
The generated sound radiates out from the source until it strikes a room boundary or other
large surface. Before reaching this surface the sound intensity is attenuated by distance
(inverse square law) and by absorption in the air. This latter is only appreciable in large
rooms, and at frequencies above 2000Hz. When the sound reaches the wall it is partially
reflected and partially absorbed. A small portion is also transmitted into adjoining spaces.
The energy transmitted is so small that it has little effect on the space within which the
sound originates although, as will be discussed on the chapter of Building Noise Control.
It may be very important in the surrounding spaces.
The ratio between the energy absorbed and reflected will significantly affect what one
hears within the space. Specifically, if little energy is absorbed and much is reflected, two
effects will be noticeable. Intermittent sounds will be mixed together (which may make
speech less intelligible or music more pleasant}, and steady sounds will accumulate into a
reverberant field, making the space "noisy". Conversely, if much energy is absorbed and
little reflected, the room will sound quiet to speech and "dead" to music.

Sound Absorption

It is useful to express the above effects quantitatively. Most materials are neither perfect
reflectors nor perfect absorbers. The coefficient of absorption (a) i-s defined as:

Where

li = intensity impinging on the material, watts/cm2

18
intensity absorbed by the material, watts/cm2
a = absorption coefficient (no units)

Thus a is a measure of absorption efficiency. 1f a =1.0 all the impinging energy is absorbed. Since open space has this characteristics, has also been defined as the ratio bet
ween the absorption of a given material and that of an open window of the same area.
Obvi9usly then for an open window,

1.0

The total absorption lA) provided by a surface (S) is express~d in sabins, as

A =Sa
where

A
S

= total absorption; sabins

= surface area; square feet
= coefficient of absorption

. Since a is a ratio and this unitless. and S is square feet, S a should be in square feet. Actually, sound absorption units are cailed Sabins in honor Of w.c. Sabine, a pioneer in ar.
.
chitectural acoustics. .
Mqst rooms are constructed of several materials, each having different absorption
coefficients a and thus it become.s necessary to use.

or

EA

= A- 1

+A2 + ....... +An

WHERE ESoc = the total absorption in the room, sabins

S 1 Sz,etc

the areas ~ft2) of each material

oc1 ,a2,etc.

the coefficients of each materials

total absorption of each different material

Room absorption is discussed in detail i11 chapter 9 on Air-borne Noise Reduction.

Reverberation

Reverberation is the persistence of sound after the cause of sound has stopped - a
result of repeated reflections. Reverberation time (Tf:ll.desclibes the period required for
the sound level to decrease 60 db after the sound souroe has stopped producing sound.
For most rooms, the reverberation timeare specific frequency may be found by the formula:

= Kx
where K

v
ESa

sec

a constant, equal to 0.049 when Vis in cubic feet andJ 0.16

when V is cubic meters

67

= room volume, tt3, (m3)

= total absorption, sa bins at the frequency.

I:Sa

In most room acoustic studies. reverberation times are calculated at 125, 500, 1000,
and 2000 Hz although the mid-frequency 1500 to 1000 Hz) range is generally the
reference used in specifying the reverberation time of a room.
Reverberation can be considered as a mixture of previous and more recent sounds. The
converse of reverberation or reverberance is articulation. An articulate environment
keeps each sound event separate rather than running them together. Spaces for speech
activities should be less reverberant - more articulate - than those designed for performance of romantic music. The figure below compar~s the reverberance and articulation
requirements of performance activities and spaces.

0.2

04

0.6

0.8

10

I l I
I I I
I

12

l4

16
I

l8
1

I_
Symphony

20

22

, ..

~ 'tf

'

" " 1 1 1 1 1 II I

t"'

2.8

30

32

3.4

~--.-;-------------~~~
("nl~ntlc:"
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ISuler tllenl
'

()peQ

26

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24

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Col\temparary OKhesttfl wortos. reatal and d\amber mll$it

ltHU,,
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....... ,
I

"'Semotlassical'' c:on<:e1t1 and cnoraii"'UIIS. lllillf sound system

J UH~IJIIIII~

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1111111.~11111
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uclitoriums

Churches

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Revefberation Time in Seconds

68

In the neXt figure below, it shows average optimum

reverberation time for various types of auditoriums as a
function of size. The values are average because recommendations vary as much as 100% between respected
sources. In addition to an optimum reverberation time in
the central 500-H2 1-khz range, the reverberations at other
frequencies should exhibit a slight drop in the higher freQuencies and a rise at the lower frequencies to compensate for the sharp drop in ear sensitivity. Thus TR at 100 H2
should be, according to most authors, between 25 to 50%
longer than T R at the center freQuencies. As a matter of interest, concert halls judged to be excellent by musical experts have a center freQuency reverberation time between
1.6 and 1.8 sec.

..

~0

f~

:~

2.0 1'-.'-t''-t+ttffi~+.11'-'H-TttiM~
..

..

LSH-t.+H~~""Firt+fffi----,
. .

j-= 1.0 H-++tttt1r-+-1r+++loH&......-::;;;o;-!'ffltf--H

j

Reflection and Diffraction

of Sound in Rooms
When a sound wave impinges on a non-yielding wall, part of the incident sound is
reflected from the wall; another part is transmitted into the wall, where some of it is
dissipated as heat; and the rest is transmitted through the wall. For example, if the wave
encounters a wall of very porous material, such as mineral wool, that portion of the wave
which is transmitted into the wall suffers considerable attenuation as it is propagated
through the material. Although this reduction in Sound intensity is due largely to the
viscous losses within the capillary pores of the material, the vibration of the fibers of the
material often contributes to the attenuation.
Most wall structures are not non-yielding; they vibrate as a whole, or in parts, under the
action of the pressure pulsations of incident sound waves: The wood, plaster, or even
masonry walls of a room are set jnto vibration, like diaphragms, and hence radiate sound
energy. Since most of the sound that is communicated from one room to an adjacent one
is transmitted in this manner, rigid, heavy walls should be better insulators of sound than
flexible, light ones; and exp;er~e gives abundant evidence that they are. One of the
most effective means fQr proWting a high _degree of sound insulation makes use of a
combination of rigid partitions and porous materials.

The relative magnitudes of the absorbed, transmitted, and reflected components of a

sound wave incident on a wall depend on such factors as the frequency and angle of incidence of the sound wave, the nature of the wall material, and the manner in which the
wall is supported, reinforced, backed.

The Reflection of Sound

When a "free" sound wave (one tree from the influence of reflective surfaces) strikes a
uniform surface that is large compared to the wavelength-of the sound, the reflection of
the wave is similar to the familiar reflection of light. Suppose that the path of this sound
wave is represented by a ray along which the wave advances, that is, by a line perpendicular to the advancing wave front. Then, by the law of reflection, the angle of reflection
for this ray equals the angle of incidence, and the reflected ray lies in the plane of incidence. Thus in the figure (a) below, which represents reflection from a plane surface.
<i =<r. When this law is applied to the analysis of reflection from curved surfaces; the
curved surface being regarded as made up of many small plane surfaces, the character of
the reflections from a concave or convex surface can be derived as shown in the figure
(b) and (c).

ANGlE OF

REFLEC.TlON

FJG. (b} REFLECTIOO FROM A

SPHERICAL SURFACE

Re. (0) REFLECTION FROM A

PLANE SURFACE

Fl6. (C) IEFLE.CTION FRa1 A

. Cli4VEX SUR~ .
70

Evidently, as shown in figure (b), a concave surface tends to concentrate the reflected
waves. Large concave surfaces may be used to advantage as reflectors, but if used indiscriminately they may ruin the acoustics of 9 room. The reflective properties of concave surfaces will be discussed on the chapter (Acoustical Design of Rooms). Occasionally the reflections from such surface are beneficial, but more frequently they are
deleterious. On the other hand, since a convex reflector (fig. c) tends to "spread" the
reflected waves, convex surfaces at the boundaries of a room tend to diffuse the sound
throughout the room. For this reason a number of radiobroadcasting studies and other
special room have been constructed with cylindrical convex panels as part of the wall
construction. Their action is dispersing sound waves is illustrated in the figure below.

Diffraction of Sound
In the preceding sections there have been discussed many of the basic principles of
sound, such as reflection, transmission, and absorption all of which have analogies in
the subject of light. The assumption that light is propagated in straight lines gives rise to
that branch of optics called geometrical optics, and this "rectilinear" propagation accounts for the sharp shadows and images that can be formed by light. For example, light
coming through a small opening such as a crack in a door is confined to a narrow beam of
about the same shape and cross-sectional size as the opening. Geometrical Optics corresponds to geometrical acoustics, which assumes that sound is propagated in straight
lines; it is valid only fof wavelengths that are short compared to the dimensions of rooms
and the openings and reflecting surfaces in them. It should be remembered that many
surfaces in rooms are not large in comparison with the wavelengths of low-pitched
. sounds. Windows, doors, pilasters, beams, coffers, any form of relief ornamentation,
and patches of absorptive material - all introduce diffraction which greatly alters the
. direction and magnitude of the reflected sound. Physical optics and physical acoustics
are based upon wave properties and thus, describe many aspects of light and sound that
cannot be handled by a geometrical treatment; among these, diffraction is the most important.

When sound comes through a crack in the door, it spreads out almost uniformly; or when
sound encounters the corner of a building, it bends around the corner. In such instances,
we say the sound has been diffracted or bent. Diffraction is the change in direction of

71

propagation of sound waves due to their passage around an obstacle . The e)(tent of the
diffraction depends on the relationship between the wavelength of the sound and the
size of the obstacle. This is illustrated in the figure below, which gives the sound
pressure distribution around a person's head while he is speaking.

It will be seen that at low frequencies there is approximately equal radiation in all direc
tions. whereas at higher frequencies, where the wavelength is much shorter and the ben
ding is much less, the distribution is fairly directional. Similarly, sound from a point
source reflected from a hard parabolic surface can produce a concentrated "beam"
which converges to a focus .or which diverges very little if the wavelength of the sound is
small compared to the dimensions of the reflector, it will be relatively ineffective in its in
fluence on the sound waves. As a further illustration of diffraction, the figure below
represents plane waves striking the edge of a partition . Notice how the waves, travelling
from left to right, are tlent around the edge of the obstacle

72

New Wave5 Spread

Out Spherically

==C>

New Wave$ Me1ge Wi1 h Q, i~H>61

Wa,ve Froru ;,net S'!t Up
lnter-ter~nce Pauerns

diffraction of plane waves at

the edge of a partition

It would appear that. in regard to diffraction, light and sound behave very differently.
However, both theory and experiment show the~t sound and light behave very much alike
if the openings and obstacle in the sound field are in the same proportions to the
wavelengths of sound as the openings and obstacles in the light field are to the
wavelength of light. Visible light wavelengths of the order of 0.00001 5 to 0 .000030
inch, whereas audible sound has wavelengths of the order of 0.06 to 60 feet. It is prin
cipally because of this great disparity in the wavelengths of the sound and the light that
w e usually observe that light travds in straight lines through openings and past
obstacles, whereas, sound spreads out very considerably under similar circumstances.

Diffraction of Sound
Transmitted Through
Openings
An elementary principle of physical acoustics;known as Huygens' principle, enables us
to determine the extent of spreading of a sound wave when it is transmitted through an
opening of known size. Consider a plane wave falling upon a very large surface in which
there is an opening that is small in comparison with the wavelength of the sound . A
familiar example is a small hole in a door, as illustrated in the figure next page.

73

New Waves Spread Out

Spherically and F ifl SPice

Wave Front

'New WiNes Arof s.tme

Frequency 'But' Lower Intensity

Diffraction of S'Ound passing through a smell opening.

According to Huygens' principle, which states that each point of the wave front at any
instant may be regarded as a source of secondary waves, the opening 0 may be regarded
as such a source from which tt\esoond spreads oot as .a spherical wave. Hence. whereas
the supposed wave was plane before it reached fh.e small opening, it emerges approximately as a spherical wave and thus diverges widely. If the opening is large compared to the
wavelength of the sound propagated through it (for example; a large proscenium). there
is only slight bending near the edges.
Since the wavelength of sound vary from about 0.06 to 60ft. the diffraction may be pronounced for some frequencies and neglible for others. For example. a 3-feet door opening would be small compared to a wavelength of 60 feet. Therefore. such a low frequency sound would be very much diffracted in going through the door. the emergent sound
spreading out almost uniformly' in all directions. In contrast, this same door opening would
be very large compared to a wavelength of 0.06 foot Ia frequency of about 19.000
cycles), and therefore a sound having such a wavelength would be transmitted through
the door with little diffraction. Obviously, sounds such as those in speech and music,
which are made up of a wide range of frequencies, are selectively diffracted because the
low-frequency components will diverge widely while the high-frequency components
will continue in a relatively narrow beam.

Diffraction of Sound from Reflective

And Absorptive Surfaces
In architectural acoustics the diffraction effects that accompany the reflection of sound
are even more important than those that accompany1he transmission thrQUgh openings.
The architectural and decorative treatment of rooms. such as beams, columns, and
ornamental plaster. results in regular or irregular breaks or dicontinuities in the boundaries of the room. and consequently the interiors of most rooms are of such a nature as
to introduce c;:omplicated diffraction phenomena. As an instance of how sound is
reflected and diffracted from a broken surface. such as the coffers in a ceiling. a spark
photograph obtained from a model of an auditorium is shown in this figure_

74

The diffraction of sound from the projecting ribs is similar to that already described for
the transmission of sound through small openings: the edges of the ribs of the coffers are
small in comparison with the wavelength, and in accordance with Huygens' principle
.these edges diffract and thus diffuse the sound.
Discontinuities in the sound-absorptive treatment of a wall (such as "patches" of absorptive materials). as well as irregularities in the shape of the wall (such as bumps) will
diffract sound waves that strike them. Thus, patches of absorptive material on the walls
of a room diffract or scatter incident sound waves and aid in diffusing the sound
throughout the room . Since a certain degree of diffusion of sound w ithin a room is a
desired condition for good acoustics, this subject will receiv e more detailed discussion in
the chapter of ("A coustical Design of Rooms"}.
Diffraction fi'om an obstacle in the path of a sound wave is frequently referred to as scattering. The obstacle alters the sound fields in its immediate neighborhood; the alteration
(that is, the difference between the existing wave and the wave which would exist if the
obstacle were absent) is called the scattered wave. Despite the complicated nature of
this type of diffraction, certain properties of diffraction are worth remembering.
( 1) When an obstacle is large in relation to the wavelength of the incident sound,
a sharp "shadow'', similar to a light shadow is cast;
(2) When an obstacle is small in comparison to the wavelength of th'e incident
wave, the sound is scattered in all directions;
(3} When the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength, the sound is
scattered in a complex but regular pattern, which depencts on such factors as
the shape, size, and absorptive properties of the obstacle and wavelength of
the sound and its direction of propagation with respect to the obstacle.

75

A number of scattering effects are illustrated in the photographs in this following figure.
The pictures show plane sound waves of a very high frequency travelling from left to
right in water, striking solid steel cylinder whose cross section appears as a dark circle. In
(a) the cylinder has a diameter equal to twice the wavelength of the sound waves; in {b)
the diameter is equal to 8 waVelengths. The larger cylinder casts a much more pronounced
shadow than does the smaller one ..Scattering due to obstacles within a room and t() wall
surface irregularities is WilY important in contributing to the uniformity of the sound field
within the room.

Criteria for Speech Rooms

The overriding criteria for speech is intelligibility. Since speech of short disconnected
sounds. among which are high-frequency, low-energy phonomes, the ideal room must
assure the ears reception of these phonomes as th~y are given. Since a slow decay rate is
the equivalent of a masking noise, reverberation must be kept to a minimum. Maximum
TR is given in this figure, as determined by one wellknown source.

L!f

l.t

..... ~ ~ ~~ F"

\0
~~

~
~

F-""'

At!

..,.....

__.... ~ ""'""'""'

iI

'i
soo

1000

i
?J:XX)

Volume of room irt

I
SOX)

I
10.000

cu~ic meter~

Too low a reverberation time (very high absorption, minimum reflection) is also
undesirable because:
(a) It limits the size of the room to that which can be covered by direct sound
only.
lbl It is disturbing to the speaker since absence of reflection prevents him or her
from gauging proper voice level and tends to cause excessive effort
(shouting).

76

Thus proper design of a room for speech is a compromise between the the need for some
reflection and the desire to minimize reflection to preserve intellibility.
Another important factor must be considered. The reflections associated with reverberation
can have either a salutary or a deleterious effect. The ear cannot distinguish between
sounds that arrive within a maximum of 50 msec of each other. Sounds arriving within
this time reinforce the direct path signal and appear to come from the source. Sounds arriving after this time are apprehended as a fuzzy echo or elongation of the sound, reducing intellibility and directiveness. Since 3"5 msec corresponds at 344m/sec to 12m. or
40 ft .. the room must be so arranged that 1he-difference between the first reflection path
and the direct path is no greater than 40 to 55 ft. or 12 to 17 m.

See figure below.

36ft (ll)
Direct path

44ft (13.4 ml

Optimum reverberation for speech is shown in the equation.

Where

T
V

v
= 0.31og 10

= time in seconds
=

room volume in m3

A good figure for lecture rooms is between 0.35 and 0.4 sec.

Criteria for Music Performance

Adequate design for a music space requires recognition of the following:
(al Large-volume spaces require direct-path sound reinforcement by reflection.
(b) Relatively long reverberation time is needed to enhance the music - the exact
amount depending on the type of mu~ic. This reverberance must, however,
not include clear echoes.

0.2

04

06

0.8

!
I

1.0

1.2
I

l
I
i

':

1.6

1.4
I

2.0

2.2

J ...............

UIW

I.

2.6

2.8

3.0 . 3.2

3.4

Ol*e.

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0.6

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2.0

2.2

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2.6

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R~rbenltion Time in Seconds

(c) Directivity declines if the reinforCing signal is excessively 'delayed. With large
ensembles, directivity gives the sense of depth and instrument location
necessary for proper appreciation. This is often referred to as clarity or definition in music. With a solo instrument this problem is diminished.
(d) Brilliance of tone is primarily a function of high-frequency content. Since these
frequencies are most readily absorbed, a good direct path must exist between
sound source and listener. Since our eyes and ears are close together, a good
sound path exists when a good vision path exists. At the other end .o f the
spectrum, lack of sufficient bass expresses Itself 'as a 16ss oy "fullness",
which is often caused by resonant absorption.

The actual design ot music performance space is a ve,.Y complex procedure involving extensive c"'lculations of abs~rption, reverberation time and r~y diagramming, and juggling
of materials, dimensions, and wall angles. Simulation techniques and acoustics are
models are aiso employed. Most modern design aiso uses movable 'r eflector panels and
other active variables. After construction is completed extensive tests are conducted
and field adjustments are made.

78

Ray Diagrams and Sound Paths

Ideally, every listener in a lecture hall, theater, or concert hall should hear the speaker of
performer with the same degree of loudness and clarity. Since this is obviously impossible by direct-path sound, the essential design task is to plan methods for reinforcing
desirable reflections and minimizing and controlling undesirable ones: Normally, only the
first reflection is considered in ray diagramming, since it is strongest. Second and subsequent reflections are usually attenuated to the point that they need not be considered except for the special situations of flutter, echoes, and standing waves.

(a)

Reflectk>ns

These occur when sound hits a surface that is neither predominantly absorptive nor sound
transparent at the specific frequency. Non-absorptive surfaces that are large, as compared to the wavelength at a given frequency, reflect sounds. Thus, 3-inches wide
pickets in a fence reflect frequencies with wavelengths that are less t han three in (4500
Hz and higher) . .If the fence is 50% open , it reflects about 50% of the high-frequency
energy. However, it does not significantly affect the lower frequecies. These lower frequencies (longer wavelengths) simply diffract around the obstruction.

(b )

Specular Reflection

Specular reflection occurs when sound reflects off a hard polished surface. This
characteristics can be used to good advantage to create an effective image source. In an
cient greek and roman theaters, seats were arranged on a steep, conical surface around
the performer. The virtue of the arragement in the fig. (a) below is that the sound power
travels to each location, with. minimal attenuation.

Source

Seats on steep slope prov ide

good sight lifle and minimum
IOIJnd ~ion.

79

This is not practical physically,

but it can be accomplished ef
fectively by the use of a reflec
ting panel (see figure) .

Wavelength in
feet and inches
113

FreQuency
in hertz
10

15
56

20

50
30

22.6
11.3

20

70
100

200

5
300

1 l<c

8 in.
6 in.
4 in.

2 kc
3 kc

2.0

2 in.

3.44 .
1.72

69 em

0.5
0.4

0.2

34 em

Panel dimension must be at least one wavelength

11

em

at the lowest one frequency under consideration.

The next figure is a conversion chart from frequency to wavelength in feet and meters.

0.1
7 em

5 kc

0.23
0.11

3.0

500
700

1.1

0.56

5.0
4.0

1.0

3
2.3

17.2

6.88

50

10

20
10

150
5.6

Wavelength
in meters
34.4

0.05

7 kc
10 kc

3.4 em

(c) ~ay Diagrams

Ray diagramming is a design procedure for analyzing reflected sound distribution
throughout a hall, using the first reflection only. Ray diagram is shown in the following
figure.

U:>elul reflector

(o} fl<tt ceiling

(b) Two panel ceihng incre<1ses useful reflecting area

(c) M.rltifaceted ceiling incorporates lights and loud5peakers

The rays are drawn normal (perpendicular) to the spherically propagating sound waves.
Specular reflection is assumed, that is, the angles between the reflecting panel and the
incident and reflected rays are always equal. Thus. in addition to the direct sound, each
listener is receiving reflected sound energy. It is as though there were additional sound
sources. The real one and numerous image saurce8. Figures (a) (b) and (c) next page .show
the application of a ray diagrart) to a lecture hall.

81

Useful rtflector

(r;a) Flat ceiling

In figure (a) the stage height and seating slope are

arranged to provide good sight lines, and the ceiling height is established by reverberation requirements, aesthetics, costs, etc. It can be seen
that less than half of the ceiling is providing useful
reflection. By dividing the ceiling into two panels

(b) Two panel ceiling nereases useful rtflecting arta

figure (b), people in the rear of the room perceive

the direct source plus two image sources, and the
useful reflecting area is increased by 50%.

(c} Multifaceted ceiling incorporates liihts

and loudspUker~

In figure (c), the shape has been further refined to

include a lighting slot and loudspeaker grille.

82

(d)

Echoes

A clear echo is caused when reflected sound at sufficient intensity reaches a listener approximately 70 msec or more after hears the direct sound. This occurs whenever the
reflected sound path is more than 70 ft. longer than the direct path.
Echoes even if not distinctly discernable are undesirable in rooms. They are annoying
and make speech less intelligible. the relative annoyance is dependent on the time delay,
and loudness relative to the direct sound which, il;l turn, are dependent on th e size, position, shape, and absorpti~ ~f the reflecting surface .
. ., . ...
Typical echo-producing surfaces in an auditorium are the back wall and the ceiling above
the proscenium . The figure below shows these problems and suggests remedies. Note
that the energy till-at produced the echoes can be redirected to places where it becomes
useful reinforcement. If echo control by absorption alone were used on the ceiling and
back wall, that energy would be wasted. The rear wall, since its area cannot be reduced
too far, may have to be made more sound-absorptive to reduce the 16udness of the
reflected sound .

Add panel to
.re<luce rear
. wall $ize

Add absorption
to wall

(e) Flutter

A flutter is perceived as a buzZing or clicking sound_, and it is comprised of repeated

echoes traversing back and forth between two non-absorbing parallel (flat or concave;
surfaces. Flutters often occur ~ween shallow domes and hard, flat floors. The remedy
--for ffutter is-either to cllariQe'ttu~ shape of t he reflectors, their parallel r':lationship, or
add absorption. The solution chosen will depend on reverberation reQuirements, cost. or
esthetics.

(fl . Focu~lng ..

.,,,.

Concave domes, vaults, or walls will focus reflectE;d sound into certain-areas of rooms.
This has several disadvantages. For example, it will deprive some listeners of useful
soul"!ci reflection and cause hot spots at other audience positions.
83

(a)
(g) Qiffusion
This is the converse of focusing and occurs primarily when sound is reflected from convex surfaces. A degree of diffusion is also provided by flat horizontal inclined reflectors
as shown.

( b)
In a diffuse sound field the sound level
remains relatively constant throughout
the space and a$ such is extremely
.desirable for musical performances.

(c )
84

(h) Creep
This describes the reflection of sound along a curved surface from a source near the surface. Although the sound can be heard at points along the surface, it is inaudible away
from the surface.

.CREEP
(b)

(i)

Standing Waves

Standing waves and flutters are very similar in principle and cause, but are heard quite indifferently. When an impulse (such as a handHs the energy source. a flutter will occur
between two parallel walls. When a steady pure tone is the source, a standing wave will
occur, but only when the pa rallel walls are spaced apart at some integral multiple of a half
wavelength.
When the parallel walls are exactly one-half wavelength apart, the tone will sound very
loud near the walls and very quiet halfway between them. This is because at the center,
the reflected waves travelling in one direction are exactly one-half wavelength away from
those travelling in the other, and thus equal opposite in pressure, which results in total
cancellation. In other rooms standing waves are noted as points of quiet and maximum
sound in the room. Standing waves are important only in rooms small with respect to the
wavelength generated (smallest room dimension,< 30ft. for music or< 15ft. for speech.
Another effect of standing waves, or resonance is the accentuation of the particular frequency, which will cause a standing wave in a room of that dimension. Thus, if one
speaks (or plays a musical instrument) standing near a walt of a room, about 8 ft. x 8 ft.
( 2.40)( 2 .40m) one would notice an abnormal and sometimes unpleasant loudness in the
sound at about 280Hz.
Thus, when a musician plays a scale, one note may seem far louder than t he adjacent
ones, and listeners in one section of the room w ill hear a different quality of sound than
those in other sections. This effe<rt must be avoided for music performance but is merely
an annoyance in rooms designed for speech use . This is one of the reasons that one finds
music rehearsal rooms, broadcast studios, etc. with nonparallel walls and undulating ceilings; these irregularities direct sound energy toward the absorbing materials of the room
and cause the standing waves to degenerate .

85

, ..., . of

pl

L..... t

::~on.S.ry oYftO J nU.cceG

d'v ~"anc.

! ~nch.n4

con....,.

I dUp.r cl
! aueut

Good audibility is essential in spaces designed for theatrica l illnd

musical performances: it is achieved when sound is everywhere
illutHble unchanged <without echo) and with a suitable
reverberation period.

C.C>ftCv

! foe..-....
I -.uer

Audibility is affected by:

1. Shape of room
2. site of room
3. room furnishin9S
4 . position of source o f sound
5 . reverberat ion period.

t . Shape of room (in plan ) preferably rectangular or trapezoid

in d irection of sound, -+ (5). Square, circular or oval shapes, etc,
are acoustically unfavourable. Large curved areas produce focal
poi nts, and large overhangs screen path of $0Und: both are
'!etrimental to good hearing conditions. 4 121, (3). Provision of
stepped seating is advantageous; breaking wall and ceiling
surfaces produces even sound distribution.
2. Room size: normal speech is audible for a distance of about
20- 30 m !65-100 ft) on direction of speech ; 13m 143 ftl to
side of speaker. and 1 0 m ( 33 ft) behind speaker. Max cubic
space content without use of aids (loudspeakers, reflectors, etcl
should not exceed 18 000 m 3 (630 000 ft 3 1 for speech and
30 000 m 3 ( 1 000 000 ft3 ) for music. HeightSh ould not exceed
8 m 126ft).
Where possible. hei9ht ; width : length ratio should be
2 : 3 : 5; 1 :
"..?fii: 'Golden Section', i.e. 3: 4 : 8.

Vi:

3 . R_pom furnishings net t"inishings: in general. $Diid roofs and

walls are less satisfactory than susper~ded ceilings and claddings
with intervening voids which will resonate with the sound I wood,
Cel otex. etc). In design of heating and venti Iat ion systems avoid
ri.sing warm air currents between source of soun9 and listener.
Absorbents should be provided on rear walls near back seats o n
dome surfaces and on solid balcony railings, etc, -+ p. 64 {3).

s..t ing should be staggered and rising. According to

French
Standaras, stepping of seating by 80 mm. l3 ~ in) ensures direct
sound to all 5eats.-+ 14l.ln UK 100 mm (4 in) is normally
allowed.

4. Position of source of sound should be in front of a hard

reflecting surface and, where room height is excessive. reflecti11e
sounding ba.rds above sound source 1re recommended.

Where there is more than one source of sound, each must be

sufficiently close to the other; loud-speakers in same room as
source of $0und should be ~ 34 m I 112 ftl a.n d 24 m !80 ft)
.way fro_m $0und for theatrical and musical performances
re$pectively.
5. R11erberation time: reverberation is c:eused by reflection of
direct sound from wall and ~iling surface$, -+ { 1I. This should
be registered by listener as gradual dying down of sound.

86

ABSORPTION
The rate which sound is absorbed in a room is a prime factor in reducing noise and controlling reverberation. All materials used in the construction of buildings absorbed some
sounds, but proper acoustical control often requires the use of materials that have been
especially designed to function primarily as sound absorbs. Such materials are popularly
known as "acoustical" materials. These are also used for reduction of noise in office
buildings, hospitals and restaurants.
Many peo~le tolerate noise, but most people do not like it. This "probably is the reason
why many business establishments have found that the cost of acoustical treatment
usually is more than offset by the profit resulting from the increase in patronage after the
installation of the absorptive material. When properly planned. The absorptive treatment
of rooms contributes to good acoustics making it possible for speech to be enjoyed to the
fullest extent.
It is always necessary to choose materials with proper acoustical characteristics, but this
is not enough. All other physical and decorative properties of the materials must be given
proper attention. Having determined which materials have the required absorptive properties, the architect must raise about each material such questions as the following: Is it
combustible or fire-resistant? How much light will it reflect? What about its structural
strength, absorption of water, and attraction for vermin (rats)? How foolproof is it? Can
its application be entrusted to the average journeyman? What is its appearance, and
what are its decorative possibilities? How much does the material cost? Will it be expensive to install and maintain?

How Sound is Absorbed

Sound is absorbed by a mechanism which converts the sound into the other forms of
energy and ultimately into heat. Most manufactured materials depends largely on their
porosity for their absorptivity. Many materials, such as mineral wools pads and blankets,
have a multitude of small deeply penetrating intercommunicating pores. The sound
waves can readily propagate themselves into these interstices, where a portion of the
sound energy is converted into heat by frictional and viscous resistance within the pores
and by vibration of the small fibers of the material. If the material is sufficiently porous,
and of appropriate thickness, as much as 95 percent of the energy of an incident sound
wave may be absorbed in this manner.
When sound waves strike a panel, the alternating pressure of these waves against the
panel may force it into vibration. The resulting flexural vibrations use up a certain amount
of the incident sound energy by converting it into heat. If the panel is massive and stiff,
the amount of acoustical energy converted into mechanical vibrations of the panel is
esceedingly small; on the other hand, if the panel is light and flexible, the amount of
energy absorbed may be very large, especially at low frequency.

88

1Z6

~!.>6

~11.

1<>~4

?.<>-1~

( RJ.:t.,'UEoK'Y ttl CYt.'l.cS f'Elt 50C,'NL>

(a)

fOI' example, the figure thaws that fiberboenb such as

Ma11onite, and acoustical die such as Acouati-celotex are
much mOI'a absorptive at frequencies of 128 and 266 cycles
when they are nailed to wood strips - and can vibrate as
panels - than when they are ~mented or oth wise fastened ~st a rigid surface. fltaster on lath OY studs provides
much more absOI'ption at low frequencies than does tne
same type of plaster applied directly to solid masonry walls.
In general, the r&te at which a flexible p&nel absorbs acoustical anergy of vibration, to Its lternal damping coefficient.
and to the frictional losses at the edges of its mounting.

Absorption by porous materials normaRy is large at high frequencies and smal at low frequencies. AbsOI'ption by panel
vibt'ation is small at high frequencies but may be large at low
frequencies. Both of these types of absorption are important
In the control of sound In rooms . By using them in the proper
proponlon. It is posslbfe to control the absorption of sound
throughout the al.ldible range of frequencies. This because a
necessity In sound recording and radio studios and is often
desirable elsewhere.

0
z:Y..>
::;:t
10:: 1
w~
, l8
fR!!G.jU!!HC.i IN cvcu:.s PIOR St;C()tm

(b)

Mechanics of Absorption
We have already learned the definition of sound absorption of sound..in the last chapter
and its relevance to room reverberation characteristics. Re-examining 'absorption as an
acoustic phenomenom, we refer to the figure below so that we may understand the application of absorption mat erial. Refer to the figure Ia) below

lal Action of an Incoming sound

wave striking a heavy barrier.
Much of the energy Is reflected.
aome ia abtorbed. and little is
transmitted.

hetvy COf'lcrete barr ier

a 0.02

89

-~ .~
~:

"

...

;:""Acoustic absorbent
material

..:: :.

lbl Action of acoustic absorbent

material alone. Very little energy
Is reflected. some is abeorbed.
and most Is transmitted.

(c) When absorbent Is appfied to

the heavy wall, it "traps" sound
preventing reflection. while wall
mass acts to reduce transmis

sion.

In an untreated room of normal construction, when the sqund waves strij(e the Walls or
ceiling. a small portion is absorbed and most of the sound is reflected. The exact proportions abviously depends on the nature of construction. When acoustical figure (c) above,
some of the energy. in the..sound waves is dissipated befQre the sound reaches the wall.
The transmitted portion is slightly reduced but the reflection is greatly reduced. The difference between the two situations is shown graphically-in thisfigure

In the untreated space (a)

reverberant (reflected) sound
constitutes the greater portion of
received sound in much of the
room. these reflections are largely
eliminated in lbl by walland ceilIng absorption. Note that direct
wave is completely unaffected.

(b}

Referring to the figure below, the result of adding absorptive material to a room is shown
in greater detail .

Distance from ~t;lvrce- r. ft.

10

100

Roo m 30 ft wide,

Surface arec
(

1000

10 ft IOfl9. 30 ft high
31,200 sq ft

Medium

a " 10 log
R = ..!!.. .

c:,2

+ ~) t 0.5

1-

Subjective Loudness Changes and

Corresponding Intensity Level Changes
Change in
Level. Decibels

3
6"
7
10
20

Here, the result of adding absorptive

material to a room is shown in greater
detail. The difference between a room with
average absorption of 0. 1" and the same
room with 6/a of 0. 7 is 1 5 db, which is a
reduction in loudness of approximately one
and half times.

See table

Subjective Change
in loudness

Barely perceptible
Perceptible
Clearly perceptible
Twice or half as loud
Four times or one-quarter
as loud

sh( l:fe~ibels ~oireponds ~o the change encountered

when distance to the souce in a free fields Is doubled
(halved).

91

We will no,v examine the acoustic materials themselves and the effect of varying type
quantity, thickness, and installation methods.

Absorptive Materials
There are three families of devices for sound absorption (a) Fibrous materials
{b) Panel resonators
tcl and Volume resonators

All types absorb sound by changing sound energy into heat energy. Only fibrous
materials and panel resonators are used commonly in buildings. Volume resonators are
used principally as enclosures for absorbing a narrow band of frequencies.
The "FIBROUS" material or porous absorb the frictional drag produced by moving the air
in small spaces within the material. The absorption provided by a specific material
depends on its thickness, density, and porosity and resistance to air flow. For example,
materials must be thick to absorb low frequency sound effectively. Since the action
depends on absorbing energy by "pumping" air through the material. the air paths must
extend from one side to the other. A fibrous material with sealed pores is useless as an
acoustic absorbent !Therefore, painting
generally ruin a porous absorber). A simple
test is to blow smoke through the material. tf the smoke passes through freely and the
material is porous, fibrous, and thick it should be a good sound absorbent. Porosity provided it is above 70%, does not much affect absorption. Below this figure sound absorbency decreases as porosity decreases. The table in the next pages gives absorbent
materials and for building materials and furnishings. Several important conclusions can
be drawn from examination of this table.

will

(a) For absorbent materials, absorption is normally in higher at high frequencies

than at low.
(b) Absorption is not always proportional to thickness, but depends on the type
of material being used and the method of installation.

1~~~rn~---r--r-ro~Trr---,--.-..-rrrn

90

to

'10
~

1nc;ident

"!.-

:,

Soull4

--._.Rtfloeeteoll
Ill
~us

1'4ottriol

to....f-.:.-=-.....~-+--~_;__;-'-i

+-il_._I+-1

~~~~+---~--~--~~.~----~~~~~

40 50

100

200

500

1 000

1000

sooo 1Ul~1000

Frequenev in Ht

'92

V11riation of absorption coefficient with

thickness of feh absorbent. Note particularly thltt. beyond 1 kHz. all thicknesses give the same a, whereas at
low frequencies the absorption is pro
portional to thickness. Furthermore it
requires a very tt.avy layer to give ap
preciable absorption at low frequency.

It is clear from this figure that beyond a nominal thickness except at very low
frequency, or when installed discontinuousy, as in (c) below.
(c) It is possible to obtain an a greater than 1.0 by using very thick blocks. See
"Fiber Blocks" in the table. These are installed at a distance from each other
and the edge absorption is very large, particularly at high frequecies.
(d) Installation methods have a pronounced effect.
NOTE:
See Table on coefficients of absroption on chapter IX .Air-Borne Noise

Red~ction

Types of Acoustical Materials

Most commercially available acoustical materials are included in one of the three following catergories:
( 1 l Pre-fabricated Units -These include acoustical tile, which is the principal type
of material available for acoustical treatment; mechanically perforated units
backed with absorbent material; and certain wall boards, tile boards and absorbent sheets.
(2) Acoustical Plaster and Sprayed - On materials. these materials comprise
plastic and porous materials applied with a trowel; and fibrous materials. combined with binder agents, which are applied with (sprayed on) an air gun of
blower.
(3) Acoustical Blankets- Blankets are made up chiefly of mineral or wood wool,
glass fibers, kapok batts, and hair felt. The physical characteristics of the
materials in each of these catergor;es will now be considered.

Prefabricated Acoustical Units

Prefabricated acoustical materials have been subclassified in order that similar products
may be grouped together. Prefabricated units are separated into three types described in
detail below. These groups include tile, absorbent material covered by mechanically perforated units, and certain building boards and sheets.
Perhaps the most outstanding feature of an acoustical tile is its "built-in" absorptive
value. The tile is a factory-made product; the absorptivity is relatively uniform from tile to
tile of the same kind. This makes if foolproof, a highly desirable characteristics. The
amount of absorption added to a room by acoustical tile therefore is quite independent of
the skill, of the persons who install the material. Another merit possessed by acoustical
tile is its relatively high absorptivity. In a factory made product it is possible to control
such factors as prorosity (including the number and size of pores), flexibility, density, and
the punching of drilling of holes - factor which are paramount in determining the absorptivity of materials, and factors such which often are difficult to control in certain types of
acoustical plasters. In addition tile can be given structural and decorative properties
which usually are well adapted to the requirements for artistic interiors. Because of its
high absorptivity, acoustical tile is well adapted to rooms in which a relatively small surface is available for acoustiCal treatment.

93

Several acoustical units like acousti-celotex, frbetetone. cushiontone, and sanacoustic

tile, have the advantage that they can be decorated with oil-base paint without having
their high absorptivity impaired. This property is due to the mechanically made holes
which permit the sound waves to reach the interior of the tile and be absorbed as a result
of viscous forces in the tiny pores of the material.
The principal disadvantages of an acoustical tile its limitations for architectural treatment
and its cost compared with that of other acoustical materials. It is impossible to conceal
entirely the points between adjacent tiles, and for this reason such treatments should be
limited to rooms or surfaces where a tile or ashlar effect is not objectionable. With types
to tile is possible to secure the appearance of a cont inuous or monolithic surface by using
tight unbeveled joints and by decorating an entire surface. But in rooms with low ceilings.
or in other rooms with tile of the walls. the ashlar effect is noticeable with any tYpe of
decoration. For this reason, the edge is frequently beveled around the tile to emphasize,
rather than attempt to conceal, its masonry effect. The bevels also serve to "conceal"
slight irregularities in the fining of the tiles.
Most types of acoustical tile on the market are relatively costly. In comparing the cost of
acoustical tile with that of other types of acoustical treatment it should be borne in mind
that the cost per square foot should not be considered alone. Acoustical tiles often are
two of three times more absorptive than acoustical plasters, and for this reason as much
absorption may be attained with one square foot of tile as with two or three square feet
of p laster.
The U.S. Federal specifications SS-A-11 8 - a classifies prefabricated units into four
types. These types and the.ir subclassifications are listed below, together with name of
one or more representative commercial products. The figure shows the surface appearance of the different types of materials.

"Type I. Cast Units having a pined or granular - appearing surface"

"Class A. All - mineral units composed of small granular of finely divided
particles with portland cement bider."
The masonry like surface appearance of the units makes them particularly suited for installation in buildings of the monumental types and in some
churches. These tiles are rated as incombustible. Paints normally reduces
their sound absorptive properties, but decoration is seldom required. The
surfaces of materials in this class are reasonably smooth .

Type IA ~Akoustolith Tile, R. Guostovino Co.)

94

"Oass B. All - nliia units composed of small granules or finely divided

parOdes.with lime or gypsum binder."

Type 1-8 (Muffietone, Stan dard . C11lotp ~ Corp .)

"Class C. Units composed of small granules or finely divided particles of

mineral or vegetable origin with inco'mbustible mineral binder.

Typ., IC (Soflone, American Acoustic,, Inc .)

" Type II. Units having perforated surface; the perforations to be arranged in a
regular pattern."
" Class A. Units having a perforated surface which acts as a covering and sup.
port for the sound absorbent material to be strong and durable and
substantially rigid."

In this type of unit an absorptive pad, blanket, or rigid element (frequently

consisting of compressed mineral wool) is covered by perforated sheet
metal or board. The perforated covering does not reduce the absorption
. to the area covered. For example, the absorption coefficient of a btanket
covered with perforated sheet steel which exposes only 1 5 percent of
the absorptive material may have a coefficient, up to 4000 cycles,
almost as high as if the cover+ng were not there at alii This is due to diffraction, which is discussed in chapter 4.

96

Type II - A fabricated units can be painted repeatedly without impairing

their absorption, if reasonable care is taken not to fill or bridge the holes
with paint. If the holes are 1/8 inch diameter or longer, it is highly improbable that they will ever become bridged l;>y painting. Since the perforated coverings offer good mechanical protection for the absorptive
material, the units can be installed in locations where they will be subject
to considerable wear and tear. Most units of this class are incombustible.
Many are moisture-resistant and hence find application in swimming
pools, kitchens, etc. Some offer interesting possibilities for combining
acoustical construction with air conditioning and lighting control. For example, ther are metal pan units and special flush-type fluorecent lighting
fictures that can be interchanged.

-- --- -- .. - . -- -
-

------- - --------

Type II-A <Arre~one, Armstronq Cork CoJ

Other brands
ACOUSTEEL
ACOUSTIMETAL
ARPHON
PERFATONE
SANACOSTIC UNIT
TRANSITE ACOUSTICAL UNIT

CELOTEX "CORP.
NATIONAL GYPSUM CO.
A. B. ARKI (Sweden)
UNITED STATES GYPSUM CO.
JOHNS - MANVILLE
JOHNS- MANVILLE

"Class B. Units having circular perforations extending into the sound absorbent material."

...

Prefabricated units of this class usually have large perforations and

therefore are especially serviceable in installations that require frequent
redecoration. Laboratory and field tests show that these tiles may be
painted repeatedly without noticeable reduction of their . soundabsorptive properties .
The presence of holes in porous materials, as in acousticelotex or
cushiontone has the effect of greatly increasingly the absorptivity of the
material. The holes increase both the superficial area and the effective
porosity of the material. The perforations can be used to conceal the
heads of nails or screws when used for attaching the units to wood furring strips or wood decking.

96

..

,.

Type 11-8 (Acousti-Celotex Cone Tile, Celotex Corp.)

Other brands:
ACOUSTI-CELOT EX MINERAL TILE
ACOUSTIFIBRE
cuSHIONTONE
FIBERTONE
PAXTILES
ST ENIT PLATT A

Celotex Corp.
National Gypsum Co.
Armstrong Cork Co.
Johns - Manville
Newalls - lnsu l at~ on Co., Lt d.
(England)
A. B. Arki (.Sweden)

" Class C. Units having slots or grooves extending into the sound absorbent
material .''
The action of the slots or grooves is similar to that of the holes in the
tiles of t he preceding classif ication.

,.

IIII
Type 11-C

(A~o~ditone,

Other brand :
TREETEX (Type Cl

U. S. Gypsum Co.)

Treetex , ltd. (Sweden & England )

"TYPE Ill Units having a fissured surface."

This type, includes tiles differing widely In composition. Some consist
largely of filaments or m ineral w ool granules; i n others, vermiculite or
cork is the principal ing redient: The action of the f issures in causing absorption of sound by t he unit s is v ery similar to t hat of t he perforations
in type II - B. These t iles have surfaces that are sanded or planed
smooth. The may be painted without loss of absorption if the fissures
are numerous and are not filled with paint .

Type Ill (Corkou$lic,

Other brands:
ACOUSTONE
FISSURETONE
TRAVERTONE

Arm~trong

Cork Co.)

United States Gypsum Co.

Celotex Corp.
Arms~rong Cork Co.

"TYPE IV Units having a felted fiber surface."

"Class A. Units composed of long wood fibers."
Units of this class are made of wood shavings of excelsior, generally
pressed together with a mineral binder. The wood fibers may be fine,
medium or coarse.

Type lVA (Absorb-A-Noise, Lufe...Stevenson CoJ

Other brands:
ABSORB-ATONE
L.W. lNSULATtON BOARD
PORE X
SONOFHERM

Luse -stevenson Co.

Brown and Tawse, Ltd. (England)
Porete Manufacturing Co.
Sono - Therm Co.

"Class B. Units composed of fine felted vegetable fiber or wood pulp."

lncluded in this class are small tiles and also acoustical fiberboards. In
general, these materials are not fireproof. The fiberboards provide a
means of obtaining absorption at relatively low cost. They are commen
ly manufactured in large panels, K feet wide, and 8, 10, or 1 2 feet long.
The use of fiberboards presents a difficulty in the matter of decoration
and redecoration. Oil, lead, and other non-porous paints will close the
surface pores of the materials and hence, destroy the absorptive valve.

98

On the other hand, 1hin dyes and stains, stencil designs with heavier
paint dusted on with a pounce-bag can be used without impairing the
acoustical valve of the material. In spite of these limitations, certain
acoustical fiberboards are useful for the control of noise and reverberation in buildings . There f!re many school ahd industrial jobs, where cost
is an important consideration, in which fiberboard& may be used to advantage.

Type

tVB {Ec:onac:oustic, National

Gyptum Co.)

Other brands:
ACOUSTILITE
FIBRACOUSTIC
LLOYD BOARD
NUWOOD BEVEL LAP TILE

lnsulite Co .
Johns - Manville
Lloyd boards, Ltd. (England)
Wood Conversion Co.

"Class C. Units comprised of mineral fibers."

Type IV-C 10-T Ductliner, Celotex

Corp: I

Type IV -

C ( Q-T Ductliner, Celotex, Corp.)

Other brands:
AIRACOUSTIC SHEETS
FIBERGLASS ACOUSTICAL TILE
P.AXFELT

Johns - Manv~le
Owens - Corning fiberglass
Newalls Insulation Co., Ltd. (England

99

..

Acoustical Plaster and Sprayed - on Materials

The use of selected types of acoustical plastic materials has proved highly satisfactory
for the treatment of offices, school rooms, corridors, and many public building . They can
be used in most places where ordinary lime or gypsum plaster can be used without ~lter
ing the architectural effects. Two coats of acoustical plaster may be aplied instead of the
finish coat in the ordinary plaster treatment for an added little cost per square meter.
These materials have dificiencies in regard to cleaning and decorating. Although these
shortcomings are not seroius in localities where the air is relatively clean, They are an important consideration where air is laden with smoke or dust. As plastic materials are improved and as the correct manner of their a_p plication is more fully understood and prac<iced by plasters, their use may be extended to more and more buildings.
The absorptivity of such material as acoustical plaster is dependent on its thickness and
composition and on the manner in which it i? applied and dried. As the thickness is increased, the absorptivity increases, particularly at low frequencies. However, for plasters
of the type applied with a trowel, it is usually uneconomical to increase the thickness
beyond 1/2 inch (.025) . If too much binder material is used , the plaster is not sufficiently
porous. If an insufficient amount of binder is used, the plaster does not set hard and its
tensile strength may be less than that required for adequate structural bond; under such
circumstances, it may dust or pop off the wall. Likewise, if the undercoats of plaster are
too wet (green), the binder material forms an impenetrable film at the surface; whereas, if
the undercoats are too dry, the binder material is absorbed by the undercoats and the
plaster will crumble. Stnce the absorption coefficients of acoustical plasters are dependent on such factOfs as the suction behind the plaster, the pressure applied to the trowel,
and the manner of floating, texturing, or stippling, the journeyman should be instructed
to exercise great care in applying and .finishing tbese materials.. A large measure of the
success or failure which attends the application of acoustical plaster depends on the drying out of the plaster. The surface to which it is applied accordingly it is advisable to
prepare scratch and brown coats which will draw the water from the acoustical plaster
and thus prevent the formation of a non-porous film on the finished surface. It is also advisable to provide good drying conditions for the plaster and to float or drag the surface
or the plaster just before it takesits initial set. Unless these initial precautions are observed, the use of acoustical plaster may prove dissappointlng on -the other hand, if these
precautions are carefully followed, a good brand of acoustical plaster will be found to be
well adapted to many types of buildings where large surface areas are available for treatment, and where very high absorption coefficients are not needed, In large buildings, it is
advisable to require the contractor to plaster a small room for test and approval before
the material is applied to other parts of the building by competent journeymen.
In selecting an acoustical plastic material it is desirable to consider its adhesive and
cohesive properties, its resistance to fire and abrasion, its ease of application, its texture,
and its maintenance (such as cleaning and decorating) as well as its coefficients of sound
absorption. If it becomes necessary to use plastic material vvhich will not withstand the wear
and abrasion to which the walls near the floor will be subjected, it is a good plan to provide a wainscot of haraer material, such as wood or hard plaster. The wainscot should
extend up to a height of about 6 or 7 feet above the f loor.
Acoustical materials for plastic application are classified into three groups in U.S. Federal
specification SS - A - 118 - a.

100

" TYPE I. . ACOUSTIC PLASTER"

This shall be composed of a cementitious material such as gypsum,
portland cement, or lime with or withouf an aggregate.
Brands:
ATOZ, KAUTE, SABINITE , SOFTONE
ZONOLITE, ?LAST ACOUSTIC
"Type II. Acoustic materials other than acoustic plaster which are applied with a
trowel."
Brand: ACOUSTIPULP
"Type Ill. Fibrous materials combined with a binder agent and which are applied
by being sprayed on with an air gun or blower.. "
Brands:
LIMPET, SPRAY-ACOUSTIC

Acoustical Blankets
The material used most commonly in the fabrication of acoustical blankets are mineral
wood, hair felt, wood fiber. and glass fiber. Although, the thickness of these blankets is
generally between 112 and 4 inches, blankets of greater thickness are sometimes used in
special applications. These matetials are more absorptive in the low - frequency range,
principally because of their greater thickness, than are most other types. Hence, blankets
sometimes are useful for cQntrolling the acoustical characteristics. of studios and
auditoriums that require "Balanced absoprtion. Including a considerable amount at low
frequencies ."

101

The absorption coefficient of a blanket mounted against a wall depends on its density
and thickness and on the frequency of the incident sound. Increasing the thickness of the
blanket increases its absorptivity, principaHy at low frequencies, slightly at the " highs" . The
effect of an air space behind a blanket is, in general, to increase its absorption at low frequencies.
The fibers in certain types of blanket, especially some mineral -- wool products, have a
tendency to "settle, often as a result of building vibration; "settling" alters the acoustical
characteristics of the blanket. For this reason, blankets fabricated of materials that tend
to settle are frequently quilted at intervals of a few inches. In other cases, the material are
given additional st ructural strenght by the addition of a binder material, or by a wire mesh screen or hardware cloth on one or both sides of the blanket.

Perforated FacingsA perforated facing such as plywood, metal, or fiber-

board cons1jtutes a very pntctical covering for an

8COUIIicll belnket. The figure shows how a perfor
atad J.wenit board can be used for this purpose. except for the small holes, the appearance of the plywood COI*ing the patches of absorptive material
does not differ from other ponions of the wd. This
type of facing has the advantage that it can be-easiy
cleaned and deconlted, and repeatedly painting does
not reduce its absorptivity if the holes are not
bridged witl'l paint. In tl'tis respect and also in the
mechanism by whicl't it absorbs sound, it is similar to
type II-A prefabricated units.

Owing to diffraction, the facings are "acoustically transparent" over a wide range of fre
quencles. Thus, if a plane sound wave is normally in!!ident on a wall containing a small
aperture, the ratio of the flow of sound through this hole to the flow through an equal
area of the incident wave front, may be quite large - even in excess of 10. This ratio is
largest at low frequencies, and smallest at high frequencies where the diffraction effects
are neglible. Therefore, the coefficients of blankets covered with perforated facings irf
which only 5 to 10 percent of the surface area is perforated are affected relatively little at
low frequencies but decrease at the highs. For most applications, 3/8 inch centers, will
be found to be satisfactory. By spacing the holes farther apart, the absorption at high frequencies can be further diminished without appreciable loss of absorption at the low fre
quencies. If muslin or similar fabric is used to cover the blanket, it should be very porous.
Any form of decoration or flamefroofing should not clog the pores of the covering. Such
a covering does not alter appreciably the absorption of the blanket. The combination of a
perforated panel like 1/8 - inch plywood with an air space and a blanket of rock. wood or
glass fiber provides a type of acouctical treatment that can be highly absorptive at low
frequencies and progressively less absorptive at higher frequencies.

102

Mounting Acoustical Materials

The manner of mounting acoustical materials can influence markedly their absorptive
properties. Certain materials that are unsatisiactory when applied directly against a rigid
wall may be satisfactory when they are mounted some other way; for example, with an
air space behind them . The effect is an increase in the absorption at low frequencies, due
partly to the flexural vibration of panels of two material. Within certain limits, increasing
the spacing from the wall increases the average absorption and alters the frequency at
which maximum absorption occurs - the lowest resonant frequency of the panel. Since
the size of a panel is a factor that determines this resonant frequency, the frequency
region in which increased absorption takes place, owing to flexural vibration, depends on
the separation between furring strips. For furred-out fiber-board or plaster on lath, the
separation between strips is frequently determined by the mechanical properties of the
material; and for prefabricated units the spacing is generally determined by the size and
physical properties of the units. In other applications, 1 6 inches on centers is usually
satisfactory. In music rooms, and in radio or sound-recording studios, random spacing of
the furring strips may be used to distribute the resonant frequencies and thus provide a
more uniform absorption throughout a wide range of frequencies .

r ~: : :.;

n~tllllllll!l ll l! 11 iLl ifllllll

AI>IIESIVI! :;r

Tile ('('mttlte'l (hy n1~"'1H' o{ :-.lh#'~l,c:~)

to 1'\.'l~l ('l' Dll g yp~UUl lath,

rb~ter
{:ace for

hoff,,w tilt itt . an it~:. I ~1tr

arplic-a tinu uF ~HI.UUI;1hS4Jr(lti \' e
til ~ r n,..,, .....

Q11

AJJpti<-:lti tlll Ctf tilt~ In l inthf"r nr pf., 11k

c:onst ructiun ( it\ \\"u.-wl I"C"rCn"!') o ftr r,.
an imttr"\' Cif lc:t:'lil.

T ile ctnttnftoct cH rt'd tCl a

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mnnTmg
mrtaf

l:1th

~ tHt pl:l :"lCJ' ~U T-fO\Cf:.

Tile J\J)pli\:d on cmt<'rt-te t~iHug ~urfaces

witll a 1.-avy.hotlied adllc ive.

,\pplk..:tti nn
u~ O f

u(

tile

to

wtn1

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w.~'"''"'"d

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A('t >l1:"tn1 iu.,.lalhl :ut ~ an~l'cnt l .-1 ("<1..; 1.

;u,::. Tla(' T.h;u~ m:ty flit' :1-f'pH('.-1 to ntl\r1'
11itable $Utf~ees.

103

Acoustical tiles are most frequently mounted by adhesives,

nails or screws, or by a mechanical system such as "T-splines"
which engage in a horizontal kerf
along the side edges of the t~es.
These types of mountings are
illustrated in the figures

In many instances a combination of two methods is used. No one type of mounting will
depend on the physical properties of the acoustical material, the base to which it will be
applied, the time required for installation, and labor costs. However, other factors are frequently the controlling ones. Thus, the adhesive method of mounting is particularly advantageous on a job. Where noise must be kept to a minimum during installation, as in a
hospital. The adhesive method is also quiCk, economical, and clean.. The adhesive should
be bonded to both the material and the wall or ceiling. Since the failure to secure a good
bond may result in the tile becoming loose, adhesive applications should be made only by
individuals thoroughly skilled in the art. In general, tiles larger than 12 inches by 24 inches should not be applied with adhesives alone. Nails or screw. may be necessary; they
support the unit while the adhesive sets, thereby securing a stronger mechanical bond
and offering a double protection against loosening.

Tiles fastened by screws are usually held more securely than those fastened by nails.
Also, they can be removed quickly. Facilities are now available for rapid application by
electrically driven screws. Either nails or. screws can be used to mount acoustical
materials on wood furring strips. By this means a new ceiling can be furred down to any
desired level,thereby concealing pipes, conduits, air-conditioning ducts, etc. The wood
furring method of mounting also permits the tiles to vibrate flexurally; this vibration gives
increased absorption in the low-frequency range. Where the acoustical units are subject
to breakage, as they may be in a gymnasium, a stiff. backing for the tiles should be provided. Gypsum board provides such a backing; it also is fire-resistant. It can be used to level
off an existing irregular ceiling, or as economical substitute for a conventional lath and
plaster backing in new construction.

104

A number of manufacturing of acoustical materials have mechanical systems for the instaUation of prefabricated tiles which enable units to be removed relatively easily and
replaced after the original installation has been made. Mechanical systems provide a convenient means of furring below ceiling obstructions with incombustible supporting
members, as shown in the figure below .

-'-"'~-; z4 /ICOU3TONeF

15"EV191..ED AliO CE NTER

SC<>~P.D TCl SJMllUITE
12 x 12 "liNIT:S

Oc'fhll.

AT WALL

Most acoustical materials are efficient thermal insulators. For this reason, care should be
taken to prevent condensation on the underside of the slabs or decks on which the
materials is installed . An undersirable dislocation may result from air flow through the
cracks between tiles or even through very porous tiles. This flow of air, called breathing,
occurs most often in air-conditioned rooms. It can be minimized in installation by the application of a layer of building paper directly behind the tiles. This precaution may be advisable in some wood furring installations.

Although some acoustical materials, such as mineral tiles, are not affected by changes in
humidity or moisture in a room, others - those made of cellulose products, such as
wood or vegetable fibers - tend to expand upon absorption of water vapor and to contract upon drying . This possibility must be bome in mind when hygroscopic acoustical
materiats are being installed. The tites should become adjusted to the moisture content of
the room in which they are to be instalted. Then, if the humidrty is high, the individual
units be butted up against each other 1ightly, so 1Nit when dry conditions prevail
noticeable gaps, will not ~: On 1he other '-'d, it the tiles are instded in a very dry
atmosphere, theyshouldbefittadwithe.agtflgap, about 1/64or 1/3.2 inch. (0.8 mm to

1 mm). (such gaps will not be noticeable if t he tiles have beveled edges.) lf1:his precaution is not taken, the t iles, by expanding, may warp or may exert enough force on one
another to become loosened and thus become unsightly or even unsafe.
Some common standardized mounting are given in the illustration below .

MoUNTING No.+

MOONTlNG No .S

RWSlO\n' FASTENED 10

MJNEML WOOL BETWEEN

FURRiNG .PER~l'ED
FACIN6 FASTENED 10
AJRR\N6

:CONCPETE

MOJNTING No.2.
NAILED TO l X3 WOOD
FURRlN6 12. OC.

MOUN11N6. Nc:f. 7
SJANDARD HUNG CEtLlNG
~STRUCTION

Absorption by Patches of Materials

The location and distribution of absorptive material in rooms affects ( 1l the absorption
due to the material and (2) t he distribution of sound in the room. F.ct example, twenty
five small areas - "Patches" -of material, each 1.20 square, wi'l flpsorb more sound
than will one large patch having an area of 100 sq. ft. (9 to sq. m.} this dependence of
absorption on the size of patch is frequently referred to as the "area effect". Although
the application of absorptive material in the form of small patches or narrow strips is
more effecient than a uniform treatment, it is usually not the cheaper method of obtaining
a specified amount of absorption w ith given material since the cost of installat ion of
patches on a per squarE! meter basis is generally much higher than is the cost for uniform
coverage.

The absorption by a patch of material is n ot independent of its position on the walls of a

room. The most effective positions for the usual types of absorptive materials, are not at
(or close to) the corners, especiallv at frequencies. at which the wavelengths are large
compared with the dimensions of the patch. The next most efficient positions are along
the edges between two walls. It has been shown that the distribUtion of sound pressure
in a room is a function of the distfibutionof the absorptivematerials on the walls. Owing
to the effects of diffraction. The application of acoustical material in patches, distributed
more or less at random on the walls, .provides a more diffuse sound field -in the room than
would be obtained by .uniform treatment of the wal_ls. A certain amount of diffusion is
generally c_onsidered to be a requirement for good acoustics.

106

Special Sound-Absorptive Construction

Many absorptive materials and constructions that are not described earlier above are
useful or even indespensable for certain types of acoustical installations. Often these
special treatments, when used with understanding and imagination, provide not only better acoustics that can be obtained by the use of the standards or "classified" materials,
but also a more artistic appearance, sometimes at a considerable reduction in cost.

Panel Absorbers
Thin panels, if made sufficiently durable and flexible materials like pressed wood fiber or
paper boards, plywood, or plastic boards, can be employed for ceilings, wainscoting, or
even for the entire walls of rooms where low-frequencies absorption is required. Such
materials, if used for walls or ceilings of small rooms, such as music studios, classrooms,
and offices, reduce the amount of additional absorption required for optimum.

The effective stiffness of a thin panel is influenced by the presence of an enclosed air
space back of it, and therefore the air space affects the absorption characteristics of the
panel. A 1 %" air space.in a 1/8" x 4' x 8' plywood will give an absorption coefficient of
0.25 of 205 frequency in cyles per sound. Increasing the air space to 2%" air space, it
becomes 0.4 on a205 frequency. The resonant frequencies are altered and the absorption is increased as a result of increasing the depth of the air space.
The absorption coefficient of a thin wood panel can be increased by placing an absorptive
material, such as mineral -wool blanket, in an enclosed air space behind the panel, or by
spot - cemeting the absorptive material directly to the panel.

Draperies
In general, draperies are not satisfactory for the absorptive treatment of an auditorium.
Although very absorptive at high frequencies, they are only slightly absorptive at low frequencies. An auditorium so treated may sOund "boomy". Hence, the use of draperies,
unless especially designed, should be restricted to places such as doorways or prosceniums. For maximum absorption, they should be made of heavy, lined and interlined
velours tor equivalent material) and should have a gather of 1 00 to 200 percent. In order
to increase their absorption at the lower frequencies, hangings used to cover highly
reflective surfaces should be hung at least 6 inches to 1 foot from the wall and should be
gathered into deep folds. Movable draperies provide a convenient means of altering the
total absorption in a room.

Variable Absorbers
Certain rooms, especially some broadcast studios and music rooms make use of variable
absorbers such as hinged panels, rotatable cylinders or movable draperies. The hinged
pan$ls generally are absorptive on one side and reflective on the other; the cylinders in-

107

corporate various combinations of absorbers and reflectors. These special devices are
utilized for varying and controlling the acoustical conditions in the room. In general, the
control of the following three factors is desirable: ( 1) the magnitude of the average absorption over the greater part of the audible frequency range (2) the shape of the absorp
tion is frequency characteristic, and (3} the scattering or dispersion of sound in the room.
Scattering influences, the uniformity of the sound-pressure distribution within the room.
A variable absorptive treatment should provide the possibility of varying the total absorption in the room over a wide range - in some instances by a ratio of at least 3 to 1 . If
hinged or rotatable panels are used which have an absorptive surface one side and a thin
reflective surface on the other. care must be exercised so that the reflective surface,
such as plywood facing, does not act as resonant panel backled by an absorptive material.
If this precaution is not taken, total variation in the absorption may not be so great as expected or desired.

Hlnged-ponef arrangement for diG-rtglng tf.e absorptive choriKteristlQ

ofaroom.

Rotatable Cylinders
The convex surface of each cylinder is made up of three different materials each exten
ding the full length of the cylinder and 1 20 around it. The cylinders are fitted into openings of such size that 120 of each projects through a suspended plaster ceiliflg.
Material (a) is a 2 inch layer of fiberglass, having a density of 6 pounds per cubic foot,
covered with ~ inch perforated plywood (There are 1 024 circular holes are 1/8
inch in diameter and are arranged 3/8" on centers, Material (a} il~ moderately absorptive at low freguencies and is increasingly absorptive at higher frequencies;
.Material (b) is 1/8" uoperforated plywood backed with a 2 Inch layer of fiberglass. It is
most absorptive at low frequencies and is decreasingly absorptive at higher frequencies.

108

Material (c) is %inch unperforated plywood. It is slightly (but uniformly) absorptive at all
frequencies .

Rotatable Panels
This changes the total absorption of a room they differ from the cylinders in that their
rotation generally changes the shape of the walls or ceiling. Hence, the rotation of panels
has a pronounced influence on the diffusion as well as on the absorption of sound in the
room. One side of the panel is flat and is covered with acoustical tile; the other side of the
panel is convex and is "treated hardboard". This panels control diffusion. They can be
bucked by an air space and an absorptive blanket. This can be controlled by push button.

Suspended Absorbers
In certain types of enclosed spaces (for example, in large machine shops having extreme
ly high ceilings) it is difficult to apply the conventional type of acoustical treatment so
that absorptive surfaces will be located near the source of noise . In such cases, recourse
may be had to relativity small prefabricated units of absorptive material hung from the
ceiling. The use of such suspended absorbers is especially adaptable to locations where
there are no extended surfaces on which to apply acoustical tile, or similar materials, and
where it would be difficult or expensive to install a false ceiling because of pipes or other
obstructions. Such treatment need not interfere with existing lighting or ventilating
systems. Owing to diffraction, the effective absorption per unit area or per unit weight of small
absorbers can be very high. Sound waves impinge on both sides of the absorbers, thus
enchancing their absorption.

109


'

PLANNING FOR GOOD ACOUSTICS

Planning for good acoustics in a building begins with the selection of the building site and
continues through all stages of designing. The architect will avoid inexcusable errors in
design if he sets up a check, list of the necessary and sufficient measures to be taken for
obtaining good acoustics. These steps, approximately in chronological order as follows:
( 1) The selection of the site in the quietest surroundings consistent with other
requirements.
(2) The making of a noi~e survey to determine how much sound insulation must
be incorporated in a building to meet specified requirements of quietness.
(3} The arrangement of the rooms within the building.
{4) The selection of the proper sound-insulation construction.
{5) The control of the noise within the building, including solid-borne as well as
air-borne noise.
(6) The design of the size of each room that will insure the most advantageous
flow of properly diffused sound to all auditors, and that will enhance the
aesthetic qualities of speech and music.
(7) The selection and distribution of the absorptive and reflective materials and
constructions that will provide the optimum conditions for the growth, the
decay, and the steady-mate distribution of sound in each room.
(8) The supervision of the installation of acoustical plaster, plastic absorbents,
or other materials whose absorptivity is dependent on the manner of application.
(9) The installation of sound-amplification equipment under the supervision of a
competent engineer; wherever such equipment is necessary.
(10) The.inspection of the finished building including tests to determine whether
the requi~ed sound insulation, sound absorption, and the other acoustical
propertie!l have been satisfactorily attained.
{11) Maintenance instractlor\s, in writing, to be left with the building manager, in
dicating (a) how the acoustical materials can be cleaned or..redecorated (b)
which-finishings in the building must be retained to maintain good acoustics,
(c) how, in large speech and music rooms where high-quality reproduction is
desired, the humidity should be maintained in order to avoid excessive ab
sorption of high-pithed sounds, and (d) how the sound amplification system
should be maintained.

Requirements
for. -Good
Acoustics
...
.
In the design for rooms intended for speaking purposes the prime objective is the realization of conditions 'that will provide good intelligibiHty of speech . .This jJhrase, as used by
telephone engirteers, signifies. how well speech is recognized and und~ood. In the
design of music room& the prime objective is- ftie most favorable enrichment:of the total
quality and tonal blehding ot' the sounds. It is necessary to provide not only.. t~e opimum
conditions for listening to music but also the possible conditions for the rendition of
music by skilled artists. When a radio, violin, or any musical in~rume;:,t played in an
enclosure, the enclosure is, in effect, a part of the instrument; thM, is, t~e .i!'strument is
coupled to the room, and the instrument excites the resonant freq~ies of the room.. A
h igh-quality radio or a world-famous Stradivarius car:1not produce h~~Rty music in a

is

room that has poor acoustics..

..
112

The above che_

c k list is a practical aid to the fu lfmment of the requisites for good
acoustics. These requirements, which are applicable to all rooms used for speech and
music, may be stated as f.ollows:
( 1 ) All noises, whether of outside or inside origin, should be reduced to levels
that will not interfere with the hearing of speech or music.
..
(2) The rooms shape and size should be designed to (a) give proper diffusion to
the sound (b) reinforce the sound reaching the audience, especially toward
the rear seating area, and (c) contribute to the attainment of a favorable ratio
of direct to reflected sound for all auditors . Although these desirable conditions are also affected by the distribution of the absorptive materials and by
the sound - amplification system by the shape and size of the room, it is
often necessary to design special wall and ceiling surfaces to act as reflectors for the reinforcement of sound at the rear of the roorp, and it is
sometimes essential to introduce splays or other surface irregularities to provide proper diffusion of sound. .
(3) The reverberation t ime vs frequency curve should approach the optimum
characteristics, which are determined by the volume and type of room. The
fluctuations In the growth and delay curves should be such as to yield optimum reverberation conditions.
(4) Provision should be made for reinforcing the speech and music in a room so
that sound level will be adequate in all parts. of the room. In a small room,
this requirement can be met by the proper design or reflective surfaces
(walls, floors and ceilings); in a large room, in addition to the proper design
of the reflective surfaces, a high-quality sound - amplification system is indespensable.
In general, the above four requirements are necessary and sufficient for providing satisfactory acoustics in all rooms. In view of the differences between
speech and music, the requirements stated above are not identical for
speech rooms and for music rooms. There are, however, certain broad
features that apply to both: Freedom from distu~ing noise, proper shape (a
room shape that is good for music usually will be satisfactory also for
speech) and a sufficient sound level for all auditors.

For the average listener, a sound level of about 65 db is adequate for good
intelligibility of speech in reasonably quiet surroundings (noise levels of
about 40 db). and this level is the optimum average level based on listener
preference for both speech and music. In all good music rooms, as in all
other rooms in which listening is a required function, the noise level should
be low - at least 2 or 3 db lower than the unavoidable noise level of an attentive audience durir,g the silent pauses in music. The noise level of an attentive audience is of course a variable quantity, depending on the size, age ,
and other aspects of the individuals, but the average level is about 40 db.
The noise level in the room when no audience is present should not exceed
about 35 db.
In a room the distribution of sound radiated by a source is greatly affected by
the boundaries of the room . The distribution is altered; the sound levels are
generally raised; and other phenomena such as room resonance, reverberation, and diffusion are introduced. The room can be so designed that its effect on the distribution of sound throughout the room can be very advantageous for good listening.
Individuals in a large ensemble, like a chorus or orchestra are dependent on
useful reflections to hear each other adequately. This is an indespensable requirement. Consider a large orchestra seated on a stage. A player in these113

cond - violin section may be 50 feet about 16m. from some of the woodwinds. If this orchestra is in the open air without benefit of an Ofdlestra shell
or other reflective surfaces, the second-violin player. may hear the near-by
violins at a sound level 20 db. higher than that of the woodwinds, which are
ten times as far away. much of the time, under such conditions, he will not
hear the woodwinds at all . and may get "out-of-step" with them. The
separate players must hear each other if they are to play in perfect synchronism.
Speech ordinarily requires somewhat less reverberation than music, and it is
chiefly in this respect that acoust~cal properties of music and speech rooms
differ. In order to provide the best possible acoustical environment, a music
room must also have optimum reverberation characteristics for both performers and listeners. In general. the part of a room (stage platform, or one
end of the room) occupied by the performers should have surroundings that
are somewhat more reflective than the part occupied by the audience.

Design of Room Shape

Good acoustical planning is based upon many significant f actors that affect the insulation, generation, transmission, absorption, reflection, diffusion and hearing of sound.
Each element is important; the neglect of any one may mar or ruin an otherwise good
design.
The shape of a room is one of the important factors affecting its acoustical properties.
Hence, the determination of the most desirable shape is a problem that the architect
should know now to solve.
, . FLOOR PLAN

The design of an auditorium or a lecture room usually begins with the layout of the
floor plan. The seating should be arranged so t hat the audience is as near .the stage as
is consistent with the requirements set by the distribution of sound .from the source
and with those for good visibility. Thus, although an audience can be brought nearer
the speaker in a room having a square floor plan than in one in which the greater than
the width, the latter is preferable. One of the reasons for this preference can be
visualized easily by referring to this figure; which shows how sound is distributed
a person who is speaking.
around the head

of

114

The sound levei, especially in the higher frequency range which is responsible for a
large percentage of the intelligibility drops off rapidly at right angles to the direction
the speaker faces . Hence , the front seats along the sides are not very satisfactory for
hearing of speech in a large, square room and these seats are usually out of the
"beam" of the loudspeakers as normally used in sound - amplification systems. In a
small room the sound level is sufficiently high for good hearing for a wide range of the
ratio of length to width. It is apparent, then, that the optimum ratio of length to width
for a room is not a fixed number, but varies with size and shape of the seating area; it
also depends on whether a sound - amplification system is used. For most rooms.
ratios of length to width of between 2: 1 and 1 :2: 1 have been found satisfactory.
Circular and ellipncally shaped floor plans nearly always give rise to focusing effects,
non-uniform distribution pf sound, and echoes. Two prominent defects are illustrated
in the two figures (a) and (b) below. In the circular plan fig. b sound originating at s
and directed at nearly grazing incidence to the walls, as in the direction SA, tends to
creep along the side of the wall. Sound reflected f rom the rear portion of the cylindrical walls, as rays SM. SN. SP, and SO, are brought to a focus at approximately S'.
This focusing defect is even more pronounced in the elliptical plan on fig. (a) especially when the source is at "S".

(b)

(6)

One focus, as indicated. Here, the concentration of reflected rays in a small region
could be partially overcome if the source were moved from a focus; nevertheless, the
distribution of sound would remain very non-uniform. In both elliptical and circular
plans, the acoustical conditions can be greatly improved by the addition of cylindrical
diffusing surfaces, as in fig (c). fig. (d) is a room having such walt surfaces.

(c)

115

(d)

In order to bring a large audience as close as possible to the stage of an auditorium, it

is advantageous to design a floor plan with diverging side walls. Reflections from
these walls can aid in the establishments of a higher sound level at the rear of the
auditorium, but these reflections must be carefully controlled. Path - length differences of 65 feet or more between direct and reflected sound give rise to echoes.
Path - length differences from about 50 to 65 feet produce a blurring quality which
may result in a lack of "intimacy", especially for auditors in the front seating area. Intimacy is a qualit-ative term used to describe th ~ extent to which sound appears to
carne f rom the screen in a motion picture t heater. If the included angle of the sound
received by an auditor is small, he will judge the auditorium to have intimacy. In this
respect, reflections from the side walls are more significant than those from the ceiling , for ones ability to localize sounds in the horizontal direction is somewhat greater
than it is in the vertical direction.
It is good design to utilize the floor area which has the best acoustical environment
for seating and to use the poorest areas for non-listening purposes. Thus, whenever
possible, the area directly in front of a speaker should be used for seating rather for an
aisle.

2. ELEVATION OF SEATS
Since an audience constitutes a highly absorptive surface, sound waves which graze
it are greatly attenuated. Hence, it is good design in an auditorium, from the standpoint of hearing as well as of seeing , to elevate the seats in order to provide a free
flow of direct sound from the source to the listeners. A good line of sight will do this.
The first few rows can be level since they will have a good line for both sight and
sound . The higher the source is elevated, the farther back the level area can be extended. let us denote by d the distance which should not be exceeded between the
source and the last row of level seating area. A useful fomula for computing this
distance is
d

= r(2.5h-1)

where r is the distance between rows and his the height of the source .

116

example:
Suppose the rows are 3 feet apart and that the lips of a speaker are 5 feet
above the floor level.
What is the distance of the level area from the speaker?
d=3(2.5x5-1}
=34.5 ft.
The floor can begin to slope up at any convenient distance which is nearer the
speaker. The angle of elevation of the room; in an auditorium, it should not be less
than 8, in a demonstration lecture hall it should be about 15. It is advantageous not
only to elevate the seating area but also to stagger the seats.

3. CEILINGS
The ceiling and walls should provide favorable reflections of sound, especially for the
seats far removed from the stage. In some instances, the ceiling also should aid in
the diffusion of sound. However, if adequate means of diffusion are furnished by the
floor and wall surfaces, no additional diffusion is needed for the ceiling; hence, it may
be utilized to the outmost for the advantageous reflection of sound. ,Lecture rooms
chamber music rooms, council chambers, christian science auditoriums are type of
rooms which a low smooth, highly reflective ceiling may be used to good advantage.
In general, the ceiling height of a room to be used for speech and music should be
about one third to two thirds of the width of the room - the lower ratio for every
large rooms, and the higher ratio for small rooms.
Example: find the ceiling height
A large room 33m. wide x 50 m . long use lower ratio 1/3 (33) =11 meters.
A small room 6.00 x 8.00 m. use higher ratio 2/3 (6.00) =4.00 meters.
If the ceiling of an auditoriu_m_ is too high, not oniy will the volume per seat be excessive, but also long-delayed reflections from this surface will be a source of
echoes. (studio design can have higher ceiling heights)
Ceiling splays in the front of a room, or appropriately tilted portions of the ceiling can
be devised to reinforce the sound reaching the rear parts of an auditorium .
'ti.IC!T

1'1\~;)II.CJf:

(SOVJID LOCK)

.:!ThO&

-Jlsr.tJI~D

=----- _J
[ .

117

r.oeev'LC.>Ct:)

LEC"I'UP. E

ltfl0M

They serve the same purpose as do the front splays of the side walls . The LAW of
REFLECTION (angle of reflection equals angte of incidence) canbe used to determine the most propitious angle of inclination. Similarly, a splay between the ceiling
and the rear wall can be designed to reinforce the sound in the rear of the room, and
at the same time to prevent echoes from the rear wall.
Concave surfaces such as domes, cylindrical arches, and barreled ceilings should be
avoided wherever possible. If they are required by the architectural style, the radius
of curvature should be either at least twice the ceiling height, or less than one-half
the ceiling height.

ceiling
H

118

oa-r

If coves, bey or
smalt concave surfaces are employed, their radii of curvature
shoukt be quite -.181 compared to the ceiling height . The most serious defects
(sound foci or echoes) occur when the radius of curvature of a ceiling surface is
about equal to the ceiling height .
...1

~
....

In order to avoid flutter echoes, a smooth ceiling should not be strictly parallel to the
floor. If the floor and ceiling are both smooth, level and highly reflective, the flutter
between the floor and ceiling will be very prominent.
4. SIDE WALLS
The side walls should reinforce the sound that reaches t he rear parts of a large
room. This is e!ipecially desirable for auditoriums in which a sound-amplification

Splay

- a sloping or
beveled surface or
angle as of the
side of a doorway,
a spreading expansion,
enlargement

system is not utilized for all spoken and musical

programs. The location of the wall is, of course
determined principally by the general contour of
the floor plans . The angle that any portion of the
wall surfaces, such as a splay makes with the
wall contour line should be such to reflect sound
beneficially to those seats where the sound level
is not adequate. The law of reflection can be
used to determine this angle. The side walls
should be designed so that the sounds they
reflect to the audience will not be too long
delayed.

Some parts of the side walls may be suspected of causing probable echoes or unduly delayed reflections; this may happen in very large auditoriums. In such instances
the supported surfaces should not be reflective. Instead they should either be made
"acoustically rough" to diffuse the sound, or they should be covered with highly
absorptive material. Examples of side walls based on good acoustical designing for
different types of rooms are given in the chapter of Auditorium design.

5 . REAR WALL
In the design of all rooms, large concave rear walls should be avoided.

il{{(/111
\\\\\\\\\
119

Unfortunately, they are of common occurence because it seems so simple and

economical to most architects to have the rear wall follow the curvature of the last
row of seats. Walls with this shape are responsible for troublesome echoes and
delayed reflections in many theaters and auditoriums. This is illustrated below
which is a longitudinal section showing a vertical rear wall.

Sound rays reflected from the ceiling near the rear wall at P are next reflected from
the rear wall at Q to seats in the vicinity of R; there results an echo at R if the path difference at R exceeds 65 feet (about 20 meters). Sound rays striking the rear wall at
Mare reflected to the ceiling at N, and then to 0 at the back part of the stage. Often
these reflections from concave rear walls are con.c entrated in regions near the
microphones of the sound-amplification system; then feedback trouble is induced.
These detrimental reflections can be converted into beneficial ones by introducing a
ceiling splay between the ceiling and the rear wall, as shown in the sectional figure
below.

L,_.-----

____

""':

__ _

120

Here the rays SP' and SM' are reflected to the rear seats; thus I or 2 db are added to
the sound level in that area. Absorptive material on the rear wall eliminates the echo at
R. Concave surfaces in certain situations can be made as effective as splays, and
they are sometimes better adapted than splays to the general appearance of the
room. However, unless properly designed, they can lead to focusing effects. In
some designs, splays between the ceiling and side walls are useful in prevention of
long-delayed reflections and in directing advantageous reflections to the audiences.
If reflections from either a vertical or tilted wall are capable producing echoes, the offending surface should be treated w ith absorptive material. There will still be some
reflection from this surface, but the sound level is thus reduced so greatly that its
detrimental effects are negligible.
In some large rooms, reflection from a portion of the rear wall can be utilized effectively by tilting the wall; .for example, see "balcony recess" below. Proper rear wall
design can increase the sound level in an auditorium .where the increase is most needed. Caution must be observed, however, to avoid the concentration of reflections in
small areas, especially for excessive path - length differences between the direct
and reflected sounds in rooms where the rear wall is relatively high or where the
seating area rises rapidly, it is not advisable to tilt the entire rear wall, to do so might :
reflect the direct sound toward the front of the room so that echoes could be produced.
6. BALCONY RECESS
Good design of a baicony recess usually requires a shallow depth and a high openings. For an auditorium or legitimate theater, the depth should not exceed twice the
height of the opening.

This plan permits sound to flow readily into the space under the balcony. Good design
also requires that the reverberation time in the balcony recess approximately that of
the main part of the auditorium. (see reverberation in coupled spaces, chapter 5)
By applying the above rules, it is possible to design the recess so that the sound level
in this space is about the same as it is 'in other equally distant parts of the auditorium.
However, if the opening is low and the recess relatively deep, the sound level will be
considerably lower in this area, especially at the rear of the recess. For example, if the
depth is equal to four times the height of the balcony opening, the teve1 may be 8 db
lower at the rear wall than it is at the opening. In large auditoriums and theaters, it is
advisable to "break up" the '"rear wall in order to provide proper diffusion of sound
throughout the balcony recess. A i8,jje unbroken concave rear wall always should be
avoided, sin.ce it invariably .Qives ri5e to a nort-uniform distribution of sound. Trouble
of this kind atso may arise from large' Wrticar surfacesof glass in front of the standee
rail.

121

The balcony rail (front) should not be overlooked when the acoustical design of an
auditoriums is being worked out. Since it is frequently a large, concave, surface having a width that is large compared to the shorter wavelengths of speech and music,
the balcony front can give rise to an echo or "sl~p back". By tilting this surface
downward and making it convex it is sometimes possible to utilize the resulting
reflections to increase the sound level at the rear of the auditorium. Otherwise , the
front should be highly absorptive or should have a contour such that reflections from
it will be diffused and not concentrated in small areas.
The balcony soffit and rear wall should be design9d so that a large portion of the
sound coming directly from the source will be reflected to the auditors under the
balcony, and the remainder absorbed by the rear wall. An example of one such plan is
shown in figure (a) below, which is a section of the balcony recess. of the philips
theater in Eindhoven.

Measurements made in a scale model indicate that this design leads to a distribution
of sound on the floor of the auditorium that is fairly uniform: see figure (b) below.

(b)
If the time lag between the direct sound and the reflections from the rear wall is short,
the auditor will not be aware of the direction from which these reflected sounds
come. He will have illusion that all the sound comes directly from the stage, for
auditory local ization is poor in the vertical direction. Furthermore, it is much more difficult to discriminate between sounds coming from directly ahead or behind than between sounds coming from one side or the other. Hence, these reflected contributions
may be utilized effectively. In contrast to the section of fig. (a) is t~e section shown in
fig (b) . Here the rear wall reflects sound to the front part of the auditorium .

122

Volume Per Seat

The most desirable volume for a room is closely correlated with the design of the ceiling.
There is no fixed optimum ratio between ceiling height and width and length. The optimum height, and therefore the optimum volume per seat, is dependent on both the
seating capacity of the room and the purposes the room is to serve.
The optimum volume per seat for a room is the lowest value consistent with the visual
and aesthetic requirements, with the comfort of the audience, and with the general appearance. Thus, although it is desirable to have a low value of volume per seat, it should
not be attained by seating the auditors so close to each other that they do not have sufficient leg room or by sacrificing other functional features. In motion picture theaters
seating 1000 people, the optimum volume per seat may be as small as 125; for theaters
with a seating capacity of 2000 , the volume not exceed about 175 cu. ft . per seat. In
music rooms seating more than 1500, a volume per seat of 200 cu. ft . has been found to
give satisfactory results.
There are many advantages in keeping the volume per seat at a low value. The building
cost is greatly reduced. Maintenance costs for lighting, cleaning, redecorating, airconditioning, etc. are correspondingly lowered. There are also important acoustical advantages . Thu$, suppose that a given reverberation time is sought. Then, from reverberat ion time equation of the smaller volume of the room the fewer will be the units of absorption
0.049 v
Sl-2.30 iog 10 t1-<l

The smaller the volume of the room the fewer will be be the units of aborption required to
obtain this reverberation time. In an auditorium with a low volume per seat; if the furnishings (seats, carpets, draperies, etc.) have been carefully chosen, there may be no
need for additional acoustical materials to control the reverberation. Then the architect
has greater freedom in this choice of materials for furnishing to interior and for decoration. Also, it follows from equation:

<

= 10 log 10

~ +136 db

Or steady-state value of sound pressure, that the tower the volume per seat, the higher
will be ttle sound level in the room for a given power. In speech and music rooms where
sound-amplification systems are not employed, this increased level is most beneficial.
Even if a "s~und system" is used, the smaller the room, the smaller will be the required
power rating of sound system.
For a given seating capacity, an auditorium design which incorporate a balcony usually
has a lower volume than one that does not. Other factors which affect the volume per
seat are the arrangement of the aisles, the inclination of the floor, the distance between
seats, whether or not the seats are staggered, and the floor plans.

Control of Reverberation Characteristics

The reverberation characteristics of a room can be controlled by the amount and placement of absorptive material within it. The total amount of absorption in a properly designed room determines the rate at which sound dacay in it. Proper distribution of the absorption aids in controlling the diffusion of sound and also the nature of the time fluctuations
of 1he sound during its decay.

123

The first step in planning the acoustical treatment is to determine the optimum reverberation time, from figure lal and (b), and to find the total number of square-foot-units
(sabins) of absorption required to give this time. A large part of this absorption will be furnished by agents other than acoustical materials, for example. the chairs, rugs, audience
w alls, ceilings. It is customary to assume that the size of the audience in an auditorium
will be equal to two thirds of the seating capacity. Then the amount of absorption that
must be added is the difference between the total required units and the number of units
furnished by the above named agents. (specific example is worked out in the table next
page.

2.2

--

-.

- -

f-

l.6

8;1:: 1.6

_. .-7,; 'X /

~I.,I

.-

---~v:;IC-

(};t:; -~.?;

-1

//

//_

'i.
v~ ~ ~~5(c7~ ~ V'-0 'l/.
' /-

~~0;vf~"oef~) ~ ::z

.:

?.

...

. 1'
1-- ,..w~ '77~ '//;~,VA;/' ~~ .
~ :'l".a~~c~ ~e~"tfliW
~~ ~~:;.:.::;;-.MC:if 1r.>l'l

0.()
6

~~

.,-: /
. /'

/.
/
~
-- ~~
~- 1
OIV
/ ~ ~
'
:/: /.
..,. ,
'/,

~~0 /L"Z /~ ~ -, 1 .-: vscH JI.-"

- -

1- -

--:-

_ f.---

-~-

// ~:
/

1/.

- .
.
. .

~(Ect:.'\1

1.6
1 .~

K
v.:... -

://>,.

~/.?))

~
%f//:
Wh: 'l"/-0 t?/)-,

- -

0.6
too

1.1)()

.soo

4oo
600 eoo 1000
f-REQUeNCY If( CYC:U!S

. :!(.)()() 3<XX>
SECClND

__

......

.501-'0

1o.ooo

PE~

TAIJI.E '15.1
A.

REQ.UI RF.I> AB ~Oiti'TION

"
1211 Crcl,.,.

s 12

<.:) de:.~

2041!Cyd~ .

1.5

Optimum reverberation time. in seronds

-2.3 log1<1 (t -:- ~)

0.174

1.0
0 ,2(,1

it

0 . 160

0 .2.10

1.0
0.261
0.230

1200

l iZS

1725

Totnl ~qu~rc. fro,,t .u nits of

required ~ Sn

<t~~orption

124

n.

All.<o~r'rJON Fm~.Nl ~llt: u BY

128

Cyd~

Ah,.lrpti ve Ma tcrial

Ab1<., in

ALs.

~1-ft-

.:ucf.

Cnrk <'"rJWt , .'l!IH !<<I (t

I .innkum flrK>T 1 2000 ~~

ft
Crilinl(, 21KJ() S<f fr
Wood wain~wt, 1060 ll<l
ft

units

W.ut. SHRt'A Ct:~

512 Cyclrc:

.'\hs., in
sq-ft-

Ahs.
coef.

204Jl Cycles

.~!>~ .

Ah,;.

sr-'t-

19

o.os

19

unit~

unit~

0.04

o.os

0.04

80
100

0.fJ4

Rtl

(). 04

Rll

0.05

0.06

120

0,0()

120

0.06

64

0.06

64

0.06

64

l'ru~ccnium Qfl<:nin~,

4.'irl ~I ft
St:t~:c w:dl, 4:'14) ~I (t

Har

0.30

IJS

0.50

22S

21

0.40
O.<M

180

o.os

26

1).0/J

1f

0.05

61

0.06

74

0.06

74

wall, upt>cf 10idc

w~lls

12.30 ~(1 ft

Totul J~hsorptinn froon

;~hove re<jui~d m,\terial~

C. Aa.SOJlonoN FuaNISHF.I>

Bl' UliurNOUTEII.F.D

choir~

D.

ANI> TilE At:l>liiNCt:

512 CydC5

:\b~ . ;,, ~t-ft-

,,,...,.,,in ~t-ftunits

Ab.~ .

27
(0.3 per chair)

27

200 C)clc:.s

in ll.t-ft-

units

3.0

540

27
(O.J per chair)
6JO

(2.0 per pel'l!On)

(J.O per person)

(J.S per chair)

JS7

567

657

(0.3 per
180 auditors in unuphols~red chairs
Tot:~l absorption bych11irs
and ~udience

CnAtiU

128 Cycle5

units

90 unuphol~tercd

6118

SliJ

47S

ch~ir)

AII~ORI'CJOif FultNI ~HEU II\' lJrttoUTEitEO CHAIR~ A ND Tfolf: AuUI F.NCE

90 uphc>lstcr cd chairs

128 Cycle$

Sl2 Cycles

Ah~ . in S<J-ft-

A~, in ~~-ft-

units

units

180

270
(3.0 per chair)

(2.0 per chair)

540
180 auditors in upholstcnd chairs
(3.0 per person)
Total :~bsorption by chairs
and :1Udience
720

125

in

Jef

2048

Crcle~

Ah~.,

in ~q-ftunits

270
(3.0 per chair)

810

900

{4.5 per person)

(S.O per person)

]0110

lliO

These questions remains: where should be the material be placed} what materials should
be used?
As a general rule, the surfaces surrounding the stage should reinforce, by useful reflections, the "voices" of the performers. On the other hand, the rear wall must be designed
so that long-delayed reflections from it are prevented from reaching the audience. This
requirement usually necessitates the use of a highly absorptive rear wall; the wainscot
(should extend not more than about 1 foot above the heads of the audience) should have
an average absorption coefficient in excess of 0. 7 5. In auditoriums where the acoustical
design indicates the desirability of tilting forward the rear wall (see rear wall no . 5 this
chapter) so that reflections from this surface may be beneficially utilized , very much less
absorptive material is needed and it should be applied in patches or panels. After
allowances have been made for the rear wall treatment, the remainder of the required additonal absorption should be distributed on the side walls, preferably in patches, strips, or
panels having dimensions of the order of 3 to 5 ft {for example, note the distribution
shown in the figure below) The application of the absorptive material in the form of patches not only promotes diffusion will also helps to suppress flutter. echoes.
The problem of non-uniform application can be worked out in many ways some examples
follows:
( 1) Finish the entire wall with a material such as plywood applied to furring strips
(taking care to brace the plywood at irregular intervals so that the resonant
frequencies of the resulting panels are distributed in frequency}. Then perforate some of the panels with small holes and back these perforated panels
with an absorptive blanket and thus obtain patches of absorption in such
numbers, sizes, and locations as will give the desired reverberation and diffusion .
(2 } Finish the entire wall or large portions-of the wall with perforated board and install absorptive material behind selected portions of the perforated covering.
Thus, although the appearance of the surface is uniform. a non-uniform absorptive treatment is obtained.
(3) Treat selected panels, strips (horizontal or vertical), or splays with absorptive
material as required to give the optimum reverberation time and good diffusion . If the side walls are treated with absorptive material, the wainscot,
should have a height of 4 or 5 ft. The wainscot. if made from a thin flexible
material like plywood or flexwood, backed with an absorptive pad or blanket,
can furnished low-frequency absorption, which usually is need to provide the
optimum reverberation characteristics.
If the chairs are highly absorptive, as they thould be, it usually will not be necessary to
add any absorptive material on the rear wall. If the' chairs are not absorptive, it may be
necessary to add some absor.ptive to the soffit or side walls of the recess in order to provide the optimum reverberation in this space: When this is done it is desirable to
distribute this material in panels, strips, or patches.

126

~ -

PLATPORM

PLAN

s e -c T I O N

OBJECTIVES AND CRITERIA

The purpose of sound reinforcement system is just what the name indicates to reinforce
the sound, which would otherwise be inadequate. This an ideal sound system wi.ll give
the listener the same loudness, quality adjacent to him-a distance of 2 to 3 ft. for speech
and further for music depending on type and number of instruments. This situation must
obtain for every position in the space except that a variation of 2 db for loudness is
tolerable. The other factors should remain constant. Of these factors, loudness and. Intelligibility have been discussed at length and should be well understood. By quality we
mean that frequency response should be linear so that reproduced sound bears the same
relation between its frequency components as the orginal sound. (Quality is then field adjusted by "voicing" by "equalization", which will be discussed below).
Directivity is the characteristic whereby the sound appears to be coming from the
originating source, that is, the loudspeakers should be directionally "invisible" and the
listener must have the impression of actually hearing the source. It should be emphasized
that sound systems cannot correct poor acoustic design completely although they can
improve a bad situation.
Generally, sound systems will be required in spaces larger than 50,000 cu. ft. (1500
m3) 33ft. x 50 ft. x 30ft. or II m. x 16m. x 9 m. In terms of population, this volume

translates as 550 persons in lecture rooms ( 15 ft. average height and 6 sq. ft. per person)
and 325 persons in theaters (20ft. average ceiling height and 7.5 sq. ft. per person). In
such a room (50,000 sq. ft.) a normal speaking voice can only maintain a volume of level
of 55 to 60 db, depending ori room design and voice strength. With background noise at
PNC 35 (see table on suggested noise criteria range for steady background noise on the
next chapter on noise) The speaker will be heard; at higher noise lev411ls intelligibility will
suffer.

Components and Specifications

All sound systems consist of three basic elements: Input devices, amplifier (s), and
loudspeaker systems.
Ia) Input Devices
1. Microphone. If multiple mikes are required, mixing facilities must be provided.
2. Recorded material from phonograph, tape deck, cassette deck, and possibly
commercial musi.c source.
3. Radio source- AM/FM tuner.

(b) Amplifier and Controls

Amplifiers must be rated to deliver sufficient power to produce intensity levels of 80 db
for speech, 95 db for light music, and 105 db for symphonic. music. This assumes a maximum background noise level of 60 db A. Thus. 80 db for speech intensity will be 20 db
higher or four times as loud a~ the noise level. If noise level is known to be below 60 db
maximum, amplifier and loudspeaker power ratings can be reduced accordingly. The
amplifier should carry technical specs for signal-to-noise ratio; linearity from x to y Hz-3

130

db, and low t-%) distortion. Exact figures here depend on application and are left to the
acoustic specialist or sound engineer to supply.
tn addition 'to the ustim vottimei tone mixing, and input...Output selector controls, the
amplifier must cO'nlaifupecfal eqtiatizatiori controls fod;ignat shaping. These are highly
eriticanitter' netWorks 'that 'are Lised to voice per equalize a sytem after installation.
Equalization is a sine qua non of a good sound sytem, without which, the system will
howl, sound ro1,1gh, give insufficient and poorly distributed gain and sound level and
generally- s6uiid poor: Essentially. voiCing tailors the system to the acoustic~pr6perties of

the space.. '

A system not equipped for equalization is not a professional system and results will verify
it. Furthermore, the specification must provide for the services of a competent sound
engine~r to perform the equalization after installation arid construction is complete.
Another control frequently required in theater systems is a delay mechanism or circuit
that can introduce a time delay into a signal being ~ed to a loudspeaker. The figure below
shows a sound system that covers a majority of an auditorium from a central - loudspeaker cluster. The underbalcony seating areas are hidden from the central cluster and
receive the reinforced sound from distributed loudspeakers in the underbalcony soffit to
provide directional realism, the signal to the underbalcony loudspeakers must be delayed
to allow the weaker signal from the central speakers to arrive first. Delay is necessary
since electrical signals travel at the speed of light whereas sound is much slower. lone
millionth the speed, approximately). With this arrangement sound will seem to come
from the source, and the directivity for necessary to realism is maintained.

131

(c) Loudspeakers

These are the heart of any sound sytem and obviously must be of the same high quality
as the remainder of the system. Indeed, system economics will show up much more
quickly in loudspeaker performance than in any other component. Selection of speakers
is a complex, technical task not within our scope. Nevertheless, a few general remarks
are in order .
Th.e best systems use central . speaker arrays consisting of high quality, sectional
(multicell), directional, high-frequency horns and large cone woofers . These assemblies
are very large. and the architect should be aware of the dimensions that must be accomodated. Units 6ft. wide. 8ft. high and 3ft. deep (1 .00 m X 2.40 m X 0.90 m), with a
weight of 1000 + lbs are commori In a large lecture hall or small theatre. This size is
necessitated by the large wavelength of low frequency sound. (see figure below)

Wavelength in

Frequency

feet and inches

in hertz
10

113

15
56

20

50
30

22.6
11.3

20

50
70
100

10

200

5
4

300

0.56

700
1 kc

8 in.
6 in.
4 in.

2.0

500

1.1

2 kc
3kc

2 in.

1.72
1 meter

0.5
0.4
0,2

34cm
17 an

0.1
7 em

0.06

7 kc
\0 kc

0.11

3.44

69 ern

5 kc

0.23

11.2

6.88
5.0
4.0
3.0

1.0

3
2.3

20
10

\50

5.6

Wavelength
in met.rs
34.4

3.4 em

Smaller units using folded horns can be used, at a sacrifice in low-frequency response, if
speech only is to be reproduced these will perform adequately distributed systems use
small (4-12 inch diameter) tow-level speakers, ceiling mounted, and firing directly down
to give adequate response these units must be mounted in at least a 2 cu. ft. enclosure.
Smaller enclosures will usually seriously compromise performance.

132

Loudspeaker Considerations
Loudspeaker - system design and placement must be coordinated with the architectural
design. The two principal types of loudspeaker systems are central and distributed. The
loudspeakers in a central system are a carefully designed array of directional high - frequency units combined with tess directional low-frequency units, placed above and
slightly infront of the primary speaking position. In most theaters, this location would be
just above the proscenium on the centerline of the room. Located in this position, the
system provides directional realism and is simple in its design.
The distributed loudspeaker system consists of series of low-level loudspeakers located
overhead throughout the space. Each loudspeaker covers a small area, in a manner
similar to down lights. This type of system is used in low-ceilinged areas where a central
speaker cluster could not provide proper coverage. It also can be used for public address
functions if directional realism is not essential, in spaces as exhibition areas, airline terminals, and offices. In addition, distributed loudspeaker systems provide flexibility for
use in spaces where source and listener locations vary accordingly to the use of the
space, since loudspeakers can easily be switched to provide proper coverage.
Combination loudspeaker systems that utilize both central and distributed units are used
to solve special problems as discussed earlier arid illustrated in the figure section of
(amplifier and controls). In general, a listening position should receive sound from only
one loudspeaker. Systems that cover seating areas with signals from several scattered
loudspeakers usually increase the loudness of the sound but tend to produce garbled
speech. This rule is the principal reason that the arrangements shown in the figure below
will guarantee a bad job. The common practice of placing one loudspeaker on either side
of a proscenium opening figure (a) or rows of speakers on or both sides a room figure (b)
is particularly to be deplored.

I
/

'

'\
\

' \ j' '

I'

'''\

...

-1
Prope-r installation would

Op<W>ing OM .Poor COII<!rage,

cancellations, rtflectiOO$, lllrd"'
no wnse of directivity.

lotllte a single hi9h-intmsil:\

arr~. at the <:tnt of tt>e
room a~ !he proscenium.
near '""' ceiling, end ngled
down into the audiencl!.

.
'"""' high-ftwl .,...,
on bom sid.. of ~um

'\

Plaro

u-qp.-;piiiw="F=il

b.
S.O..II wall-ma..n~
./ \ /
\ /
-k~rs yield >nfuted
I
/, /\ ' \
gerbled Plnds. .,_ of
\
/
\ /
\ /
'
'
t.AnQtlla1K>n~ end iack of
1
,
;\
Y,
\ /
directivity <*!ted principally
\
\ /
./
by strong reflectiOI'I$ from
l!.zz:=oaz~~~~:~~~Zl&z====!:i oppOsite walls.

133

b-1

p===::i!====="i'!l'roper instaU&!ion would

~
use a sins;k! wicle-..gle
W.A.' "
unit fec;ing the tong onU
""
or natTOWet unit on 1M
......_,_ ~ lll>ort -11. Cnoa depel'lds

ll" on room -~etio nc:t

dimensions. Low-1~.
c.iling-<listributed 'Yf'2'YI
..C.:=:z""""=====:=a.d.l is al10 pouible if ditectivitv
is not im~rtll'lt.

,....,
c-1
Proper in~lll;ion uses
a tingle standard 0<
wide-angle unit ~

c.
Poo<~8t-

peri-;'c~WD~ic

on

._.t~inthe

100m

Ceilint

cemer.

dl..-rilllca.

..,..,.m not advillble

or~ .

,_,
Plan

A~pa~~emgN.I

ln_....,...,.doW
men uniform -

tl.
ExCIIIIIiwe ~s in

....

i'rlenSty -

togo1:Mr. Angle of ..,_.

tor t--IMf IIJNI<m is

IPC'(Odrutely fld .
ec-.1811 e1rttet are d.._,
on the -king plat:L

lhe room

Essential parameters for location and design of the control position create problems for
the architect. The sound system operator must be within the coverage pattern of the
loudspeakers. F~r proper operation, he or she should be able to hear the sound as it is
heard by the ~udience. Some current auditorium designs locate sound systems controls
within the audience seating pattern (see fig. below)

other place a control room with a completely open waU or a large window at the .rear of the
auditorium. Monitor loudspeaders and earphones are inadequate substitutes for actual
listening within the auditorium. In churches the simple control equipment can be located at
the rear of the congregation area.

To understand selection and positioning of a high-level directional loudspeaker, it is

necessary first to understand its action in a space. Refer to figure next page;

134

sdurc~

Distance from
10

11

tOO tt
Room data
80 ft wide; l20 tt long, 30 ft h1gh
Surface; 31200. SQ ft

0.0

a .. o.3

Ct

-.,.. -

a;

r:,'

..

~~: 4Dc

01 ~ 01

I ll
M

...

Q ~ D irectiv itv factor

o E o

~ g ~~

...

a:

II
II
II
It

..
..

-~

II

;;;

II

a:

",

I~-----

""
"'
Reverberant
field

Near field

Reverberant

WNear~Free
;

I held

field-----+- field

~~~~~~

-+

I
I
I
I

I
I
I
I

~~~L---~------~----~
Source distance (log scale!
(b)

I,

Distance from source- r, ft.

10
100

1000

I
Room 80 ft wide, 120 ft long, 30 ft high

Surface area
Q

31,200
~

sq ft

~I
Medium

'l

<I

JDead

:...so!-

.l

= 10

log ( 4 :,2

i4) + 0.5

135

We have transferred the curve = 0.3, that is, a medium (neither live nor dead room) from
fig. (b) above , to fig. (a) and have added a loudspeaker curve calculated from equation.

a =S1 a 1 + S2a2 + .......... + Sn an

s 1 +S2 + ... ..... ... ... . .. . + Sn

for Q = 5, which is a common figure for multicell directional speakers. Note the result.
First the level in the near field and free field areas have been raised 7 db. Second, the
critical distance (De) has been doubled, that is, increased from 17 to 35 ft. Critical
distance is defined as the point at which the distance between the asymptote and actual
curve is 3 db . At that point the direct and reverberant components are equal. Beyond that
point the reverberant field predominates..
We have already stated that to maintain good directivity and clarity the direct component
should predominate or at least constitute a large portion of the sound. It is widely accepted that maximum distance from loudspeaker to listener should not exceed four items
the critical distance for good quality reproduction and comprehension (preferably less)
Note the on the figure (a) lower and higher curve, that with oc at 35ft. the maximum
distance becomes 140 ft. since the room is only 120 ft. long a single high-level directional array is satisfactory. If the room were longer, the rear portions would require additional coverage.
Alternatively room characteristics could be changed by adding absorption to reduce
reverberance, C7 is more highly directive loudspeaker could be used. If it is not possible
to use a central system, distributed speakers will perform adequately but without directivity. (see table below) . These decisions are the province of the acoustics expert, w/o
who.se expert advice complex or expensive installations should not be designed.

TabJe 26.7 Are ot Covel'llfl; 600 Cone LoudS/HBbr

Firing Directly Down

~~~iliog~

&APKR.

/60'\
I

- -- --L
---I
I

\
\

--'<-- - - ---Level A - 6'AFF; (Standing)

\

---...J--- -- - ----~ - - - -- Level 8 - 4'AFF;(Seated)

Ceiling Height,
Feet

At Level
Diameter

At Level 8

Areab

Diameter

Area

us

4.2

1.7

17

9
10
11
12
13

1.73

9.4

2.3
. 2.9

26
38

3.5

51

4.0
4.6

67
85
105

2.31
2.9
3.5
4.0

14

4.6

15

5.2
5.8

16

136

17
26
38
51
67
85
105

5.8
6.4

127

6.9

151

INTRODUCTION
Freedom from the harassing effects of noise is one of the finest qualities a building can
possess. The architect is obliged to seek, by every possible means, those features of
design and construction that will impart to his building the utility and charm of quiet surroundings. An intelligent approach to the problem of constructing quiet buildings must be
based upon a knowledge of:

1. The magnitude, nature and distribution of noise in buildings and out-of-doors.

2. Acceptable noise levels in various types of buildings;
3. The propagation, and especially the attenuation (reduction of the energy or intensity of soundl of sound through the free air, through openings and ducts,
and through or around obstacles, embankments, and landscaping.
4. The reduction of sound, and the suppression of vibration by varied types of
partitions and flexible connectors.
5. The reduction of machinery noise at its source by appropriate selection of
equipment from a noise-producing standpoint;
6. The reduction of noise by the proper use of sound-absorptive treatment.
For a room or building in which quietness is a prime requirement, it frequently is desirable
to make measurements of the noise at the site as a means of determining the types of
structure that are needed to insulate adequately against the prevailing noises. For routine
design, however, it is sufficient to make use of the data from noise surveys in buildings
and outdoors.

. . ..

Too frequently the architect overlooks noise control or depends on luck and a few
"sound-insulation blankets". The noise level, that is, the sound-pressure level of the
noise, in speech and music rooms should be low enough so that it will not interfere with
the hearing or with the production of speech or music. In offices, factoties, and other
w<M:k rooms, noise should be reduced to levels that will not impair the health, contentment, or efficiency of the workers in these rooms. In restaurants, residences, and
hospitals quietness is especially desirable .
In the development of the mechanization of industry, machines of greater power and
higher speed, often With correspondingly augmental noise output, replace smaller ones.
Undoubtedly, the growth of mechanization has been accompanied by an increase in
noise. Although commendable efforts are being made to reduce the noise of machines
and appliances, there has been no marked reversal in the upward trend in city and industrial noise ..On the other hand, the public is becoming increasingly conscious of the ill
effects of noise~ The architect and builder, ~herefore, face a growing need for the reduc.tion. and control o( noise in buildings.. . . : ...".... .).w.~; ~:
.

I :;
.

~\.

<

' ..

The .:"armful effects of noise are well kno.wn. Ev~;fqiJite feeble noises interfere with the
heari1g of speech and music; moderately lo~~h~Qt~ produce auditory fatigue; and very
loud noises: if.long endured, induce perhw.68i~i)~$Ses of hearing. Although the influence
of noise 9n the wor~ing efficiency and get)eraf h'eidth of human beings is generally recog... nized as ll~ful1 .those who have scte.ntifically;;,lvestigated these effects are not in
complete:agre.ement about their nature~erid ex~:There is evidence from one carefully
conducted ln~estigation that both the ~~9.~~ncy and the total output of weavers
increased. w.heti'they wore ear plugs which:~~uted the noise level from 96 to 81 db.
.

138

The detrimenta6 effects of the noise were observed to be greatest at the beginning and
near the end of work periods. possibly indicating that persons go through a process of
adaptation to. noise. endure it without noticeabl.e effects for a time, but finally suffer from
its incel:iSant attack. The bulk of other evidence indicates that the reduction of noise and
reverberation, following the usual acoustical treatment of offices and factories, results
increases in output of labor and in human well-being that more than offset the cost of the
acoustical treatment. Although it is difficult to measure fatigue, most observers agree
that excessive noise exacts a heavy toll in frayed nerves and physical exhaustion.
Among the most frequent "offenses" of noise are the honking of automible horns, barking of dogs, the screaming of ambulance sirens. the late arrival of some members of the
family, and the chirping of birds . The wearing of ear plugs. which attenuated these
noises about 30 db reduces the total number of awakenings during sleep to less than one
half.

Noise in Buildings
The principal sources of rooms may be grouped into three broad classifications: (a) People lbl Machinery and (c) Outdoor sources. The relative noise contributions from these
three types of sources depend to a large extent, on the use of the room in which the
noises commingle. For example in about 45% of the business locations at which
measurements were made, the predominant source of noise was people; in 25% of these
locations, machinery was the predominant noise source; and in 30% of them, outside
sources were predominant. In factories. the relative percentages were of the order of 10,
80, and 10 percent, respectively. The greater the number of people in a room, the
noisiest it is; and, the higher the noise level, the louder an individual must speak in order
to be heard above the noise.
This suggests that the effect of acoustical materials in reducing the noise level in a room
maybe greater than one might expect; since the absorptive treatment lowers the average
noise level, individuals can speak in a lower voice and be heard. Hence, at least part of
the noise level (that due to speaking or conversation) is reduced "at its source" as well
as by absorption. An approximate relationship between the noise in a business office and
the number of people in the room is given in this figure.

,..,...... ~

~J..-'

.I-'

'-0

""'-1

~~
v
v

+ s a to

2/D

..,

510

These data show that the noise level. in decibel&, increases directly as the logarithm of
the number of people in the room.

139

A summary of the average sound-pressure levels of room noise at telephone locations is

given in the table below. Since these results are based on measurements in a wide variety
of places and consequently include a wide range of noise levels, standard deviations are
given. The noise level in residences is generally 3 db lower in colder climates in December
than in summer, since closed windows exclude a large part of the noise from outside.

TABLE

Summary of Annual Average Noise Levels in Rooms in Declbtes

10. F. Seacord)
Ex~

Type of Locatio.n

Average
Noiae Level

Residence
Without radio
With radio
Small store (1 to 5 clerks)
Large store (more than 5 clerks)
SmaH office ( 1 or 2 desks)
Medium office (3 to 10 desks)
Large office (more than 10 desks)
Factory office
Miscellaneous business
Factory

43.0
50.0
53.5
61 .0
53.5
58.0
64.5
61.5
56.0
77.0

Standrd
Deviation

of Summer
overWinter

5.5
8.0

7.5
6.0

6.5

3
4
4
0
4

6.5

4.5
9.5
7.5

-2

12.0

-2

*The levels given in this table are "weighted"; that it, they are the levels measured with a standard
sound-level meter incorporating a 40~b frequency-weighting network.

Outdoor Noise
Sounds of outside origin are often the principal contributors to noise in offices, churches,
and residences. The largest source of outdoor noise is generally automobile traffic. For
this reason it is desirable that all buildings in which quietness is an important factor, including churches, auditoriums, and hospitals , be not constructed near a busy or potentially busy, street. In order to determine the sound-insulation needs of a building so that
the planned insulation will meet future requirements, it is desirable to make a noise
survey at the proposed site and to estimate the noise contributions from future traffic
conditions. In this connection the figure below is of interest.

1')(.)

..

10
~

60

f.- .

--:--- ~ f.-

1--

3
4 ~ 6 1 89 10
20
30 co:> 5o 10 109
XVMai!R. OP VI!HICI.e3 PER. M rtMTe

140

It shows the relation between the average outdoor noise level (at the street curb). In
decmets, vs the flow of street traffic in terms of vehicles per minute. These data indicate
that the noise level varies directly with the logarithm of the number of passing vehicles .
While automobiles. trucks , street cars. and subways account for the major sources of
outdoor noise in most locations, traffic is responsible for the peak noise levels in many
areas and should be taken into account in estimating noise-insulation requirements in
these localities. For example, in a noise survey at the proposed site of a theater in San
Diego, California, where civilian and military planes can be seen and heard overhead dur
ing most of the daylight hours. the noise level from the passing planes exceeded 70 db
t .w enty t imes during a typical one-hour interval. When no planes could be heard, the level
WCiS less than 61 db. The maximum level recorded during this typical one-hour period
was 90 db, when 1 8 single-motor planes passed information at about 2000 ft. elevation
. and at a minimum distance at about 1 Yz miles.

Acceptable Noise levels in Buildings

The highest lev~l of noise within a building that neither disturbs its occupants nor impairs
its aco~stics is called the acceptable noise level. It depends, to a large extent, on the
nature of the noise and on the type and customary use of the building. The time fluctuation of the noise is one of the most important factors in determining its tolerability . For
exal)1ple, a bedroom with an average noise level of 35 db, with no instantaneous peak
levels substantially higher, would be much more conducive to sleep than would be a
room with an average noise level of only 25 db but in which the stillness is pierced by an
occasional shriek. Futhermore. levels that are annoying to one person are unnoticed by
another. It is therefore impossible to specify precise values within which the noise levels
should fall in order to be acceptable. It is useful. however. to know the range of average
noise levels that are acceptable under average conditions.

A complication of such levels for various types of rooms in which noise conditions are
likely to be a significant problem is given in this table.

TABLE
Recommended Acceptable Average Noise levels in
Unoccupied Rooms
Dec;lbela

Radio, recording, and television studios

Music rooms
Legitimate theaters
Hospitals
Motion picture theaters, auditoriums
Churches
Apartments, hotels, homes
Classrooms, lecture rooms
Conference rooms, small offices
Court rooms
Private offices
libraries
Large public offiCes, banks, stores, etc
Restaurants

141

25-30
00.35
30-35
35-40
3&-40
35-40
35-45

35-40
40-45
40-46
40-45
40-45
45-55
50-55

The acceptable noise levels of this table are useful in calculating the sound-insulation requirements of walls, partitions and ventilation ducts under typical noise conditjons.

Siting and Planning Against Noise

The selection of the site for a building, the layout of the buidling itself. and the grading
and landscaping of the site are indespensable parts of good planning against noise in
buildings: The existence and persistence of quiet sites is dependent on zoning ordinances
and their enforcement. Architects in every community should cooperate with the civic
authorities in the segregation of -noxious activities including noisy industries. power stations, airports, traffic arteries. From buildings where quiet is an absolute necessity, such
as schools, churches, hospitals, and residences. These buildings should be protected by
civic planning_
Inter urban automobile and truck traffic should be routed around, not th;ough, area~ that
have been zoned for schools, residences and hospitals; express highways that must pass
through zones requiring quiet surroundings should be isolated by means of embankments
or oarapets along the outer edges of the highways; trains should enter large metropolitan
centers by underground routes; parks and landscaping should be planned to impede the
propag~tion of noise into quiet zones; and approaches to airports, wh!ch are increasing
noise nuisance in ..all large cities, should be from the outskirts of the city, no.t over it.
Schools, churches, hospitals, and residences should not be located on noisy highways.

Grading and Landscaping

Anyone who has stood beside a railroad track and listened to the noise from a train as it
enters a "cut" where ttiere an embankment between the listener and the train must
have noticed the effectiveness of the embankment in reducing the noise. rhus, an earth
embankment or a masonry garden wall often can be used to reduce the noise that impinges on a building and aid in the establishment of quiet conditions within the building
without resorting to costly measures of sound insulation. It may reduce the level by as
much as 5 db. If the surfaces of the barri.er facing the source of noise is absorptive, such
as a grassy turf, dense vines, other plaming or even leaf mold or peat moss, the over-all
noise reduction may amourit to as much as 8 or 1 0 db. Hedges or trees with dense foliage
act as sound -absorbers and reflectors, and their effectiveness increases with the extent
(thickness, height. and density) of growth. A hedge 2 ft. thick has sound-obstructing
value of about 4 db.

is

Building Layout
The location of a building on its site, the arrangement of rooms, corridors and vestibules,
and the location of doors and windows, a11 have a bearing on the control of noise; they require careful consideration. For example, the noise levef at the en_d of a room adjacent to a
busy street may be at least 5 db higher than it is at the opposite end. In such a situation it
is advantageous to place the speakers platform at the end of the room adjacent to the
street, which is the primary S()uree of noise;

142

This arrangement has two advantages:(, l The more distant parts ofthe audience are in
the quieter section of the room, and (2) a speaker has a natural tendency to raise the level
of his voice in the presence of noise.

t--

_,-y

_..:t

The side of a building facing streets, playgrounds, or other sources of noise should house
those activities that can tolerate the greatest amount of noise, and the sides of the
building that face the quieter environment should be reserved for those rooms that require the quietest conditions.
Windows should not open on noisy street or yards. Doors which open on noisy streets
should be supplemented by sound locks. While courts can be used to good advantage to
shield certain rooms from street noise, they are usually serious offenders in reinforcing
(by multiple reflections) the sounds that issue from windows opening on them. Many
dwellers in city apartments attribute their sleepless nights to the disturbance from the
neighbors radio which blasts its strident noise into a court-a reverberant container that
sustains the noise and aids in its efficient transmission from one open window to
another.
A noisy room, such as a riveting shop, should be well removed from an office or room
where quiet is valued. The doors and windows of adjacent rooms should be as far from
each. other as possible. It often is advisable to stagger 'the positions of doors on the two
sides of a hall or corridor so that no two doors face each other. 'Elevators, air-conditioning
equipment, motors, and other noise-producing machinery should be removed and
isolated from t.he sections of a building that can least tolerate such noises.

143

PRINCIPLES OF NOISE REDUCTION

Noise can ruin the acoustics of an otherwise well-planned auditorium. Failure to plan for
adequate insulation against noise, in the design of buildings, is almost universal. One of
the misconceptions inherent in many proposed methods for sound insulat ion is based
upon the erroneous assumption that materials and methods which are effective tor heat
insu lation are also effective for sound insulation. It is important that the architect and
builder recognize that these two separate problems, even though certain types of structures may be effective for both. In general, nearly all porous materials are good heat insulators and good sound absorbers as well. Nevertheless, they are usually poor sound insulators. Porous materials or other types of acoustical treatment can reduce, somewhat,
the level of the noise transmitted into a room; but they do not provide the most etfe<:tive
means for insulation against outside noises. It is injudicious and uneconomical to construct a building without proper planning against noise and then to hope that absorptive
material will solve the subsequent difficulties.
Noise reduction is essentially the science of converting acoustical energy into another,
less disturbing form of energy-heat. Since the amounts of energy involved are
minute-1 30 db corresponds to 1/1 000 of a watt or 0 .003 Btu, the heat produced is
completely negligible. This conversion is by absorption, by the room contents and wall
coverings, and by the structure itself. The former controls noise levels within a space and
the latter noise transmission between spaces. Noise control treatment within a room will
affect the reverberant noise level within that room but will have minimal effect on the
noise level in adjoining spaces. Refer to the figures, for a graphic presentation of this fundamental fact.

75 db

191)

) \

12

(a) TV set in free space produces 15-db sound level,

which drops 6 db for each doubling of distance.
Attenuation by inversesquare law (see Section

db
69 db

26.7).

76 db

(b} TV still produces 75 db. In the free field. sound

drops to 72 db but builds up to 74 db at the wall
due to reverberant field reinforcement(see Figure
26.17, page 1175). Wall attenuation is 30 db. Sound
on other side of the walt is 74 - 30
44 db.

72 db
74 db

44 db

30db
wall

..

.,< ..

75 4b

~'.

~"1

~.

(c) Acoustic tile ceilifli.Kts tO' reduc:e room reverber

ant field. Free field ~~ extru~ Level at wall is
73 db. level in second space jf1'3 - 30 43 db.

72db
73 db

,.

: ..

43db

146

(d) Entire room is acoustically treated. effectively

eliminating reverberant field. Room is 'dead'.
Level on second side of wall is 72 db less
acoustic tile loss. less wall loss. (that is.
72 - 2 - 30
40 db.

(e) Add another 2% in. of acoustic wall treatment.

Room is dead. Level at wall 72 db. Level in second
space 72 - 4 - 30 38 db.

The best that can be accomplished with acoustic room treatment is elimination of the
reverberant field, that is, to make the intensity at the room boundaries what it would
have been in free space, as in fig (d). Adding further wall or other acoustic absorbent as in
fig. (e) does nothing in the room itself and has minimal effect on the overall transmission
loss, since the transmission loss of the acoustic material itself is very low as can be seen
in fig. (b).

Reduction of Air-bome Noise

How Sound is Transmitted

?;CJVIPMENT
VI6RI\TION

147

Most sounds that are communicated to a room, either from the outdoors or from
elsewhere in the building, are included in one of the following classifications.

1 . Sounds originating in the air which are transmitted

(a) Along a continuous air path through openings. For example: through
open wi1:1dows, elevator shafts, doors, and transoms; through cracks
around pipes, electric conduits, telephone outlets; through ventilating
ducts.
(b) By means of diaphragmatic action of partitions. Sound waves can
force a partition to move back and forth as a diaphragm. By this
means, sound from a source on one side of a wall can be communicated to the opposite side.

2 Sounds originating from direct impacts

(for example, impulses produced by the dropping of objects on a floor, the
scuffling of feet, footballs, or the slamming of doors), or from machinery
,vibrations are transmitted through rigid structures with almost no attenuation. As a result of a direct impact in one room, large surfaces (such as
walls) elsewhere in the building can be set into vibration, thereby radiating
acoustical energy in a manner similar to the action of a sounding board on
a piano.
These two types of sound transmission differ in' many respects. Impacts
generate impulses of short duration but large power; these are often propagated long distances. Sound originating in the air generally are of much
smaller power, persisting for a longer duration; they .usually are greatly attenuated by divergence, and by intervening partitions, so that their
disturbing influence is confined to regions near their origin. The methods
of insulating solid-bome impact sounds are somewhat different from
those of insulating ~ir-borne sounds; a structure that is a very good insulator for one typelmay be very poor insulator for the other. The general
topic of the insulation of impact-generated sounds is discussed next
chapter.

148

(((~.,
(41)

fig. (a)This sound is airbome, originating in the air at one side of the partition. The incidence of sound energy causes the partition to vibrate,
generating sound on the other side. Sound does not "pass through" - it
causes the structure to become a secondary source. The partition
vibrate~ primarily on the direction of the sound.

Tranamltlion of Impact and Suucture-Borne Nol.

(b)

.1

149

))
A.

) )

.MUtVf-.,
'

~--- \UiftoQ

(.

))
DOUIU IPU.

)i ) >))~.~
.

..

))

~--MOit(t

ltAYilY

I.

Wlllllln

... tl&(l1

(c)

Transmission Through Openings

Noise can be readily communicated from one portion of a building to another througll
openings such as windows or open doors, frequently these openings limit the total
amount of insulation which can be attained . Thus, if it is necessary to open windows for
ventilation, the sound insulation between two adjacent rooms may be limited by the open
w indows to 20 db or even less. Under such circumstances, it would be profitless to provide separating partitions of relatively high insulation. Even very small openings, such as
cracks around doors or windows, are effective in transmitting sound. This is emphasized
by the following example.
Suppose that outdoor noise is transmitted into a room through an opening 1 0 inches
wide and that the transmitted sound in the room attains a level of 60 db. By reducing the
opening to a width of I inch, the acoustical power transmitted through it will be decreased tenfold. (diffraction being neglected) . . In other words, the level of the transmitted
sound w ill be lowered to 50 db. A further reduction in the width of the opening to 0.1 inch
(diffraction being neglected again) would lower the noise. level another 10 db. Thus, according to the above consideration, a reduction in the width to one onehundredth of its
initial opening decreases the level of the transmitted sound only 20 db. It is apparent,
therefore. that a high degree of sound insulation requires the complete closing of cracks
around windows, doors, pipes, and conduits.

Sound-Transmission Loss (Tl)

and Noise Reduction (NR)
The sound-insulative merit of a partition is generally expressed in terms of its transmission loss in decibels. The transmission loss is equal to the number of decibels by which
sound energy which is incident on a partition is reduced in transmission through it. For
example, the transmission loss (abbreviated T.L.) of the wall shown In the figure is
40 db. This incident sound energy which strikes this partition is reduced by 40 db in
transmission through it; that is, only 1 I 10,000 of the incident energy is transmitted
through the wall. The larger the value ofT. L. tor a partition, the greater the sound insula
tion it provides.

150

6 . - ~.

~ :": . T.I.. 40D.A

.. . f

. ...

6008

r;i ,

. 0: 6
G '
4

.o. '

. .. .:t'
(t .

4.

q .

:4."

0 .
0

ZO D&

f)

. ... o.

.~.~~:

The number that is of greater importance to the building designer is the actual noise
reduction between two spaces separated by a barrier of transmission loss Tl, that is, the
action of the barrier in situ. This isolation or noise reduction is defined as

NR

where

NR

IL1
IL 2

= IL1 - IL2 db
= noise reduction between spaces in db
= sound intensity level in source room db
= sound intensity level in receiving room db

and is related to the TL of the barrier by the expression

NR ,.. TL -

where

1 0 log -

AA

NR

== noise reduction In db

Tl
S
AA

= barrier transmission loss In db

= Area of barrier wan in sq. ft.
= total absorption of receiving room, in sabins

We see, therefore, that noise reduction and transmission loss are not equal but are
related by the size of the dividing wall Sand the absorption characteristic of the receiving
room AR. A moment's thought will confirm the logic of this relation. When sound energy
impinges on the wall, the wall in turn becomes the sound source, radiating into the
receiving room. The sound level in the receiving room is related to its own reverberance
(absorption characteristic A) as we have seen repeatedly. Thus if the receiving room is a
reverberant live space, A is low and the NR is considerably less t han TL. Conversely, if
the receiving room is dead, A is large and noise reduction can be greater than transmission loss, depending on the ratio of barrier wall size to room area. The figure illustrates the relationships and demonstrates that the vital consideration is not transmission
loss but noise. reduction.

151

Rigid Partitions

The transmission of sound through a "rigid'; partition, such as a brick. concrete, or solidplaster wall, is accomplished principally by the forced vibrations of the wall; that is, the
entire partition is forced into vibration by the pressure pulsations of the sound waves
against it . The vibrating structure thus becomes a secondary source of sound ~nd
radiates acoustical energy in to the space on the opposite side of the partition. As one
would suppose. the more massive the wall , the more difficult it is for sound waves to
move it to and fro . This is a less technical , and less exact, way of saying that most partitions in buildings (walls, ceilings, and floors) are " mass-controlled " over the greater portion of the audible-frequency range. The insulative properties of a partition at low frequencies are partially dependent on its resonant f requencies, which are principally determined by its mass, stiffness. and internal damping.
The manner in which the insulation value of a rigid partition depends on the mass per unit
area of the structu.re is shown by the curve of the figure below.

r-

..
5
(

- -

'v
0

-- --

--

v-

V-

- -

...

:,......- ~
--

:r.

...

.......

---- -

......~--"

..

- ..

r--

4
~ 6 7 8 lit<'
~0
PU\1111):! PE:R SQV/\Rl! FOO T

152

30 40

so

70

100

The transmission loss (averaged over the frequency range from 1 28 to 2048 cycles) is
plotted against the weight in pounds per square foot of wall section. It will be noted that
the curve approximates a straight line. The slope indicates that the average T.L. of a rigid
mtiSS~ partition increases 4.3 db each time its weight is doubled. Thus, the
average T .L. for a rigid wall which weighs 10 pounds per square foot of wall section is
about 37.4 db; the T.L. for a rigid wall which weighs 20 pounds per square foot is about
41.7 db; and the T.l. for a rigid wall which weighs 40 pounds per square foot is about
46 db. Individual wall structures may depart considerably from average values indicated.
However, the average increase in T.L. , for each doubling of weight of the partition, will
generally be from 4 to 5 db. In the case of a thin flexible panel, such as a window pane,
not only the mass but also the stiffness, the internal damping, the size of the panel, and
the manner in which its edges are fastened contribute to its transmission-loss
characteristics.
Because of t he relatively slow increase in sound insulation with the increase in mass of a
rigid partition, it is not always practical to secure a high degree of insulation by merely increasing the thickness of the wall. It would be necessary for a concrete wall to be nearly
2 feet thick in order for the wall to have an average T .L. of 60 db. On the other hand, two
lightweight walls isolated from each other can be designed to provide this same amount
of transmission loss. Where a large amount of sound insulation is required, it is most
practical to employ discontinuous construction or compound partitions.

Compound-wall
Constructions
(Cavity Walls)
We have seen that the transmission loss in decibels of solid masonry or monolithic partitions increases directly with the weight per square foot of wall section. For walls having a
mass of more than 15 pounds per square foot the increase in T.l. with an increase in
weight is relatively small. It will be remembered that each successive doubling of the
weight of the partition adds but 4 to 5 db. For this reason it is often economical to
substitute two or more lightweight partitions that are isolated from each other for a
heavy-masonry partition where relatively high value of t ransmission loss is required .
Double-wall construction frequently offers the most practical means of obtaining high insulation at moderate cost and reasonable dead load. The separate partitions should be as
completely isolated from each other as possible. Structural ties between the separate
partitions tend to convert the compound partition into a single rigid partition and thus
reduce the sound insulation. In this connection, it is important to make sure that pieces of
wood chunks of plaster, and other building materials are not dropped between the.partitions of a double wall.

.--

OPEN SPACE

CBEIIER &

'
~IS :=a
L\lll'H

aMB1(R;

NOT SO GOOD)
153

CHJNI<S Of PUSTER
a\ Wt.W "TURJWtUN
.IS REDUCED]

The number of points at which the two partitions are tied together should be held to a
minimum, and the ties should be of a flexible nature. Staggered-stud construction provides structural separation and therefore is often beneficial. The suspension of an absorptive blanket or fiberboard between double partitions, or between the wood studs or
channel irons in staggered-stud partitions, may be a substantial aid to insulation if t!"le
two partitions are structurally separated. The absorptive material should not make a rigid
or semi-rigid bridge between the two partitions for then it may actually lower the sound
insulation of the structure.
The effectiveness of the absorptive material depends somewhat on the absorption
already present between the walls. In double walls which are not structurally separated,
a slight additional insulation may be obtained by the introduction of an absorptive
blanket, especially in lightweight partitions. However, this added insulation may not be
economically worth whit~.

Windows and Doors

Windows and doors are usually the "paths of least resistance" in the over-all sound insulation of a room. Therefore, they should be given careful consideration for buildings in
which good insulation is required.
The positions of windows ought to be carefully planned so that, without sacrificing utility
or beauty, they are removed as far as possible from other windows in adjacent noisy
rooms or from street noise. It is even helpful to hinge the frames of a window which
swings outward, so that the panes reflect in a direction away from the window of the adjacent room, sound passing through the open window. Good sound insulation is virtually
impossible unless doors and windows fit tightly in their frames; and threshold cracks
must be eliminated.
The average transmission toss of a window depends primarily on the this:kness of the
pane; the heavier the glass, the more insulation it provides. At frequencies well above the
lowest resonant freque~cy of the pane, the average sound insulation increases with increasing frequency. It is not possible to give precise values for the transmission loss of
various windows because the T.l. depends, to a considerable extent, on the area of the
panes and on the manner in which they are set. (ex: a 1/8" T.l. = 28, 1/4" plate glass.
T.L. =31, 3/16 sheet glass: 1/4" air space: 3/H)" glass =33, if 1/2" air space =36)
these are taken from the average range of 128 tO 2048 cycles.
Double panes are frequently used to increase the sound insulation of a window. To be
most effective, the panes should be structurally isolated. However, this is usually impractical except in double-wall constructions. If the spacing between rigidly mounted panes is
as little as 114 inch, the transmission loss through the multiple structure will be about the
same as .it would be through a single pane having a weight per unit area equivalent to that
of the combination. Increasing the air space increases the transmission loss considerably
las mentioned in the example above). Thus, enlarging the spacing between doublestrength t 114 inch) plate-glass panes from 1/4 inch to 112 inch will add about 3 db of
sound insulation. If the two panes are not rigidly joined at the edges but are set in felt or
rubber, and if the panes fit tightly against the felt or rubber so that there are no "leaky"
threshold cracks, the T.l. will be increased at least 4 to 5 db. Jticreasing the separation
between the two panes from 1/2 inch to 6 inches may add as much as 1 0 db to the
transmission loss.

154

Double pane windows. and sometimes triple-pane windows with 6 inches or more separation between the sheets of glass, are required in special rooms where excellent sound
insulation is needed - for example, in radio studios. In such rooms the periphery of the
space between panes should be lined with sound-absorptive material. This may add as 5
db to the transmission loss of the windovy. Each window should be set in felt or rubber,
and it is advisable to tilt one pane with respect to the other . A tilt of as little as 1 inch in
1 2 inches will suffice to suppress high transmission of certain resonant frequencies.
Also, by selecting window panes of different t hicknesses (so their resonant frequencies
are different), a more uniform insulation vs frequency characteristic will be obtained.

ZZ?lt?ZZZ2Z2ZZ?ZZZ?:Ld

~6''

FtAlE GLASS

114-N AIR SA'.CE

V4u PlATE GLASS := 32. db

1/4'' AlR SPACE

:Wllff&/:/hW$4@ VS '' Pl..AlE GlASS

-~ V4" Pl.ATE GLASS>

V2" AIR SFJ\CE

~1/~"PlATE6lASS= 39db
1/4'rAIR SPACE
'"r.~~7'7'?7''1?'?'7.'?"77"?';~ 1/4" PLATE

SLASS

The transmission loss of a DOOR increases with increased weight; the T.l. also increases
with frequency. Most doors of ordinary construction have an average transmission loss
of 20 to 25 db; some specially manufactured doors have T.L.'s as high as 40 db. The
general trend of the T .L. frequency characteristics follows approximately that of the
corresponding curve for rigid partitions. The effectiveness of any door in providing sound
insulation depends largely on the seal around the edges. For example, tests on one steel
door showed that the placement of a rubber strip on the outer step of the jamb increased
the T .l. 4 db. A force of 400 pounds on the panel made still better contact at the edges, and
the T.L. was increa'sed another 4 db. The average T.l.'s for a number of different types of
doors a~e given below:

Doono solid 1 3/4", with cracks as ordinarily hung

256 cycles = 15 db
512 cycles = 20 db
1024 cycles = 22 db

156

solid 1 3/ 4" welll seasoned and airtight

256 cycles = 18 db
51 2 cycles = 21 db
1024 cycles = 26 db
Wood, heavy, approximately 2 Y2 " thick, rubber gaskets around sides and top;
special felt strip pushes down as door closes, eliminating any crack under door;
12.5 lb per sq. ft.

256 cycles = 30 db
512 cycles = 29 db
1024 cycles =25 db

Noise Insulation Requirements

In Sweden requirements regarding sound insulation have been in force since 1946. The
Swedish regulations specify the minimum transmission losses against air-borne sound for
partitions and floor-ceiling constructions given below .

AVERAGE MINIMUM INSULATION REQUIREMENTS IN DECIBELS

Frequency. Range
Type of Room
Hospitals
Dwelling rooms
School rooms
Work rooms

100-500

500-3000

100-3000

cycles

cycles

cycles

44
42
36
34

56
54
48
46

50
48
42
40

*Transmission loss measured in decibel$ with sound-level meter incorporating an appropriate

frequency-weighting network.

Noise-insulation requirements for rooms and buildings should be calculated just as

routinely as are reverberation requirements; often they are much more important. The
nomogram in the figure below is an aid in the determination of the approximate minimum
insulat ion requirements . Average noise conditions which may exist outside the. room are
listed in the column at the left of the chart. The acceptable noise conditions are listed in
the column to the right. Insulation needs are estimated in the following way_ After an
estimate or survey of the exterior noise conditions, the appropriate level on the scale to
the left is selected. This point is connected by a straight line through a point on the scale
to the right which corresponds to the desired noise conditions. Then the point of intersection of this straight line with that of the center scale determines the approximate
minimum insulation requirement. The weight Un pounds per squarefoot of wall section)
of a single rigid partition that will provide this insulation is indicated.

156

In many cases, it is advisable to ut ilize a compound partition having an e~ui valent

transmission loss. The use of this f igure w ill yield t he minimum average requirements f or
insulation against condit ions of noise. This nomogram should be regarded only as an aid
in establishing an approximate lower limit of the amount of sound insulat ion required to
meet specified conditions - not as the final means for determining the types of wall construction, doors, windows, etc., that will give satisfactory sound insulation.

INSUI..I\TJON R E QV IIti!O
W eiGHT OF
HOM OGENE'O tl3

.SCVlJRCI: f.Yf' NCll'e

SiRUCTl!P-2,

1..s n-R SQ

r-r

TYP!!C>F
S T/tVCTllPfi

""'"""' '<~0'~"\

tloi:IY I'V.I'I OR CYc;n ; i

~~~t~~~~~I N6'RtLL,
(t'AIRI..Y Cl.(),IS)

stliDV
C(>H~ ' rRUC T I<'>N

II CCF. l .~.1\TINO

UUi f'FlC

(DJX<JNl'tHU<) U;l)

'6"8R IC K'M.IItK

i
t zoo

M 0 PER iO.T !! TRAFFIC. ;

Tt i REE 11112P LIIN E3 :
1\T 3000 I'T
;

QUIET .:STREET' :
OCC"'SI"'NI\L T R.III'F ICf

m: SL131!PII-IO

S P ECIAL

Jll ' llllt1CICW0 1i!K

100

~RI\I>JNO <->ft WRITING

(LIVING IW(;lM) 1\IID ILLm ; !\t;{JIOSI'ITI\1. WllltD)
Ol fTO, Ill C'.>NTIIIUI::"J$
LV N01.3Y SJTUATIOI'I

9' D~ !CICWCI R I(

!50

D<'lVIII .E G LII ~ U<r,: .

Z I Ol cv.s:I. ~ ',:SA>o.Cf;

tO

Ol.SC USSJ<Ji l 3 (m>AA O

DW ISJ.& GI.A'tltiG:

R<.<V'A) Olit DIHIIIG (.JUII!T

sl!L~ii ~~~~u;:

S S D J;'rll'll!;:'f C)I'FI C.I!

WOP.)(',&>e>I<KSE I"ING ,

S~fG\f~JNG:

QUJIOT' C('JNVERSI\Tl~

zwn~s ~c,;

10

li: ESIIU~NT)

I
t~

TE;LePHONF.5.MOV.6

~:is~l'%'t'i~f
OFFICF.)

ore N W INCC:>W

TYPEWJ! JT tN<J, CJU.CV -

Q\111!-T
;
SVBUR.DAN GARDEN t

RVSTt.e 01" Ll !l iVBS

INOBN TI.I! l!llllti!I!'U!

The following working rule tor noise-insulation factor has proved satisfactory: Subtract
the acceptable noise level from the average level (averaged overtime) of t he outside
noise, to this difference add 1 0 db. The result is the noise-insulation factor required to
furnish adequate sound insulation. The additive term of 10 db is included (1) to provide
some protection against disturbances from the usual surges of outside noise that are
above he average level , and (2) to allow for unavoidabte differences between the sound
insulation provided 'by the actual structures ahd those determined by laboratory t ests on
model partitions . For example, if the average level of outside noise is 70 db, and a noise
level of 35 db is accept able in the room, the noise-insutation factor should be about 45
db.

157

Flanking
Just as sound will pass through the acoustically weakest part of a composite wall, so it
will also find parallel or flanking paths, that is, an acoustic short circuit. Proper design of
window locations to avoid flanking paths shown in the figure below.

OON'T

00
WIDE SEPARATION 8E1WEEN
CORNER WINDOWS
!>WING PANES TO
REFLECT NOISE OU'IWARO

(a)

CLOSELY SPACED WINDOWS REFLECT

NOISt: FROM ONE APT. TO OTHER

WIOE SEPARATION 8E1WEEN WINDOWS

SWING PANES IN SAM~ DIRECTION

(b)

(c}

WIDE SEPARATION 8E1'WEEN OOU&I..E_;HVHG

OR SLIDING WINDOWS. AND PARTIAL WA&.L
NOISE BARRIER.
.
.

(d)

.al)

158

WITH CI..OSL Y SPACED OOU8LE:..KUNG

OR SLIDING Wll\IOOWS AND NO .BARIUIER
WALL. NOISE TI~AVEL.S fiASILY FROM
ONE APT. TO .OTHER .

The same situation obtains with respect to doors and any other openings between
spaces. Thus, in this next figure, a high STC (sound transmission class) waft between the
two spaces is in large measure defeated by flanking paths FS. F6, and F7. In office
.spaces the most common flanking path via the plenum, as in the figure below Path F1 ,
and the next figure (b) and (d). Ductwork with registers or grills in various rooms acts as
an excellent intercom system unless completely lined with sound absorptive material.
Even then lowfrequency sound is only minimally attenuated, and special measure must
be employed if good transmission loss is required.

\,,

~~
\~

\~

,-=-::~

FLANKING NOISE PATH5

NOISE LEAKS

Jl OPEN PUNUMS OV(t WALU. fAU Ctlli~S

rz

ll 1'001! SEAL AT WUNC DCS

1.2 1'001 SEAt A.WND DUCT l'ttEIUTIOHS

UNI!AFF\.0 OIJCT IMIS

0
f4
f
flo
f7

OUTDOOR PADI_ WINO<WI TO WINOOW

CXINTIIlJOUS UNIAFJ\!0 lltOISCTOa UIIJTS
1W1 'Al'H, OKN VENrS
HAU PAll!. LOOvt:JIED DOORS
WALl PAll!, OI'EifiNGS UNDI:R OOOIIS
fl OI'(N 1'IOIJGIIS IN fl004tC1UN& 5TRUClllR(

IJ 1'0011 MOlllAR JOINlS, PORQU<; W.SOHIIY BU:

LA 1'001 SEAl AT 510WAU. fltUR PANl [ft.
U aACK lO BACK CAll NElS, POOII WOAIUoiANSHII'
1.6 HOUS. CAPS AT W,t,U PfNnATIOHS
l1 1'0011 StAl loT flOORlOCiS
IJ BACK TO 8ACI( EUCTIIJC,t,l OUllO~
t HOUS. CAPS AT fLOOR f'Ol'TRAliOHS

Otli(Jt POINTS lO WlfSIDEtt. 1: lt\KS All( IAl IIAMN STJIIP AJO I'OSl COfHCTIOHS Of Pl(fAIIIICAltO
WAU.S. Ill UNQ(I R.OO* PIP( 011 S[JVIC CHASES. 0 IIECSSEJ>. SPA.MIING LIGHT f1XT\IIS. IDl CEiliNG
'R.OOI COVR PlATtS DIIIIOVABU WAU.S , iEI UIISUPI'OITED NO I./IIBACI([D -.Au. ouo JOIIfT'S tfl DGS
liMXINC Of &ullTINCAIIIIETS l AHUAitCU. IGI NEJllaiCATU. IIOLI.a. .W., IXTU JOit CUll Alii
WAU.S.

159

00

DON'T

:, AVOID EXTEI'I OI NG
~I WALLS TO UI'IOERSIO E
Of SUSI'ENO EO CEILING

APT. A
'
APT. 8
6t;SPE$'~i!.\J;W?.'t ;~~~;'f"5:"'!0JW

(b )

AVOID OP EN
ATTIC SPACES
OR PLENUMS

:~ i

~\~

\!

:\.

APl. A

APT. 8

'
\:

APT. C

(c)

APT. 0

(d)

Sound-tnsulation Data
Examples
(1) WOOD-STUD AND STEEL STUD PARTITIONS -

This type includes

wood-stud and steel-stud partitions faced w ith plaster on wood, metal,
or gypsum lath, or faced with fiberboard, plywood, or similar materials.
These partitions generally provide greater insulation than do rigid
masonry walls of the same weight; but cracks or other openings will
greatly reduce their insulation value. Sound is transmitted through such
walls principally by setting one facing into vibration (except for the sound
transmitted through holes, cracks, etc.) This vibration is tt\en communicated to the second facing, mainly through the studs, and to a lesser
extent by the air between these facings. Staggered stud construction,
therefore, is better than single-stud construction. Suspended absorptive
blankets between the staggered studs, as in the figure, usually increase the transmission loss - especially if they are covered with heavy
paper, or similar material, on one or, preferably, on both sides. The
blanket should provide a complete septum over the extent of the entire
partition . The use of such blankets as a means of increasing the sound in-

160

sulation in walts is usually economical only in staggered-stud or in structurally isolateCJ double-wall constructions.

(2) BRICK, TILE, MASONRY, AND POURED-CONCRETE PARTITIONS. In

this group are included brick, poured concrete, glass blocks, concrete
~ocks, clay tile, gyl)Sum tile, and other masonry partitions. Their insulation characteristics are approximately those of rigid partitions. Porous
blocks, when plastered, usually have a transmission loss which is 3 or 4
db greater than that predicted by the curve discussed earlier in rigid partitions. If the porous blocks are not plastered, they may be very poor insulators; sound "leaks" through the interstices of the blocks. If porous
materials are used in wall constructions, the interstices shoutd be of the
non-communicating type; that is, each cavity should be completely
enclosed. A 4-inch hollow tile, although not adequate for most purposes
of sound insulation, can give re4atively high insulation if plastered surfaces are furred out from the tile. The more isolation between the
plastered surfaces and the tile, the better is the insulation. For example
measurements show that one construction of plaster on lath, which was
tied (with wires which had been embedded in mortar joints) to 4-inch
hollow clay tile, rated slightly better than a solid 8-inch brick wall.
(3) PARTITIONS WITH RESILIENT ATTACHMENT OF LATH. These are constructed of lath fastened to studs by special nails or resilient clips; see
figure. Such walls provide somewhat more insulation than do those in
which the lath is nailed to the studs in the usual manner. The special nail
or clip reduces the "coupling" between the plastered lath and the
plastered lath and the studs, thus reducing the vibrational (acoustical)
energy communicated to the opposite side of the partition.

~ 'r.oaCt.I\1H
P. S CLIP
&- W/\Siie~

161

Noise Reduction By
Sound-Absorptive Treatment
The level of noise which is transmitted into a room is reduced relatively little by soundabsorptive treatment. Acoustical materials are not a cure for poor sound insulation.
However, they are extremely usef.ul, and frequently Indispensable, in controlling noise
through corridors from one room to another. If the noise level is reduced 3 db, the sound
level of speecham be redoced about the same amount - Thus the acoustical power expended in speaking can be reduced by a factor of 2.
The installation of acoustical materials in a room has the following beneficial effects:
(1) It reduces the reverberation time, usually several fold;

t2) It reduces the over-all noise level;

(3) It tends to localize noise to the region of its origin (a distant source is at-

tenuated relat'-vely more than one near-by). Since unexpected noises are particularly annoying, this reduction of remote sources.. of sound is especially
helpful.
(1) CALCULATION OF NOISE-LEVEL REDUCTION.
It follows from a consideration of equation

= 10 log 10 ~
A

where W

:s:::

+136 db

acoustical power output of the source in watts

= total absorption in sabins

L = sound pressure level

that, if the output of the sources of noise within a room remains constant, the
reduction of the noise level (of diffuse sound) due to the installation of absorptive material is given by
Noise reduction = 10 log 10
where: a8 tter

db

= total number of square-foot-units (sabins) of absorption in a room after treatment, and

abefore

""

total number of sabins of absorption in room before

treatment

Thus, if the absorption in a room is doubled, the average noise level will be
decreased by 3 db. The noise reduction equation above is expressed graphically in
this figure

162

I.
0

DECII:Ie L. R.l'.OLJCT:f(,)N

'I

!!

.I

I , rI 1I

...

r I I

'5

10

I \ J
1 1, ,

1 I 1
7

11

12

9 10

ABS~JOtPT! CJN AATIG ~AUr./<~aa?<Jaa

13

I I -rrtr
I .
1

II 1 1

zo

Since the absorption coefficient of acoustical materials and the pressure spectrum level of room noise both vary with frequency, the reduction will be different at different frequencies. However, to arrive at a single figure which is
somewhat representative of the noise-level reduction, it is customary to employ
nois~rreduction coefficients in such computations. The noise-reduction coefficients IN .R.C. ) of a material is the average. to the nearest multiple of 0.05, of the
absorption coefficients at 256, 512; 1024 and 2048 cycles.
As a numerical example, we shall compute the noise. reduction in an office 35 feet
by 49 feet by 10 feet ( 11 M x 15 M x 3 M) which results from the treatment of the
entire ceiling with a material having an N:R.C of 0.55. The un~eated ceiling and
walls have a plaster surface whose N. R.C. is 0.03; the floor has an N. R.C. of 0.04,
in addition, there are 39 sabins of absorption due to desks, chairs, and
miscellaneous items. Hence, the quantity abefore is computed as follows:

1715
1700

Floor
Walls
Miscellaneous
Ceiling
Total

1715

Units of
Absorption
in Square Feet

N.R.C.

Area in
Square feet
X

0.04

0.03

69

51

39

0.03

abefore

:;

51
210

If the ceiling is covered with a material having an N.R.C. of 0.55, the increase in
absorption is 1715 x 0.52 = 892 square-foot-units. Then, the value of eafter is
210 + 892 = 1102 square-foot-units. From the noise reduction equation

NR

= 10 Log 10

<~attar
8 betore

db

the noise reduction attributable to the installation of the acoustical material

would be approximately 7 db. The reverberation time would be reduced from
3.9 second to 0 .7 second.

163

! 2) Noise Reduction by Absorption

As described earl ier, the noise levels in a room are highest for a given source if
the room' s surfaces are primarily sound reflecting and lowest if there are large
areas of sound-absorbing materials. Sound-absorbing ceilings, floors, (carpets),
and walls (permanent treatment or curtains) keep spaces such as restaurants
relativefy qui~t. In the distant (reverberant) field of a noise source, the noise level
in most room is

IL

= PWL -

10 Log I::Sa + 6 db

IL

= PWL -

10 LogEA + 6 db

or

-.

Where:.
ESa

= EA
=

Total AJ?sorption in room, sabins

IL . ::: Intensity level, decibels

PWL

= Sound power level, decibels

Although increasing absorption decreases the noise level, t he level never is

reduced below the free field level for that distance from the source. (See the first
figure, principles of noise reduction, this chapter).
Noise reduction

= 1L1 -

IL 2

= Log EA2 - .2A1

NR =

I:A2

10Log --

I:A,

= absorption initial condition, sabins

= absorption final condition, sabins

1:

I
I

~
10'

_ _ _.._., Room 10 ft deep

(b )

( )

(c )

.;

..
164

"

. ~ .

Example;
.RefeJrjng to the abot~ figure, calculate the original noise level and the subsequent noise reduCtion by three steps of sound absorption treatment.

Solution:

(a) Original Condition: Painted Concrete Blo.ck Chamber

10

10

10ft.

Fan Power Level

= 88 db
At 2000 Hz = 78 db
At 500Hz

Absorption

500Hz
..2000Hz

Area
600 ft2
600 ft2

a
0.06
0.09

Total Absorption (!;Sa)

36 Sabins
54 Sabins

(see table in the next pages, coefficients of Absorption

Sound Pressure level before treatment

At 500Hz!
IL = Sound Power- 10 logESa + 6db
= 88 db - 10 log 36 + 6 db
= 88db.+ 15.6db + 6db
= 78.4 db

At 2000Hz:
ll =78 db- 10 log 54 i6:c.tb''
=78 db- 17.3 db + 6 db
=66.7db

Explanation:

Looking at the coefficients of absorption Table next page, under concrete block
painted refer to the 500 Hz at see the intersection. lt gives a = 0.06 then rt9ferring to
2000 Hz, it gives a = 0.09since the area is 600 ft2, 600 x 0.06 = 36 sabins and 600 x
0.09 = 54 sabins. The area 600 sq. ft. was taken as a total of six (6) sides 10ft x 10ft
""' 100 sq. ft. x 6 sides.

165

!b) Ceiling Treatment Only:

a""

0.82

Additional Absorption

= 100 (0,82

- 0.061

== 76 sabins
Ceiling is 10ft x 10 ft = 100 sq. ft.
NR
NR
At 2000 Hz:

= 10 Log
= 4.9 db

76

+ 36

36

= 0.94
100 (0.94 - 0.09)

Additional Absorption b.A :

NR

:::r:

10 log

NR

4.1 db

85

+ 54

54

(c) Ceiling and one-half wall treated

At 500Hz:
Addeo Absorption

= 300 (0.82

- 0.06)

= 228 sabins
total area of wall (from fig. b)
5 x 10
10 x 10

200 + 100
NR

50 x 4 walls
100 ceiling

= 200

= 300

= 10 log 22S xl6

36
= 8.7 db.

At 2000Hz:
Added absorption

= 300 (0.94 =

NR

= 10 log
;=:

166

0.09)

225 sabins

7.5 db.

225 + 54
54

= 85

(d) Ceiling and full wall treatment

AA

NR

Walling

= 10

100 x 4 walls

= 500 (0 .82 - 0.6)

= 380 sabins
= 101og :Bl+J6
36
= 10~6 db.

x 10 = 1 00

= 400 +

AA

NR

100 ceiling

= 500 sq. ft.

= 500 (0.94 = 425 sabins

0.09)

425 + 54

10 log

54

= 9.5 db.

Summary
IL
2000 H2
Bare Room
Ceiling Treated
One-half wall treatment
Full-wall treatment

78.4
- 4.9 db
- 8.7 db.
-10.6 db.

66.7
- 4.1 db.
- 7.5 db.
- 9.5 db.

We would conclude here that the third step is really not worthwhile, since only a negligible additional decibel of quieting is accomplished. This example is intended to indicate the
law of ~iminishing returns in_quieting by absorption. Starting wittl a live room, the initial
application is effective. Beyond and that, additional is quieting by absorption is not
economical, and the same outlay would be better applied in quieting the machine itself,
probably w ith a machine enclosure as indicated in frg. c.

167

Table 27.1 Comct.nls of Absorption-a

Complete tables ol coelflcients of the various materials that normally constitute the Interior finish of rooms may be found in t!'la various book1 on arcl'lilectural acoustics. The lotlowing short list will be uaelu! In melting aimple celculatlona. Items are arranged In alphabetical order.
Coellicienls

Generl 8vild<nf) Mattrials and Furnishings.:

Brick. unglaz~
~
Brick, unglaz~. pal~ted
Carpet, heavy,, on. COJicrile ;
Same. on 40-oi hairfelt odoam rubber
San1e. with lmp'trmea.ble latex backing on 40-l?z halrten
or foam rub~r
Concrete block. eoa;ae
Concrete ~lock, P.tniiKI ':
,,
Fabrics
.
Light velour. 10 OZ/sq yd,:hung etraighl, In contact with.
wall
Medium -velour, 14 oz/aq yd. draped to half area
Heavy velour. 18 oZ/sq yet, draped to hall are
FIOora
Concrete Ot terruio
Linoleum. uphill, rubber, _-or cork tile on cor~erele
Wood
Wood parqll&l In atphalt on concrete
Glass
Ltrge panej oi'heilvy plate glaa
Ordinary wlndO'!II glas.
GyP8um ~ard. 4in. nailed to 2 4's HI ln. o .c.
Marble
Gl-ad Tile
Openings
Stage, dependlng ~ furnfslringa
baiQooy. upi:IOistered
Grills. ventilating .
Pl81ter. gyll$i.tm or lime. amooth finish on tile or brick
Plaater, O)'PI!If'l ~ ltme. rough finish on lath
Safl'l8. ~llh $RlOOih llfl!h:
Plywood Paneling. I ln. lhidl.
Wster Surface. n In a swimming pool
Air, It~ per 1000 cu tl @ ~ RH
Rough woOd as tongue.and'.g roove cedar

or

125Hz

250Hz

500Hz

0.03
0,01
0..02
008

0 .03
0.01
0.06
0.24

0.03
0.02
0. 14
0.5 7

0.04
0.02
0.3 7
0 .69

0.05
0.02
0.60
0. 71

0.07
0 .03
0.65
0.73

0005
0.00
0.29
0.55

0.08
0.3&
0.-10

0.27
0.44
0.05

0.39
0.31
0.06

O.J4
0.29
0.07

0.48
0.39
0 .09

0 63
025
0.08

0.37
0.35

0.03
0.07
0. 14

0.04
0.31
0.35

0. 11
0.49
0.55

0. 7~

0.24
0.70

0.72

0 . 35
060
0.65

0. 15
O.S5
0.60

0 .01
0:02
0. 15
0.04

0.01
0.03
0.11
0.04

0.015
0.03
0.10
0.07

0.02.
0.03
0.07
0.06

0.02
0.03
0.06
0.06

O.Q2

0.00

o:o2
0.07
0 01

0.05
0. 10
0.05

0. 18
0.35
0.10
0.01

0.06
0.25
0.08
0.01

0.04
0. 18
0.05
0.01

0.03
0.12
0.03
0.01

0.02
0.07
0.03
0.02

002
0.04

00 5
0 15
0.05
0.00

0.015
0 . 10
0.10
0.22

0.25-0.75
0.50-100
0.1!$-0.50
0.02
0.03
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.06
0. 17
0.09
0.013
0.015
0.9
0. 14
0 .08

0.04

0 .05
0.03
0.03
011
0025
7.2
0.10

o"p

0.013

0 .14
0.14
0.28
0.008
0.2~

0 .008
.,0,19

1000Hz

0. 17

2000Hz

..

0.70

0.04
0.04
0.10
0.020
2.3
013

4000Hz

0. ~

0.02

NRC"

0.0~

005
005
0.05
0. 15
0 .00
0. 14

Note

{Continued)

Coelticirmts

Acoustic: .Absorptive Mararlals

Fiberglass Painted Ceiling Boards,d textured.

in. thick
i ln. thick
1 in. tllicl<

Random fissured. Jln.

: Pet forated, 8in.
F.iber.l )laas Gla1os .cloth Ce~ing Board''
Nu~~, i in. INCI<
1 in. lllictt
Flbergi~Sil prelinished ceiling li.l e4
l ln. .thick

....

CelotoJt Minaraf Fiber Tile"

Niuural ti&sured i in. thick (Fig. 27. lOa)
Textured tin. thick (Fig. 27 10111
Plaid design i ln. thick (Fig. 27.10c)
LeBaron design, 1n. thick. (Fig . 27.1Od)
Strlaled design.l in thick, (Fig. 27.10e)
Perfo~ated layln panel I in. thick (Fig . 27.10f)

AautJfJfh
enamelt~d,

250Hz

500Hz

NRC

Note

0.68
0.66
0.69
064
0. 71

088
0 .85
0.91
0.82
0.89

0.70
0.72
0.79
0.68
0.68

0 .91
0 .94
0.99
0.86
0.90

0.97
0.99
099
0.83
0.96

0.93
0.98
0.99
0 57
O!Jtl

0.85
0.90
0.90

0.75
0 68

0.91
0.93

0. 70
0. 77

0.93
0.99

0.99
0.99

0.99
0.99

0.90
0 .90

0.70

0.83

0.62

0.78

0.91

0.92

080

0.47
0 .49

0.49
055

0.!;1
0.53

0.75
0.80

0.86
0.9-4

0.80
0.83

0.53

0.65
0 70
0 70
0.70
0.70
055

lh ln.

1000Hz

2000Hz

4000Hz

0 .80

0. 85

0.27

026

(U52

0.75

0.68

0.25
0.28
0.28

0.29
0.32
036

0.60
0.65
0.65

0 .83
0.73
0.62

0.71
0.73
0.44

0.53
0:75
0.33

0.60
060
0.50

060
0 56

0.65
0.51

0.49
0.<49

0. 71
066

0.73
O.f\0

0.51
0 31

065
OtiO

0.59
0 63

0.85
0 .84

0.88
086

0 .99
0.99

0.97
099

0.79
0.9 1

0.90
0/0

0.32

0.60

1.43

2.36

2.32

2.41

1.6 8

Go! Bone!, National Gypum1 Mineral f iber Tiles and

Panels
" Fire Shiell!" SohtU<Ie PAinels . .washable acrylic fin1sh .
Perroraolsd i ill. thick
Fissured i in. thick
Textured in. thick
Perforated Asbestos Panels. 1 in. thiCk
i.inilorm'
"Acoul>lunbl&l" portoruted metal panel ,
thick
Square paUern
01agonal patlern
"Te ctum" Sound Blocks
3 ln . th1ck ~ 15l in. sQ<Jare

12S Hz

:l

Table 27..1 Coefllclenls of Absorption-o(Contlnued)

---

---------- -------------- ----- -- -- -- -

Valves given are in sabina per square foot of seeting aree or per unit
Absorption of Sasur and A vcti6nce
125Hz
250Hz
5()() Hz
I()()() Hz
---Audience, seated in upholstered seata, per sq It ot lloor
0.00
O.H
0.88
0.96

area
Unoccupied cloth-coverad vP~stered seats, per sq It of
lloor area
Unoccupied leather-covered upholstered seats. per sq It of
floor area
Wooden Pewll, occupied, per sq fl o f floor area
Chairs. mtlal or wood seats. each, unoccupied
Stud&nts In tablet-arm chairs

-- -2000Hz

400() Hz

0.9J

0.85

0.49

0 .66

0.80

0.88

0.82

0.70

0.44

0.54

0.80

0.62

0.58

0.50

0 .57
0.15
0.30

0.61
0.19
0.42

0.75

086
0.39
0.85

0.91
0.38
0.85

086
0.30
0.84

0.22

0.50

l'lolae Reduction Coetrlclentls the aritl>melic average of the" values at 250, 500, 1000. and 2000Hz .
tn~~talled In hung calling with at least 16 ln. to slab.
CUpped or glued to wall; minimum 24 ln. O.C.
courtesy of Owens-Corning Fiberglas.
courteay ol Celotex .Jirn Walter Co.
1 C0urtny ol Gold Bond/ l'lalional Gypaum.
When the..audiem::e Ia randomly spaced, U$e an average of 5.0 sablns per person.

Nne

HOI"

Absorption Recommendations
To summarize the above discussion, absorption techniques are useful and effective:
a. TQ change room reverberation characteristics.
b. In spaces with distributed noise sources such as offices, schools, restaurants,
and machine shops.
c. In spaces with a hard surface and little absorptive content.
d. Where listeners are in the reverberant field. (no amount absorptive material can
reduce intensity levels in the direct field)
Concentrated noise sources are better handled by individual equipment enclosures than
by room treatment, since enclosures reduce direct field noise which, as stated above,
room surface treatment cannot do. Typical application recommendations are given in the
following table.

171

Table 27.2 Typical Recommended Acoustical Treatments

Acoustic/

AcoiJstical

MStfJTiiJI

Tilfl

Size and Form

Acou$trcat
Ptlfster

Squ~re lites 12 ln. x 12 in.;

some up to 48 in. x 96 in. Roof
deck 2 II x 8 11-thickness most
common is in. & J in.

12 in. x 24 '1n. up to
24 in. x 120 in. Thockness is
controlled b)' acoustical pad
backing. Either paper-wrapped
mineral wool or cut or roll glas-s
tiher Unil!l run 2 in. to 3 in.
total thicknes5.

A pl.~st~r-liko mater.ial ot special

ti br ous or partir.ulate aggregate
~ in. to 1! in thick

A!:he~tos fih~r!< !lptayN! with

binder- t in to 3 in thick.

Wide variety of perforated. textured. and sculptured surfaces

with while. painted. vinyl, and
glass cloth finishe,.

Baked-enamel finish usu3lly

white. but available in color.
pe>lorated or slotled.

Fine-grain white texture, but

may be ~pray painted.

Rougher grained than acour,tical plaster. has de~>p le~ture

lind can b" readily r.olored

Adhesive. nailing. or stapling to

Attached to metal supports

nailed to wood furring or hung
in a proprietary metal suspension system.

1 rowel or spray.

Sprayed on solid surfaces or

Immediately on metal 13th.

Sur lace

Method of lnstatlalion

....

wood furring; lay-in grids; concealed spline-grid.

Sprayed Mmerel

Mettti-Fsced
Acoustical Units

A~l>l>M(>S

Major Area of Application

All interior applications. Check

specifications for application in
high-humidity areas.

AU i"terior applicatio~os. Cher.k

specilh;ations for application in
highhumldlly areas.

Most interior appticlltoons. Especially useful for large curved

surfaces. Not satisfactory In
high humidity.

Archltechlfal anc u<tuslti;tl

areas where combmed .fireproofing aM sound absorption
are det.ired or .ich texture i'l
required.

Advantages

Provide widest rnnge of finishes

in l'ligh-absorphon units. Mineral
tiber Iiies 11re rated incombustl
ble. lay-ih units provide lilCcess
to plenum above.

Incombustible. Easily maintained. Can be washed or

painted; repiRcemenl units will
millch original lob. Permits easy
access to plenum.

Rapid, low-cost'ins:tallalion on
large irregular
curved surlace. Fine-grain te~lure. lncom-
bu$libfeC~tl ht> !IPPiiod with
(or as part of) liie protection.

Richly textut'ed 'surface. Incombustible. Can be included as

part of lire-proofing or lherm~.
ln$r.olation

Limitations

Allows ttansmission oi sound

over partition In hung ceiling
unless selected for high-attenuation !actor.

Allows transmission ot sound

over partition in hung ceiling
wless backed by Impervious
layer.

Ea$ily abused Oi!lic'ult to match

finish in patching or repairing.
Does not always perform as ~d
vertised. Pft!lorll'laqpe limited to
high-hequeotcy IIDltQrptlon.
Dusty in application.

Easily allu~P.rl. Otllicult to match

patr.hed areas to original. Dusty
In aropticlltion.

or

ACOUStioll
M11teri111

-----SIZII 11nd Form

Acoustic&/
Form Board

Unil Sound
Absorbets

------------Sizes and lhlcxneaa vary to lit

From 12 in. x 12 ln. x a in. units

Carpeting

Drapery

Slied or seamed to lit any ttoor

or wall area.

- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -----'.:.:or. walt application.

12 ln. x 12 ln. units In smooth to
" Shredded Wheat" or IJITIOOth
Surlaee
rough surf1ce. Bafflas Ire vlnyt
pattern.
wrapped.

Acoustically transparent fabrics

ranging from opaque velours to
transparent/ translucent glass
fibers.

Cut, lo>J)8d, or combination to

acni41vu any degree ol " luning."

Velveteen to boucle (rough).

Method of lnatellallon

Units may be applied using special wall ciiPI. pendente (ceiling

only). or IOheeiYe. Baffles are
wife supported.

According to structural design

(floor and roof alat. only). Adhesive or mechanical appllcetion on walll.

Tacking (floor only) or adhealve.

According to function and

thetics.

Major Aree ol Application

12 Itt lC 12 ln. unlta ere usefUl In

eH Interior araaa. B aflies In
industrlll areu.

Floor and root decks whetever

appliceble. W.. aurfacea In
moat interior epacea.

Floors and walls.

Window or opaque wall areas

~no mom divtd!lrS.

Advantage~

Permit mllCimum flexibility.

Hung unlhl edd aound absorption wl.novt r.quirlng loWering
lgllta 01 sprink l haada.

Combines form board with thermal Insulation and acouticll

absorption.

Ptovldea a relative degree of

mid- and high-frequency absorption and luxurious appeal.

Provides a relative degree of

overall sound absorptton and
lul(urious appeal

Umitations

Each application must be designed Individually.

Not advisable tor hlghhumldlly

Acoustical abso rption increases

with pile height, pad. and fiber
density.

with Iabrie density percent. fold

to 24 in. x 48 ln. plastic coaled

glass fiber baftlaa.

.....

structural requirements (floor

and roof slaba only) 1 to 2lln.

areu.

aes-

Acoustical absorption increase-,

when drawn. and air space be
t\ind .

Sourca Reprinted with permission of the authors. From Goodfriend and Sulewsky, ''A Guida to Acoustic Materlab.'' Archffflctur.J llhd Engineering News. February 1970.

REDUCTION OF SOLIDBORNE NOISE

The means of transmission and suppression of Solid-borne sound are considerably different from those of air-borne sound. Solid-borne noise usually originates from impacts or
machinery vibration; for example the "hammering" of a water pipe, the dragging of a
chair across an uncarpeted floor, or the shaking of an electric refrigerator caused by the
unbalance of its motor. Here, the amounts of instantaneous vibratory power involved are
tremendoU$ co~ared with those of the usual sources of air-borne noise. For this reason,
and beca~e vibration is communicated t hrough continuous structures with linle at, tenuation, it-often is t ransmitted great distances in a building. Hence, solid-borne noise
sl"!ouldbe suppressed at its source wherever it is practical to do so.
M~asures

fo.f.accomplishing this include the use of: heavy carpeting, cork t ile or linoleum
- on - felt to reduce impact transmission to the floor; a segment of flexible metallic or
~ubber hose, in a 'pipe to lessen the propagation of impulses along it; flexible mountings
for 010tor and other types of machinery to suppress the communication of vibration to
the floor; and a short section of canvas in a ventilation duct to prevent the passage of
vibration alongthe duct.
-One vibration is transferred to a solid building structure, such as concrete slab, it t ravels
through the structure with a speed of about ten times that of sound in air. If it reaches a
flexible partition, a floor, or a wall, the vibration may force the partition into oscillation,
and annoying sounds may then be radiated . The efficiency of radiation depends on the
ratio of the dimensions of the partition to the wavelength of the sound (the greater this
ratio, the greater the efficiency) and on the internal damping of the partition. For these
reasons, a panel that is subject to vibration is sometimes cross-braced to divide it into
smafler areas,and damping material (pugging or "dum-dum") may be applied to one side
of the panel.
Although massive. rigid partitions (for example, concrete walls) provide effective insulation against air-borne noise, they offer poor protection against solid-borne vibration. On
the other hand, ~rous materials such as blankets, which are relatively poor insulators of
air-borne sound, can be used in such a way as to present an effective barrier against the
transmission of ~olid-borne vibration. The most effective type of structure for prevention
9.f propagation of solid-borne noise is that of ''discontinuous construction" whereby the
transmisSion path is severed or contains marked discontinuities in density and elasticity.
This type of construction and other means of protection against solid-borne noise are
discussed herein below.

. ..

: . ~: ... ~...
~~:

Floors an<tCeilings
....._,
.

' 1~

we"desi~ned ..systerris.. must. P._rovide adequat~~iYtsulation ~t' -~ air-borne and

soiKI-borne noise. A co_nstruction that is excelleril tor one ma"t.pepoq,F,~ the other. For
example, a bare concret~ stal) 1 foot {0.30 m) thtol.t~s a hi~iir.ant~ion loss for air
borne sound, yet~t propagates ~mpacts readily. llrlPf/jl:tr._mll-r-be pre~ed from impart .. ing much ene_rgy1D a1\oorof their transmission thr~tructu,..'- to be suppressed . This can.be Qeconiplishi!d py.means of a resilient--~tn~f such asbarpet or cork tile
..

._

176

, .

'i!irt.. ~

...

....... . ...

~'
~

which will absorb some of ttle impaGt. Since .the portion of the vibratory energy communicated to the floor will be propagated with little attenuation unless there are structural breaks or diScontinuit ies the construction, staggered joist construction is superior
to ordin:ary joist con~truction . '
.

in

For a floor and ceiling partitions using 2" x 6" to 2" x 8" joists with subflooring and gypsum ptaster on metal lath for ceiling the average cycle from 128-4096, the transmission
loss TL = 38 for a 2" x 8'' at 16" o.c. floor joist with subfloor then a top flooring of
wood, one ceiling consisting of %" plaster on %" fiberboard lath nexno joists; and an
additional plaster and fiberboard lath ceiling on 2" x 2" joist s suspended by screw eyes
and Wire loops 36 " O.C. 4 " below upper ceiling 5~' X 5" X 2" fiberboard block pads at
fastenings the transmission loss TL = 56 ,
If a sound level in a room due to a continuous series of impacts on a concrete floor above
is 50 db. Then, if carpet on that concrete .slab reduces the revel of noise In the room to 45
db, the impact-noise reductiords said to be 5 db. The two tables below givP. the ratings of
a number of floor constructions laid on a concrete slab, compared with the rating of the
conc.rete slab itself.

IMPACT-NOISE REDUCTION FOR CONCRETE FLOOR~

Impact Noise Transmitted to Room beneath Various Concrete Floor

Constructions Compared wfth That for the Bare Concrete Slab
(R. Undahl and H. J. Sabine)
lmpKt-NoiM
Reduction .
In Decibels

Nan- of Aoor Con~ Laid on

Concrete

:,,

None (bare concrete)

A sphalt tile (5/32-inch)
Asphalt saturated felt ( 1/8 -inchl
Rubber tile (3/16-inchl
Heavy carpet (no pad)
Linoleum (3/16-inch) on felt
Asphalt-saturated fiberboard
( 1/2-inch)
.. HardbQ~rd (3/ 16-inchl over frberboard (1/4.-inchl
Wood floor (3/4-inch) on sle~pers
(2-inch by 3-inch)
. Cork tile ( 1/2-inch) .
Wood floor (J/4-inch) on sleepers
(2-inch by 3-inchl
Cork tile {1/2-inch)
Wood floor (3/4-inch) on sleepers
(2-inch by 3-inch), rock-wool fill

1n

Comment of

Obse~

10
12

Bad
Nearly as bad
Nearly as bad
Better than concrete
Good
As good as carpet

12

As good as carpet

17

Better than carpet

19

Very quiet
Very quiet

0
0
2

20

19
20
20

Very quiet
Very quiet
About same as construetion without rock wool

IMPACT -NOISE REDUCTION FOR CONCRETE FLOORS

Impact Noise T1ansmitted to Room beneath Various Concrete Floor
Constructions Compared with That for the Bare Concrete Slab
(Building Research Station at Garston)
lmpeet-Nolse

Natwe of Aoor Construction laid on ConCfete Slab

Reduction
in Decibels *

None (bare concrete)

Carpets, etc.:
linoleum (1/Sinch) and linoleum (1/8-inch) on roofing felt
Wood blocks. thin carpet, rubber
Carpet (1/8-inch) on underfelt (1/8-inch}, hard rubber-cork
composition ( Y.. -inch)
Sheet rubber ( 1/1 6-inch) on sponge rubber ( Y.. inch)
Screeds (concrete slab), 2-inch, on following underlays:
Clinker
Granulated cork ( 1 -inch)
Slag-wool quilt or eelgrass quilt
Glass-silk quilt, single-layer. or eelgrass quilt. double-layer
Glass-silk quilt, double-layer
Boarding on battens on following underlays:
Clips
Asbestos pads or felt pads ( Y.t -inch)
Fiberboard pads ( Y.t -inch)
Felt pads 11-inch) or rubber pads (%-inch)
Eelgrass quilt or slag-wool quilt ( Y.t -inch}
Glass-silk quilt or rubber pads ( Y2 -inch)
Suspended ceilings:
Plaster ( Y. -inch) on fiberboard ( Y2inch) on battens in clips
12-inch by 2-inchl
Plaster (3/8-inch) on plasterboard 13/8-inchl on battens in feltlined clips

5
5-10
10
20

5-10
10-15
15-20
20
25
5-10
5-10
10
1015
1020
15-20

5-10
10-15

Frequency-weighled soundpressure level, averaged to the nearest 5 db.

In table (c) is given the impact-noise reduction for wood floors; a normal board and joist
floor. together with a lath and plaster ceiling, is used as a basis of comparison. The addition of 20 pounds per square foot of sand or ashes improves the impact-noise reduction
by 10 db. The reason is that the whole floor being of light weight, tends to vibrate under
impact. Increasing the mass of the structure reduces this tendency. The added material
also increases the damping of the structure.

178

IMPACT -NOISE REDUCTION FOR WOOD JOIST CONSTRUCTION

Impact Noise Transmitted to Room beneath Various Wood Aoor Construction

Compared with That for an Ordinary Board and Joist Floor, Lath and Plaster
Ceiling
(Building Research Station at Garston)
Impact-Noise
Reduction
in Decibels

Nature of Floor Construction

Normal board and joist floor, lath and plaster ceiling

Plaster on plaster board ceiling
Pugging (sand or ashes , 10 lb per sq ft , or slag wool . 2 lb per sq

0
0

ft)

5
5
5
5
10
10
10

Separate joists to carry ceiling

Floor boards on cross battens on glass-silk quilt, not nailed
floor boards on fiberboard, on sub-boarding
Floor boards on glass-silk quilt, on sub-boarding
Sand or ashes, 20 lb per sq ft
Carpet on underfelt
Frequenc y-weighted sound-pressure level, averaged to the nearest 5 db.

If good isolation against impacts is to be obtained, the ceiling should not be rigidly connected to the floor joists. If the ceiling is carried independent joists, as in the figure
below, the impact-noise reduction

1/2 FINISH

FLOOR
1 SUBFLOOR
i''/.10" f1-(X)R JOISTS

PAPER- COVERED
ABSORPT1VE
BLANKE'T
2")( 6 IJ FALSE
CElUNG JOiST

FALSE CEILING

will be improved by at least 5 db. (The principal benefit of the addition of a paper covered ab
sorptive blanket, as shown, is in the reduction of air-borne sounds). Resilient clips provide a
convenient means for attaining good isolation between a ceiling and the structural floor from
which it is hung. A method for suspending acoustical tile ceilings is illustrated on the next
page. Similar methods are effective also for suspending ordinary lath and plaster ceilings.

179

~rum:

IIUCIIMfl'll '

CONCEI'tl..ED P lBEI". Srt..II!E

AT' 1NTER51:!CTI! IO <'::OR.tJER:l
KEP.t' fJN TWO OP~JS I're EPGe.S

Consideration must be given to the floor surface in the acoustical design of a floor construction. It is frequently impOrtant to choose a wearing surface such that impacts
against it will be muffled and this will generate little noise in the room where they are produced. The benefits resulting from the use of carpeting in the aisles and lobby of an
auditorium have already been stressed in the chapter VI (Acoustical design of rooms!.
The "Relative Noisiness" values of a number of floor surfaces are iisted in the table
below.

Loss in Decibels
Age Group

Frequency

800

1760

3620

cycles

cycles

cycles

Men
Women

0.6
0.6

0.6
0.4

1.8
0.3

20-29
Men
Women

0.1
0.4

0.3
0.3

2.7
0.7

0.3

0.6

1.2

0.8

6.0
1.6

1.4

2.6
1.5

16.0

2.1

2.6
4.0

6.0
4.0

27.0
7.0

10-19

30-39
Men
Women

40-49
Men
Women

3.0

60-59
Men
Women

180

1. FLOATING FlOORS
The isolation provided by a floor system against mechanical impact can be greatly im proved by the use of a 'floating" floor which rests on the structural floor but is separated
from it by a resilient support or quilt. as in the following figures below.

1" FINlSH FLOOR

~~~~tar-~~,BER.~

r Slm.FLOOR
- -rx 10' Ft.~ JOIS1S

==:;~~;;;:-;;==
-- 2"Xo~SE CEUN6
~CEIL.lNB

ca)

Not only is the .impact - noise reduction improved by such floating floors, but also the
transmission loss for air-borne sound is increased slightly, In choosing a resilient support
for a floating floor, one must consider the safe amount of loading the support can withstand without being compressed to the extent that its resilience is practically lost. In
general, the most s<;~tisfactory materials are very resifient !"springy"), and they. return to
their initial condition when the load is removed. Slab cork, granulated corK, rubber, fiberboard, felt, wood-wool and certain types of mineral-wool blankets are among the
available materials that meet these requirements.

181

Flexible steel supports and clips are less subject to defects. The effectiveness of a
floating floor system is dependent on the extent of isolation provided by the resilient supports between the floated finish floor and structural floor. Care should be taken that this
isolation. is not "shorted" by nails or by solid connections anywhere-including the functions between the floating floor and the walls. Thus in the figure (c) p. 181 a resilient
blanket is laid on a sub-floor; the finish floor is nailed to sleepers which rest on the
blanket. The sleepers must not be rigidly connected to the subfloor; they should float on
the blanket or be fastened by resilient chairs. see figure.

The blanket should have a paper, or similar, covering on at least one side to improve the
insulation against air-borne sounds.
For isolation of heavy impacts. wood floor constructions are very poor . Since they are
relatively light, the whole floor easily cari be set into vibration. The floor construction
shown in the figure below is a superior one. For example, a resilient quilt is laid on a concrete supporting floor; a concrete slab 2 inches thick is then poured directly on the
blanket.

182

Control of Impact Noise

Impact noise problems can be controlled in t wo ways.
( 1l By p reventing or minimizing the impact, and
(2) By attenuating it once it has occured.

II

A. CUSHION

9. FLOO FLOOR

fM~

C.

S'USPEND CEIUNia

E.
183

ISOLATE .AND SEAL

PtPlN6 ~ ETC .

(a) Cushion the Impact

This obvious solution will frequently eliminate all but severe problems. The resilient
materials in common use are floor tiles of vinyl, cork, rubber, or carpeting on pads.

(b) Float the Floor

Since the key to e~minatio n of structure-borne sound is isolat ion, separating the impacted floor from the structural floor by a resilient element is extremely effective. This
element can be rubber or mineral wool pads. or blankets or special spring metal sleepers.
Its effectiveness depends on the mass of the floating floor. compliance of the resilient
support, and degree isciiation of the floating floo(. This last element is e,-ctremely important, since flanking paths via end contacts with walls can short-circuit ttle floating
elements sound impedance and defeat the system. With floating floors it is important
that:

ctf

1 . Mass of the floating floor be large enough to properly spread the loads. Otherwise, the pad will compress and deform sufficientty to transmit the impact.
2. Total construction must be airtight. Airtight is soundtight.
3. Particular care be exercised where partitions rest on the floating floor.

Caution must be exercised when supporting partitions on floating floors to prevent

structural failures or short Circuiting of the floating element, as illustrated.
For proper installation of floating floors and partition walls see other illustrations of
such constructions in this chapter.

184

4. Short circuits at walls or by penetrations be avoided.

JC)T(

tt(-;,""('tf WAf~

~.. (Co$(~

''-''"''lit'

FLOATING
FLOOR

FLOATING
FLOOR

RESILIENT
MATERIAL

RESILIENT
MATERIAL

WOOD OR FIBER
SPACER ANO
SERVICE

LEVELING SCREED
OR
CONCRETE FILL
STRUCTURAL SLAB

_I
(a)

FLOOR BOX

TWO SlEEVES ARE REQUIREO

TO PASS PIPE, ETC. THROUGH
FLOATING FLOOR

PENETFIATIONS OF FLOATING
FLOORS MUST NOT "SHORT OUT"
THE RESILIENT LAYER

(b)

SHORT CIRCUIT

(c)

185

5. Construction throughout must be consistent. Mixed-construction types invite

flanking noise paths.

FAMlLY ROOM

BATH

RESILIENT

FLOA11NG
FLOOR

TIE RODS

HANGERS

(c) Suspend the Ceiling -and use

Ab~orber

In Cavity

As stated, the most disturbing noise is radiated down from the ceiling. A flexibty
suspended ceiling with an acoustic absorbent layer suspended in it can be very effective
if not flanked by paths leading into the walls and from there reradiating into the space
below. It is imperative that the entire floor slab above be decoupled from the walls below
by resilient separators.

186

(d)

Isolate .. Piping

All rigid structures such as piping must be isolated so as not to form a flanking path, and
caulked with resilient sealing so as not to constitute an air-sound leak. (see last fig.
above)

Mechanical System
Noise Control
Mechanical Noise Sources

Mechanical devices obviousJy make noise. And, g.,nerally, the more power they consume the more noise they make. In many of today's buildings, 40% ol the total cost is spent 1
on mechanical systems. These systems are located throughout a buifding.
In most buildings, the primary sources of mechanical noise are the components of the airconditioning and air handling systems such as fans, compressors, cooling towers. condensefs, ductwork, dampers, mixing boxes, induction units, and diffusers.
Pumps are another source of mechanij:al noise. Pump noise is frequently transmitted
along pipes to remote points. Pumps for water-pressure boost systems may.be located
outside of mechanical rooms and be overlooked until problems occur in the completed
building.

Elevators, escalators, and freight elevators also introduce mechanical noise into the building.
Escalators and freight elevators pose few problems, since they are localized in a specific
area and have low operation speeds. However, elevator-car operation is rapid and it affects large areas . In addition, the motors and switchgear are located on or above the
prime upper fiOOfs of a building. Motor, shaftway, and switching noise must be properly
controlled to prevent annoyance to building tenants located near the shaftways or
mechanical penthouses. Vibration isolation of these major components is a specialized
problem.

Quieting of Machines
Machines cause noise by vibration. This noise is imparted directly to the surrounding air
and by vibrational contact to the surrounding structure. Therefore, there are three ways
to reduce this noise:
(a) Reduce the vibrat.ion itself.
(b) Reduce the air-borne noise by decoupfing the vibration from efficient radiating
sources.
lc} Decouple the vibrating source from the structure.

187

Cabinet

Machine
Chassis

1. Install motors, pumps, tans, etc. on most massive part of the machine .

2. Install such components on resifient mounts or vibration isolators . ..

3. Use belt diive or roller drive systems in pl~e of gear trains.
4. Use flexible hoses
and
and
stiff wiring.
. .
. wiring instead of rigid piping
.
.
~. Apply vibration damping materials to surfaces undergoing most vibration.

6. Install acoustical lining to reduce noise buildup inside machine.

7. Minimize mechanical contact between the cabinet and the machine chassis.
8. Seal openings at the base and other parts of the cabinet to prevent noise
leakage.

Referring to the,figure above, items 1, 3, and 4 reduce vibration; items 4,5,6, and 7
reduce and decouple the vibration from the radiating cabinet and items 2 and 8 decouple
the vibrating source from the structure.

188

VIBRATION REDUCTION takes two forms, damping and isolation . DAMPING is accomplished by rigidly coupling the vibrating source to a large mass, frequently called an inertia block. Much of the energy is absorbed and dissipated as friction; the ramainder results
in lower-amplitude vibration. See figure below

SOUND ABSORBENT IN

ISOLATION is accomplished by supporting the vibrating mass on resilient supports.

These take many forms and are used in tandem . Thus, machines are supported on fibrous
rubber, or spring steel vibration isolators, and the entire mass can be_supported on a
floating f loor, which in return rests on resilient vibration isolators as in the above figure.
Large machines are supported as special commercial "sandwiches" of asbestos, lead,
cork, and other strong resilient materials. Piping is supported on cork pads and hung on
resilient hangers. Machines with a dominant vibrational frequency can have special
springs designed to give maximum isolation and damping at that frequency. Massive
machines and impacting devices use huge inertia .blocks antj even separate foundations
to isolate their vibration.

189

The recent emphasis on emergency electric generators has caused a serious noise and
vibration problem due to the large mass and extremely high noise levels. For such units
complete enclosures are frequently the best approach. (see figure below) Flexible joints
in all pipes and ducts connected to vibrating machines and mandatory. This includes flexible conduit connectors to all motors, transformers, and lighting fixtures using ballasts.

OCTAVE- BAND ANALYSIS

OF NOISE
oOo,r---------------------------~

RIGID, SEALED ENCLOSURE

OIIIGI .. AL

--- ____ ....

_ ....

30~-------------------------J
ZO
TS
1!10
lOO 600 1200 2400 4100
1S

1~

100

100 1100 2400 41100 HOO

FREQUENCY BAND
IOQr---------------------------~

IQ '10
'0

----

___ ORU:t'NAL

.:.,ao

--------"'

~7~
1/J

..JIO
0

Z''O

ot

(040

)0~--------------------------~
20
TS
o!IO
~
600 1200 2400 4100
.,,

so

lOa

6oo 2oo l400 "4!oo 9600

FREQUENCY BAND

AC0.J$TICA'- AISOIIItiiG MAT(IIIIAL

oo r-----..;_________________.....

\~~~~~~~

@'lo

- _ OlloGIIIAl

_ _ _ ____ , .... ,.

---------

~.0
1/J

>ro

LIJ

..JIO

~so
c(
coo

10~------------------------~
zo TS 50 lOO 600 ozoo zoo 4800
''

100

I!!D

600 12.JO 2400 41100 9600

F'REOUENCY BAND

QOr-------------------------~

@o

..:..,0

LIJ

~70
.J

o'o
~so
(II

40

50~---------~a-------------~
zo 7S oS) lOO 600 o200 2400 4800
7~

I S)

,00

400

~.>0

2400 4e00 HOO

F'REOUENCY BAND

190

The important aspect of thi~ illustration is that each of the individual sound attenuation
techniques is insufficient of itself, and only a combination of i~tion and absorption will
pgrform the requisite qu ieting. The last step - double isolation - is only required w ith very
high noise levels or every ~ow background noise requirements.

PUMPS, as with all rotating equipment are sources of vibration and noise and should be
t reated as described above. The figure below shows a typical pump installation with appropriate noise reduction measures. For at least a distance of 100 pipe diameters beyond
the pump resilient pipe hanger~ should be used. With centrifugal pumps as with fan and
blowers, machine sound concentrates in narrow bands and , if extremely disturbing, can
be attenuated with resonant filters. Reciprocating pumps are more difficult to control as
the pulsations are more vibration than noise. Flexible connections in the piping and
U-joints in the piping will absorb much of this vibration.

Typical pump in.stallatWn with appropriate i.tolation and damping

191

meam~.

Building Siting
As important as interior structural design is building siting vis-a-vis exterior noise
sources. Buildings should be sited, with respect to noise sources:

(al To use natural t8f"rain noise barriers.

NOT THIS

THIS

(bl With respect to trees as noise barriers, rely only on thick wooded areas.

A THICI( GROWTH OF LEAFY TREES AND

UNDERBRUSH REDUCES NOISE ABOUT
6 to 7 DB/100 FT (AVERAGE OVER.
AUDIBLE .FREQ. RANGEl
LOW-fREQ. LOSS: 3-<e dB
HIGH-FREO. LOSS; 10-12 dB

HIGH FREO. REDUCTION 3-l d8

SINGLE ROW OF TREES IS WORTHLESS
AS NOISE BARRI ER. DUE TO INTER-REFLECTION
MULTI- ROWS Of TREES Aft MORE EFFECTIVE

192

(c) To avoid naturally poor sites .

AVOID HOLLOWS OR DSPRESSIONS..

THEY ARE GENERALLY NOISIER THAN
FLAT OPEN LAND.

(d) To avoid sound -reflection from other builbings.

TRAffiC ARTeRIES 8EllNEEN

TALL BUILDINGS ARE
QUITE NOISY.

BUilDING SITES IN OPEN

AREAS ARE LESS NOISY
THAN SITES IN CONGESTED
BUILDING AREAS

193

factor (d) is also import ant in a multiwing building; in avoiding U-shapes or

other configurations where a central court becomes an echo chamber.

Room Arrangement

Where avoidance of an exterior noise source is impossible. quiet zones can be buffered
from the noise by placing higher-noise areas on the noisy side of the building. Thus. in a
school, classrooms and offices can be buf fered by a cafeteria and gym. In a residence
bedrooms by living rooms and corridors, in an office building, private offices by noisier
clerical offices and so on.

arm
.

NOISE .-"

., ,.

......~
J

-..... _- ......

....J

c:NIDI"tt-----
...

<
.:1:

CAFE'ERIA

194

CLASSROOM

AUDITORIUM DESIGN
This is a general term used to describe a space where people sit and listen to speech or
music. A large lecture hall, a multipurpose space, and a concert hall are auditoriums.
(Sometimes they call a gymnasium being used as an auditorium a GYMNATORIUM).
Before beginning design of an auditorium, its potential use must be determined. If planned activities range from lectures to symphony orchestra concerts, the design approach
for acoustics will differ, significantly, from a design approach for a space that would
house only one of these activities. Therefore, the first step in the acoustical and architectural design must be determining the program. If the program for the auditorium includes activities that need different acoustical environments, it must be decided early
whether the acoustics will be a compromise between the program extremes or adjustable
for various activities. Acoustical environments can be altered by changing volume,
moving reflecting surfaces, and adding or subtracting sound absorbing treatment.

Ad;ustable
acoustic elements in an
auditorium.

FACTORS that influence the acoustical design include audience size, range of performance activities, and sophistication of the potential audience. Obviously, an acoustical
good 1200-seat theater is more difficult to design.:than an acoustically good 400-seat
theater. In addition, the caliber of performance production and audience expectations are
important design considerations. For example, a small school auditorium and a profes
sional theater will have widely divergent demands from both audience and performers.
Acoustical design of an auditorium includes room acoustics, noise control, and sound
system design.

196

Room Acoustics
The audience size determines the basic floor area of an auditorium. Once this area has
been fixed, the volume of the room is developed according to reverberation requirements
of the space.

Sound transparent wall surface

covenng adjustable wrta.ns

..

Section

Plan

Auditorium u;ith surface treatments for controlof reflections and reverberation.

The figure above shows a typical auditorium in plan and section. The shape of wall and
ceiling surface is developed to give proper distribution of sound and eliminate focusing or
echoes. Essential characteristics of the design include:
1 . Ceiling and side walls at the front of the auditorium distribute sound to the audience. These surfaces must be close enough to the performers to minimize
time delay between natural sound and reflecting sound.
2. Ceiling and side walls provide diffusion.
Acoustics must be considered in selection of materials used in an auditorium. Both
sound-reflecting and sound absorbing materials will be found in all auditoriums. Since the
largest area of sound-absorbing material in any auditorium is the audience, the difference
in acoustical characteristics that occur without an audience may be minimized by using
fully upholstered seating.
Chairs with fully upholstered seats and backs, covered in an open-weave material, will
have absorption characteristics closely approximating an audience. Using the auditorium
in the above figure as an example, the reverberation characteristics of an auditorium with
various materials may be examined. In the (first) example, the room use is assumed to be
for music performance. The only sound absorption is that provided by the audience and
seating. In the (second) set of calculations absorptive cunains were installed along the
rear wall and a portion of the side wall. This configuration might be used for lectures in a
room that is adjustable between speech and music configuration. A (third) configuration
might use permanent sound-absorbing treatment installed on the ceiling and rear and
side walls. Because of its low reverberation time. This configuration would be appropriate only for movies and lectures, not for music activities.
These simple examples indicate the effect of changes in the amount of absorption on the
characteristics of a room. Adjustable t:-eatments permit the characteristics of the room to
be modified to any point between the extremes to meet the program acoustic requirements of a multipurpose hall.

197

Existing spaces may require remedial treatment to eliminate unwanted phenomena such
as focusing and echoes, as shown in the figure below.

Sound /

absorJinc
treatment

Domed display area

Sound-absorbing treatment used to

eliminate focusi ng from dome and curoed auditorium wall.

In the first example, the surface of the dome was covered with sound-absorbing material
to eliminate focusing; in the second sound-absorbing treatment was applied to a curved
rear wall to eliminate an echo. Such treatment also will affect the reverberation
characteristics.

PLANNING THE AUDITORIUM

In working out.the acoustical plans for an auditorium, the Architect should take the steps
enumerated in the first part of chapter IV (Acoustical Design of Room} . Specifically, these
fou( steps are necessary:
1. Examine the site with respect to noise. The information gained from a study of
existing and prospective sources of noise in the neighborhood of the site is
necessary to determine the nature of sound insulation that must be incorporated in the building to prevent the noise level in the finished auditorium
from exceeding the maximum tolerable level - 30 to 40 db. It is also
necessary to reduce noises originating within the building so that the composite noise le~el all sources does rrot excee~ the appropriate tolerable level.
2. Limit the size of the auditorium.
3. Design the shape of the auditorium in accordance with principles described in
chapter VI (Design of Room Shapes) , so that the plentiful flow of direct and
beneficially reflected sound wilf reach' all auditors, and so that the audience
area will be free from echoes, flutters, and sound foci.
4. Provide the Optimum reverbel'8ti()n in all parts of-the .a~ditorium througbout
the range of frequencies that are important..for s~ech and music. The curves
of the figures next page should be used for .determining the opt{mum reverberation
time versus frequency characteristics,

198

z.~

-:.-: /
- - 1 - -/. r--:: %
-~, :/
~ ?'
-- - - ~~~bi r/L
r7 v:

.II..0

.e

---\1'-~:.\b

...-;'

/[! .

.6--- -- ~

- t- - ..

l<--17..0 v/.:
~IZ;.
~//h V//

11'"7': /. '/V. 7

~ ~~slc;z~r7_,.-j /'l: '/:: 'i /.

~/!/ /

::;c~~l<\t." ~~ ~ [< ~

v.;,.vsP.~~~'~ ~fcf{,6uM

'/,

A/,2t/~;.< ~
W/~ ~~~~ ~

-~W#
h0 ~ ~ ~
1
~t'''"1!~
r.-.IJ~ :-.::: otl
p 1c;ftllle
' /L.C.
ct ~
"'E'1f~
P""
.
.0~

0
0 .(>
10

--

;~

20

V,

""

..-- f- 1-

~~r- 1- - 1-

~pE. ~~r

~ 40 50 60 00 100
200
300 400 ~
. V()(.\.IME 1H TH<><I&\TID5 or- CVeiC l'eCT

"

..

.. -

700 1000

Optimum reverberation time ol 512 cycle~ for different types of

roo111s as a func tion of room volume.

~----....

1.~ 8/~

- - - --- - 1-- ...

--..- . ..

- 1-

~ 1.2~// /~ 0>,.

~1.0~ '//./-.~
1---- -+-- -

-- '- -

i-

. "-

- -

- ++-1- 1.. - - --

- -

1-- , _

__

- -- - --

- - 1--

. .... - -

o.e~--~=--~.,.....,~-'-:-l-.-~....I..,J~--+---.t.,.~.~_..L._
!00
zoo
.300 400
600 60<> 10 00
2000 3000
~()<)(.)
fRequeNCY l~ CYCl.f!:l PER SECOND

- .... ..

__~

10.000

Chart for computing optimum reve r beration time os a function of

frequency.

The time at frequency f is give1 in terms of o ratio R which should

5 I 2 cyd tts, os given by

the optimum lime ot freq uency I .

b e muhiplied by the optimum time at

obtain

to

THE liTTLE THEATER

In the little theater the architect has an opportunity to design a structure that will embody
the highest attainable standards of acoustics. If the seating capacity is limited to 300.
the volume of the auditorium should not exceed 50,000 cubic feet ( 1 ,800 cu. m.) 10.00
x 18 .00 x 10.00. A ll seats are located on one floor, the rear portion of which should
have a steep slope so that auditors will have good.sight lines and good sound lines in all
parts of the auditorium.
The ceiling should not be more than 6 .00 m. high and should be left smooth. A material
with a highly reflective finish will serve to direc't the sound toward the rear seats. Diverg ing walls are desirable but not so necessary as in larger theaters. The lower 1.80 m. t o
2 .40 m. of the side walls should be of reflective material. The front portion of these walls
should not be pierced with boxes.
The rear wall should not be concave. If this wall is probable source of echoes or interfering reflection (as it may be if it is far enough from the stage), it should be treated with
highly absorptive material and broken with deeply inset doors, hangings or other ornaments that will minimize the effects of long delayed reflections and will facilitate proper diffusion. If additional acoustical treatment is required to impart to the room the opt imum reverberation characteristic, It should be applied to the upper portion of the side
walls in nonuniform strips, or patches.

199

The chairs should be upholstered with absorptive cloth, such as mohair, over deep porous
padding. The absorption of each chair should be 3 to 4 square--foot units (sabins). .60 x
.60 m. at all frequencies above 512 cycles, and 2 to 3 sabins at frequencies of 128 and
256 cycles. The reverberation time of the theater will then be rearly independent of the
size of the audience. Even during rehearsals the reverberation will be close to the optimum value.
The benefits associated with the small volume (less than 50,000 cubic feet for the audience space) should not be. nullified by making the stage recess so large that the sound
so is dissipated before it reaches the seating area. The volume of the stage should be
reduced to a minimum consisted with other requirements. Stage settings with rear, side,
and overhead reflective surfaces should be designed to confine the sound to a small
volume and reflect it to the audience. The use of plywood flats or heavily painted and
back-painted canvas flats is advantageous for the ceiling as well as for the side and rear
walls of the stage set.. Designers of stage sets should be instructed to recognize these
pertinent requirements for good acoustics, which are especially necessary when the
stage is large.
The stage floor should be elevated as much as possible, but it should provide also good
sight lines from all seats; this usually will allow an elevation of about 42 inches above the
front level portion of the main floor. Orchestra pits should be avoided whenever possible;
if indespensable, it is advisable that they be covered with a sound-reflective apron
(plywood or heavily painted canvas) when not in use.
The optimum times of reverberation for the auditorium in a little theater with a volume of
about 40,000 cu. ft. (the volume of stage not included) are approximately 1.6 seconds
at 1 28 cycles, and 1 .0 second at 512 to 4096 cycles. These values are a compromise
between those given by the curves for "speech" and "average music" as shown in the
figure below.

Z.2

- .. - - - - - -- - - r-
b';
+- - C'<'- lA\):5\~ f-7/ ~ ~ 1./)~"-:
C\\\J~ ',0/_.6 r: ?/, ',% ~~
r/. ,40

f-- I - -

z.o

1--

.-'?

- -

,1/:7//%: ~/b. V/-

~t:":

~ :Z: /V ~ ;;.Gs1c~~ V/) ~ '/:: /.

1
~ l'h /j-"~~,._<>-e :.' ?7'77'"/fi:V;{kuM'~ '/.: ~ ,4:;.-

~_;:: ~ ~ ~V >" ':~o<.~

V//-

7-0 /% -j/)'-0t/J'

_,uol ~

~~1

t/7/////-1 y~'r'7 ~~moN Plc;:oRe n'"'"''e~

1.0

~~

~-t\~

oe
0.6
to

I""'

sf-Heal
2.o

'/ "/..

..

-30 40 so 60 eo 100
2oo
.300 400500
VOLliM'e ltl THO\ISo\1'103 OJ< CUBIC l'eeT

.... -.
700 1000

The exclusion of both outside and interior noise should study whether the site is quiet or
noisy. The average level of noise in the unoccupied auditorium should not exceed 35 db,
and if highest standards of acoustics are required this level should be reduced to 30 db.
This reduction will necessitate considerations of noise conditions at the site and calcula-

200

tions of sound insulation such as have been described in chapter 9. Suitable wall and ceiling structures and entrance and exit doors must be chosen to provide adequate protection against outside noise. Corridors, promenades, lobbies, and vestibules should be interposed between the auditorium and probable sources of outside or indoor noise. These in
terposed spaces should be treated with highly absorptive material, not to reduce outside
noise but also to exclude the possibility of feedback of reverberant sound from these
"coupled spaces" to the auditorium. About one half of the wall and ceiling surfaces
should be covered with highly absorbent materials, and the f loors should be carpeted

over heavy felt pads.

The combined effects of this noise-reduction measures should reduce the average noise
level in the theater to 35 db. Thus, if the outside noise transmitted into the auditorium
has a level of 32 db, the noise from inside origin-such as that from the ventilating and
other equipment, and from diverse activities in the building-must not have a level of more
than 32 db so that the level of the combined noise, from ouside and inside, will not ex
ceed 35 db.
This figure show that, when two "random" noises of the same level are added, the combined noise level is 3 db greater .than the level of either component.

' .

Z.5

D
~

10

I' jl\hl'/lrl'l''t''l'l''l''lullrl''lul'''lullwllull"l'l'nll! u~luu\"'''''j'luul1ll uh 111l~

2.

J.S

0.9 o.8 0 .7

oh

o.~

0.4

Chart for compvfing the sound level resulting from the addition of
two combining rondom noi~s. If D Is their dlf'fere<~ce in decibels, N is added
to the higller level to obtain the total level.

ex. Suppose that the average background sound level in a leg itimate theater due to audience noise is 35 db . Assume that the noise transmitted through the .walls of the
building from outside has a level of 2 5 db (difference D = 10 dbI. Below the figure
under 10 is 0.4. So, 35 to 0.4 (the higher level plus the N).

DIFF of 35 and 25 = 10
see N below 10 ::::: 0.4
add to higher level

A noise level of 35 db will not be noticed by an audience except during intervals of

unusual dramatic suspense; for example, when the audience ltstens in rapt silence to a
faint whisper.

201

A sketch of a plan and section for a little theater, based on a study of the requirements for
ideal acoustics, is shown in the figure below.

"l(l r 1'1\;;~.-vl
(S(liJIID !.{J(;Kj

The auditorium is isolated by two walls on the sides that are adjacent to streets. These
walls; in combination with the promenade and lobby which they enclose (and which,
with heavily carpeted floors, act as sound locks), provide an average transmission loss of
at least 60 db. This amount of insulation is sufficient to exclude all ordinary sounds, even
in a noisy metropolitan locality. A transmission loss of not less thant 60 db is required for
the ceiling, especially if air traffic is a present or potential source of noise. If the theater is
located on a quiet site, it is unnecessary provide this muqh insulation for walls or ceilings.
Where the site is subject to excessive earth vibrations, as such result from nearby bus or
trolley lines, it is advisable not only to provide double walls, but also to isolate the inner
walls of the auditorium, from the earth. The splayed walls aod ceiling of the proscenium,
the flat ceiling of the auditorium, and the lower portion of the side wall are designed to
reflect useful sound upon the audience and accordingly are finished with reflective
materials (suspended plaster ceiling, furred-out plaster walls, and plywood wainscot applied to randomly spaced wood strips). The aisles are covered with cork carpet in order to
reduce the noise of footballs and the floor under the seats as covered with linoleum to
reduce the noise of scoffing feet.

202

If the theater has a seating capacity of 270, a volume, V, of 40,000 cu. ft ., and a total
interior surface area, s, of 7 ,500 square feet.

SSFT.

Floor area
Ceiling area
Front wall
Rear wall
Side wall a
Side wall b

-35

55

-35

20

-55

20

=
=
=
=

=
S

1925
1925
700
700
1100
1100
7450 Sq. ft. (close to 7,500)

Volume

35 x 55 x 20

= 38,500 (close to 40,000)

Then, by theuse of this eQuation {see reverberation time}

0.049 v

tso =

The t otal absorption required to give the optimum reverbera!ion time is calculated as shown in step A of this
t able.

12R Cyde~

Op timu m r~\'('rl>\rn tio n tinoe in ~ecnnd"

- '2.:! lr-.gtu ( I
;;)

if

Tuwi

~quaro.:-f,,.,,_\lnit.~

rcC]uircd

Sii

Equation t 60

51 2Cyd<<

20411 Cyck,

I .S

1. 0

1.0

().I i 4
0 . IW

II. 2r,J

O. l f>l

11 . ~.10

o.no

1200

1 i~ 5

!i25

of ab~orption

0.049

- 2.30 S log 10 (1 - -a) + 4m V

Should be used for larger auditoriums or for higher freQuencies than those considered
here.
We shall now determine the amount of additional absorptive material, if any, that should
be installed if the room is to have the optimum reverberation time. This is done by computing the amount of absorption in the room without any special absorptive treatment;
This value is then subtracted from the total required absorption of step A , the difference
being the addition absorption that should be furnished. We shall carry out these calcula-

203

tions by first assuming that unupholstered chairs, are used and then comparing the
results with similar computations based on the assumptions that upholstered chairs are
used .
In the above table, the absorption furnished by the wall surface is tabulated in step B, If
we add these values to those of step C, which gives the absorption supplied by chairs
and audience, we find that the total absorption in the room, in the absence of any absorpt ive treatment, is: 862 square-foot-\Jnits (sabins) at 128 cycles: 1130 sabins at 512
cyles; and 1265 sabins at 2048. Hence, subtracting these valyes of absorption from
corresponding values in step A, we find that the following amounts must be added to
provide the optimum reverberation time at these frequencies: (1200 - 862) = 338
sabins at 128 cycles; . (1725- 1130) = 595 sabins at 512 cycles; and (17251265) = 460 sabins at 2048 cycles .
8.

AuouT!ON Fuii.Nl~ HP.I> 11\' WALl. S~'t<FIICV.~

12!1 Cycle~
Absorptive Ma terinl

Ab~ . in

Ab.~.
coef.

Cork c;tt}>ct, 3l!O "I ft

512 Cycb

Ab~.

S<J-ftunits

cocf.

0.04

14

0.05

0.04

0.05

80
100

0.06

0.30

1114R Cydc:~

Abs., in
sq-it-

:\b.~. in

A b.-..
cocf.

uniTs

!.<J-ftunits

19

0.05

19

0.04

80

0.06

120

0.04
0.06

120

64

0.06

64

0.06

64

o.os

135
21

0.40
0.06

180

0 .50
0.06

ns

26

o.os

61

0.06

74

0.06

74

Linoleum floor, 2000 S!

ft
Cdling, 2000 ~'1 ft
Wood wa insco t, 1060 ~

ft
l'rosc~nium

1!0

opening,

4$0 ~l ft
St:.:e wall, 4:.10 ~11 ft
Re:tr wnll, upper side
wall~ 1230 sq ft
T o tlll a h"nrr tiu n fro m
al>ov e n~tllit\:d tnllteri~L<

90 unupbolstered ch:~irs

180 auditors in unupbol-

47S

563

128 Cycles

512 Cycles

Ab11., in sq-ftunits

Ab~ . in stt-ft-

units

26

(,()lj

2048

Cyde.~

Abs., in s:J-ftunits

27

27

27

(O.J peT c.h air)

(O.J per chrur)

540
(3.0 per pmon)

(0.3 pu chair)
630
(3.5 per chir)

567

657

.360

stered chairs
(2.0 per person)
Total absorpti un by chair$
and audience
387

204

-512 Cycle!>

128 Cycks

Ab~.

in ~:r- ft.
units

Abs., in ~J-ftunits

2048 Cycles

Ah!<.,

lu S<t-fr -

units

----270
(J.O \'et ch~ir)
810
(4.5 per person)

(5.0 per rcr~on)

720

!ORO

1170

180

180 audi tot$ in upholstered chairs

T otal absorption by chairs
and audirnce

270
(J.O per chair)

(2.0 1-.er chotir)

540
(3.0 per person)

90 uphulstered chairs

900

Desirable acoustical conditions would not prevail, for there would be a large difference
between the reverberation times for the relatively empty theater and full theater. This
situation can be remedied by replacing the chairs with upholstered ones. Suppose they
have the absorption listed in step D. Then, adding the absorption in 0 to the absorption
supplied by the wall materials of step B as above, we find that the following amounts of
absorption should be added; (1 200- 1195}
5 sabina at 128 cycles; (1725- 16431
82 sabins at 612 cycles; -and ( 1725 - 1778) = - 53 sabins (that is, subtract 53
sabins) at 2048 cycles; these values are neglible.

Hence, the analysis in the tables ABCD .above leads to the conclusion that no special ab
sorptive materials are needed in this theater in order to provide the optimum reverbera
tion times of upholstered chairs are used; the total absorption furnished by the audience,
chairs and the indicated materials for the walls, floor, and ceiling .does not differ more
than 5 per cent from total required absorption. This desirable outcome follows from the
choice of a small volume per seat for the theater { 1 48 cubic feet) and proper funishings,
including the highly absorptive upholstered chairs. lf a much larger volume per seat had
been used, as is customary in the design of many theaters, it would have been necessary
to add special absorbents to the walls or to the ceiling or to both. This should be avoided
if possible because an increase of absorption would result in an unavoidable decrease in
the average sound level of speech in the theater.
Eq.uation L

10 log 10 w + 136 db
a

..

!principles of room acoustics)

Furthermore, when most of the required absorption is furnished by upholstered chairs, as it

is in the theater here considered, the reverberation time is relatively independent of the size
of the audience - a highly desirable condition.
It is necessary to control the reverberation on the stage. Reverberation times of the same
values as those specified .for the auditorium wil be sati&factory. This condition is usualty
closely apprd'J(imated if the stage is not excessively large and is equipped with a full set of
flies and with side, rear, and overhead hangings of velours or monk's cloth. The hangings
should be hung with deep folds, at le8st 100 percent being allowed for gathers. The
reverberation times should be calculated by the procedure folk>wed in the tabtes ABCD
above. If additional absorption is required, it can be furnished by treating the upper warts or
ceiling of the stage with a suiiabte type and amount of fiberboards or other absorptive
mat~rial.

205

'

A small. enclosed set, made of reflective material (such as pressed fiberboard, plywood,
painted canvas) and placed forward on the stage, affords the best means of projecting
sound to the audience, and its use should be encouraged whenever feasible. Some tests
conducted in one rather large theater show the importance of having the action take
place on the front of the stage, and consequently of having an enclosed set to direct the
speech to the audience. With a speaker on the front part of the stage, the syllable ar
ticulation of speech was 85 percent in the balcony. When the speaker moved to the rear
part of the stage (with an open setting on the stage) the articulation was reduced to 60
per cent.
The intelligibility of speech in the little theater described in this section will be exellent. In
general, it will not be necessary for the actors to raise their voices. They can therefore
give their entire thought and feeling to the dramatic expression that will best portray the
lines of the play, and they can act with the assurance that every word will be heard by the
audience.

The legitimate Theater

In this section, consideration will be given to legitimate theaters that are larger than the
one described in the preceding section. Although the same general principles of design
apply here with equal relevance, there is one important point of difference. In legitimate
theaters. because of their larger size, speech is at a lower sound level that it is in little
theaters. In fact, it frequently is not loud enough for good audition.
Therefore, it is ofthe outmost importance to design the shape of the auditorium so that it
wiil provide the audience With the greatest possible amount of difect and of beneficially
reflected sound. The divergence of the side walls, the slope of the overhead proscenium
play, and the slope of the main ceiling of the auditorium should be carefully designed to
reinforce the sound propagated to the audience, and some preferential reflection of
sound should be provided for the rear seats under and in the balcony.
It is good acoustical design to keep the balcony overhang (depth) less than twice the
height of the balcony opening, and to keep the balcony soffit reflective and inclined
downward toward the rear wa11. Heavily upholstered chairs, carpets on the aisles, and
such absorptive treatment of the rear wall as is required to prevent objectionable reflections ordinarily provide satisfactory reverberation characteristics in the balcony recess.
When the ratio of depth to opening height does not exceed 2, this space can be regarded
as an integral part of the auditorium, and it then is not necessary to maie separate
calculations or reverberation in the two spaces - the main part of the auditorium and the
balcony recess. In routine calculations of reverberation time, it is customary to regard
these two spaces as one single volume and the stage recess as another. It is important
that the stage have appoximately the same reverberation characteristic as the
aUditorium. For such computation, the coefficients of absorption in the table below are
applicable to the stage opening.

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS FOR STAGE OPENINGS

Frequency in cyles
Absorption coefficient

128 . 512 2048

0.30 0.40 0.50
206

If a theater is to be used for musical as well as dramatic productions, the reverberation

characteristic should be based upon the requirements for both music and speech, and the
absorptive materials shouid be carefully located to favor a uniform average rate of decay
in all parts of the theater.
Outside noises are calculated to determine the insulation required. Noise of inside origin,
such as that from ventilating equipment, should be suppressed.
Theaters which are t:ircular or elliptical in plan, or theaters with domed or cylindrical ceilings, are especially likely to give difficulty, although when the curved surfaces are well
broken or coffered, or treated w ith a material having a coefficient of absorption in excess
of 0. 70, the difficulty due to the curved surfaces may be largely overcome. For example,
consider the acoustical treatment that was applied to one theater having a circular plan
with the stage opening forming a part of the cylindrical walls. If the walls of this theater
had been finished with reflective materials there would have been a very pronounced
focusing of sound at a point about half way between the rear and the center of the
auditorium. To overcome this anticipated defect, two layers of 1% inch fibrous blanket,
separated by a 2 inch air space and covered with a perforated membrane, were applied to
the side and rear cylindrical walls in the form of a band extending in length approximately
three fourths of the way around the interior, and in height from about three feet up to 16
feet from the floor . This expedient gave satisfactory results.
The front portions of the side walls were finished with hard material to give helpful reflection toward the central and rear parts of the theater. Another method of handling the problem of large concave surfaces is to divide them into secondary convex surfaces as in
this figure. Although it is possible to

Circular floor plan modified by

convex diffusing surfaces which
greatly reduce the focusing and
creeping effects.

treat concave surfaces in such a way as to overcome most of the acoustical defects they
produce, it is preferable to use forms are free from undesirable curvatures. This does not
mean that concave surfaces are always to be avoided, but if they are employed without
careful consideration they may be lead to disastrous results.

207

The figure above shows an acoustical study of a longitudinal section of a theater in which
the ceiling surfaces have been designed to reinforce sound by reflection. The overhang of
the balcony is short, and the opening under the balcony Is high; therefore adequate
sound will reach the rear seats under the soffit. These seats, which are usually the
poorest ones in most theaters, are further benefited in this design by the reflections of
sound from both the splayed walls and the ceiling of the proscenium. The main part of
the ceiling has a gently rising slope which provides the most favorable reflection of
sound. Heavily upholstered chairs are used throughout, and aisles are carpeted over a
1/2-inch carpet pad. Most of the absorption required to provide the optimum reverberation is applied to the rear wall, under and above the balcony, to prevent echoes and interfering reflections from these surfaces.
A 2 -inch or 3-inch mineral-wool blanket covered with perforated plywood. or similar
facing, is suitable here. The highly absorptive material should not extend below the
height of the heads of the audience. Below this level the rear wall is paneled wainscot,
which with the similar side wall wainscot provides much of the required low-frequency
absorption. Calculations similar to these described in the table {absorptio,nl coefficients)
above (using equation t 60

0.049

for the computation of reverberation times (should be made to determine the kind and
amount of additional absorptive material, if any, required to give the optimum reverberation characteristics. The directions and procedures outlined in the preceding section for
sound insulation and for other acoustical aspects of the little theater also applied to the
larger legitimate theaters.
An enclosed set, like that indicated by the dotted lines of the figure above, should be
used whenever possible. The set reflects toward the audience a larger and much-needed
amount of sound which originates on the stage; and which would otherwise reverberate
and be lost by absorption in the upper part of the stage. Sets with parallel side walls may
cause flutter echoes. On the other hand, the side walls should not diverge too rapidly. If
they splay outward too much the performers on a large stage may have large difficulty on
hearing each other.

208

Motion Picture Theaten

The general cosiderations ot shape discussed in the detail in chapter 6 (Acoustical Design
of rooms} apply to motion picture theaters. Furthermore. certain admonitions given in
that chapter are especially pertinent here. For example, concave rear walls, parallel side
walls, parallel ceiling and floor, and surfaces that give long-delayed reflections in the
seating area should be avoided. Long narrow theaters often have very poor acoustics
they are likely to require so much acoustical power from the sound system, in order t c
give adequate sound level in the rear seats, that the loudness will be excessive in thf
front and central seats.

Because sound is reproduced in motion picture theaters by means of electro-acoustic<:

equipment that can furnish adequate sound levels in all parts of even very large theaters
the acoustical design of the cinema is not. so dependent on beneficial reflections fron
the walls. proscenium,. splays, and ceiling as is the design of the legitimate theater. Thf
average sound level of speech in the cinema is usually about 65 db for dialogue. which i!
10 to 1 5 db higher than the average unamplified speech level in the legitimate theater
The acoustical power required to maintain this level depends on the size of the theater
The minimum power requirements of the amplifier that actuates the loudspeaker is giver
in this figure.

it'lt~ ~,,.-kJ;:otJ \~!X'

(J(~1 ~VO SVU()

? ( tOO ..; "H., "" ')'.. > "'\""' .,_, ....

~ (1\ lll<f(} ("1\f~( : J --

Minimum requirements for the amplifier power-handling capacity

in the 11011-nd system of a motion pictue theater.

1 he amplifier ratmg is shown as a functi on of the seating capacity of the house. For ex
ample, a theater seating 1000 should be equipped with an amplifier having a power out
put of at least 20 watts

lengths greater thanabout 150 feet should be avoided in order to prevent a noticeable
delay in the arrival of the sound to persons in the rear of the theater. It requires about 1/7
second for sound to travel 1 50 feet. The lack of synchronism between sight and sound
becomes quite annoying when the difference exceeds about 117 second. Since the
length .of.the theater may be as great as double the width, it is necessary to design the
side walls, floor, and ceiling so as to m inimize the attention of the sound transmitted
toward the rear seats. Sound which is propagated over an abrsorptive surface, such as
an audience or an acoustically treated ceiling, is greatly anenuated. Hence the floor
should rise steeply toward the rear, the loudspeakers and screen should be well elevated,
and the ceiling and side walls shoukt neither be highly absorptive nor obstruct unduly the
flow of soufld from front to rear. Splays and other functional deviations in the walt and
ceiling contours can be used to give the proper diffusion without hindering the efficient
transmission of sound to the rear of the auditorium.

209

The motion picture research council recommends, for proper viewing and listening conditions, that the first row of seats be at least 20 feet (6.00 m.) from the screen - for
screen widhts not greater than 16 feet (4.80 m.). For wider screens, the first row of
seats should be back an additional 15 inches for each foot of screen width over 16 feet.

SCREEN
SCREEN
6.00 m.

EACH 0.3Dm

...

20ft.

1~

c.l~

feet

+.eom.

rrr..--------, ..,...,

~ :

!'drl
FiRST ROW

- LLl

OF SEA'TS

4-.som.

JJJ

16 feet

ex. if the width of the screen is 20 feet or 4 feet more than 16 feet (6.00 or 1.20 more
than 4.80 m.) add 15 inches or (0.33 m.) for the first row of seat.

SCREEN

If there is a balcony, its depth should not be more than three times the height of the
balcony opening. A relatively deeper overhang can be tolerated here than for a legitimate
theater, since the average speech levels in a cinema are somewhat higher. The balcony
soffit should slope downward toward the rear, and should not be absorptive. (See
chapter 6 on Acoustical Design of Rooms) for other features of design.
A volume per seat of 1 25 to 1 50 cubic feet is a good figure to use in determining the optimum volume, the lower value being preferable. The design of a house with a low
volume per seat hasseveral advantages over designs with the visual larger values,
acoustically and otherwise. The bui\ding cost is reduced; the cost of the corresponding
smaller air - conditioning equipment and, to a much lesser extent, of the soundamplification system) are likewise reduced; and the optimum reverberation can be obtained with the use of little or no special sound absorbents added to the walls and ceiling,
if thick carpets are used on the aisles and heavily upholstered chairs are installed. The optimum reverberation times for motion picture theaters can be determined from these
figures.

210

z.o

..
.-

. J.l!

-- - -

-- ..
-- -

..

..;r l;o-v~t
- --- ~~:0~ .:/ ~ ~: I/.-'.

- - --1- .... .. --- - -

- - .. ._ .

------ -. - - -- -- --.. ,

m. .
~!-:"~ vW,4,;j ~ ~ ~

. - , - - + -1- -

c~''-' ''

~ ~/ / /
~

,<i;': ~-'-r~ ~ ~;. .

-- b?Z~ 4 { '. ' ~ , 7/.0 o~- ~ ~ ..

~//~V/~;.
-~ ~~~~
""'?~6: ~ ~~
~ ~ :.r,
~~~ /:
-- - -

--

J'l/~/,t:,~ ~~ I:r-e'itS .
PT.
. :'l?//d/
V, /
.. ~v~...:_..::-L.::~rlf."
...-:~~, .,
.. . c :.,.:;;...;
tt.oTI<)l~
1.0
-.
f-"' ~a
-.
~-- - -- t- ~ ---- o.c
0-610

--rw

--r .

t-

u~fF =-

--

-- -- --

. ...

- --

I-- -,..-

41) so 60 ao 100
200
300
VOLUMC Ill 1 liOI.!SIINI>-' OP CU8lC F-eET

:to

oo.'iOO

- - -

700 1000

Optimum reverberation time at 512 cvoles for different tvpes of

rooms as a funetion of room volume.

,... ~-~ ---~ .

II:

1-';~"7-j/7"
~~:;')'/))~---'--.1---1--l .. -

gI.ZI--j/// ///- ~

... - - - '--- - --- - __ ..

f---

~I.OV////// 'l//.:7?7-,
t-----1-- -

1-

1 - - --

- - -1--- - - 1--- . - -1---~

+----1--

... - - --

After calculation of the total square-foot-units (Sabins} of absorption supplied by the

upholstered chairs, audience, carpeting, and the walls and ceiling , the total required
number of sabins of absorption that must be added is obtained by subracting from t he
total number of required units the units of absorption furnished by chairs, audience,
(assume a 2/3 capacity audience), and all the boundaries of the auditorium. Absorptive
material should be applied to the rear wall to eliminate "slap-back". Additional absorptive materi~l may be applied to the side walls in.accordance with the general principles
and recommendations _o f Chapter 6.
Treatment of the walls behind the screen with highly absorptive material prevents sound
radiated from the back of the loudspeakers from the being reflected to the audience. It
atso suppresses acoustical resonances that GCcur on some stages. Mineral - wool
blankets ~ave been used in many theaters to treat this area. The surface of the backstage
acoustical treatment should be very dark, preferable black, in order to avoid light reflection from it. As indicated in Chapter 5, the absorption characteristics of an acoustical
material can be enhanced, especially at low frequencies, by furring it out from the wall. If
a blanket consisting of glass wool is used, it should be at_teast 2 or 3 inches thick and
have a density of about 4 pounds per cubic foot. The floor between the screen and the
first row of seats also should be highly absorptive,. in order to prevent s'ound from
reaching the audience in the front seats be reflection from this area. Such reflections contribute 'to the loss of "inti.mac;.v"; that is, the loss of fee\ing that the sound is actually
coming fron1 the screen. They ~av be suppressed by cov~ring the stage floor with heavy
carpets over 1-inch ozite or similar abs.orptive pad .
211

In many respect the acoustical problems of motion picture and legitimate theater are similar.
Both should be properly insulated against noise according to the principles of Chapters 8 to
10. In general. a slightly greater noise level can be tolerated in motion theaters than in
legitimate theaters because of the higher speech level . The average "film" (background!
noise" level is about 35 db, whereas the average audience noise level in a cinema is about 40
to 45 db. Since the projection booth is a potential source of noise, all available interior surfaces should be heavily treated with fireproof acoustical material, such as a 2- to 3-inch
mineral-wool blanket covered with perforated transite. Double panes of glass of different
should fit tightly in their frames so that there are no threshold e1acks. It also is helpful to
cover with absorptive material the peripheral surfaces separatmg the double windows. The
wall between the projection room and the auditorium should have a tn!lnsmission loss of not
less than 35 db at 128 cycles and not less than 45 db ~t 512 to 2048 cycles.

School Auditoriums
The school auditorium usually serves a wide range of functions. It Is used as an assembly
room, large classroom, theater, cinema, concert hall, community auditorium, and it
houses a host of other activities. The elements of design given in Chapter 6, regarding
shape, size, reverberation, and diffusion, are applicable here. Furthermore, the principles
and practice of noise control as described in Chapter 8 to 1 0 should be followed
scrupulously.
In regard to theatrical uses, most school administrator and instructors of drama expect
the impossible when they produce stage plays in a large auditorium without the benefit of
a high-quality sound-amplification system. Auditoriums which are to be used without
sound-amplication, even if only occasionally, should not have volumes in excess of the
following:
For elementary schools, about 40,000 cubic feet;
For high schools, about 50,000 cubic feet;
For colleges and universities about so.ooocubic feet;

(These volume include the volume of the recess under the balcony but not the volume of
the stage recess.) A great deal of dissatisfaction will be eliminated .bY avoiding the design
of larger auditoriums for schools. If for any reason it shoutd become necessary to construct .a larger auditorium, provision should be made for sound reinforcement for
speakers with weak voices, for occasional musical programs. Nothing less than a
stereophonic sound system will be entirely satisfactory for theatrical purposes (see
Chapter 7).
.

The auditorium should be l()cated in a quiet section of the campus. If it forms a part of
another building, . it should be thoroughly insulated from the remainder of the building.
ihere should be two sets of tightly fitting doors betwe.en the auditorium and the ~djacent
corridors or the outdoors. If a high degree of insulation is required, it will be helpful to
dispense with windows. With the increase in airplane traffic, it has .become increasingly
necessary to eliminate windows; with. the good air-conditioning systems avai(able, th.ey
are no longer a necessity. Any noise from the ventilating or other mechanical equipment
should be adequately sup'pressed. The floor should be covered with linoleum or some
212

other soft covering. The chairs should be heavily upholstered, of a rigid, substantial con
struction,' and securely fastened to the floor so that there will be no creaking or squeak

ing.

It is necessary to make a compromise between the optimum acoustical properties for

speech and for music in Order that the. the school auditorium may best serve its diverse
tiSes. The exacfcalculation of reverberation involves a three-space problem: the stage
recess; the main part of the auditorium, and the recess under the balcony. However, if
the stage has an enclosed set and if the balcony recess is not tt>o deep, the calculation of
reverberation time reduces to a one-space problem. In order to make this simplification, it
is assumed that each of these three spaces contains an appropriate amount of absorption
to permit a uniform average rate of growth or decay of sound in all parts of the
auditorium. The complete set of hangings required for the stage sening ordinarily will
supply a sufficient amount of absorption for the stage recess. In fact, a full set of stage
hangings may make the stage too dead for musical settings. For this reason it is advisable
to provide an enclosed wood veneer or heavily painted canvas set for musical programs,
such as ' shown by the dotted lines in the previous figure, longitudinal section of a
legitimate theater. If upholstered chairs are provided and the aisles of the floor are
carpeted, the recess under the balcony ordinarily will not require additional absorptive
treatment of its side wallsjn the strips, panels, or patches. to give added diffusion; if none
is requited, it may be necessar'y to introduce splays, Of other means of insuring proper
difussion. An example of good side wall design is shown in this fiQure.

213

The figure below shows a section of a high school auditorium that incorporates the
essential characteristics of good acoustical design. The following features were given
careful consideration during the design and construction of the auditorium the floor plan,
the elevation of seats, the diverging proscenium splays, the functional ceiling, the shape
and dimensions of the balcoriy recess, the control of reverberation and diffusion by alternate horizontal strips of absorptive tile and reflective plaster for the side walls, the
upholstery of the chairs, the _stage furnishings (including an enclosed reflective stage set
for musical programs), the planned insulation against outside noise, the control of inside
noise, and the sound-amplification system.

.5

,,

111
II

Scale: 3/16

6a
6b

= 1'0"

1. Acoustically treated pfojection booth with sound-amplificatiO{l equipment and controls

for sound monitoring.

2. Ceiling planes reflect sound to.all parts of the auditorium.

3. Three-channel public address system to reproduce stage sound in "auditory perspective."
4. High-fidelity ~kers: bass-compensated dynamic speaker for low tones; highfrequency dtrectional'homs for high tones.
5. Backstage treated with acoustical plaster to reduce "stage echoes."
6. Acoustical treatment on walls; over-all distribution in alternate bands of {a) acoustic tile
and (b) hardwall plaster.
7. Proscenium splays; horn-like shape of stage opening projects sound to audience.
8. Upholstered seats; absorption value of each seat equivalent to that of a person's
clothing.

9 . Double doors to foyer insulateagainst external noises.

10. Slanting rear walls on main floor and balcony reflect sound down toward rear seats.
11 . Acousticalty treated foyer to reduce external noises.
12. Streamlined balcony improves flow of sound to rear seats.
Many school auditoriums, especially in small townS, 8re used for community pur~
of light in the wave spectrum with relation to other wave phenomena of various frequencies.

214

Civic Auditoriums
Many schools auditoriums, especially in small town~. are used for community purposestown meetings. debates, concerts, and a variety of other gatherings. But as a town
grows to a city. there develops a need for a separate civic auditorium to serve the above
purposes and a number of others such as dances, bazaars, conventions, and activities
that require (1) a level hardwood floor and (2) readily removable chairs. The present section is concerned with the latter type of auditorium . The two features just mentioned introduce acoustical problems that do not occur in the usual auditorium. The level floor,
especially if it ext ends more than about 1 5. 50 meters (50 ft) from the stage, requires t he
stage to be as high lines will allow. The portable chairs generally will not be upholstered,
or they will have only thin pads of soft and absorptive material on the seat s and backs.
These chairs furnish much less absorption than do fully upholstered ones (the fixed
chairs should be heavily upholstered, of the type previously advocated in this chapter for
theaters and school auditoriums.). It usually will be necessary to compensate for the lack
of absorption in the chairs by the introduction of absorptive strips, panels, or patches on
the walls and ceiling in such amounts as will provide the optimum reverberation and good
diffusion. The optimum reverberation characteristics will be provided in most cases as if
the curve which applies to school auditoriums in this figure is u-sed.

l.t,.---.,--.--,--,--,-,..,.,---.--r--,--r--r-r-r"'T'"I
.t.ot---+--+---+-+-t--H-t-l,...---- +--4--t--!--t--61..-lrl
-b-:

~ t.6

~ooo~

Z'/"//// 'l'/ h / / Z

:""1'77'// h V///,:~ ~

'LU' I /~';w~~./'~/h '/

V"/~~ V.h~.A'.h'lY

111

~ u. :;z/'///0~ ~
'/.

1.0

1'7

-~~v; V: r!.6'9tc~~7..0~ ~'i~rL

"'

~
Ill! ~-re'-'

)\Ot'lotl ptcTV

......

0.0

'-""-t--+--+-~-+--H

Since civic auditoriums are often used for small audiences and since the chairs are often
upholstered, it is advisable to provide the optimum reverberation for one half of capacity
audience. If a room has a volume of more than about 50,000 cubic feet, a soundamplification system is necessary. The loudspeakers should be located somewhat higher
than they would be in an auditorium with a sloping floor.
All the acoustical problems considered in the previous sections of this chapter, namely
those relating to theaters, cinemas, and school auditoriums, are likely to arise in planning
the acoustics of civic auditoriums, and it is recommended that these sections be carefully reviewed. The acoustical problems relating to the design of a municipal auditorium
become increasingly complex and difficult as the ~ize of the auditorium increases. Echoes
and interfering reflections beconte much more probable, and therefore appropriate plans
should be worked out at the very start of the design to avoid these defects and to insure a
good distribution of sound to ~tK seats. Acoustical studies should be made of all feasible
shapes and arrangements supplemented by model testing, if there are any uncertainties
determining the best plans.
215

Existing municipal auditoriums are notoriously defective in regard to acoustics .. Until

recently, most of them were excessively reverberant. Many of these have been ''corrected" by "acoustical treatments", that is, by adding acoustical tile or plaster to the entire ceiling or to almost every available surface that can be so. treated . TNs has given
quite satisfactory results in many cases. However, in some instances, the auditoriums
have been overtreated, or mistreated by placing the absorptive material i(l the wrong
places. and the correction of &ther serious defects has been overlooked. F& example, a
study was made rec~ntly of a municipal auditorium seating 1,800 persons. At the time
of-construction, acoustical plaster was applied to all side walls th~ rear walls was treated
with a thin acoustical tile, and the entire ceiling was treated with thin fib.erboard applied
directly to concrete ceiling slabs. The stage was furnished with overhead, side and rear
hangings of unlined velours. As a result the auditorium was somewhat overtreated at
medium and high frequencies. Complaints were made about the acoustics, most of them
by the artists who sang or played solo instruments in this audit9rium. They averred that
their voices were "smoothered". that they feel unable to "project" sound out into the

audience.
The management, heeding: these complaints, added still more absorptive treatment - a
burplap type of material festooned between the exposed trusses - and made the situation worse. Instead, the following correctives should have been supplied:
, . A stage setting of ~ inch plywood with overhead and side splays.
2. A suspended ceiling designed in accordance with the principle of chapter 6. To
glve benefictal reflections and made of a material that would add considerable
absorption at the high frequencies.
3 . Reptace~t of the thin absorptive tile on the rear wall with a material that is
highly absorptive .ttt low as well as high frequencies.
4. A high quality sound amplification system , These correctives would not proyjde' ideal acoustics in this auditorium but they . woold eliminate the objectionable defects and make the building quite satisfactory for its many functions.

: ..

216

..

.
....

...

.. ~ . . . ....

. .;

.... .

PHYSICS OF LIGHT
LIGHT AS RADIANT ENERGY
Light is "visually evaluated radiant energy" or more simply, a form of energy which permits us to see. If light is considered as a wave, similar to a radio wave or an alternating
current wave, it has a frequency and a wave length. The figure below shows the position
of light in the wave spectrum with relation to other wave phenomena of various frequencies.

'
Cosmic rays

I
I

Gamma !; X rays ; :2
>
ray5

'

'

'

'

lnfr~tred

~
;:I
I

10 1

Radar
I

1010

1012

FM TV

Radio

Short

Sound

wave

108

106

1o

100 60

Frequency in hertz (cycles per second)

\
\
\

'- ........................ _
1/rsible light

-,

Wa~a~- s:~ "'arometers (10- 9meters)

50:

EOO

'800,

'

Bac:~~=idal. Vaolet

Blatic Lt.

'',

700
Red

lrr:rared

=-di:O
Blu~

Orange

:-!eaters

From the chart we see that even the longest wavelength light (red) is a much higher frequency than radio and radar, and that visible light comprises only a very small part of the
wave energy spectrum. Yet it is this energy that makes possible our sight and with which
we are here concerned. Color is determined by wavelength. Starting at the longest
wavelengths with red, we proceed through the spectrum of orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and violet to arrive at the shortest visible wavelengths (highest frequency)
When a light source produces energy over the entire Visible speCtrum in approximately
equal quantities, the combination of color~light prqdu~s ~e as is the case with the
sun, whereas a source producing energy
only a"Small seCtion of the spectrum produces its characteristics colored light. Examples are the blu&-green clear mercury lamp
and the yellow sodium lamp.

'

over

; .?~~~~ . .

. .--::..

. .

'

218

.(

Fundamental &..a.l8 .of Light

Deseg~ 'of lighting inst~llations is possible because light is predictable, that is, it follows
certain taws and exhibits certain fixed characteristics. Although some of these are so
well known as to appear self-evident, a review is in order.
The luminous transmittance of a material such as a fixture or diffuser is a measure of its
capability to transmit incident light. By definition, this quantity known variously as
transmittance, transmission factor, or coefficient of transmission is the ratio of the total
emitted light to the total incident light. In the case of incident light containing several
components passing through a material that displays selective absorption, this factor
becomes an average of the individual transmittances for the various components and
must be used cautiously. A piece of frosted glass and a piece of red glass may both
have a 70% transmission factor but obviously affect the incident light differently. In
general then, transmission factors should be used only when referring to materials
displaying nonselective absorption. Clear glass, for instance, displays a transmittance
between 80 and 90%, frosted glass between 70 and 85%, and solid opal glass between
15 and 40%.
Similarly, the ratio of reflected to incident light is variously called reflectance, reflectance
factor, and reflectance coefficient. Thus if half of the amount of the light incident on a
surface is bounced back, the reflectance is 50% or 0.50. The remainder is absorbed,
transmitted or both. The amount of absorption and reflection depends on the type of the
material and the angle of light incidence, since light impinging upon a surface at small (grazing) an~e tends to be reflected rather than absorbed or transmitted.

100

T
I
I
I
_ Effect of anile of ineiden
90
on the percent of light reflected
80 ,_ by clear plate glass

c:

fiO

50

.!
1:

a..

Ill
J

I I/"

Gtass

40

One surface of &lass- ~

30

Both $Urf3~ of g!HS- ~1/

20

10
0

~~-of~

70

!/
/
...........

.~

-,
0

..

10 20 30 ..40 50 60 70 .SO 9()

Angle of incidence, d~grees from the normal

219

An example of almost perfect reflection from an opaque surface would. be that i rom a
well-silvered mirror while almost complete absorption t akes place on an object covered
. with lamp black or matte finish black paint. The effect of the material finish on reflection
is shown. in figure below.
. .

Diffuse rellection

,.:..

~=========t~==========
Combined $pecular
.and diffuse retlec:tiGtl

If the reflection takes place on a $tTIOOth surface such as pelished glass or stone it is called specular reflection, as in figure (a). Jf the surface is rough, multiplerefl.e ction takes
place on the many small projections on the surface, and the light is diffused as in figure
(b). Since the reflection factor is a measure of total light reflected, it does not depend on
whether the reflection is specular or diffuse, or a combination of both, as shown in figure
(c). Diffuse transmission takes place through any translucent source such as frosted
glass, white glass, milky plexiglas, tissue paper and so on . This diffusing principle is
widely employed in lighting fixt ure to spread the light generated by the bulb or tube
within the fixture. Diffuse and non diffuse transmission are illustrated in figure (a) andl(b).

220

100%

INOPENT
L.\GHT

cLEAR MATERIAL
85% TRANSMlnct>

LIGHT.

NONDIF'FUSE TRANSMlSS\ON

DIFFUSE TRANSMiSSION

(O)

(.b)

Terminology and Definitions

The candlepower (candela), abbreviated cp (cd). is the unit of luminous intensity. It is
analogous t o pressure in a hydraulic system and voltage in an electric syst em and
represents the force that generates the light that w e use.
An ordinary wax candle h~s ttff111nous intensity horizontally of approximately one
candlepower !candela), hEme&. .the name~ The candlepower and candela have the same
magnitude. A candle rediates light equally in all directions. If we imagine such a source
surrounded by a transparent sphere of on~ . foo~ (meter) radius (see fig. (a) below), then
by definition the amount of luminous energy (flux) emanating from one square foot (meter)
of surface on the sphere is one lumen {lumen} abbreviated lm.

' SPHERICAl SURFACE

: 1 squa~e ~ter
-in-

---IllUMINATION
output

1 fOIIIQftdle or
1 l~fl/5qU~q foot

or 10.761u.t

22~ :

I.WMNATION
1!1111 ()(

1 t..n~SQ.-.meter
ar O.D926 foobildle

Since there are 411" sq. ft. (meters) surface area in such. a sphere , it follows that a source
of one candlepower (candela) intensity produces 411" or 1 2.57 lm. The lumen ~ the
unit of light quantity, and in terms of power is equal to 0. 001 5 w, (i,. therefore also
follows that a 1-cp !cdl source produces 12.57 x 0.001 5 w, that is 0.0189 w.or approximately 1/ 50 w of luminous energy). The lumen, as luminous flux, or quantity of light is
. analogous to flow in hydraulic systems and current in electric systems.
One tumen of luminous enetgy incident on one squaf8 foot of area produces an illumination of one footcandle. lfc). Restated, illumination is ttie density oflumlnous energy, expressed in terms of lumens per unit area. If we were to consider . a lightbulb to be
analogous to a sprinkler head, the amount of water released would be the lumens and the
amount of water per square foot of floor area Wot!ld be the foot candles. When the area is
expressed in squa~ feet the resulting illumination is footcandles; when the area is in
square meters, the illumination is expressed in lux (lx). Thus, the Sl unit (metric), lux, is
smaller than the corresponding unit, footcandles, by the ratio of square feet to square
meters, that is .

= one footcandle

1 0. 7 64 lux

or
multiply footcandle by 10.764 to obtain lux
restating the above mathematically:
footcandles
.:

and

l~s

eer

square
of area
lm
. - - - . . . ! ! : . l -- - ft.

fc ,

~.

J
x

= square lumens
meters of area

lx

sq:

..

. lm
sq. m.

As an ar:iproximation (8% error)

10 lx

I fc

Example:
A 40 - W, 430- rna (J"nflliampere), 48 - in. Fluorescent tube produces 3200 lm. What
is the illumination on the floor of a 10-SQ. ft . rm assuming 40% overall efficiency and
uniform illumination 7

Solution
useful .l umens = 0.4 X 3200
1280
fc
==
10 )( 10
lx

12.8 X 10.76.

Calculating lux directly:

1280
::::
x (3.28 ft/m}2
1:X
10 X 10

By approximating:
lx

Ql:

10 fc

222.

128

1280
, 2.8

137.7

137.7

Footcandle illumination ata point can alsO'' be c~~ ~intensity as shown in the
next section on inverse square law. A footla~bert, the CorWenlional unit of luminance or
brightness, is defined as the luminance of a surface reflecting, transmitting, or emitting I
lumenof illumination per square foot of area, in the direction /)e;ng Wewiid. This latter
qualification is important since many surfaces (fabrics, for instance) a~ different
- . or ~ec
luminances at different an~les. This unit has no readily conceivable ma~~
trical analogy. The brightness. of a non luminous diffusely reflecting su

equal to
the product of the illumination falling on the surface and the reflectance ~. . surface,
that is ,
luminance =

illumination x reflectance
'

or

or

footcandl~s x reflectance: factor

footlamberts
fl

fc x RF

'
Thus a source that causes 100 Lm faU on
a I sq. ft. surface
with a diffuse. reflectance of 60% has brightness of

luminance

=
=

100 lnm x 60% RF

60 fl

ILLU r.'INATION - -.
10~ footc;~r.dlet> or
'
"/ 100 lumens. square foot ""'

/ - RflECTAHCE
,
, :
0.6 or fiO'J.
'
REflCTED 8RIGHTNESS \
.
lOOfaatca~ &0.6 rehetMee
60~01
\.
60 lumens/Squwe foot rwtlec:ted

'"!l'Dt~i;W.-

-~~~l!tloi

liGHT SOURCE
~
100 candellls or
US7 lutnen$ output
IllUM INATION -
100 lootcandles 01
/
,
'~100 lumens;square 1::::/
TRANSMITIANCE
0.3 01 30'J,
TRANSMITTED 9RIGHlliiESS
100 footundles "0.3 t<ansmittanot
- 30 fooUamberts
30 lume1!1/$Cfuare foot tnonsmitted
{b)

 CQNCEPT OF QUANTiTY OF Ll6HT

..

~r0

-0-------

IJ\\
LIGHT RAOtATlN6 .

FROM BULB

.I

J \

TED
o
FL~

L\6HT RADtA"'nN6
FROM SUN

OF WAtER

FROM A HOSEPtfE
OOAN111Y OF WATI:R IEUVERED
Wrrn HOSE IS M&\SURED IN
UTER_5/inlnute .

WE OOTFl.OW OF UGHT FROM A

SOUOCE WOULD BE MEASURED lt-J
LUMENS

ts

..

ANALOGY
100-WATTS
,

11JN6STEN
FILAMEm" LAMP

1/iJ\\\OUTPUT OF

uc;trr OUTPUT S.AME OF 1.200

U6~T

1200 LUMENS

~~ENS

BUT LESS BRt6HT BECAUSE l'HE LU-

MENS ARe EMtTTCD FROM Ov'ER

MUCH LAR6ER AREA

11US lS COMPARED 10 w~ - .
FLOW-OR A HOSE wrn-t AsMAU:.
fJOZZL 6lV1NG AN ltJ'TEf\JSE _ _
NARROW JET
.,

~m~'rtf~
i '?i
~ 111')
. .
, 'j

......... ..
'

ANOmER HOSE W"lCH WHILE DEUVERY

.. 11\E~ME NUMBER CJ= LtTERS/mln. WAS EMl111NG tTS 001PLIT THROU6H

A SPR~ NOZZ.LE WHICH BREAKS

~E

FLOW UP INTO FINE DROPLETS

SPftEAD OVER A WDE ~E .

ONE LITER/ MIN.

-ONE UTER PER

M\NjS'<l.m

. QSTRIB\JllON

. 224

Ref~ting surfaces that derive their brightness from incident illumination are known as
seconda.r.y,sources Pr~mary sources are those that generate light and transmit directly to
the .eye. The largest and best known primary and secondary brightness sources are the
sun and the moon. respectively. The same unit of luminance. the fo otlambert (fl) is used
for a luminous surface that either emits (self-luminous) or transmits light . As stated
above, a surface emitting or transmitting an average of lim I sq. ft. has a luminance of a
transilluminated source is equal to the product of the illumination and the transmision
factor, that is

luminance
or

tl

illumination x transmission factor

fc x TF

Thus, a source of 100 lm behind a translucent diffusing material one square foot in area,
with a transmission factor of 30% exhibits a brightness of
luminance
=

100 lm/ sq. ft. x 0 .3

30 fl (see fig. (b) above)

For an emitting surface :

Luminance

lumens emitted per square foot. Thus a surface emitting

uniformly 1 00 lm I sq . ft. has a brightness of 1 00 fl.

In Sl units (metric!, the unit of brightness is the lambert ( 1) which is defined as the
luminance of a surface reflecting, transmitting, or emitting one lumen per square cen
timeter, Since this unit is much greater than that normally used is the millilambert (mil.
The relations between the units are

1 .076 )( 1o 3fl
lamberts
millilamberts ::: (1.076 x 103) (1000)

1.076 fl

The footlambert is slightly larger than the millilambert. To convert, multiply the
footlambert by 1.076 to obtain the millilambert.
as an approximation
ml .
= I fl
Example:

a fixture with a 2x4 ft. plastic diffuser having a transmittance of 0.8 and illuminated by
four 3200 lm lamps, would have (assuming 100% use of
luminance

the light flux}, a luminance of:

transmitted lumens
area
generated lumens x transmission factor
area

luminance

4 X 3200 lm X 0.8
2 x 4 sq. ft.
': '

132o"fl

Each fluorescent tube has a luminance of 3200 1m divided by the tube surface area. The
, . :

T -1 2. 4 ft . tube has an area of 1rx diameter.

rx 1.5 x 48

226 .5 sq. in.

225

= 1.58 sq. ft.

 This gives for a luminance for a 48- in., T- 12 tube of 3200/1 .58 or approximately
2000 fl {see table below). If it is desired to express these results rather than direct
calculation. Since the dimension 2 x 4 tt. and 1 . 5 in. are clumsy in metric units.
Luminance in Footlamberts
(Brightness)

Object
Black glove on cloudy night
Snow in moonlight
Asphalt road-street lighting
This sheet of paper lit by a candle
Floor brightness in a poorly lighted office
Wall b rightness in a well-lighted office
Luminous ceiling
Asphalt paving-overcast day
North sky
Moon, candle flame
Asphalt paving-sunny day
Fluorescent tube
Kerosene flame
Hazy sky or fog
Snow in sunlight
4~w LF. lamp
500-w inside frost incandescent lamp

0.0001
0.015
0.05
0.75
2.0
50.0
200 .
400
1.000
1.500
2.000
2.000
2.500
4,500
10.000
15,000
95.000
450,000,000

Sun

l
.Q
0

t)

tJ..

Using conversion factors we have:

luminance of the fixture

1320 fl x 1 .076

1420 ml

luminance of the fluorescent tube

3200
--:r5a
x 1.076
== 2180 ml
Reviewing, we have established that a source of one candlepower (candela) produces 4
1rlumens of luminous flux which produce illumination at the rate of one tootcandle (lux)
per lumen per sq. ft. (meter). The luminous flux also produces luminance at the rate of one
footlambert (millilambert) per lumen transmitted or reflected, per square foot (cm2). Conversion factors are given in the table below, which for convenience also contains less used. Factors for luminance expressed in candela per unit area.

Illumination
Luminance
(Brightness)

Multiply

By

To Obtain

Footcandte
lux&
Foodambert
MilliWnbertFootlambert

10.764
0.0929
1.076
0.929
0.00221
452.0
1.0

Lux
Footcandle
Millilambert
FootJambert
C8ndela/in.2
Footlambert
candela-

~la/ln . 2

Intensity

Candlepower

226

Considerations.of Lighting Quality

QUALITY of lighting is a term used to describe all the factors in a lighting installation not
directly concerned w ith quantity of illumination. Certainly it is obvious that if a given
room is alternatively lighted with a bare bulb and with a luminous ceiling, both giviflg the
same average quantitative illumination (in terms of human output) there is a v ast difference in the two lighting systems. This difference is in the quality of the lighting, a term
which describes the luminance ratios diffusion uni.formity and chromaticity of the
lighting. Since uncomfortable brightness ratios, where background luminance exceeds
object lumina nce, are commonly referred to as glare, the quality of the lighting system is
also a description of the visual comfort and visual adequacy of the system.
When the discomfort glare is caused by light sources in the field of vision it is known as
direct glare. When the glare is caused by reflection of light source in a viewed surface it is
known as reflected glare or "veiling reflection."

Glare ;:;.Q1JI!S with observer in a head-up

position. The direct and refkcted glare ligh't paths
are delineated on tile diagram alt1wugh refl;ted
glare is wually studied with the eyes down at a
reomng angle. Placement of fixtures, room riz:e.
ceiling height. paint finishes, windows, and so on
aLso affect brightness ratios, and therefore glare.

Direct Glare
Glare by definition produces discomfort and interference with vision. This is a general
qualitative statement. To determine whether a specific lighting situation is producing
discomfort glare requires a quantitative examination by the factors involved. These factors are brightness, size, position of each light sovrce in the field of vision, plus consideration of surrounding or background brightness. The discomfort effect of a single
luminance was determined to be.

LO

M
M

individual source glare factor

apparent source luminance

0
p

PFOA4

function of solid angle subtended by the eye when viewing the source
position indes factor, relating discomfort to position of the glare source
in the f ield of view
room luminance factor, that is. the related eye. Adaptation leveL

22.7

The formula is a mathematical statement of logical conclusions. Obviously glare is proportional to the source luminance. The size of the source defined with respect to the
viewer by the angle subtended by the source at the eye, is the second parameter to
which glare is directly proportional (see fig. below)

App .....dad
(u1mndedt . . -

Glare determination. The glare contribution of each source depend.f on its si:e (subtended ~
~ agk). lumif141K11r. Gild l.ocdtion in the field of lliew. Note thtlt the appreMn.ded ongle of ca
...U 8011'1 it sud. dw.t eom IDifh ldgh brightnt::Js it it nol o~. Such MJfMCQ are nomuJilg
calla~ ..~." Qnr dll be ..
~ ob;tdfonable with dmi ~kground than u:ith a light one;
llwlefore, llght..color<,.,.,.- t:teUinga """ upper wou. t.n ~

..a.

It is necessary to consider both these parameters together to understand why a small,

very bright source is not a serious problem whereas a large low brightness source, such
as a luminous ceiling, may be indeed, a small bright source adds sparkle to the field of vision, and many observers find it pleasant in an otherwise monotonous lighting environment.
The remaining two factors are less self-evident. Glare decreases rapidly as the brightness
source is moved away from the direct line of vision and thus, the glare produced by a
source depends on its position in the field of view. One way to decrease the detrimental
effect of high background brightness was to increase the task brightness. This technique
is also effective in reverse with a source of glare, since the amount of discomfort glare
produced by a source is inversely proportional to the background or field brightness (also
known as eye adaptation level). Thus a ceiling fixture with a luminance of 1200 flat 65
night easily constitute a source of discomfort glare in space with an eye adaptation level
of 50 fl. The same fixture would not be objectionable in a daylight condition, where the
eye adaptation level might be 500 fl. (se figure below). A more striking example is that
of an automobile's headlights, which at night are so severe a source of glare as to be
described as "disabling glare", whereas in daylight, with its concomitant higl:l eye adaptation level , these lights are barely not iceable .

Reflected Glare
(a) NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

The problem of reflected glare is much more complex than that of direct glare
because it involves both the source and the task and is inherent in the act of seeing.
Vision is produced by light being reflected from the object seen. The object mirrors
the source of light in the room
228

In an interior space there are multiple sources of light. The primary sources are usually one or more lighting fixtures near the observer. Secondary sources are other, more
remote fixtures in t he room , and all the room surfaces that obtain their light from th e
primary sources and by reflection become light sources themselves. (see fig. (b)
below). To the extent that the primary sources can be mirrored by the vision task
glare exists. (we are for the moment ignoring daylight)

PRIMAR't"
SOURCE
ILLUMJJlA'TtON \

229

SECCtiDARY
SOURCES

Although there is no generally accepted convention with respect to nomenclature,

many people refer to refl ected glare when dealing with specular (polished or mirror)
surfaces and to veiling reflections when considering source reflections in dull or
semi matte finish surfaces, which always exhibit some degree of specularity. We use
the terms in interchangeable. In all cases the result is a distinct loss of contrast due to
the veiling of the image by the reflection of the light source. It is imperative to an
understanding of this problem, to appreciate the importance of the nature of the ob
ject being viewed, that is, the task. If the object were perfectly absorbent that is. if it
had a reflection coefficient of 0%, it would appear completely black as no light
would be reflected into the eye.

PERFECT ABSORBER

RF =O

Conversely, if the object were perfectly specular, as a clean mirror. and no light
source were within the geometry of reflection, w e would not see it (see fig. d) . Thus
if we took a.mirror out on a cloudy night and shined a light on it from over and
shoulder, it would be practically invisible since no light would be reflected in the eye.

NO SECONOAR'(

SOURCES

PRIMARY

SOORCE
,. ~

230

The reader might try this experiment: In an inside space with overhead luminaire, try
to examine the surface of a clean mirror. You will find that the best angle to hold it is
almost at the angle at which the light source is seen, This is because the mirror is
almost completely specular. and it is the slight diffuse reflection near the viewing
angle at which.permits us tosee the surface. If the ceiling is relatively dark. holding
the mirror at other angles results in ada~ image-(ex; of the dark ceiling) and no detail
of 'the mirror surface itself. Thus we understand that reflected glare is due to task
surface specularity, whereas object definition {ex; surface detail) is due to task surface diffuseness. As stated above, task contrasts that enable us to see outline, form.
silhouette, and so on (as in reading) are diminished to the extent that brightness
.
.
(sources} arereflected. in the task.
These brightness withinthe 'geometry of reflected vision are shown in the figures (a),
(b), (c) below and the effects are shown in the next figures (a. b, c, d and e). In studying the geometry of reflected glare in the first figure , it is important to note that a majority of visual w ork is done in the zone of the 20 to 40 from the vertical, below the
eye, bracketing the 25 angle shown.

p~odicular

to task

/ / Viawtng angle
. .: (angle of reflection)

1/ -

\ ~ ....
........

.,

zo ..,e of

~' ) .,;o;og ""' " '"

~le oftilt
of task
(~)

(b)

231

(d.}

\ '"dling reflection irlm:a.w:~ tfu difficulty of the tiering ~ddt. ln (11),

tb), arid ,d), it is diffuse r:tldiou that pumits us to Mte, since the~
reftectian angle doe$ not comspond to tl1c r.:ietdng angle~ in {c). Veiling is

pronounced at the s gLmci ng angle ct:en on a matte-fmbluurfoce. The nonnal

cietLing :one is from 20 to 40", os shOttn in (e).

The table below lists a few sample reflectance figures to

demonstrate that most materials exhibit both a specular
and a diffuse reflectance.

Reflectance
Material
Matte black paper
Matte whi&e- paper

Newspaper
Vety glossy

Specular
0.0005
0.0030
0.0065

Dittuse
().04
0.77
0.68

0.048

0.83

white

photo paper
Metallic papercopper
DuU black ink
Super gloss black
ink

232

0.11

(128

A006

.0.045

0.039

0.016

(b) EQUIVALENT SPHeRICAL ILLUMINATION (ESI), CONTRAST RENDITION FACTOR

(CRf), AND LIGHTING EFFECTIVENESS FACTOR (LEF)

As with direct glare, a scientific approach to the solution of reflected {;!are problems
required a means for accurately defining the loss of contrast due to glare. This requires a reproducible, measurable light quality, that is, a reference lighting system in
which seeing ability, which is defined by degree of contrast for a given task, can be
measured and to which other lighting systems visability for the same task can be
compared. see figure.

L16HT

In order to achieve a lighting system almost free of reflected glare, it is necessary to

construct an enclosed volume whose surfaces are uniformly reflective and w hose
primary source is obscured to the maximum extent possible. As illustrated, the integrating sphere is such a device. Light is introduced from the outside, split by a
deflector and evenly distributed throughout the sphere by the multiple reflections
from the white painted walls~ The result is an evenly illuminated volume. When a task
is introduced, the illumination falling on it is entirely uniform, that is, there are no high
brightness points reflected in it. It is therefore, spherically illuminated . (Note the
parallel to sky illumination.) The extent to which any other illumination system can
duplicate this glare-free environment is that system's equivalent sphericJil. illumination IESI), and is simply the portion of its total illumination that is spherical. Measurement of ESt is accomplished by comparing contrast rendition in the spherical and test
systems.
A contrast rendition factor (CRF) of 1 .00 would indicate that the system under test
gives the same contrast rendition as the integration sphere and that all its illumination is spherical illumination. With a lower CRF, the ESI drops sharply,

233

The lighting effectiveness factor (LEF) is the ESI footcandles divided by the test illumination in "raw" footcandtes, and is therefore a measure of the lighting effectiveness of the total system. A well-known study of school lighting gave the illustrated results for four viewing positions in classroom lighted with ceiling-mounted
continuous tows of 2 by 4ft. (0.60 x 1,120 m.), four lamp, 40 -w fluorescent fixture with lens type wraparound diffusers. on 1 0 ft. (3.00m) centers.
see figure below.

Position

M3

M4

92

125

185

250

118
235

M1

M2

2L
4L

108
215

CAF 2L
4L

4l

28.4

LEF 2L

.165
.132

1.00
1.00
91 .9
185.3
1.0
1.00

.82
.83

ESI 2l

.75
.76
17.8

Tl

4l

31.5
58.1
.25
.23

1.01
1.03
27.8
308.3
1.08
1.31

11-:-Task llh.mlnation
21..- 2 lamps (Inside pair)
4L-t lamps

Carefully note that:

1 . The CRF, and therefore, ESI depends entirely on position and viewing
angle, other factors in the space being equal.
2. In an ostensibly very welt lighted (215 fc) position (MI), the useful illumination is only 28 fc!
3. The CRF can exceed 1 .00 that is, the integrating sphere does not produce
perfectly glare-free illumination but onty rearly so.

234

Control of

Reflec~ed

Glare

Although there is no known lighting method or material that will completely eliminate
veiling reflections, there are number of tech!)iques that will minimize contrast loss due to
veiling reflections while maintaining adequate illumination. These are:

* Physical arrangement of sources, task, and observer so that reflected glare is

minimal.

* Adjusting brightness (eye adaptation level) so that objectionable brightness is

minimized.
* Design of the light source so that it causes minimal reflected glare.
* Changing the t ask quality.

(a) PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT OF SYSTEMS ELEMENT.

Since reflected glare is caused, as the name states by reflection from a specular surface, the simplest and most effective technique is to arrange the geometry of the
system so as to avoid the possibility of reflection . That is, we must remove the
source from the of fending zone. as in the figure.

Unfortunately, this is only to'tally effective when a single luminaire is involved and
when its replacement with respect to the observer is completely adjustable -a rare
combination. In a larger space utilizing multiple sources, particularly in continuous
rows, placing the work between rows with the line of sight parallel to the long axis of
the units is a very effective technique (see fig. tal & (b)

235

(bJ

It is important to remember, however, that the offending

zone is also dependent on the tilt of the desk, assuming
the work is to be kept flat on it. Thus, for a horizontal 3 x 5
ft. (0.90 x 1.50) standard desk, the offending zone is forward of the desk, as in fig. (a) below.

-E--

-- ---)lo-

With an elevated drafting table the ceiling glare source

zone may well be behind the source, as in fig. (b). This being so, it is often possible to reduce glare simply by tilting
the work and/or the work surface to such an angle that
giare is eliminated.

9 ft. c:ailing height

236

All of th~ above geometric solutions pre-suppose a known detailed fixed-furniture

layout, a situation that obtains in many but certainly not all cases. In the absence of
such data two alternatives are possible : to do a uniform layout and adjust the furniture to it or vice versa. In practice, a combination of both is the most practical approach.

(b) CONTROL OF AREA BRIGHTNESS AND EYE ADAPTATION LEVEL

Loss of contrast can be compensated for land glare eliminated ) by increased overall
illumination. We are simply making the task brighter to override the detrimental veiling reflection. The figure below is a curve that quantitatively relates the two
parameters.

1.0
0.9
0,8

0.7
o.6

--- -

o.s

..
!

.. 0.4

I I
I
I 14!5
~

I
I

co.3
02

0.1

10

20

50

100

200

BriiiUess in footiMiberts

500

1000

In the particular instance shown in the curve. 300% brightness increase is required
to.compensate for the loss of contrast experienced. This can in many instances,:be
most practically accomplished not by increasing overall room illumination with the
associated extremely high energy consumption but by adding asupplementarysource
so arranged as to be fre~ of reflected glare. By making this supplementary source
position adjustable (as in the figure below) we accomplish three things.
1. Overcome veiling reflection.
2. Provide the high level of illumination needed for exacting task, with
minimum energy expenditure.
3. Grant the observer complete control with resultant optimum lamp placement plus psychological satisfaction that will generally prevent. worker
complaints.

(c) CONTROL OF SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS

The reflected brightness that causes loss of contrast is proportional to the luminaire
brightness. It is apparent then that glare may be reduces by reducing the luminaire
brightness at the reflection angle. This can be accomplished in four ways.
1. Dimming or switching lamps.
2. Using luminaires with lower overall brightness

238

. 3. Reduce the luminaire brightness only at the offending angles. Diffuser

manufacturers designed and row produce a prismatic diffuser whose output 30 and above 60 are diminished, in order to minimize reflected and
direct glare, respectively due to characteri~tics shape of the distribution
curve , elements that are so designed are known industrywide as "batwing' diffusers or lenses. If observers can be positioned so that their sight
lines are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the ceiling fixtures,
lenses with linear .(side to side) batwing .characteristics will perform well. If
the observing position varies in aspect with respect to the fixture, a radical
batwing curve (in all directions) is required. The figure shows typical batwing distribution curves.

239

4. Using the luminaire as a primary source to illuminate a large, lowbrightness secondary source.
To overcome the economic disadvantage of multiple low-brightness
sources, the ceiling can be used as a secondary source illuminated from
high brightness indirect or semiindirect fixtures. These high brightness
sources, which can be fluorescent of HID (mercury, metal-halide, sodium),
have the additional advantage of high efficacy. The spaces ceiling height
must be sufficient to permit suspending the unit at least 18 in. down, to
avoid "hot spots" on the ceiling. The minimum suspension length
depends on the luminaire characteristics and is normally produced by the
manufacturer. To assure high efficiency the ceiling should be painted with
a high reflectivity matte white pamt, and kept clean. A semiindirect installation using 1 500 rna. very-high-output lamps and the results are
shown in figure (a) below. Another utilizing 400w indirect metal halide
lighting unit is illustrated in figure (b). of extreme importance is the CRF in
excess of 1 .00 both installation with corresponding high ESI and LEF.

~
~~Ceiling (0.8 Rf'l
rt .

ft

;::.

X--&c!lfan
~fixture
. No
At ae..wr PQiidon:
Tl 59fl:
CRF1.Q2
ESI88.St:

>

LEF 1.18

I .

!1

-'1

f!o.s RF Cei~

ll

36 1n.

me-f
~

;.,
N

Tf .,67fc_.,.
7

CRF.:::: 1.05
ESt 73 fc
LEF 1.1

240

....

Patterns of Luminance
One of the factors of visual acuity is the lighting condition . Its primary factors are (a) Illumination level (b) Disability glare (c) Discomfort glare. Its secondary factors are (d)
lumil)ance ratios (e) Brightness patterns and (f) Chromacity.
We note among the secondary factors in illumination the existence of "patterns of
luminance". This is a way of describing the- patterns of light and shadow in a space as
they result from the method of illumination in that space. Thus a single source produces
sharp shadows while a luminous ceiling or a completely indirect iltumination system produces almost completely diffuse light (see figure below). Diffusion is the degree to which
light is shadowless and is therefore a functi(!n of the number of directions from which
light impinges on a particular point and the relative intensities.

There is a widely held but erroneous belief that diffuse lighting is better than directional
lighting for all installations. Although this is frequently true for offices, schoolrooms,
machine shops, and drafting rooms where shadows woutd be highly disturbing and could
be dangerous (as in the case of a machine shop), it is decidedly not the case where texture must be examined, surface imperfections detected by grazing angle reflections, or in
any installation where the flat monotony of diffuse lighting is undesirable. For this
reason, some directional lighting is often introduced as an adjunct to diffuse genera:
lighting to lend interest by producing _.,adows and high brightness variations.

241

Indeed, as seen in the figures below, directional ught is what creates shape and is
precisely the characteristics best used to influence architectural space and form.

The section on types of lighting systems, and other sections following, which deal with
systems of lighting, illustrate a few of the light/dark patterns produced by different
lighting arrangements. The combinations of uplighting and downlighting, perimeter
lighting and ceiling are legion; each produces its own shadows and modeling, and each
has a quality of its own. It is very much in the interest of the. ~ighting. designer to be
familiar with these effects so that he or she can mentally visualize them as the design
progresses.
lnded it would be well for a designer to prepare a reference sketchbook of such shadow
disgrams, It is these patterns of light and darkness that give the ambience and the subject
reactions of:
sociability I isolation

clarity I fuzziness

242

spaciousness I crampedness

simplicity I clutter

formality I informality

boredom I excitement

definition I shapelessness
Since brightness draw the eye's attention, all the individual brightness sources in the
field of view produce an overall impresion. If there is some form or order or pattern to
these brightness (as a pattern of lighting fixtures) then t he overall of as visually harmonious. If, on the other hand, they are disarray they produce a discordancy precisely as
sound produces discordancy in the ear. This visual "noise" is frequently referred to as
visual clutter and can be very disturbing. The designer is well advised to keep this important fact in mind . When arranging light sources that are the primary sources of luminance
in an enclosed space.

243

LIGHT SOURCES
GENERAL REMARKS
Electrical lighting had its real beginning in about 1870 with the development of commercially usable arc lamps and was given greater impetus nine years later by Edison's first
practical incandescent lamp. Todays electric light sources fall into three generic
clasSifications:
(a). The incandescent lamp; including the tungsten-halogen types.
(b). The gaseous discharge lamp , which includes the well-known fluorescent
neon, and mercury lamps , plus the more recent metal-halide and sodium
lamps; and
(c). The electroluminiscent sources.
The efficiency of a light source is termed its efficacy and is measured in lumens per watt.

The table below lists efficacies of modern light sources, including ballast losses where
applicable.

Efficacy
(Lumens per Watt)

Source

Candle
Oil lamp
Original Edison lamp
1910 Edison lamp
Modem incandescent lamp
Tungsten halogen lamp
Fluorescent tamp&
Mercury lamp
Metal-halide tampa
High...preaure sodium
Low-pressure sodium

0.1

0.3
1.4
4.5
14-20
16-20
50-80
3~0

60-80
90-100
120-140

i.

..

.
. .
In general, efficacy increases with wattage; therefor&.lt 'is energy-economical to use a
small number of higher-wattage lamps than the' reverse. It is:: also usually more
economical with respect to fixtures) Since electl.ic lighting in nonresidential buildings
consumes 25 to 60 %. of the electric energy utilized,.any attempt to reduce this must
necessarily include integration of the cheapest (insofar as en~rgy is'concerned), most
abundant and, in many ways, most desirable form of lighting availableDA YLIGHT

246

DAYLIGHTING
Dayflghting as a Lighting
Design Factor
The provision of lighting in structures has in recent years been considered an amenity
rather than a necessity. As such its provision has been the province of architecture rather
than lighting design. The reasons for this are clear. Daylight is indeed an amenity. Windows provide visual contact with the outside and the resultant daylight provi~s a.bright,
pleasant, airy ambience. When daylight enters through windows (si!1e lighting, as opposed to toplighting), its horizontal di rectivity provides good modeling shadows, minimal
veiling reflections. and excellent vertical surface illuminat ion. Furthermore, the continual
variation of daylight which is one of its prominent characteristics, provides a constantly
changing pattern of space illumination; one that is unattainable with artiftciallight. Since
these changes are gradual the eyes adapt easily (see luminance} and the effect is one of
usual interest . Undoubtedly as a result of these effects, nu.merous studies have conClusively demonstrated a marked preference for daylight over any other form of light ing.
On the other hand, no ill effects have conclusively been demonstrated to have been
caused by lack of daylight, that is, by working in an artificially lighted space. Since an artificial lighting system must be installed in any event to furnish interior illumination during
periods when daylight is insufficient. It is now a practice here and in the U.S. of ignoring
daylight and even of shutting it out deliberately. Careful design of an electric -lighting
system can provide a good visual atmosphere. Further, unlike daylight, control of such
systems is relatively simple. Perhaps most important, an interior electric-lighting system
has minimal impact of the building architecture, least of all on the all-important build ing
facade. Rnally, the energy to power electric lighting ~ystems ,was cheap.
The option of ignoring daylight in our high-energy-cost and energy resources-poor society is no longer available. That being the case, the designer must learn to cope with special
problems that daylight use presents in order to reap its benefits. Since daylight is variabie
it creates special problems of glare control, direct sunlight control, and heat-gain limitation. In large measure the science (and art) of daylighting is not so much without the attendant undesirable effects. Put otherwise, American & Asian designers must adapt and
adopt the British technique of PSALI (Permanent Supplementary Artificial Lighting in Interiors), which is almost universally appl ied in Europe . This technique which is really a
design approach, views artificiaf lighting as supplementa,.Y to day1ighting and not viceversa.
The PSAU technique recognizes that non-residential buildings are principally used during
daylight hours and that sufficient daylight is gen~ally available during these hours to provide much of the structures lighting needs. Understood with this statement are the wellfounded assumptions that;
(a}. The same visual performances can be achieved with less daylight than artificial light, when compared on a footcandle basis.
(b}. Current footcandle recommendations can be reduced appreciably without
noticeably depreciation of visual performance of most tasks.
(c). Daylight ar.d artificial light can be readily and successfully combined, that is,
that artificial light can supplement daylight when the latter is insufficient.

247

Reference was made above to nonresidential occupancies since residential spaces are
also in use during periods of complete absences of daylight, that is, at night. That being
so, the artificial lighting system must be designed to furnish all of the required lighting,
and therefore PSALI is not applicable. The same is true of course, for other structures

that are expected to be in at night.

Since interior daylighting is obviously directly dependent on exterior lighting levels, an
understanding of the latter is a clear pre-requisite to designing for the former.

Characteristics of
Outdoor Illumination
(a) FACTORS
The most prominent characteristic of daylight is its variability. Obviously the source
of all daylight is the sun. The level of exterior illumination,, at a particular place and
time, depends on:

1. Altitude and azimuth !latitude, date, time of day)

2. Weather conditions {cloud, cover, smog)
3. Effects of local terrain (natural and man-made obstructions and reflections}.

The position of the sun in the sky is expressed in

terms of its altitude above the horizon and its
azimuth angle. The latter is defined as its horizontal position angles, measured from the south.
Both are normally expressed in degrees. See
figure (a)

Light Sources Mel Their Charac:tedatlcs

"'~"

II
I

'\

248

w .

It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the basic astronomical phenomena
governing the motion of the earth, which produces seasonal and latitudinal variations in the position of the sun. For our purpose, we will simply state the important

facts, which are:

1. For all latitudes, the sun's altitude is highest in summer, lowest in winter
or in cold months. Since days are longer in warm months and shorter
daylight in cold months, it leads to apparent in rapid motion of the sun
across the horizon in the cold months and the apparent slow motion in the
summer. Fall and spring (in our case the in-between months ;:~re also in
between high and low altitude).

(b)

2 . Ar. a location approaches the equator (low latitude, either north or south),
the sun's daily maximum altitude increases. The seasonal altitude variation, however, is the same for all latitudes (exoept at those extreme north
and south latitudes where the sun is above or below the horizon for extended time periods) See figure lcL This factor not only affects exterior illumination leVels but also has a pronounced effect on the design and efficacy of sun-shading devices.

249

(c)

temu of omical angle above the hori::on (altitude)

and hori::ontal angle, rruJtJS'Ured from 1M wuth (azimuth). (b) Appru.rlmate position of the sun in each of
the .se&On$, at a midnorthem lotitwk (approzimotely 45 ). Note that altitutk angle is nuuimum in
summer, minimum in winter. and in-between in spring .and fall ~ote t~ ~ length of doylight houn:
maximum in rummer, minimum in lrin.ter, and in-between in .spring and fall. (c) Maximum sun altitude
at variotu loti~. few both solmceS a'ld equino:res. Marim11m summer .tUn altitude is 90 minus latitude
plw
'l llnilnum winter run altitude is oo minUJ latitude minu$ 23~- lhus for all latitudes the
yetUly difference~ natUimum and minimum altitude! u hCice 23!, tK 47, lJ$ shown.
(a) The J>Mition of the 10n if erpretlleid in

.23r.

3. The sun' s azimuth angle is entirely dictated by the t ime of day, since t he
sun by definition transverses the sky between sunrise and sunset,. The
principal significance of the building orientation, exposures and shading
angles, although obviously the azimut h angle strongly affects exterior illumination levels as can be seen from this table.

Outdoor Brightness, lllumlnaHofJ Levels,

and Solar Angles
.. .
(a) Equtwatent Sky Luminance In Footlamberts-A....-.ge Owtcasl Da,

Noon

30
32
34
36

420
350
320

260

-- 38

40
42
~44

....

46
48

50

740
700
650
600
550:,
500
450

.,

23o
190
150 :
100
60
40: ..
0

380 ,.
. 340

. 290 .
..

24Q

250

..

1020
960
910
840
790
740
660

1210
1150

600

820

660

76G

470-

680
630
560.

790
730

1100

1020
940

550 ..

.. 420..

900

1270
1200
1140
1070
1000
930

, :

850
580

March 2f or September 2f

30
32

910
880
860
840
800

34

36
38
40
42

790

760
740
710
690

44

46
48
50

650

1320
1290
1250
1220
1200
1140
1120
1080
1030
990
940

1710
1650

1600
1560
1500
1460
1410
1340
1229
1240
1180

2010
1940
1870
1800
1740
1670
1600

15-40
1470
1410
1330

2140
2070
1980
1900
1840

1760
1690
1620
1550
1480
1400

June 21

30
32
34

36
38
40
42
44

46
48
50

1270
1280
1290
1290
1290
1290
1300

1290
1290
1290
1260

1730

2250
2240
2220

1730

1730

2200
2160

1730

1720
1700
1690
1670
1640
1620
1590

2120
2080
2050

2010
1960

1900

2960
2840
2650
2540

2430
2330

2250
2160

3060
2860
2660
2520

2400
2280

lb) SKY CONDITIONS

In view of the extreme variability of exterior illumination and the difficulty involved in
determining it, several fundamental questions face the designer:

1. Should an accurate calculation be attempted,.based on a specific location,

or should prevailing weather and its attendant sky conditions be used?

2. The sun's values of exterior illumination should be used in calculating interior levels in view of the daily and seasonal changes?
3. What degree of accuracy is necessary?
When using hand methods (as opposed to computers), it is not practical to calculate
hourly, daily, or even monthly variations. Jt is sufficient to establish four basic sky
conditions, which can then be used with the specific design approach desired these
are:
1
2.
3.
4.

Completely overcast sky

Clear sky, without sun
Clear sky, with sun
Partly cloudy sky

251

No obstruction---

External obstructi011$ and the angle of obslruction.. The angle of

obdruction is .._,red fnim the cenw of the window to the
outline of 1M opposi~e building. See F~re 19.12
(J

Section through a unilaterally tit room

showing the aaaumed dimensions. These
dimensions are the same for bilata111t
lighting excpt that the reference point
is midway between the witldow walls.

(bJ

Plans of window wall8 showing window width

expreued as a ~rcentaga of total room fength.

(cJ
Sketches indicating the psrameters of the CIE calculation systBms. fa} lndicate6 how obstruction angle o is
calculated. (b) Shows a vertical sction through a room with dimensional data r~evant to this system. (c) Indicates
how size (length/ of windows is calculeted with respect to ovei?IH room hmgth.

252

(C.)

for which IES daylight colcula&n method appiiA W'indow u

(a) Sllmt:lDnl room ~

~to extend from a 36-in.-high Jill tv

the ceiling. Dmjliflat u 01'Jiucl611 forth~ pointaln 1M room

along a line from the l%tlln of the window to the C%11ler of the bacl willl. '1'1we point..- indiOI'Jted a.
Max., Mid., Min. and dnf 5 ft ftom the window, ot depth midpoint, tm4 5 ft from the bad wall. D
repusents room depth from u;indow tv bock wall. R()(Jm height from 8 to 14ft OI'JR be occomodotl..

(b) 'I1aew two figures,

(b-1) and (b-.2), Vww the
effect of l&indow design
Ieith &OFYing illunrination conditioru. In both
figur~ 1&indow height is

the rame. except tltot design A corriu the win-

~----------D ----------~
Skyli5flt

toming tlagllght; thil rem~ in a klpW drop

in dD.ylif}Jt penetration
and a ltJrge difference
bdrl;een

0011ditiom

and 8. In diogrrma (b-2)

refltl cround Zfght., remting ftom a high~

~ 1Urft~a oumde

Ground

~
R.F.

l.<M'

.
B

Ground /

li91f/

ttiF

clou; tv the ceiling and

duign B hM the window
head 18 to 24 in. below
the ~- In ditJgrom
(b-1) llcyliflat ~tlt
the rntJior pomon of in-

R.F.

'~

......

,_.dayl~t

Interior

--=----

-~

_~

--~

~~~~--

~------

1M windclul. corrrpme. a
kJ,p porlion (~) of
the m.ru "' lifJtL ~
gnn.nd lirJa# il rereJleded
from the orillng fnlo the
deptla of the room. the
result u Jter daylft!Jat
~em. wilhin the room.
pamculmly at the back.
aJid ~II MIIJ1l difference bdnwA the interior
dD.yliglat leula for window derigN A and B.

~~. . . . . .~. .A. . . . . . . . . .~.a~..........

B

Effective daylight can be

expected to a depth of 2 ~
to 3 times window height.
Diagram fb-3) represents a
design where direct skylight is blocked by an overhand resvlring in interior
daylight being principally
rereflected ground light.
. l:{ers a lower siH height ( 8 )
results in better penetra
tion.

Factors in Interior Daylighting

(a} HORIZONTAL and VERTICAL SURFACES
Since the sky component of daylight enters side fenestration at an angle, it can be
resolved into horizontal and vertical components, as shown in this figure.

Artt;lte of incidenca 8

Ceiling

Horizontal work plene

Floor

+
Vertical woric plana

254

The vertical component that illuminates horizontal surfaces is proportional to the sine
of the angle of incidence, and the horizontal component that illuminates vertical surface is proportional to the cosine of this angle. Therefore, for horizontal tasks, windows should be as high as possible, and for vertical tasks, as low as possible. Since
most tasks are horizontal, tall narrow windows will give better, deeper, penetration
than short wide windows o f the same area.

{b) WINDOWS DETAILS

The effect of window construction on total fenestration area reduction is often
neglected even windows with narrow muRions and light metal frames have 8 to
10% obstruction, heavy window supports and small glass, lights can result proportional daylight reduction. Further obstruction readity results from dust accumulation,
wired glass, and mechanical system items such as pipes and ducts inside the room,
adjacent to windows.

{c}

SURFACE REFLECTIONS
Interior reflections are very important in daylight design. In addition to determining
the magnitude of the internally reflected light component (lAC} within the room, they
determine in large measure the eye adaption level. A high adaptation level is desirable
to avoid a sensation of glare when the window and its immediate surround are in the
field of vision. Furthermore, the internally reflected light component contributes
largely to the diffuseness of the room light. With low IRC the sky component of
daylight is the essential illuminant, and diffuseness and the room penetration are
reduced floors receive the sky component and should have at least 20 % reflectance. Walls receive reflected light. Since they are the surfaces seen at normal vision
angles, they are responsible for eye adaptation levels and should have at least 50%
reflectance .
Exterior surface reflection can provide the deep daylight penetration that is required
for effective daylighting. Thus a concrete or lightpainted pfOvide surface (RF of 50 to
70%) wiU furnish % to 2/3 of the light incident on a windows depending on shading
and orientation. When combined with a hi9h-reflectance ceiling, optimal interior
distribution is achieved.

(d) GlARE AND HEAT CONTROL

These are among the most difficult problems to overcome in daylighting. The following recommendations will be helpful:
1 . Provide high-reflectance surfaces particularly toward the back of the room
where daylight factor is low.
2. Building orientation is the factor that determines which areas are exposed
to natural glare end heat extremes. Bear these facts in mind
(a). Southern exposure receives maximum overall daylight but
without the extremes associated with low sun angles, except at
a high latitudes.

266.

(b). Northern exposure receive minimum daylight and no direct sun.

As a result levels are low but relatively constant throughout the
day.
(c). East and west exposures receive extremes of light and heat
because of low sun angles in early morning and late afternoon.
Heat build-up on west exposure in very cold months can be
almost as severe as summer because of the low sun angle. Furthermore, the low sun angle in the very cold months (winter)
makes the sun's relative motion appear extremely rapid,
necessitating, either a fixed a sun control device, or one that is
easily and rapidly adjustable.
3. Provide fixed sunshades on sun exposures at low altitudes; and operable
sun control devices on sun exposures at all latitudes. A few of the common types are shown in the figure below. Vertical devices are effective for
low sun angles horezontal at high sun angles. The latter are also useful to
reflect incoming skylight onto the ceiling.

ROLL
SHADES

SHADE
SCRE6NS

~5

VENETJAtJ
8LIWDS
'
)! ~

r.:~

[ I

ll

II II [)

~~:;

- --

AWNIN65

LOUVERS

LOW \RHJSlotllTANce.
GLAZIWG
256

4. Translucent. limited-brightness, glass or plastic fenestration including lightdirecting glass block just below the ceiling line and above the vision panels
(clear windows) provides maximum penetration and minimum glare.

5. Tinted windows and heat-reflective films are not usually desirable, except
in retrofrt installations, because they affect the quality of dayftght. .(the
day/ night appearance of the structures is also affected. During daylight
hours vision out is possible and vision in is blocked. The reverse is true at
night)

6 . Orient furniture so t hat daylight comes from 1he left side or the rear of the
line of sight. Never face a window except one northern exposure and no
exterior glare sources in the line of sight.

7. Sunlight reflection from adjacent structures can be a source .of intense

glare and heat. Orientetion, vegetation, .00 fixed shading are posaible
solutions to this problem.

Some of the principles involved in the use of daylight in construction.

258

For Energy Conservation, wall and ceiling designs that admit daylight without excessive
attendant heat gain and direct glare are most desirable. These rely principally on utilizing
reflected daylight.

Ceiling
\

'\

(1)

'

'\

(2l

131

(4)

260

INCANDESCENT LAMPS
The Incandescent Filament lamp
(a) Construction
This lamp consists simply of a tungsten filament inside a gas-filled, sealed glass
envelope as shown in the figure below. Current passing through the high-resistance
filament heats it to Incandescence, producing light. Gradual evaporation of the filament causes the familiar blackening of the bulbs and eventual filament rupture and
lamp failure.

~
Soft &Sass is generaDy U$ed. Hard &tass is
used for some Ia mps to withstand higtler

The filament material usuaUy used is

tungsten. TR filament may be a
waight wite, a coif, 01 a coiled ceil.

bulb t1m~tures and for protedion

apin5t the wuther. Bulbs are made in

various ~pes lind finishes.

Gas
Usually a mixture! of !'litrogen

Support Wires
Molybdenum wires support

and argon is used on most lamps

ot 40 watts or larger ID retard
eva
lion of the fila menl

----the~fi_la_men~~t

____________

Button
lead-in-Wires
Made of copper from base to stem
press and nickel from stem press
to filament carry the c:utTent to
and from the filament
Stem Press
The lead-in wires in the elass
ha~~e an air tight seal here and
are made of a combination of a

nickel-iron al~ core and a

tQPtlel' sleeve (Oumet wire) to

GiiSS'is heated during marH,' .-.. .

i!!J and support wires stuck "'to i~

Bunon Rod
Glass rod suppcrts button.

Mica Disc
Used in higher attage general
\C::::~:>l'---- seNice lamp$ and other ty~
----rtr.l)
when needed to reduce cireulatiofl
of hot gasses into neck of bulb.

assure about the same coefficient

of expansion a:s; the &IUs-

fuse
Protects the lamp and circuit by
blowin if the filament arC$.

Exhaust Tube
Ail is eJthausted ttuougll this tube during
manufacture and inert pses introduc:ed
into the bulb. The tube, .tMch orig;onally
projects beyorld the bulb. is then sealed
off shOit enougfl to be capped by the base..

~
Typicalsaew base is shown. One lead-in
wife is soldered to tile center contxt and
the other to the upper rim of the base
shell. Made of lnss.

2f31

Incandescent lamps are available in many bulb and base types and special designs
for particular application . See figure below .

'

PS- PEA~ SHAPE

A- 51ANDARD SHAPE

STRAI6HT NeCK
PAR- PARABOL\C ALUMlNtZEO
REA... ECTOR

8}1=- A.AME sHAPE

C- CONE s HAPE
Q- GLOBE
GA- co.1BINA110N rY G AtJ0
P - PEAR SHAPE

R- REFLECTOR
s-STRAlGKT

T - TUBULAR

K - ARBITRAR"( teSlGNimON

262

BUU IJIAIIIETVI tS GIVEJI 111

' MICH. ~ : ,.. ,._,,
BUL.JI HII.S A DIAMETER
1 -,.IHCtt OR 2 ....

1I

M.O. L-MAXIM\JM OVERALL

LENGTH: THIS F IGUR E REFERS
TO Til MAXIMUM LENGTH OF
THE IJUL&.

LC.L- l.IGHT CENTER LEJIIGTH:

THIS DIMENSION. IMI'ORTANT
WHN DfSIGNING REFLECTORS,
IS MEASURED FROM THE Ill LAMENT TO A f'OINT THAT VARIES
WITH SASE TYJ'E. SEE fiG' 14.14.

SHOWIII AT SUGHTLY LESS TliNt l!i ACl\JAL SIZE

P$-

A - ST.IUtOAIIO WATIS

IS

40

eo

7S

IUU

A-15

A-ll,

.........

A-ll,

A-ll,

OIMKTIII"

l'a

M.O.L

STAimAIIO
FllfiSH

100

1110

A-21,

A-71.

1'!.

7":o

,.,. n ,.,. . zo.

,... .,.. .... .... ..... ...,. ...... ....
.,. "'- .. ,.. ,. ,.. ..
2'11

LC.L

tm

,._,,

1111.11

M1)

IF

IF

lllf.D

1111)

If

IF

lltf.l)

..

"-23

lSI

:100

P$-25 P$-:10

3110

.... ........... . .....

2'.-

3'!0

,._

3CIO

I'S-:10 P$-.15
~

.....

--

&':.

.....

7'511

1000

..,.

P$-S2 P$-S2
5'n')

1!1111
PS-.l

....

. ..

.. o ..

'n

...

MED

11(0

MED

MED

111(0

IIOfD

MOG

MOG

MOG

MOG

IIIOG

IF

If

CL
If

CL
If

IF

IF

IF

IF

C\.

CL

;~

MtD

Ito

~SHArf:

IF - II&Dt: ~EO

4'!.

IF

,,

CL

"

To diffuse the light, most bulbs are either etched on the inside (inside-frosted) or are
coated inside with white silica. The silica coating provides almost complete light diffusion at a cost of approximately 2 to 3% of t he light output, whereas inside-frosted
bulbs provide only partial diffusion but do not reduce light output. Inside-frosted
bulbs are normally supplied for general service use unless other types are specified.
Colored lights also readily available from either coated bulbs or bulbs of colored
glass.
The lamp base is the means by which connection is made to the socket and thereby
to the source of electric current. Most lamps are made w ith screw bases of various
sizes, the most common being the medium screw base. General service lamps, of
300 Wand larger, use the mogul screw base. Where exact positioning of the filament is important, as it is when .lamps are placed in precise reflectors on in lens
systems, a screw base cannot be used. Lamps designed for such use are furnished
with one of the special bases illustrated.

263

.....

....

!
_L

-'

1J J. {)
Miniature

_.

u_.

Miniature
bayonet

'

_!_

Candelabra

....

u oLo
~

.....

Intermediate

Single contact Oouble contact

bayonet

bayonet

candelabra

cande!abra

rt
Disc

~
RKessed Single

.....
.....

....;

.l

Medium

rontact

_.
~
_.

j_

Three contact
medium

....i
~

....

tl_l

.....
....;

~
Medium

Medium

pre focus

side prong

...i

j_

_.
~
_,

j_

IJ

Medium
skirted

Three contact
mogul

Mogul

Mogul
prefocus
Bases shown at approx.

264

Mogul end

prong
lf4 actual

size

(b) Operating Characteristics

These are critically dependent on the voltage at the lamps; therefore the life, output,
and efficiency of a lamp can be markedly altered by even a small change in operating
voltage, as illustrated by this figure:

AI:Milldlage

110..4

112.8

1152

117.6

120

122.4

124.8

~~~r---~--~r---~~~r---~--~----+.r~~----

150

~ 110 1---+---1-----!+--

--+lr---

"'

~lOOr---~--~~--~--~~~~~~----~---+----~--~100~

j 90r---4-~~~~~~~--------~~--~--~----~--415
I

80~--~--~F---~,r---4----4----+---~~~+---~---4 50

M~~;---~--~~T----r--~----+----r.--~----+---~

95.8%-{

265

For example, burning a 120-V lamp at 125V ( 1 04.2%) means approximately:

16% more light (lumens)
7% more power consumption (watts)
8% higher efficacy (lumens per watt)
42% less life (hours)

Burning a 120V lamp at 115V (95.8%1 means approximately:

1 5%

~ess light (lumens)

7% less power consumption (watts)
8% lower efficacy (lumens per watt)
72% more life (hours)

Particular note should be taken of the effect of voltage on lamp life. ln installations
where lamp replacement is difficult and/or expensive, lamps may be burned slightly
under voltage and life prolonged, thereby deGreasing the frequency of replacement.
However, since efficiency is decreased by this procedure and since energy cost is
normally a major cost in any lighting installation over the life of the installation, a
detailed cost analysis should be made by the consulting engineer involved. Conversely,
where lamps are replaced before burnout on a group replacement system and initial
installation cost per tootcandle and/or energy cos1S are high, lamps may be burned overvoltage, thereby increasing output and. efficiency by shortening life.
This procedure is normal in sportslighting installations because of the high cost of
tower-mounted floodlights, making it mandatofy to extract the maximum light for
each unit. In stadium installations that have yearly burning schedules averaging less
than 200 hours, 10% overvoltage operation doubles the light output but still allows
a once-year, off-season relamping and is therefore a highly economical procedure.
In general, however, it is advisable to generate incandescent lamps at rated voltage,
accepting balanced efficiency, output, and life.

(c) Other Characteristics

1 . Lumen Maintenance. Light output decreases slowly with lamp life as the bulb
blackens. Position during burning and bulb temperature affect this characteristic.
2. Color. White, with large, yellow-red component and therefore highly flattering to
the skin. Since color depends on temperature, high-voltage lamps are bluer, lowwattage lamp.s are yellower. Dimmed lamps give yellow-red light.
3. Surro':Jndings. Generally impervious to external heat, cold, or humidity. Starting
completely unaffected.
4. Lamp Efficiency. Since incandescent lamps produce light as a by-product of heat,
they are inherently inefficient. Efficiency increases with wattage, varying from
8% for a 25W lamp to 13% for a 1000-W unit. This increased efficiency can

266

also be noted from the lumen output figures in the table below. Thus a 1 00-W
lamp produces the same 1750 lm as two 60-W lamps, representing 20% increase in efficacy.

Typical lncsndescent Lamp Dala (I.Jsllng Few ol Msnr Sizes .,.d J)lpes of
115-, 120-, .,d 125- Lamps)
Physical Data

Wtts -4inct Lifv

Lamp

Watts8CI
6

7jCI
lOCI
15
1$
15Cer
15
25
25
25
25CI
40
-40

.cosw
40

sow
60
60
60
75
75SW
100
100
100

Awoe,.ge "-ted
Lifv (Hours)

Color Temp.

1500
1500
1400
1000
2500
1000

2370

1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000

1000
1000
2500
1000
750
750
750

1000
750
1000

Initial
Lumem

58
-40

126
120
138
115

2550

2770

2790
2800

BIM

9.7
6.7
6.0
11.5

8 .4
8.0
9.2
7.7

S-6

a..
Cand.

~14

Mecl.

S-11
S-14
A-15
A-17

Med.
Med.
Med.
Med.
Med.
Canes.

S-11

228

9.1

1<1.3

238

9 .5

242

9.7

T~

lntw.

11.3
11.5
11 .1

.A-15
A-19
A-19
G-25
A-21
A-19
A-19
A-19
A-19
A-19
A-19
A-21
A-19
A-21
A-21

Med.
Med.
Med.

830

890

1180
1740
1690

2900

1460
1220
2810

2930

3940

2580
2940

of

per Walt

357

760
575
1210
2870

Shat

Lumens

T-7
A-17
A-19
A-19

460
4<15

750

200SBIF

Lumens

45
115

1500
1500

300
300

2370

1'500

150
200

150

(K)

400

2500
1000
750
750
750

100

Apptox.

16.6
14.8
12.7

9.6
18.1
15.7
17.-4
16.9
14.6
12.2
18.7
17.2
19.7

PS-25
A-23

3320

16.6

PS-30

6000
6000

20.0
20.0

Ps-30
PS-30

Mad.
Med.
Med.

Mi.
Meid.
Med.
Meet
Meet
Meet
Meet
Med.
Med.
Med.
Med.
Mad.
Meet
Meet
Med.
Meet.
Mogul

Description
Indicator

Sign

Refrigerator
Appliance
Rough service
Vibration semce
Showcase
Appliance

Decorative

long life
Rough sudace

Long life
Rough surface

Figures In this column designate the input watts, and the letten; Identify the treatment of the glass bulb;
thus: 60 means 60 w. All inSide frosted unless otherwise noted. Other lett~n have these meanings: W,
white; SBIF, silver bowl, inside frosted; Cl, cfear; SW, sort white; Cer. ceramic.
~Bulb Designations. Bulb deSignations consist of a letter to indicate its shape and a figure to indicate
lhe approximate maximum diameter in eighths of an inch

ldl Summary
The principal advantages of incandescent lamps are low cost, instant start and
restart, simple inexpensive dimming, simple compact installation requiring no ac
cessories, cheap fixtures, focusable as a point source, as a point source, high power
factor, life independent of number of starts, and good color .
The principal disadvantages are low efficacy, short lamp life, and critical voltage sen
sitivity. low efficacy results in a large number of fixtures, high maintenance costs,
and large heat gain. Short lamp life results in high replacement .labor cost. Voltage
sensitivity requires careful and expensive circuit design. Also, light concentration at
the filament (point source) requires careful fixture design in order to avoid glare and,
if undesirable, sharp shadows. Because of the poor energy characteristic, incandescent lamp use should be limited to t he following applications:
1 . Infrequent or short duration use

2. Where low-cost dimming is required

3. Where the point source characteristic of the lamp is important, as in
focussing fixtures
4 . Where minimum initial cost is essential

A brief list of conventional incandescent lamps and their physical and operating
characteristics is given in the table on page Z78. Lamp data for use in the design should
be taken from current manufacturer's literature. Data presented here are typical.

Special Incandescent Lamps

Including Tungsten-Halogen
1. Rough service and vibrations lamps are built to w ithstand rough handling
and continuous vibration, respectively, both of which conditions are extremely hard on general service lamp filaments. Neither type is intended
for general use, and both types have lower efficacy than a general service
lamp (see table above)

2 . Extended service lamps are designed for 2 SOOhr life and are useful, as
mentioned, in locations where maintenance is irregular and/or relamping is
difficult. The lamp is really designed for slightly higher voltage than that at
which it is applied, and therefore efficacy is reduced. (as shown in the
table and the figure earlier on operating characteristics of a standard
1 20-Vl
So called '' long-Life" lamps, which are guaranteed to burn for two, three,
or five years, are lamps designed for much higher voltages than that at
which they operate. Since they normally sell at a high cost and are very in
efficient, their use is seldom advisable. In a cost comparison made of three
lamps with 750, 2500, and 10 ,000-hr lives, respectively, including cost
of lamps, energy and relamping, the relative costs per million lumen hours
were 1.0, 0.94 , and 1 .17, respectively.

268

(a) REFLECTOR LAMPS.

These are made in "R" and "PAR" shapes (see previous illustrations on bulb shapes)
and contain a reflective coating on the inside of the glass envelope; this gives the en
tire lamp accurate light beam control. Both types are available in narrow or wide
beam design, commonly called spot and flood, respectively. R lamps are generally
made in soft glass envelopes for indoor use, whereas PAR lamps are hard glass,
suitable for exterior application. Also available is a lamp with an elliptical reflector
bulb shape. This causes the beam to focus a few inches in front of the lamp, permitting high-efficiency application in pinhole downlights or deep baffle units where use
of ordinary R lamps causes trapping and loss of the most of the lamp's output. This
elliptical reflector action in a fixture is illustrated in this figure.

269

Typical reflector lamp dimensional and photometric data given in this figure.

( =!-....;...~

' 1
-MEDIUIII

iAS-!

l;~MOGUl. liAS~

......
;::

R LAMPS

t~etve.s

IIIEOIUIII

SltiiiTED Ill
BASE

from Axis

PAR LAMPS

r.cro. SID
PROIIG 8ASE
(2)

~~
.
....

ts=~
Approximate Initial Output of Typical PAR and R Lamps
w.ttase
75
150

300
500
500
150

Bulb

Sf'OT lAMPS

....

Beam

c.ntnl

Sclrd
(I)

1.850(2)

SO"

430

R~

910

R-40

7,400(2)
13.500(3:)

35

1.660

R~

22.000(3:)

6()-

C.240

9.100(3:)

30"
1J-x23

R-52

--

ZIG
300

PAR-46

-.GOOP.C)

PIUI'~

IWIUU~4)

500
500

I'M-56
~

PAR. .

=- Z'IF'
-

lCM,CXIO p. 4) "

tn Tc- 1ca ......,.._. a1 _ . . _

13"1120"

Total

lumens ~

R-30

aso

.,

flOOD LAMPS
Beam

Central
Candl
power

860
1.950
3.700
6.500

415(2)
1.100(2)
2.200(2)
C,700(2)

3,500(2)

960

1.730

1.200

U50

10,500 (2. 5)

l,(IU;I

24,WQ (2. :1)

10.000 (2. 6)
35,000 (2. $)
11,000 (2. 6)

- .s.ooo
- -

f2J~iootd'-.

270

Beam

Beam

Spreacl
(1)

Total

Lumens lumens

18

610

em
1.950
3,700

12()

1.530
3,250
5,930

u.ooo

uo
us

6tr
'2D' x40"
'Zirll35
30"1160"

..

Jl1's35"

3,500
e.G ....._ tpOt.

~.~

W~lnS'-

1.220
1.300
2.000
2.100
.3.400

6,500
7.8!10

1.730
2.,250

3.840
3,8CO

6.500
6.500

Illumination patterns resulting from typical PAR spot and flood lamps are shown in
this figure below . When using Rand PAR lamps the fixture acts principally as a lampholder, since beam control is built into the lamp.

The beam of the PAR lamp is cone- like in shape.

Each type of PAR lamp has a d istinct illumination
pattern which varies in size and light intensity depending on the angle at which the lamp Is aimed
and on its distance from the area illuminated.

5'
3'

0
_ 3,

-'-+'H+_._,n+.,___

3()FC-=~~
20FC -

When centered directly

on the surface to be
lighted (at right angles
or .:rero degrees)
the small PAR 38 sizes give
a round lighting pattern.
The concentric rings show
the amount of light
measured in footcandles
at various distances from
the beam center. The
round lighting pattern
changes to oval or elliptical
when the lamp is aimed at
an angle.

FC ----~

- s'

150 WATT PAt:i 38 FLOC>~

II
(J'I \

300 WATT PAR 56 NARROW SPOT

The light ing pattern of the larger PAR 46, 56. and 64 litmps
is oval or elliptical, whether centeo"ed directly on the surfl!Ce
or aimed at an angle. As shown in the two diagrams, aim ing
PAR lamp$ 1t progressively greateo" angles - proportiona~ely
increases both the length and width of the area illuminatlld.
In ~neral, fOf spotlights the length of the lighting petmn
becomes prClpQI'tionatllly greater - and in the case of
floocllighu, the width.

300 WATT PAR 56 MEDIUM FLOOD

271

(b) INTERFERENCE (DICHROIC} FILTERS.

Since filters had been previously used only in specialized applications such as projection lamps to remove heat from the light beam, are now available in PAR lamps. The
basic filter is a thin film that operates on the interference principle rather than absorption. Thus the surface remains relatively cool.
In one design that is utilized to limit the heat in the light beam, the film is applied to
the inside back of the lamp. It acts by transmitting infrared heat out of the lamp back
while reflecting light out the lamp front. (see figure below). Typical applications are
now window displays, over food counters, and in any location where a "cool beam"
is desirable. Of course, provision must be made for removal of the heat from fixture if
the lamp is housed.

LIGHT
(a}
INTERFERe~:!

FILTER

LIGHT

(b)

In a second design, multiple-layer filters are applied to the front of !he lamp. Each film
acts to transmit one color and reflect its complement (two color, hence dichroic).
These dichroic filter lamps produce a purer, more saturated color at high efficacy
than is possible with selective absorption filters.

(c) LOW-VOLT AGE LAMPS.

These lamps, in PAR shape and for 6-V operation, are available in extremely narrow
beam spread (5-1 0 } for special precision control floodlighting. The low voltage
makes their application to exterior work simplier.

272

(d) KRYPTON 'GAS

This gas in lamps in place of the usual nitrogen-argon mixture conducts heat more
slowlY from the filament and results in the approximately 10% higher efficacy,
longer life, and a smaller envelope. The cost premium for krypton lamps is approximately 50%. Applications are in long-life lamps to increase efficacy and in exterior
spots and floods to increase life and output.

(e) ENERGY-SAVING LAMPS

These are basically long-life lamps that are filled with krypton to raise efficacy. These
lamps can be substituted for standard lamps for appreciable savings in energy costs
and relamping costs. (see table below) . Note that efficacy is still considerably below
that of a standard lamp. The use of krypton-filled lamps increases initial cost and
decreases energy cost.

Dt01ROIC t1UlJ1-lAYER
W\DE BAWD RLTER
SELECliVE iAANSMlSSlON
0t= t:ES\RED COL~

(f)

TUNGSTEN-HALOGEN (QUARTZ) LAMP

This is a "gas f illed tungsten incandescent lamp containing a certain proportion of
halogens.'' The halogens are iodine, chlorine, bromine, and fluorine. Thus the quartziodine-tungsten filament lamp is a member of this class . The lamp is basically an incandescent lamp, producing light and heat from the incandescence of its coiled filament. Unlike the normal inert gas-filled incandescent lamp. the lamp envelope, which
Is quartz to withstand high temperature, is filled with an iodine vapor that prevents
the evaporation of the tungsten filament.
This evaporation is what normally occurs n the incandescent lamp, resulting in the
blackening of the bulb, light output deterioration, and eventual burnout. The
mechanism of the regenerative halogen cycle is shown in the figure below, along
with a graphic comparison of Ught loss between a normal incandescent and a
tungsten-halogen lamp. Although the lamp has approximately the same efficacy as
an equivalent normal incandescent, It has the advantages of longer life, low lumen
depreciation (98% output at 90% life). and -a smaMer envelope for a given wattage.
Some typical lamp data are given in this table.

Typlt:M Da,. 101 Quartz Tungsten-H.togen Lamps, Pr. ~llector. and Tubular
120- Lamps tor Spot Flood. and General Ughtlng'

wans

Bulb

250 PAR-38

Maximum
OYeraN
Length
(Inches)

5d

Base

Rated
Life
(Hours)

Medium
skirted

6000

Beam
Type

Mean
Approximate
Lumens
Initial
Through
Total
Life
L.umens
(Percentage)

Spot
nood

3220
3220

94

94

500 PAR-56

Mogul
end prong

4000

Narrow spot
Medium flood

8000
8000

94
94

1000 PAR-64

Extended
mogut

4000

Narrow spot
Medium flood

19,400

94

19,400

94

Aood

18,300

95

end
prong

1000

R-60

101

Mogul

3000

250

T-4

DC bay

2000

4850

95

300

T-4

RSC

2000

5650

95

400

T-4

3j

Mini-can

2000

7970

95

500

T-4

Med.-PF

2000

10,450

95

750

T-6

Med.-PF

2000

15,750

95

1000

T-6

Si

ASC

4000

19,800

95

.8

2.

Filament operates at
high tempenature in
close confinement.

Bulb hem 0'4el'

500"F-iodine VIPQr
circulates starting
bulb-cleaning c:yele.

Tungsten particles
burn off filament, de. posit on bulb wall.

lodine combines with

free tungnett part;.
cles, cools lnd recirculates to filament.
(4)

274

Iodine is ntleated bv filament.

refeeses tungsllen pertieles
and teein:ula1es in a renewed

dMning cycle.

R-40

Typical Perlonnanee Comparison-Halogen Lamps Y$. ConventiOnal Lamps

100

&.

;;

75

~50

~
...I

25

100

I r-

500

&
"5

120-Yolt
llalotll'n lamp

I
1000

I !
1500

75

~50 r - ~

"I
120-..:lltlamp_
50C)..waU.

an ol 50<Hratt. _

~~

t--

Ad~ perfonn-

~-aliCe of

...J

25

con~'

PA~p~

Life-Hours

[
500

Added pe<fotm..uof~-

PAR-56

llanlamp;

2000

Perfonnance ol ......._

1000

1500

!
2000

Ute-Hours
(c)

FLUORESCENT LAMPS
The Fluorescent LampConstruction
The second major category of light sources is that of electric discharge lamps, of
which the fluorescent lamp is the best known and most widely used type. It has
become so popular since its major introduction in 1937 that it has almost completely
supplanted the incandescent lamp in all fields, except specialty lighting and residen
tial use. The typical fluorescent lamp comprises a cylindrical glass tube sealed at
both ends and containing a mixture of an inert gas, generally argon, and lowpressure mercury vapor. Built into each end is a cathode that supplies the electrons
to start and maintain the mercury ~rc, or gaseous discharge. The short-wave
ultraviolet light, which is produced by the phosphors with which the inside of the

275

tube is coated and is reradiated in the visible light range. The fluorescent lamp is so
called because its phosphors fluoresce, or radiate light, when exposed to ultraviolet
light. The particular mixture of phospors used governs the spectral quality of the light
output.

(a) PREHEAT LAMPS

The original fluorescent lamp was of a preheat design. Construction of a typical hot
cathode lamp {preheat and rapid start is shown in the figure below ; the basic preheat
circuit is shown in the next figure).

8Ul.B

l'ttOSPHOft

u..t~v ~flaB
tube. May alto be

CATllOOE

eo.dng Qide 1he bu1b

transforms ultraviolet
million into visible
light. Cob" of light
~~01\
CIOiupcoiliDio of ~-

c:itatlllr or U-4>oc-d.

""Hot C31t>ol:ieu ~ Net~

eod of 1.-np is mated
wilh emiaiw material
whidl enits electrons.
u.u.Jiy n..te of llOikd-

EXHAUST nJBE
Air n eJthausee 1tlrooq,
thi~ tube duti~ manufa::tu~ Mid iiner1 9111
intnlel&ad ...., 1he bulb..

llOil ... tingfe-<:Dil

~-.ft.

MERCURY
A mn.te quwotily of
liqooid mercury is placed

ln 1he bulb 10 furnish

-.:ur.,_-.

u..attv <lf90R 01 a mixwre of inert g..,. at

low pn!IU1!. l(rypb1
is wometimes u.-1.

STEM PRESS

BASE

The lead-in

s....ra1 different ty~

. - 10 comer:t the
'-np to the elec1ric c:ira.o it ld to oupport the
lamp in the lampholder.

wns ' -

an aw ~~ .-1 t.re
and - m8de of Oumd
~ to _,.. eou~ 1tle
-

coeff"ocient of expansion
the glaa..

as

l.EAO-rN-wiRES

Connect 10 the

pinl ... ~,.

a.onent ID Mid from
the C2ltlodes ... the
meroory aoc.

,-----,

~------~
L.. _

~--------~
___
.J

Ballast

a"'

(a} Balic prtlr.eat dmlil. Stomr - J be

of~ types. manfMJI or automatic. The
c:in:uit dOI!lJ ftDf -.'ww ~or otlr.er
ddtJiW danent$ for the mb ofci.rity. Most
, - . , l4Dnps ~ T-12 mad operate Gl
4.25 ma.

Xl6

The circuit utilizes a separate starter, which is a small cylindrical device that plugs into a preheat fixture. When the lamp circuit is closed, the starter energizes the
cathodes; after a 2- to 5- second delay, it initiates a high voltage arc across the lamp,
causing it to start. Most starters are automatic, although in desk lamps the
preheating is accomplished by depressing the start button tor a few seconds and
then releasing it. This closes the circuit and allows the heating current to flow;
releasing the button causes the arc to strike.

All preheat lamps have bipin bases (see figure below.) They range in wattage from 4
to 90 Wand in length from 6 to 90 inches (0.15 to 2.25 M.l. A typical ordering abbreviation for a preheat lamp would be f15T12WW. This translates: Fluorescent
lamp, 1 5W, tubular-shaped bulb, 12/8-in . diameter (number represents diameter in
one eighths of an inch), warm white color see table below). In large measure preheat
lamps have been supplanted by rapid- start and instant-start types.

T-12.
MED. Bl- PIN

lb)

(b) RAPIO-ST ART LAMPS

These are similar in construction to the preheat lamps; the basic difference is in the
circuitry (see circuit diagram figure below). This circuit eliminates the delay inherent
in preheat circuits by keeping the leamp cathodes constantly energized (preheated).
When the lamp circuit Is energized, the arc is struck immediately. No external starter
is required. Because of this similarity of operation, rapid start lamps will operate
satisfactorily in a preheat circuit. The reverse is not true, because the preheat re
quires more current to heat the cathode than the rapid-start ballast provides . (See
table below}
Fluorescent Lamp Interchangeability
Ballast/Circuit Type

Lamp

Type

Preheat

Rapid-start

Instant-start
Not good, poor starting
short life&
OK

Preheat

OK

Not good, poor starting

Instant-start
(Sfimllne)
Rapid-start

Won't start, not goo~

Won't start. Not good"

OK

OK

Preheat/ :

Ot<

OK

rapid-start

2n

Not good. poor starting

short life&
Not good, poor starting
short life&

By far the most popular lamp is the 40-W T -1 2 lamp. A standard ordering abbrevia
tion for a lamp would be F40T1 2WW/ RS which indicates fluorescent, 40W, T-1 2
bulb, warm white ~olor, rapid start.
Most rapid-start lamps operate at 425 Ma. If this curren~ is increased, the output of
the lamp also increases. Two special types of higher output rapid-start lamps are
available. One operates at 800 Ma (milliamperes) and is called simply high output
(HQ) . The second, which operates at 1500 Ma (1 .5 amp). is called by different
manufacturers - very high output (VHO), super-high output, or simply 1500-ma,
rapid start lamp. There is also a , 500-ma special lamp that uses what looks like
a dented or grooved glass tube. This lamp, called Power Groove by the standard VHO
tube . All high-output lamps use double contact bases and special ballasts (see
figures below).

T-12.
RECESSED
DOUBLE CONTACT

Rec:e$$ed double contact

High output lamps
and very h igh output lamps

This lamp is used in applications where high output is required from a limited size
source such as outdoor sign lighting, street lighting, and merchandise displays.
Because of the serious heat problems involved , VHO lamps are frequently operate
without enclosing fixtures.
The HO and VHO lamps are slightly less efficient than the standard 425-ma, rapidstart lamp and have considerably shorter life. Typical ordering abbreviations for-highoutput lamps are similar to the standard rapid-start lamps except that the number in
dicates length, not wattage. For instance, F72T12/CW/HO is fluorescent, 72-in.
lon, T-12 bulb, cool white, .high output (1500 mal. Typical cha~acteristics for all
rapid-start lamps are given in the table below.

278

Typical Fluor.acnt bmp D11t11

I.Anfp o.ta
Lump

Abbruvlatton

-Prehaat tampa"

,a

F15 T8 CW
F20T12 CW

20

lfepld ltarl-pn/iHIIMt,.,.
no r12 cw
30

410
410
40
40
40
40
40
40
40

F40 T12 CW
F40T12WW
F40T12CWX
F40 T12 D
F40 T12 CWIS
-F40 T12 H
F40T1UC50
F40T121C78
F40T12/U

, . d lrl-llfvh olllp411

F48 T12 CW tHO

---

l.tmp Diameter LnQtlt

(Wtltl) (/trl:hH) (lncllaa}

Fto T12 CWI HO

110
711

F72 T12 CWtHO

Fit T12 CWtHO

112

87

ftepld atatt-Hf1 ltlflt output

F48 T12 CWtVHO

F72 Tl2 CWtVHO
F96 T12 CW IVHO
F48 P017 CW
F72P017 CW

118

FitPG17 OW

218

tee

'%

~.
'%
'%
'%
~.
~.
~.

"4
'%

'%
'%
'%

~.
r.

'%
'%
'%

.. .'r,

2115
111

lnar.nt atatf (INmllnt) , , , .

F42T6 CW
ao
F04T8CW
ae
F24 T12 CW
20
F4a Tl2 CW
H
F72T12 CW
67
F96 712 CW
78
F36 T12
30
INtgy-conaarYinglatrtpl
F40 CW/ RSI
35
116
F96 CWI HOI
F98 cw
eo
F98 PG CWI
185

.,...
%

"%
''I

'%
'%
'%
'%
"t.
~.
'%

Curren/
(m/11/amptrea)

18
24

425
4125

38
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48

425
425
42$
4125
425
425
425
425
425
4211

48

eo

72
~8

600
800
800
800

..

hllnl
w.,,~

Lum.,t

7600
9000

870
1300

750
1155

38
43

37.5
48
48
418
46
418
46
48
46
48

18000
20000
20000
20000
20000
15000
20000
20000
20000
12000

2300
3150
3200
2200
2600
3250
2100
2200
2000
2900

1955
277.0
2770
1825
2290

61
68
70
48
57
71
46

72.5

12000
12000
12000
12000

4300
5400
6650
9200

3740
4700
5785
8005

55

121
173
225
121
173

9000
9000
9000
12000
12000
12000

6250
9900
14500
7450
11500
16000

4750
7720
11310
5950
9200
13000

52
57
64
62
66
71

54

38

7500
7500
7500

1490
2350
990
2760
4280
5800
1740

44
56

12000
12000
7500

1750
2800
1150
3000
4600
6300
2000

54
51
68
47

70
70
58
75
65
84

2850
8500

2510
7395
5150

23

7.5

8
8
6
6

a
6

e
12.S
111
13
14
8

1600
1500
1500

II

V6

1500

42
84
24

200
200
425

1500

(Houra)d

TolalWalla

30

10
5
8
10

90

100
126

us

48

~25

72
98
38

425
4?5
.ol25

13
13
14
12
13
13
13

48

425
600
425

8
14
13

41
109
73

20000
12000
12000

5600

13

198

12000

14000

Lamp
E"lcacy Efficacy
(tpw)l
(/pw}f

Initial
Output

1600

98

lnlri l

Aclue/

L.emp
l.lfl

10

48
72
98
48
72

98

.,

L.um.na
Lamp

51
34

51
73
68
43

9000

40%
Ute

2960

1745
1690
1720
2525

58
65
77
80

55
65
61
53
55

55

50
63

60

67
73

34

Cool while

79

48

.u

Rmarkt

warm white
Cool white deluxe

Oayllgl'lt
High lumen maintenance
Nesural (aof1) whit
SOOOK color
7500 K color

"U"' llllpe1

72
72
76
82
59
67
64
68
74

G.e.

Powet' Groove
G.E. Power Groovll(!>
G.E. Powar Groove

67

Warm whitt

70
78
76

81
89

Rap1d

93

71

76

Slim line, Cool whitt

G.E. Power Groove

Start, Cool white

AS, High Output

(c)

INSTANT-START FLUORESCENT LAMPS

Slimline lamps are the best-known variety of instant-start fluorescent lamps. They
use a high-voltage transformer to strike the arc without any cathode preheating.
These lamps have only a single pin at each end that also acts as a switch to break the
ballast circuit when the lamp is removed, thus lessening the shock hazard. (see
figures below)

T-12
Single pin
High voltage end

Low voi Uige end

Slimline Lamps
(h)

...
...

(c) Basic inst4nt-start circuit.

Voltage from ballast transformer is high enough to strike
an arc directly. l\'ote that unlike
preheat and rapid-start lamps.
these are single pin, since cathodes are not preheated. T-6 and
T -8 lamps normally qpnate at
200 ma, T-12 lamps at 425 ma.

"'

(Lower portion of figure)

Becdwe of the high ooltage in-

oolved.. the .lampholdn ot one

end ii a di.n:onnectfng det,-ice
thiJl opens the circuit cohen the
IIIIIJpis~.

(c}

280

The lamps are generally operated in two-lamp circuits at various currents; normal
currents are 200 and 425 ma, and normal lengths are 24, 36, 42, 48, 60, 64, 72,
84, and 96 in. (0.60, 0.90, 1.1 5, 1.20, 1 .50, 1.60, 1.80, 2.1 0, and 2.40 M.)
These lamps are actually hot cathode instant-start lamps, which differentiates from
the high-voltage cold cathode type. Slimline lamps and ballasts are more expensive
than rapid-start and are somewhat less efficient. However, they are manufactured in
certain sizes and currents not made in rapid-start (ex: 96 in. 430 mal; and they have
the add itional advantage of being able to start in much lower ambient temperatures
(below 50 F) than rapid-start circuits. This starting characteristics makes the
instant-start circuit particularly applicable to outdoor use. A typical ordering description for such a lamp would be: F42T6CW Slimline, which means: fluorescent,
42-in., length tubular 6 /8-in. diameter, cool white, instant start. The T -6 narrow
tube indicates a low-current, 200-ma lamp, in lieu of T-12 for the 425-ma lamp.
Note also that in instant-start lamps the number following F indicates length, not
wattage. This is true of all lamps that operate at other than 425 ma, which is the nor
mal current. Typical characteristics appear in the previous table under pre-heat
lamps.

(d) COLD CATHODE TUBES

The true cold cathode tubes uses a large, thimble-shaped cathode and a high-voltage
transformer that literally tears the eleatrons out of the large cathode to strike the arc.
These lamps have a very long life which, in contradistinction to hot cathode lamps, is
virtually unaffected by the number of starts. Cold cathode lamps have a lower overall
efficiency than the hot cathode types and are normally used where long continuous
runs are requi~edi as in architectural-type lighting rather than in lighting fixtures. Cold
cathode lamps are readily dimmed and also operate well at varying ambient
temperat ures.

The Fluorescent Lamp- .

Characteristics and Operations
(a) LAMP LIFE

This is dependent on the burning hours p,er start. The figures listed in the previous
table on Typical Fluorescent lamp data and in the lamp catalogs for lamp life are based on a burning cycle of 3 hr. per start and represents the average life of a group of
lamps; That is, half of the lamps of any group will have burned out at this time.
Typical lamp mortality curves are shown in figure (a) and the effect of burning hours
per start is shown in figure (b)

281

225

Continuous burning

~200

f l15
~

l--'I--

150

j 125
r! 100

0 75

,..... Rapid start

'

50

i
I

&. 25
0

'

12

15

18

21

24

Burning hours (houNt per start)

100

90

80

1\
!\

. A.

'\' :\\
\

'

50
40

30

\\

I\

:\

flO

'

\.~I'

1\

10

..

'

1\

?~..I

i\1\ ~~~

~-ey~9.~
~
~f'1i

"~'I

,_

--~ t-'i
a ~
"\1-1-~
~

0
,...

<

<J)

"'

0
00
__
_..
N
t'?

..,.

I 1\.1'.

"i.
g

r--... t'-

U)

" f'

25!8E'~

0_ _
0
__
~ __

I I I

<!

20
10

~"1\"\.

}~ ~

t-

C"'I~N

......

"I'.
s;:

Pem:nt of nstecl average life (3 hour cycle)

The significance of th1s item is connected with energy costs and utilization. From an
energy source viewpoint, if an area is not utilized for periods of 15 min. or more,
fluorescent lamps should be shut off. This takes into account the resource energy re!
quired to replace a tube as a result of shortening its life. From a cost viewpoint, the
break-even point depends on these factors:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Lamp life reduction as a function of burning hours per cycle

Cost of energy
Cost of lamp and lamp replacement
Amount of time lamp remains off when shut off
Cost of switching equipment (if any)
Life of the building

(b} LUMEN OUTPUT

The lumen output of a fluorescent tube decreases rapidly during the first 1 00 hr. of
burning and thereafter much more slowly. For this reason the tabulated initial lumen

282

figures represent output after 100 hr of burning. Data are also generally published on
the lumen output at 40% of average rated life.

This figure is approximately 85 to

90% of the 100-hr initial value.

~ zs r---+---~---+--~--~------

it100

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

Hours of burning

{c)

EFFICACY
The efficacy of a fluorescent lamp depends on operating current and the phosphors
utilized. The figure shown here shows the energy distribution of a typical fluorescent
lamp alone, not including ballast losses. Normally warm white lamps are most efficient, followed closely by cool white, white, daylight, and colored lamps. Specially
colors such as "natural" white, or lamps designated to produce specific kelvin
temperatures, are low in output, with lamp efficacies in the 40 to 50 lpw region. The
range of efficacy for standard lamps is 40- to 85 lpw, including ballast losses in the
wattage figure . This is important, since discharge lamps are inoperative without
ballasts, and neglecting ballast losses y!elds an artificially high and therefore
misleading efficacy.
Generally, standard 425-ma lamps are most efficient, followed by HO 800-ma
lamps, then VHO 1 500-ma lamps. Specialty lamps such as reflector and lowwattage units are discussed in the following paragraphs. Ballast losses, which.constitute 5 - 12% of lamp wattage, depend on ballast type, circuit, manufacturer, and
number of lamps connected.

(d) TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the tu~. which is also an important factor in light output., is affected by the ambient temperature. Maximum efficiency occurs w ith the tube
operating at a bulb temperature of 100 to 200 f, with output reduction above and
below these values.

(e) VOLTAGE
Voltage either above or below rating adversely affect life, unlike the effect of low
voltage on the incandescent lamp. The results of operation at other than rated
voltage are shown graphically in this figure. Normal operating voltage range for
ballasts is 1 10 to 125 V otl12Q-V circuits, 200 to 215 V on 208-V circuits, and
250 to 290 V on 277-V circuits.

283

(f) DIMMING AND LOW-OUTPUT

Dimming and low-output operation are accomplished by the use of special one-and
two-lamp ballasts, with appropriate controls in the case of dimming. Smooth dimming control down to 1 % output is possible with solid-state electronic dimming, with
the lamp starting at any level. When specifying dimming equipment. care shou!d be
exercised to select high-quality SCR controls, so as to avoid causing radio frequency
interference (RFII. The cost of dimming equipment is very high and is only justified
when smooth changes and unlimited choice of light level are mandatory . Where it is
desired simply to be able to reduce the lighting level, as in classrooms, lecture halls,
or multipurpose areas, two-and three level ballasts are available for one or two
40-W , 48-in RS lamps.

(g) OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

Auorescent lamps are large and therefore necessitates a relatively expensive fixture
both to hold the lamps and control the light - since the tubes emit light throughout
their considerable length, accurate beam control is not possible, making fluorescent
units best applicable to area lighting . The advantage of fluorescent lamps are long
life, low cost, high output and efficacy, availability in an extremely wide range of
sizes, colors, and brightnesses, and relative insensitivity to voltage fluctuation (important in brownout areas). Disadvantages are large size, which creates storage,
handling, and relamping problems, and the fixture situation previously referred to.

Special Fluorescent Lamps

(a) "U"-SHAPED LAMPS

This were developed to answer the need

for a high-efficiency fluorescent source
that could be utilized in a square fixture,
since the normal fluorescent lamp shape
is frequently not architecturally suitable.
See figure.

284

The U lamp is basically a standard 40-W, 48-in. fluorescent tube bent into aU shape and
available with 3 5/8 or 6 in. leg spacing; the former can be accomodated three to a 2-ft
sq. fixture. and the latter two to a 2 ft. sq. fixture. The lamps operate on standard
ballasts and have slightly lower output. than the corresponding straight tube. Insofar as
energy as energy is concerned, their use is much more desirable than using 2-ft lamps, as
can readily be seen from the following data.
Two foot square fluorescent fixture with four 2-ft cw lamps 110 w 5200 lm
9000-hr .Jife.

Two U-shaped, cw lamps 100 w 5800 lm

12,000-hr life

(b) Reflector and Aperture lamps

These lamps contain an internal reflector that performs in the same fashion as the
more common reflector in the incandescent Rand PAR lamp. The reflector lamp is
completely phosphor-coated, while the aperture lamp has a clear "window"
resulting in very high luminance of this slot.

~
~
l'llol(:ltlor
~

AeftedDr '-'P eharac:terislics

Wir:dow

FR40CW .W W, 2EOO lm,

20.000 + flours life

Window hrightness-5450 II

fJ'
Distnlllltion C&nve-235
Reflector lamp

285

Both types have lower efficacy than a normal tube and are generally applied where
an enclosing fixture is uneconomical or impractical. as in handrails or for sign illumination.
Tests using 235 reflector lamps in normal fluorescent fixtures intended for standard
tubes indicate that the fixture coefficient of utilization increases up to 50%, depending on the fixture design. This is because the light normally trapped between the
tubes and the fixture is saved, since almost no light is radiated above 62. 5c from the
vertical (cut-oft of the internal reflector) . Thus, using reflector lamps for general illumination can result in considerable savings in energy costs.

{cl Energy-Conserving lamps

These lamps are produced by all three major manufacturers and have trademark
names.
WATT-miser by General Electric
Econo-watt by Westinghouse
Super-saver by Sylvania
These lamps are intended as lower-wattage replacements for standard lamps.
Comparative wattages follow.
Standard Lamps

Energy-Conserving Lamps

48 in., 40 w
96 in., 112 wHo
96 in., 21 5 w VHo
96 in., 75 w slimline

34 w

95 w
185 w
66 w

It is important to know that although the efficacy of these energy-saving lamps is

higher than their standard counterparts, their output is lower and life is shorter (except for the 40-w unit) . This means that the application is most appropriate where
direct substitution for standard lamps is possible and the corresponding reduction in
lighting levels is acceptable. This is frequently the case in stores, corridors,
walkways, and many offices. low energy lamps are clearly marked by the manufa~:;
t urer as can be seen in the figure below.

Energy-sacing lmnpa are clearly so marked, u rhou:n. lllustmted u ~~ Ekctric.! 35-w,

Tl2 rapid start rmit; intended ro replace the 1kmdllrd 4().u; lamp. The llluma~ lomp har Jubstantially
the same output as a standard lamp, thr~.J re.~!llting in no foot candle lcm when replacement is made.
286

NEON LAMPS
Neon vapor lamps consist of exhausted glass tubes fill ed with neon gas that is ionized
and conducts an electric current through the tube. A high voltage is required because of
the large voltagedrop at the cat hode; consequently, a transformer is a necessary part of
the equipment. A step up from 115 to 6000 or 10,000 V may be required. Neon light
has a pink to dark red color, depending on the gas pressure. The tubes are commonly used in street, window and indoor signs.
Different colors may be obtained by using mixtures of t he two , or by using colored glass
t ubing.

HIGH-INTENSITY
DISCHARGE (HID) LAMPS
These lamps have inherently high efficacy and, with appropriate color correction, can be
utilized in any application, indoor or outdoor, that does not have critical color criteria.

MERCURY LAMPS
These lamps operate by passing an arc
through a high-pressure mercury vapor
conti'lined in an arc tube made of quartz
or glass. See figure.

This action produces light in both the ultraviolet region (as in the low-pressure fluorescent lamp tube) and in the visible region, principally in the blue-green band . This color is
characteristic of the clear mercury lamp.

287

oovovovVQQ
B-17 821

A-a3

BT 2S

R-40

81-18

8T 37

R-~7

BT -46

BT 56

Explanation of color suffix In ordering abbreviation;

IDX Deluxe White
/A Beauty Lite
IN Style-Tone
No suffix-Clear
(non-phosphor coated)
Descriptive Symbols
RF Reflector Flood
8 Black Light
S Street Lighting
FF Frosted Face
VW Very Wide Beam
G General LJghtlng
W Wide Beatn

(a) Lamp Designations

The American National Standard Institute (ANSI) adopted a simplified code some
time ago that is now used by all manufacturers. This code has five parts and is best il
lustrated by example. Lamp designation
H3B mp 100 OX indicates:

H
38
MP
100
OX

mercury lamp
Ballast number
indicates lamp physical characteristics
lamp wattage
Identifies phosphor. glass coating, or coloring. Optional with each
manufacturer. Lack of a letter indicates a clear lamp.

(b) lamp Life

Lamp life is extremely long, averaging 24,000 hours based on 10 burning hours per
start. Mercury lamps are not suitable for applications that are subject to constant
switching: Therefore, a long period of burning per start was selected. Life is affected
by ambient temperature, line voltage and ballast design. Mercury lamps are not as
sensitive to short burning cycles as fluorescents but, because of accelerated lumen
depreciation near the end of life, they are normally replaced before burnout.

(c} Color Correction and Efficacy

These are added because the blue-green light distorts almost all colors. The outer
bulb is coated with phosphors that are excited by the UV light and are reradiated
generally in the red band, which is entirely absent in the basic lamp color. Depending
on the arc tube design and the phosphors used, the color of the emitted light can be
corrected to make it acceptable for general indoor use. Lamps are available in clear,
white. color-corrected, and white-deluxe, in ascending order of color improvement.

288

The delu xe lamp also uses a strain on the envelope to filter out some of the bluegreen, which obviously reduces lamp output.

(d) Ballast

Ballasts are required, as with all arc discharge lamps, to start the lamp and thereafter
to control the arc. The basic ballast is simply a reactor that controls the arc after the
discharge has been initiated . Three to six minutes are required for the lamp to reach
full output, since heat must be generated by electron flow to vaporize the mercury in
the arc tube before the arc will strike. Once extinguished, the lamp must cool and the
pressure must be reduced before restrike is possible. This restart delay amounts to 3
to 8 min., depending on the ballast type, and is an important consideration in design.

(e) Dimming

Dimming of mercury tamps is possible and entirely practicable with the use of dimming ballast and solid-state dimming control. These are available for 400-. 700-, and
1000- W units and, unlike the case of fluorescents, dimming is a desirable and
economical control means. Mercury tamps have so large an output that shutting off a
unit creates an imbalance in the lighting - coverage - a problem readily solved by
dimming.
A little used but very effective and economical output reduction technique is simply
to change the circuit capacitance by an amount, depending on lamp size and ballast
type. By doing this, the lamp wattage and output can be reduced by approximately
50% with no deleterious effect on lamp or ballast. This technique is by far the
chapest method of accomplishing an overall , even reduction in output.

{f) Appljcation

Mercury-vapor lamps are applicable to indoor and outdoor use with proper attention
to color and fixture brightness. Indoor application is generally limited to mounting 1 0
AFF or higher to avoid glare problems and to permit adequate area coverage. Use in
industrial spaces and stores is common.

Special Mercury lamps

In an attempt to satisfy the desire for a small lamp to take the place of incandescents in
interior fixtures, manufacturers have made avail able mercury lamps in 40-, 50-, 75-,
100-, and 175-W sizes , in deluxe white and other color-corrected designs. (see figures
above). For the smaller sizes, screw-in-ballasts are available, so t hat replacing an in
candescent is simply a matter of screwing in a ballast and a small mercury lamp. In the
175-W size t h e ballast must be separately mounted. Available also are self-ballasted
lamps (require no separate ballast}, which can be used self-ballasted lamps (require no
separate ballast), which can be used where ballast mounting_is inconvenient, expensive,
or undesirable for other reason~ . In both cases, there is no doubt that the extremely long
life, good color and reliability of these incandescent substitutes make their use attractive
in locations where relamping is difficult and expensive.

289

Metal Halide Lamps

This is basically a mercury lamp that has been altered by the addition to the arc-tube of
halides of metals such as thallium, indium, or sodium. The addition of these salts causes
light to be radiated at frequencies other than the basic mercury colors and increases efficacy, but reduces the life and reduces lumen maintenance to 60% at two-thirds life.
The color produced is much warmer than that of the mercury light. Clear lamps are
recommended for exterior use and phosphor-coated units for all indoor application including food displays.

A brief comparison of these two lamps shows:

Life
Color
Lamp efficacy

Mercury

Metal-Halide

16,000 to 24,000 hr.

7,500 to 15,000 hr.

poor to fair
50 to 60 lpw

good to excellent
80 to 100 lpw

Since the color of the metal-halide lamp depends on the amount of ionized halide salt in
the arc, lamp performance is extremely sensitive to voltage. temperature, and burning
position. Mortality and lumen maintenance curves are similar to those for mercury lamps
except for lower values. Strike time is shorter than that of the mercury lamp, being two to
three minutes, but restrike time is up to 10 min., making it necessary to supply an instant
start source in indoor areas lighted with these lamps.
Common trade names for these lamps are metal-arc !Sylvania}, multivapor (G.E.), and
metal halide (Westinghouse).
HIGH-PRESSURE
SODIUM (HPS) LAMPS

This is marketed by its developer, General

Electric, under the trade name Lucalox.
Other trade names for this product are
Westinghouse's Ceramalux and
Sylvania's Details of the lamp are shown
in this figure.

'--~

Voltage
to lamp
(b)

290

Construction is quite different from that of mercury and metal-halide lamps and, although
it operates as an arc discharge unit, its excellent characteristics stem from the spectral
absorption phenomenon of the contained sodium under high pressure. The resultant light
is a yellow-tinted color, similar to that of w arm white fluorescent lamps. Typical
characteristics are:
Lamp efficacy
Efficacy including

2 5 to 1 40 lpw.

ballast losses
Life
Lumen maintenance
Warm-up time
Restrike time

55 to 125 lpw
16,000 to 24,000 hrs.
80 to 90%
3 to 4 min.
% to 1 Y2 min.

Unlike the metal-halide lamp, the HPS unit is not voltage sensitive and is color constant.
As with all discharge lamps, a ballast is required to supply the high voltade to strike the
arc , and to control the arc once struck. On the average HPS lamps will supply double the
efficacy of mercury lamps . These direct mercury replacements are marketed under the
trade names of E-Z lux and unalux by G.E. and Sylvania, respectively. HPS lamps are
available in clear and coated designs. The clear is effectively a point source and. because
of its extreme brightness, must beenclosed in a fixture . The coated is intended to
substitute photometrically for coated mercury lamps and to constitute a lesser glare
source, since lamp surface brightness is correspondingly reduced.

Low Pressure Sodium Lamps

This lamp, also referred to as SOX. produces light of sodium's characteristic
monochromatic deep yellow color, making it inapplicable for general lighting. Because of
its very high efficacy of over 1 50 lumens per watt including ballast loss, it can be applied
wherever color is not an important criteria. Thus SOX is w idely used for street, road, and
area lighting, as well as for emergency or after-hours indoor lighting. Another desirable
aspect of SOX lamps is their 100% lumen maintenance. This, coupled with the
discharge lamp's typically long life (18,000 HRS), make SOX lamps the most economical
source available today in terms of cost per million lumens produced.

Example of SYLVANIA HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS

291

Hours/Life

Lumens

70 BT-25
100 BT-25
150 BT-25
150 BT-28 .
250
E-18
E-18
400
E-25
1000

20,000
20,000
24,000
24,000
24.000
24.000
24,000

5,220
8 ,850
14.400
14,4000
24,7 50
45,000
126,000

Watts

Bulb

Hours/ Life

Lumens

70
100
150
400

BT-25
BT-25
BT-25
BT-37

20,000
20,000
24,000
24,000

4 ,860
7,920
13,500
42 ,750

Watts

Watts

Bulb

Bulb

Hours/Life

Lumens

150
360

BT-28
BT-37

12,000
16.000

11,700
34,000

Watts

Bulb

Hour/life

lumens

150
360

BT-2 8
BT-37

1,200
1,600

292

10,800
32, 400

LIGHTING DESIGN
GOALS OF A
LIGHTING DESIGN
The goal of lighting is to create an efficient and pleasing interior. These two requirements, that is, the utilitarian and aesthetic, are not antithetical as is demonstrated by
every good lighting design. Light can and should be used as an adjunct architectu.ral
material.
a. Lighting levels should be adequate for efficient seeing of the particular task involved. Variations within acceptable brightness ratios in a given field of view
are desirable to avoid monotony .and to create perspective effects.
b. Lighting equipment should be unobtrusive, but not necessarily invisible. Fixtures can be chosen and arranged in various ways to complement the architecture or to create dominant or minor architectural features or patterns. Fixtures
may also be decorative and thus enhance the interior design.
c. Lighting must have the proper quality. Accent lighting directional lighting and
other highlighting techniques increase the utilitarian as well as architectural
quality of a space.
d. The entire lighting design must be accomplished efficiently in terms of capital
and energy resources; the former determined principally by life-cycle costs and
the latter by operating energy costs and resource-energy usage. Both the
capital and energy limitations are, to a large extent, outside the control of the
designer, who works within constraints in these areas.

lighting Design Procedure

(a) Project Constraints
Refer to the flowchart figure. This flowchart represents the design procedure and its
interactions, should be referred to throughout the necessarily lengthy discussion that
follows, in order to maintain perspective. It is important that the reader be aware of
job constraints and of the interactions between the lighting designer and the remainder of the design group. T~is: 'is deliberatety emphasized to demonstrate the
inter-disciplinary nature of lighting design in general and its particular connection
with HVAC and daylighting (fenestration).

294

Li!tlting Design Procedure

Lighting designer

Building group

Ownet'

l-

I
I

I
I

USI!f

Architect [

Building program

I
l

I
I

I
I

I
I
I
I

I !~~

fra:"work

Task analysis:

I
I
I

Difreculty

I
I
I

Design

budget

Preliminary design:

GeneraVL.oal/Supptemenwy
Choice of sources,
Choice of system
Architectural lighting etments
Daylighting; Ambience

fl

Time factor
Type occupant/worker
Cost of errors
Special requirements

I
I
HVAC

Energy

Detailed de$ign:

Fixtunt: ceiling svstem

Degree of nonuniformity
Fix"!d/Movable lighting

I
I
I
I

"'=oetair~t~~laf~o;====
E$1/VCP; Maintenance
oth

factors

and projections:

Building

en.vv

I
I

baluation:

I
Finilt

8ri~tness ~ios,

Colt f9JteS

Energy use
Costs:

tv.~luation I
_I

Building codes
Legislation
Gov't. agencies

f
I

Jurisdictional CXKlstr.iints

Conslniction

Opemjng

295

-')>

IUfe cycle

I
I
I
I
I

Lighting levels
from codes,
agencies, and
authorities

1. Owner-Designer - User group.

The owner establishes the cost framework, both initial and operating. As
part of both of these may be a rent structure, which in turn determines and
is determined by the space usage. If the owner is also the occupant the
cost factors change somewhat but remain in force. The architect determines the amount and quality of daylighting and the architectural nature of
the space to be lighted . Much of these data are detailed in the building program.

2. The Jurisdictional Authorities

These may include:
FEA - Federal Energy Administration
IES - Illuminating Engineering Society
ERDA - Energy Research And Development Administration.
ASHRAE - American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and AirConditioning Engineers
The principal area of involvement is that of energy budgets and lighting
levels, both of which affect every aspect of lighting design including
source type, fixture selection, lighting system, fixture placement, and
even maintenance schedules. For this reason the first step in the lighting
design procedure is to establish the project lighting cost framework and
the project energy budget.

(b) Task Analysis

As shown in the chart, this step essentially determines.the needs of the task. Factors
to be considered in addition to the nature of the task are its repetitiveness, variability,
who is performing it (ex: condition of the occupant's eyes), task duration, cost of errors, and special requirements.
(c)

Design Stage
This is the active consideration stage during which detailed suggestions will be raised, considered, modified, accepted, or rejected. This is also the most interactive
stage as is clearly seen in the chart. At its completion, a detailed, workable design is
in hand. The criticaL interactions here are with the architect in daylighting and with
the HVAC group in power loads. The former may result in relocating a space within
the building; the latter in making a change in a lighting system or HVAC system. In
brief, this stage consist of the following steps:

1. Select the lighting system

Select types of light source, distribution characteristic of fixtures or area
source, consider effects of daylighting, economics, and electric loads.
2. Calculate the lighting requirements. Use the applicable calculation method
and establish the fixture pattern, considering the architectural effects.
3. Design the supplemental lighting
4. Review the resultant design. Check the design for quality, quantity,
aesthetic effect, and originality.

296

(d) Evaluation Stage

With the design on paper, it can now be analyzed for conformance to the principal
constraints of cost and energy. If the design stage has been carefully accomplished,
with due attention to these factors, the result of the final evaluation should be gratifying. The results of this stage are fed to the architectural group to use in the final
overall project evaluation.

Preliminary Design
Energy Considerations
In commercials buildings lighting consumes about 20 to 30% of the buildings electric
energy; more in residences and less in industrial facilities. By judicious design a reduction
of 40 to 50% in lighting energy is attainable. In point of the fact that every watt per
square foot reduction in lighting energy results in 1.25 w I sq. ft. savings in airconditioned buildings. It has been demonstrated by actual designs that offices and
schools can be well lighted with 2.5 w/sq. ft. in lieu of the 4 to 5 w/sq. ft. in common
use.

Design Guidelines
1 . Design lighting for expected activity
This point states that it is wasteful, of energy, to light any surface at a higher level than it
requires. Since most spaces contain varied seeing tasks, nonuniform lighting is recommended. In order to accomplish this for areas where exact furniture layout is not
available, it may be necessary to furnish readily movable fixtures. A trade-off is involved
here between the additional first cost of movable fixtures and the lowered operating
cost.
Providing overall high-level illumination with provision for switching to reduce levels is
not advisable because of increased first cost and the psychological impetus to operate at
maximum levels. Also, use of movable fixtures makes heat removal via ducted air
troffers impractical. A compromise solution here is fixed fixtures for general low level
lighting and movable ones for supplementary task lighting. Other factors and techniques
to be borne in mind are:
a. Grouping of tasks with similar lighting requirements will generally increase efficiency.
b. Place most severe seeing tasks at best daylight locations.
c. Fixed-position tasks involve nonunifonn lighting and vice versa.
d. Heat removal fixtures (air-troffers) increase efficiency of the units 10 to 20%
but makes the fixtures immobile trade-off decision involved.
e. Advantages of nonunlform lighting increase as the space between work stations increases.

2. Design with More Effective luminaires and Fenestration.

By effective is meant pr-oviding useful light w ith h igh ESI component and minimum direct
glare. In selecting fi:Kture diffusers a trade-off is often encountered between these two
usually mutually incompatible factors. In cases where much of the viewer's time is spent
in a head-up position, as in schools, or where t he viewer can compensate for veiling
reflections, the decision should lean toward high VCP.
Where work position and viewer's are fixed, most of the viewer's time is spent headdown, viewer's room position reduces direct glare, or illumination levels are well below
the 100 fc level for which VCP is calculated, the decision should lean low-reflected glare.
Fenestration too must be considered as a light in all respects, with particular attention to
the del eterious effects of excessive window brightness and the beneficial effects, that is.
the excellent quality of daylighting .

3. Use E-fficient light Sources

Trade-otfs involved here are:
a. Between first cost and life-cycle costs.
b. Between desired illuminant color and efficiency. For most indoor uses, OFFwhite color, as from HPS lamps should be considered.
c. Between light c ontrol and efficiency . Fluorescent sources, which are highly
efficient, do not lend themselves to good beam control and are principally
useful for area coverage .
d . Between architectural requirements and efficiency. Fluorescent sources are efficient and have good color but require a large fixture, which tends to dominate
the space. A possible compromise is the U-shaped lamp in a modular ceiling.

298

The following figure will assist the designer in determining roughly what the various
sources represent in terms of watts per square foot load . Thus, with'a target of 2 to 2.5
W I sq. ft. h,H office-building lighting, the use of incandescent downlights is obviously
severely restricted. Daylight must be considered as a regular light source subject to
weather variations and time of building use, Obviously a three-shift industrial plant cannot use daylight on all shifts, but it can for at least one shift, and design should reflect
this fact. Spill light and borrowed light are often neglected sources. Glass in upper wall
sections can provide sufficient corridor lighting from borrowed office lighting. Sources
with high lumen maintenance such as tungsten halogen and high-pressure sodium should
be given preference,
Another aspect of light source efficiency is the ability to reduce levels easily. Use multilevel ballasts and switching to give flexible lighting controL Unused light is wasted
energy.

Estimating chart for lighting

load and related illumination levels
for different lighting sources, The
chart was calculated for a fairly
large room - approximately classoom size. Although all the figures
are necessarily approximate
because of the variables involved.
tha chart gives figures close
enough for a first approximation.
Notice the increase in output as
the sources change from in
candescent to fluorescent to HID.

1
2
3
4
5
liafltioa load-watts per square foot

299

4. Use More Efficient Luminaires

This point is connected to the one above in that only by using an efficient source in an
efficient enclosure can best results be obtained. By efficient enclosure we mean a f ixture
with high coefficient of utilization CU and high light loss factor LLF since useful lumens are
defined as
useful lumens = generated lumens x CU x LLF
(see the proceeding sections on luminaire diffusing elements and sections on light loss
factor)
Care must be exercised here since simple lampholders have high CU and LLF but of
course create direct glare problems. Therefore here also a trade-off is involved between
high CU and LLF and high VCP.
Other factors, being equal. select luminaires with a high-maintenance category. Enclosed
nongasketed fixtures collect dirt and yield a lower overall LLF . Also the quality of the
luminaire finish will have considerable bearing on its performance after 8 to 10 years.

5. Use Thermal-Controlled Luminaires

In other words, do not waste the heat generated by lighting and, conversely, avoid placing additional load on the air-conditioning system with lighting heat. With lower lighting
levels this point has considerably less significance than it did when 6 to 10 w I sq. ft.
lighting loads were common. Disposition of this point depends, to a large extent, on the
type of HVAC system, the lighting heat load , and the type of fixtures employed. Detailed
analysis of this point involves HVAC considerations and the overall impaet of lighting
energy on the building .

6. Use lighter Finishes on Ceilings, Walls, Floors, and Furnishings.

A brief summary of recommendation ranges would be:
ceilings- 80 to 92%
walls 40 to 60%
furniture office machines and equipment 25 to 45%
floors - 20 to 40%

7. Use Efficient Incandescent Lamps

See sections on these item in Chapter XIII.

8. Turn Off Ughts When Not Needed

The trade-off involved here is between cost of control equipment and energy savings.
Here too, as in item 3 above, switching includes reduction of levels by use of multilevel
ballasts, dimming, and partial switching. Coordinate this item with item 10 below so that
daylight and artificial light complement each other.

300

9. Control Window Brightness

Excessive brightness causes severe and even disabling glare, A corollary of excessive
brightness is excessive heat gain. Both are manageable with common control devices,
manual and automatic.

1 0. Utilize Daylighting as Practicable

Self-explanatory. See sections on daylighting in chapter XIII.

11. Keep Lighting Equipment Clean and In Good Working Order.

Lighting equipment must be selected with life-cycle costs in mind, a large position of
which are maintenance and relamping costs. Fixtures in relatively inaccessible locations
such as high ceilings must be designed for low maintenance, and maintenance should be
on a fixed schedule. Trade-off here is between higher cost of low-maintenance units and
high maintenance costs. A corollary is the use of high-lumen-maintenance sources.

1 2. Post Instructions Covering Operation and Maintenance

By operation, we mean fixed scheduling based on known work shift. This can be accomplished automatically with time switches or manually if the scheduling can be enforced. Time switches should have override to permit accomodation to unusual situations.
Lighting maintenance is defined here as fixed scheduling of maintenance and relamping.
A 20% increase in maintained light is possible if lamps are replaced at the. end of their
useful life, when output is down to 70% of initial maintained lumens, and fixtures are
cleaned and maintained on a fixed schedule.

Preliminary Design
Referring to the figure of the chart earlier, the preliminary design phase is the time during
which ideas crystallize, but in terms of areas, patterns, as well as light and shadow; not
yet in terms of hardware. At this stage the quality of the system is decided upon, that is,
the brightness ratios, diffuseness, Chromaticity, and proportion of vertical to horizontal
lighting are determined. The latter establishes in large measure the room "mood" or
lighting ambience. In the sections that follow on lighting systems (direct, indirect, etc.)
the quality of each will be cosidered and applications suggested. In the overall view,
however, the ultimate quality of the lighting system, its visual pleasantness, center of
visual attention, highlights and shadows, as well as texture and forms, will be a deft and
perhaps artistic combination of the above considerations, and will establish, as the term
implies, the quality of the lighting design. A few observations are mentioned below.
Planes other than "working plane" must always be considered. The ratio of vertical to
horizontal illumination of the chosen system will determine wall brightnesses, while the
floor finish will have a pronounced effect on the ceiling illumination for direct lighting
systems.

301

~~~!~S~S~~~g5g~~~~~
coo~co3w~~o~coco~~coco~i
~oo-a.
~co~
w
~
0-3~0
Q)
-o
'A co 0.
0 c 0 ....
;T
00 - (')
_w
_ , A,r+
v.,..-0:::1

a.co"~Q)~
3-co-cc~~
.... co Q) Ill ~. ~ 3
- 0 0 - Q) -
~ !'l 3 ~
0
0~::T<
~ ~ ::: co co Q) ;:) ::T ;:) :I
- () a. 3
:I
:::1
Q)~Q)o:::I>:::JCOCO
g. co
~ co a. co 0. :T :I c ::; Q.. it
~- tT -o ~
Gl CP ~ ~ CP .!i ::: - CO ~ ~. ~ 0 C. ~ @ S ~ (i'
~B~~:::J~~~n3:::~o~w~

wa.~

gc~-:Ta.:T.-.-CPc~-a.~~Q)cow<

3~~

c~~~~~~g;~~~S~a

c:o::goo:l
....
otTOc::!.:<.
a.::J3,..
~~
co a---coc~co
~
3WcCO
~wna-wVIQ)CPco
co~aco~ooo-oco ... <oc~~~
::J
<
.. cooc: o
c=l.<<o
0 Q)
< () Q) - 3 ::J ~ ~ ~ - ~ Q)
0
::J Q) CP 0 :::1
00 0 ":T - ~ 0 () 0 0
wC.oo=~V~TT-CO::JCOCOCO::J:::J3

Comparetlw
_..... ChatiiCterlstlc ol Llghl Sources
Incandescent

High-Intensity Discharge (HID)

Fluorescent

Mercury

Characterlst:c

Filament

Tung$t&n
HafoQ{In

Standard

High-Output

Clear

Phos.

SeiiBall.

Metal
Halide

High-Pressure
Sodium

Wattages

to-1500

100-1500

15-100

60-200

4()....1500

150-750

175-1500

7Q-1000

15-25

15-25

50-80

55-85

30-65

80-105

85-140 lpw

40-70

45-75

25-55

15-25

65-85

55-1251pw

75-85%

80-90%

VG

Fair to good

Efficacy-lamp
Lamp and
ballast
Life-~ours

Lumen main
tenanoe@
50% lite

750-1000

2000-6000

12000-20000

80-90~

95%

85-901)0

Color accept&
bility

VG

Instant
Instant

Instant
Instant

Start time
Restrike tim.

Instant

Light control

VG

VG

Poor

Poor

Glate control

VG

VG

VG

Fair to
Good

Fixture cost
Cost to produce 101m
-

Low

Instant

Low

70-80%

VG

excellent

16000-24000 hr

Low lol mod<oato

Poor

Fair to good

3-6 minutes
3-8 minutes

2-3 min

3-4 min

5-10 min

H~min

Goo<'

Fair

Good

Gf\od

Good

Fair

Good

Good

Fair

Fair

.
High

Moderate to high

~e1_figure~.L____l_

Highest
f

. ---

---------

A Guide for Lamp Selection Based on General Col Rendedng Propet11es

Lamp
Appellllf!Cit

TrPCt ot
lMJp

~while

Efficacy
(fpw)

High

Ettect an
Neutral

E1led Gft

Colot1

Colen

Slec:t Gft
Coot-

SurlKes

~AtJDclllphele

s..~

pluiott&

While

cw
Deluxe"
cool white

()qnge.

,.ao..blw

...

coot
Medium

While

Neuer~~

AI_,

to

modendefy
cool

GWX
Warm white

Neutral to

mCJdaraWf

1-iigh

Y<tllowisfl
wNte

,_,.

wann

Orange.

'Red

.,...pll* Blenawlh ......

....

None
~ Nlhlrd

White

Soft while/
naturlll

~
s.st~eob

rendillon; ........_

Red.~. $allow

blua

Blendl with inc:an6e$

cent lght-poor
cofcra~

Medium

y~

w. .

Red. orange,

.,..,.. vr-

wNte

wwx
Daylight

dariiF&-goocl -.w

natural d.,tiglll

ww
Oetux..
.,., white

iledium- Bluish
high
wtlite

High
Medium

VflltJ coot

G - . btUe

Orange,

Paley.llow- Modetat.ly
ish white
Wa111
Purplish
white

,.erow

Warm plnldst\

Reel, OQI198

Blue

Ruddy

Good ookW .......

slmut.tes lncandescant light

Red,

Gra,ed

Usually f'IP'a<)eable

cwanga

with CW

Red. green, Pale

Usually,......,..
Wilh CW orWW

blue

a...._

Ruddr

blue

pint

T'"'*f ~ UIUdy
,~.,.__.

CWX orWWX

lncancsesc:ent
low
filament

Greenls!l

V~coof.

Yelow,

Red,

blue-White

greenish

bkle, QJe1111

orange

Greenish
wlllte

Modetlltaly-

Yellow,

Red,

cool.~

9f'MII. blue

orange

Deluxe wftile" Medium

Purplish

Warm. purplish

Red, blue.

Green

Ruddy

mercury

white

Red

Grayed

Clear
mercury

Medium

White
mercury

Medium

Metal~

Higl

Hign-pr-re High
sodium-

rendering

Vy pale Moderate eob"

rendering

Modendely
COOl, greenish

Yellow.

Yellowish

warm. yellowish

Yellow
Red.
green. oranoe blue

o-tisl1

G111811ish Very poor eob"

~. J>Iue

303

Color acceptpc:e

simWar to cw
ftU0f81108ftt

~ ICOIC)b!IOII

......, to cw
tluorc:ent

Yellowish Color acceptance

approaches thai of
WW fluorescent

Illumination Methods
Three Methods of Illumination
1. General
2. Local and Supplementary
3. Combined general and local
(a) General lighting
This is a system designed to give uniform and generally, though not necessarily, dif
fuse lighting throughout the area under consideration. The method of accomplishing
this result varies from the use of luminous ceiling to properly spaced and chosen
downlights, but the resultant lighting on the horizontal working plane must be same,
that is, reasonably uniform. It may be, but is not necessarily, task lighting.

(b) Local and Supplementary Lighting

These are two terms that are used interchangeably but have slightly different meanings. By definition, local lighting provides a small, high-level area of lighting without
contributing to the general lighting, supplementary lighting also provides a restricted
area of high intensity, but supplements the general lighting. ln actual pract.ice, it is
difficult to differentiate between the two. A desk lamp, a high-intensity down light on
a merchandising display. and a track light illuminating wall displays, all seem to
answer both definitions, and in practice are referred to as .local. supplementary, or
local-supplementary tights. See figures below.

304

Chalkbo.rd Ughtina Units

(cl Combined General and Local Lighting

This illumination method is used in areas where the general visual task is low, but
local high-intensity lighting is required. An excellent example is the department store
where circulation requires low-level lighting while merchandising areas and
showcases require up to 500 fc. The indicated solution to this problem is a general
lighting system that will provide 30 fc of uniform. diffuse lighting of the proper color
and supplementary local lighting in restricted areas. The quality of the local lighting
supplied depends on the particular item being displayed. A nonuniform lighting
layout thaf is arranged to localize lighting but does not have a uniform overall pa~tern
is difficult to classify. We would think of it as a combination of general lighting in
some areas and local in others, that is. a combined system. See figure below.

I 61 i I~

305

These three methods of illumination can be accomplished in many ways by the use
of luminaires and luminous sources of different types, since the illumination method
is a function of both fixture placement and arrangement as well as the inherent fixture lighting distribution. The term used to describe the effect of the combination of a
particular fixture type applied in a particular way is the lighting system. Thus a
reflector-type fixture when aimed down gives direct light. The same fixture beamed
up at the ceiling gives indirect light.

Types of Ughting System

1. Indirect Ughting
Ninety to one-hundred percent of the light output of the luminaires is directed to the ceiling and upper walls of the room. The system is called indirect because practically all of the
light reaches the horizontal working plane indirectly, that is, via reflection from the ceiling
and upper walls. Therefore, the ceiling and upper walls in effect become the light source
and, if these surfaces have a high-reflectance finish, the room iliumination is quite diffuse
(shadowless). Since the source must be suspended at least 18 in. (depending on the
unit's brightness) in order to avoid excessive ceiling brightness, this system requires a
minimum ceiling height of (2.85 Ml 9ft. and 6 in. (See Figure below)

306

addition to diffuseness, the resultant illumination is generally uniform, and direct and
reflected glare are low. A CRF in excess of 1 .0 is common, with associated high ESI footcandles.
CRF - Contrast Rendition Factor
ESI - Equivalent Spherical illumination
In order to avoid an unacceptable (greater than 20: 1 ) brightness ratio between the
luminaire and its surrounding field, the luminaire is made translucent, at least.on the bottom surfaces and sometimes on the sides. This type is known as "luminous indirect" in
contradistinction to metal reflectors, which are totally indirect. Architectural coves are
classed as indirect lighting.

In all cases, but most particularly in the instance of high-level illumination, the luminaire
spacing and suspension length and the cove or valance dimensions must be carefully
chosen to avoid excessive ceiling brightness. We consider 7 5 raw fc to be the maximum
horizontal-plane illumination attainable without exceeding ceiling brightness limits of
400 fl. With a CRF in excess of 1 .0, this is sufficient for all but difficult tasks. The lack of
shadow, low source brightness, and highly diffuse quality created by the indirect lighting
system give a very quiet cool ambience to this type of lighted space, suitable for private
offices, lounges, and plush waiting areas. Areas having specular visual tasks use this
system to advantage.
When properly designed, particularly when the source of light is architectural coves, the
ceiling has a floating, almost infinitely deep or skylike quality, which is pleasant and can
be used to give an impression of height in a large room of low ceiling. This system is not
to be confused with the self-luminous tra{lsilluminated ceiling, which is a direct lighting
system of entirely different quality an<l effect. A further characteristic of the indirect
lighting system is loss of texture on vertical surfaces as is common to all fully diffuse
lighting.
Indirect lighting is by nature inefficient, since much of the useful light reaches the working plane only after double reflection - within the fixture and off the ceiling. Although, to
some extent, this is offset by the high ESI, applications to difficult seeing tasks normally
require supplementary lighting. Thus an indirectly lighted drafting room having tables
equipped with supplementary lamps would take advantage with both systems - the
local hi\lh-intensitv light at about 200 fc for the restricted area being worked on, and
overall table tighting of 40 to 50 fc ESI.

~7

2. . Semi-Indirect Lighting
Sixty to ninety percent of the light is directed upward to the ceiling and upperwalls. This
distribution is similar to that of indirect, except that it is somewhat more efficient and
allows higher levels of illumination without undesirable.brightness contrast between fixture and surroundings along with lower ceiling brightness. A typical fixture employs a
translucent diffusing element through which the downward component shines, and is illustrated in the figure below.

The ceiling remains the principal radiating source and the diffuse E:haracter fo room lighting remains. VCP and E$1 both remain high as with indirect lighting.

::~;::.

1500- ma lamp

...,. ,t
C'l .

~~ -

X-Section through fiJtture

No scale

;+

===::J.J .

t=:::::::::=.=,-.= .28==,==
..
,,j

PJastic lens

308

At obserwr position:

Tl 59fc
CRF Ul2.
E$1 68.5tc
LEF 1.16

A CRF in excess of 1 .0 is attainable, as figure as shown in. In both indirect and semiindirect systems. it is often desirable to add accent lighting or downlighting in order to
break the monotony inherent in these systems, and to establish a visual point of interest,
or create required modeling shadows.
The quality of the semi-indirect system is somewhat different than indirect when using
fixtures (semi-indirect cannot use architectural coves} because attention is not drawn to
the fixtures, since they exhibit less contrast with the background ceiling brightness.
Some of the feeling of ceiling cavity depth can be achieved by using w ell-shielded
luminaires with luminous sides.
In both indirect and semi-indirect lighting systems the light undergoes a number of ceiling
and wall reflections before reaching the horizontal working plane. Greater illumination
can be achieved of these surfaces are colored than if they are grays of the same
luminuous reflectance .

3. General Diffuse and Direct-indirect lighting

This type provides approximately equal distribution of light upward and downward,
resulting in a bright ceiling and upper wall background for the luminaire. For this reason
brightness ratios in the upper - vision zone are usually not a problem, although direct
and reflected glare may be troublesome at high illumination levels ( 100 fc and above).
Since the ceiling is a major though secondary source of room ilumination, diffuseness will
be good, with resultant satisfactory vertical-plane illumination. Light falling on a horizontal surface will derive principally (65 to 7 5%) from the lumina ire and secondarily from the
ceiling (25 to 35%}. the exact ratio being dependent on the ceiling reflectance and the
fixture characteristic.
The difference between general diffuse {ex: an opal diffusing globe} and direct-indirect
(ex: an open top luminuous side and bottom luminaire) lies in the fixture characteristic;
diffuse fixtures give light in all directions, whereas direct-indirect have little horizontal
component . Stems should' be of sufficient length to avoid excessive ceiling brightness .
Generally not less than 12 in . (see following figures)

. )_ ...,..- ... .
. .; ..J
.

. ..

. .

General diftuse incandescent

G~eral

diffuse

..~

'>tr. ~~ ~ ~

-.!;:~ ... :

:.~~...:.: t

Oited -indirett

Direct-indirect fluorescent

310

Since the impression of illumination depends to a large extent on wall brightness because
this is the surface we see most often, a space with general diffuse illumination will appear lighter than one with direct-indirect because of the darker walis in the latter. This effect is most pronounced with highly directional downlights. If this effect is not desired,
fixtures most be placed near the walls or other wall illumination provided.

Quality of the lighting depends in large measure on the layout and on the tasks involved.
By avoiding excessively bright units and giving attention to positioning of sources and
viewing angles, VCP and CRF can both be kept high. Fixture brightness are il"terest
points and the space will not appear dull and monotonous. Efficiency of these two
systems is good. Both are wellapplied in spaces requiring overall uniform lighting at
moderate levels such as classrooms, standard office work spaces, and merchandising
areas.

311


4 . SemiDirecllight.ing
With this type of lighting system, 60 to 90% of the luminaire output is directed
downward and the remaining upward component serves to illuminate the ceiling. See
figure.
.
.

(cd

If the ceiling has a high reflectance this upward component will normally be sufficient to
minimize direct glare. depending upon eye adaptation level as determined by overall illumination. The degree of diffuseness will depend in large measure on the reflectances of
room furnishings and of the floor. Shadowing should not be a problem when upward
components are at least 25% and ceiling reflectance not less than 70%. With smaller upward components the system is essentially direct lighting. The system is inherently effi

312

cient. Reflected glare can be controlled by the methods discussed in Chapter 1 2, glare
with adequate wall illumination, the quality of the lighting gives a pleasant working atmosphere. It is applicable to offices, classrooms. shops, and other working areas.

5. Direct Lighting
Since essentially all the light is directed downward, ceiling illumination is entirely due to
light reflected f rom the floor and room furnishings. This system then, more than any
other. requires a light, high-reflectance, diffuse floor unless a dark ceiling is desired from
an architectural or decorative viewpoint. Occasionally the ceilings are deliberately painted
a dark color and pendant direct fixtures used in order to lower the apparent ceiling of a
poorly proportioned room or to hide unsightly piping, ductwork, and so on.
.

The effect of direct lighting depends greatly

centrating.

on whether the luminaires are spread or con-

(b)
(o) Direct lighting-spread

Spread-type direct
lighting (a~ illuminata all
room suifOU$ except the ceiling
(b). whtch is cmly illuminated
by rej1ection from the floor.
Sorrw! diffwme;ss u evident. The
mo:sf cvmmon type of unit in
thu category u the ditect ~
nscent eUher :suifooNnauntal
(c) or troffer type in a hung
ceiling.

313

f.,

Direct rvbtina-ccncentmna

With concentroling dir:t dimibution

(a~

the ftocw is rhe only luminow 8Urfoce (b). othllr

tlum the ailingJiztut-. Diffwettaa it ClbNnL Walla

cw dark. lncondesc;eni ~ (c) tw of tAU
~ unkss equipped willa apretJII-twe lenses.

(b}

314

In the case of the spread luminaire, considerable diffusion results f rom reflections on
floor, furniture. and walls of light emitted at high angle from the nadir (meaning, point of
heavens diametrically opposite zenith or directly under observer). The resul t is a w ork
ing atmosphere with slightly darkened walls and ceiling. This type of lighting which is
most w idely represented by the recessed fluorescent troffer in a suspended ceiling, is
standard for general otfice lighting. The fixtures themselves form a ceiling surface of light
and dark areas. and the quality of the entire system is pleasant. Difficulties associated
with low VCP and ceiling reflections can be controlled by proper use of reflectances, use
of low-brightness units, and judicious arrangement of viewing positions.

A2

Position
Mf

M2

M3

2L
4L

108
215

92
185

125

118

250

235

CRF 2L
4L

.75
.76

1.00
1.00

.82
.83

1.01
1.03

ESI 2L
4L

17.8
28.4

91 . ~

185.3

31.5
58.1

27.8
308.3

LEF 2L
4L

.165
.132

1.0
1.00

.25
.23

1.08
1.31

Tl

Tl-Task Illumination
2L-2 lamps (inside pair)
4L-41amps

315

M4

Direct lighting gives little vertical surface illumination, requiring the addition of perimeter
lighting in business atmospheres. See figure below

Concentrating downlights used alone are appropriate in restaurants and other areas
where the privacy type of atmosphere generated by limited-area horizontal illumination
and minimal v ertical - surface illumination is desired. When these fixtures are designed
with black cones or baffles or other devices that are nonreflecting at the viewing angle,
the fixture appears dark . It is generally accepted that installations providing highhorizontal-surface illumination, w ith no apparent source of brightness such as those using
black-cone downlights, are disturbing to the eye and to our normal bright-sun-and-sky
orientation and should therefore be used cautiously and only in limited areas. In a lesser

316

extent, this comment is applicable to very low-brightness diffusers such as the parabolic
wedge type. There, however, t he unit has the redeeming character istics of low reflected
glare, which is not the case with downlights.
In summary then, spread direct lighting is suitable and appropriate for general lighting
while concentrating direct lighting, which reduces vertical illumination, is appropriate for
highlights, local and supplementary lighting, and specialized or casual viewing.

Size and Pattern

of luminances
Because of its luminance each luminaires or other luminous source is a point of visual attention. To the extent that luminaires are numerous, large. Very bright, or arranged in
striking patterns, attention will be drawn to them and away from other surfaces. In the
absence of these characteristics it may be desirable to add accent color or accent lighting
to avoid monotony. Rigid rules cannot be set down covering these criteria, but examples
can demonstrate the principles.
Luminaire size should correlate with room size and ceiling height. Fluorescent fixtures
l;:uger than 2 x 4ft. !0.60 x 1 .20) should not be used in ceilings below 10ft. (3.00 m)
unless their size is minimized by some sort of surface pattern.

317

Transilluminated ceilings are all f ixture and therefore require a minimum ot 1 2 ft. mounting height. When installed below this level, particularly in large rooms, the effect is oppressive, as if the sky were lowered on us . To offset this effect, the use of colored,
shaped. or dark panels is of some help. In place of a luminous ceiling , a large-area, coffertype fixture can be utilized, which gives the impression of great depth. (see fig. below)

1111111111

Ballasts"'

Ally length

,.___ Auolescent tubes

White acrylic
panels -

~~~--------------~
V
f2-4w Fixture regress _,_

or return

~L-....,.....---

t-- .. ---- --- -- - - ---l'- ~Ceiling line

48~

(a)

White finish
Dimensions

to suit

Wall

(b)

318

In order to achieve the uniformity of illumination necessary for general lighting. regular
spacing is desirable. However. various effects may be obtained within the regularity, to
accomplish an architectural purpose, is shown in the figures below and next pages. The
pattern of lights must never be at cross-purpose with any dominant architectural pattern;
rather it should either reinforce an architectural form to be neutral. If a strong architectural element is absent, a dominant lighting pattern may be desirable. Conversely, a
strong architectural element can either be reinforced figure (a) or utilized to carry a
neutral lighting pattern figure (b)

Treatment of dominant archit~ural patterns. In each case the

designer was faced with
es~tially the ~me p~oblem, YIZ., ~ low.Jevel seeing task in a large space with a dominant
arch!tectural al!l!ng. Orfferent soltJ!jons ~ anived at, each of which is consonant with the
~r~rtectural oetltng.. Both acx:omphsh thrs by following the dominant fine; (q), next page, follows
it With a neutral pattern.

319

(al longit~~.~allines increa~e

appare.~:

;ength. direct

traflic :'.e-N, cecrease direct glare

(b' Horizor.tal
lines create a
plane. .nc:use
widtll
apparent

but also in<:rease direct glare

Cd Diagonal 'c!les minimize

shadows ~~d break
rectangular patterns. They
are archit~urally dominant

(dJ Rectangular pattern i$

architecturally dominant
and therefore must be used
caNfulty. It is a poor chciu
in stores where attention

dvwnward is de.sired

320

(, J Cornices, vala:-.:es and coves

are luminous ceito ng borders.

Ill large rocms suspended
coves achieve uniform ceiling
briehtness and when designed
with a downward component or
combined with local tighttng.
as illustrated, give a plea~t_a nt.
intimate atmosphere

( fJ Coffers create a decorative

architectural effect and ca n
be designed to resem ble
skyfights or can be built
into actual sky~Gflts

(g/ Lumonous ceohr.g system

utilizing louvers or transluce:nt
mat.rial suspended beneath
rows of fluorescent lamps
provides high Illumination, low
brightness and high dolfusoon.
The system is archotectu rally
oppressive. and monotonou >.
requ1rong som~ a~ce ~ r or
either color or ; ~:-o: ~

(h) DownHghts are architecturally neutral and may

{j)

therefore be spaced evenly ................................. ............................ ... or unevenly

321

lighting can be util~zed as a ~ium to ~nnect

That patterns of ligtltinl are plainly vis~ble evtn

during the daytime is apparent from lhs photo.
The attracti~ of unifOtmity of fixture
pattern can readily be seen. Photo by Stein.

Si~

the iMide and outside of a bu11d1ng. The s1mple

expedient of continuing the lighting pattern
beyond the window Ot wall glass provid~ .
visibility from insi<Ml out as well as outs.de m.
Care must be exercised to avoid fixture
placement which will reflect in the glass.

filrtures are readily visible even when unlit

durine daylight hours. their outline can be

accentuated and the resultant pattern utilized

as an architectual motif.

322

The large can-shaped surface-mounted

downlights dominate the area 's appearance
despite the high ceiling. The pimpled look could
be eliminated by re<:essing the units. Or. taking
advantage of the prominence of these units.
interest ~uld be added by altering the regular
pat terr .

The lighting in this extreme1J strong an:flitectural

patwn was hormonized deftly by recessjng
fixtures deeply into the lattice motif. NetaJ halide
HID units ai'ld tungsten-haklgen units were used.

The 'lines of lights

rn

the

cent~

converge

optically to produce a di,-e<;tional flow of traffic

toward the escalator. The rema ining floor ligh ting
is provided by visuaUy pleasing drcular patterns
around columns

323

Generally, continuous row installations are more attractive than individual units, and
eliminate the dominating checkerboard effect of the latter. Coves and cornices give the
ceiling a floating or light effect. Geometric patterns can be used to add interest or break
monotony of large areas; such as department stores. Generally, incandescent downlights
are not dominant and regularity of placement is not essential. Nonuniform layouts with
large sources create a distinct pattern problem in as much as they are too large to be
neutral, and the nonuniformity can create visual confusion (see figure below)

The only cure for this problem is to mmem1ze the source. brightness by using lowbrightness diffusers. The incorporation of daylight into the luminous sources of a space
should take cognizance of size and pattern as well. Large windows are not consonant
with small ceiling sources, whereas skylights are readily integrated with other ceiling
units. A frequently neglected consideration is the appearance of a source when deenergized. With proper daylight and energy-conserving design, many sources will be
"dark" during the normal- use hours of the spaces. Obviously, low-brightness sources
will change least in appearances, which is a factor in their favor.

324

DETAILED LIGHTING
DESIGN
PROCEDURES
DESIGN DECISIONS
Refer again. to the figure on lighting design procedure chart, chapter 14; at this point
in the design process the lighting hardware is chosen on the basis of the considerations
. adduced in the preliminary design stage and the appropriate calculations performed.
Some spc:~oes will require overall, uniform illumination other spaces will utilize local
lighting al~ne (or local lighting in addition to general). requiring point-by-point illumination
caiculations or some other method for restricted-area calculation. Part of these calcula.. tions are- those VCP and ESI either exact or estimated. Additional considerations at this
design stage are type of ceiling system, for example, modular, movable fixture, and integrated ~ :rvice, and ancillary considerations of ballast noise, fixture heat distribution,
brightness ratios and maintenance. Also decided here is whether to utilize work station
mounted or built-in lighting, both of which are principally applicable to open-plan spaces.

Direct - lighting luminaire Characteristics

It is important to understand th~ action of luminaire reflectors. The basic shapes and
beam patterns are illustrated in these following: figures ( 1), (2), (3), (4), whilsielding
methods are shown in figure (5).

.s_~'

'

, , '

Ceiling
line

Col .

326

SCUrte

:::'...,'

<- -~~

..

":

:x focus

(e)

(a)

')Fixture shows ligh1irtg distritui"iotf

for ~ spot attd fJoOd Jamps.lt1 noma!
ceiling heigh1s flteir circular pat rem

. ltijf,.ittti!t1Sity useful10r

accetrtirtg walls.

carl ~ S88tt OK 1tte floor.

(b) l.aN itrtettsity

dowtflight, usetiJf for
Jow-leYelltf(X)d fightitt~

..... ....

'

f}Wall wzrskir:J cievlce or

Ray Diagrams
---------------- x . F~

#~

By utilizing a lens fixture, a n.llw housing

without a reflector can be Uled, while still
maiotaioing bum mntJol

{b)

(c)

328

PAR Lamp

R Lamp

45 ShieJdittg wi'Ht' vertical baffles

45 Snie!dittg wi'ttr

honzmrtaJ b3ffies

Cones control brightness by .

t.utoff .net by redirection of .
liFt due to si.pe. They' Ire
eittw parabolic oi elliPtic:aI.
A 11Ft specullr fmish IPI*Q
dull; black' specu!w rmish

Bilek finishes require high

~flty

meint-- g._

dust shows
refr.:tion.

IIPI*Q unl~.

329

as

btight

Although the illustrations use point sourcds (incandecent or HID lamps). the prinCiple illustrated is applicable to reflectors for linear (fluorescent) sources. when considered in
section. (see figure also on design features of recessed luminaires on chapter 1 6). An interesting development in the area of elliptic reflectors was prortuced recently by one of
the major lamp manufacturers. Note from figure 2(a) and (b) that the so--calted pin-hole
down light requires an elliptic reflector to focus the light through t.,is hole at point "x in
order to maintain even minimal fixture efficiency. -Eitiptic reflectors are large and frequently space above the ceiling is too restricted for their use. A lamp '!".ith an integral
elliptical reflector. which can therefore be utilized in a standard baffled reflector without
severe losses, ~s inustrated.in this figure.

Lighting Fixture Distribution Characteristics

The two distribution curves shown in the figure below are actual test results of two~
2-lamp 1 ft. wide by 4 ft. long, semi-direct 'fluorescent fixtures with prismatic
enclosures. The flat bottom of curve (a} indicates even illuminatfon over a wide area and
therefore a high spacing to mounting height ratio (1.5), whereas the rounded bottom of
curve (b) indicates uneven illumination and closer required spacing for uniformity ( 1. 2
ratio of spacing to mounting height above working plane for a maximum of 20% illumination variation).

30"
0"

(bl

330

The straight sides of curve (a) show a fairly sharp cutoff. and the small amount of light
above 45 means high efficiency, sufficient wall lighting, adequate diffuseness and very
little direct glare problem, but a d~tinct possibility of veiling reflections. Conversely,
curve (b) shows a large amount of hOfizontal illumination (above 45). with resultant
direct glare, diffuseness, and relative inefficiency, since horizont al light is attenuated by
multiple reflections before reaching the horizontal working plane. Here, however, low
output below 45 minimizes reflected glare. The uptight component of fixture (a) is
directed outward to cover the ceiling and will not cause hot spots; the corresponding
light from fixture (b) is concentrated above the fixture and will give uneven illumination of
t he ceiling. Thus, we see that a rapid inspection of a fixture curve performed by an infanned person can yield a large amount of data or the fixture's performance.

Uniformity of Illumination
In any space intended to be lightedirirormty:wilh ""'-*disciete ceiling-mounted light
sources (rather than a luminous ceiling). it is necessary to establish a fixture spacing that
will give acceptable Unifo~ of ilumination. A Atio of maximum to minimum illuminat ion on the wotktng plane 9f 1 ~2 is ~ ~ IWld 1.3 is tolerable. FOf general
background or circulation r.ghting,
to 1.6 is acCeptable. ~ data given by manufacturers (see figures immediately above~ disf!ibution arteS for eech fixture in the table
coefficients of utilization in the next
pa(r!.$} ~~ally based on this 1 .2 figure,
which should not be exceeded in a quBiity deSiQn. See figure below .

up

c6ming

...,___20

30

ft-- -tl

30

footcandles
(g)

Footl:andlel
(b)

331

We mentioned above in the distribution characteristic that the fixture of figure (a) had a high
spacing to mounting- height ratio because of its flat bottomed curve. This ratio, when not
given by the manufacturer, f1'18Y be approximated from the figures in the table below.

SpM:Ing tllld llountlng-Helghl R4tlaflonshlp ol Lumln11lres for Illumination Unllormltya

Ught Distribution
Semicon-

General
Indirect

()i&.

Mlvcitnum"

~ Length

Height

from ofSWWalls penllon

Spacing
of

LuminaitN

9
10
11
12
13
14

2
2l
4
5

15

20

16

6
6
7

22

18
20 or mote

2}
3

Dif/u$ing

~ ~~

Cell#'lf1

Semi-inditect

DirectIndirect

8
9
10
11

131

15
17
19
24
28

Direct

~Q)
~

centrating
Direct

Concentrating Direct

if

-r

Di$Mounting'
MIIJdtmJ111C Maximutne Jlaximum"
Spacing
Spacing
Height
~
Spacing
of
from
of
of
ol
Luminaires Walf8 Luminaires Luminaires Luminalre.s

101

121

Spread

12
13
14
15
16
18
20ermore

2
2

21
2l

3
4

5
5

11

5I

101

6
7

12

13l
15

161

18

1:

41

54

11

12
13

61

6
6

22

151

25

17J

20

2J
3
4

7
8

AI ~llliol1a in f1lel
.'These ~apply where diaD.., bencMa ...... to .... ----~ ... I'I**'ObebNM unlalt
satlsfactofy.

The actual spacing of luminail'e& is usually " - than tt1e mu:imum spacing to suit bay room dim~.
' for mounting height ot genet"~~ diffUsing and dinlc:t-indlreQ ftldl.nl.

332

The distribution types shown in this table are generic and theref01e may not be readily applicable in some cases. The curves in the figure below are an approximation for direct
distribution incandescent fixtures.

It is well known that illumination levels near walls drop off at least 30% even in a well designed installation. To counteract this effect. particularly when placement of furniture
is such that visual tasks will occur near walls. the designer should arrange to provide additional illumination in these areas. This may readily be accomplished by additional fixtures, higher~output units. perimeter lighting. or some type of wal1 washing arrangement.
Particular stress should be placed on this type of local lighting where wall reflec tances
are low. such as at walls covered with book shelves, equi~nt racks, low-reflectance
paint. or dark wood paneling. Fixture end should be no more than 1 ft. and fixture sides
no more than 2 ft. from walls.

333

The foregoing discussion of illumination uniformity concerned itself with uniformity on

a horizontal plane. Ocassionally, it is necessary to know the degree of uniformity vertically (on horizontal planes-at different elevations) Four different lighting situations are normally
encountered.
They are:
a. Ploint sources such as incandescent downlights.
b. Line sources such as continuo.us - row fluorescent fixtures,
c. Infinite sources such as luminous ceilings whether transilluminated or indirect.
d. Parabolic reflector beams such as from PAR tamps.
The vertical uniformity of each .type shown graphically iri this figure.

l(l()JJo-..-1'011......

25
11.1 ~~--"--

la}

(b}

(a). (b). Illumination varies inversely with square of distance for

a point scurc. and

LUIIIIJIU~:>

lOOfc
lOQfc
100 fc

in~~ersely

as distance for a line source.

teilin&

-~-~IOOfc
fc

fc

(d)
fd
ld. (d} llumination remains constant at all distances from either
an infinillle (or nearty) source or a pMabolic reftecfot.

L~minaire

Mounting Height

The mounting height of luminaires is normally established before spacing, and unitormiJy
requirements govern spacing as explained above. In arriving at a mounting height for fixtures with an upward component, a balance must .be struck between the requirement of
low-ceiling brightness and good utilization of light (low mounting) and the reticence to
dominate an area, particularly a large room by using such a low mounting height that the
apparent ceiling height is affected. See figure below:

,.,

334

Room
Width
(Feet)

Ceiling
Height
(Feet)

7
7

14
28 and up

8
16

11

"'ffices and
Classrooms

Drafting
Room3

..

"

6
6
6
12

32 and up

18

36 and up

12
6

10
20
40and up

18
12
6

21
18

11

21

22
44 and up
12

18

10

Hanger Length {Inches)

12

1!

:i

Ceiling
Height
(Feet)

'

II
I

13

14

15

16

12
21
21
18

12

21 (# 24

24

21
21

48 at!d up

21

21 or 24

21 or 24

Room
Width
(Feet)

Hanger Length (Inches)

bOffices and
Class1ooms

Drafting
Rooms

13
26
52 and up
14
28

21 or 24
21 or 24
21 or 24

24
24
24

30

30

24

24

56 and up
15
30
60 and up

24
36
30
24

24

16
32
64 and up

42
36

18
18

20

36
72 and up
20

40
80 and up

36
30
24
42
36

30
42
36

30

30

30
s.t
42

s.t
42
36

42
36

36

Lighting Rxtures
The architect should consider that lighting fixtures constitute 25 to 30% of the electrical
budget or 4 to 5% of the overall building budget, to apf>reciate their importance. Since
the difference between a quality unit and an inferior one is often not readily visible to the
casual observer, particular care must be taken in the specification of lighting fixtures and
in examination of shop drawings and samples. All fixtures if applted properly will give a
sufficient quantity of light, but only a good unit will combine quantity with good quality,
ease of installation, facility of maintenance and indefinite life. In addition , regardless, of
the manufacturing details of a lighting fixture, installation procedure must be proper to insure mechanical rigidity and safety, freedom from excessive temperatures, and requisite
accessibility of component parts and of the fixture outlet box.

Lightjng Fixture Construction

(a} All fixtures shall be wired and constructed to comply with local codes.
lb} Fixtures shall generally be construc~ed of 20 gauge 10.0359 in.) thick steel
minimum. Cast portions of fixtures shall be no less than 1/16 in. thick.
(c) All metals shall be coated. The coating ~hall be a baked - enamel white paint of
minimum 85% reflectance; on top of a rust-inhibiting pfiming process. Unpainted
surfaces shall be finished with a clear lacquer except for anodized or "ALZAC" surfaces. All hardware shall be cadmium-plated of otherwise rust-proofed.
(d) lampholders in incandescent

fixtures shaiJ .be porcelain, with nickel plated screw

shell
(e) An .incandescent fixture shall not cause a temperature exceeding 90 on an y outside
surface.
(f ) No point on the outside of a fluorescent f ixture shall exceed 900.

lg) Each fixture shall be identified by label carrying the manufacturer's name and address and the fixture catalogue number.
{hi Glass diffuser panels in fluorescent fixtures shall be mounted in a metal frame.
Plastic diffusers shall be suitably hinged. "Lay-in" plastic diffusers should not be used,
(i} Plastic diffusers should be of the slow-burning or self-extinguishing type with low

smoke density rating and low heat distortion temperatures. This latter shall be low
enough so that the plastic diffuser will distort sufficiently to drop out of the fixture
before reaching ignition temperature,
(j} It is imperative that plastics used in air-handling fixtures be of the noncombustible,

low-smoke-density type. These requirements also apply to other nonmetallic components of such fixtures.
(k) All plastic diffusers shall be clearly marked with their composition material, trade
name, and manufacturer's name and identification number. The characteristics of
many plastic diffusers change radically with age and exposure to ultraviolet light.
Glass and acrylic plastic are stable in color and strength. Other plastics may yellow
and even turn brown thus. diminishing light transmission radically as well as changing the fixture appearance. Some plastics that are initially very, tough and "vandalproof" embrittle with age and exposure to weather or the ultraviolet light of a
mercury or fluorescent source. Thus, the long-range as well as initial characteristics
of all diffuser elements must be investigated before specification approval.
(I) Ballasts shall be mounted in fixtures with captive screws on the fixture body, to

allow ballast replacement without, fixture removal.

(m) All fixtures mounted outdoors, whether under canopies or directly exposed to the
weather, shall be constructed of appropriate weather - resistant materials and
finishes, including gasketing to prevent entrance of water into wiring, and shall be
marked by the manufacturer. "suitable for outdoor use".

lighting Fixture Installation

(a) Fixtures may not be used as a conductor raceway unless specifically so designed and
labeled by the manufacturer.
(b) Fixtures mounted on combustible surfaces shall not subject these surfaces to a
temperature exceeding 90C, in a 40C ambient space. To this end insulatingmaterial spacers or simply an air space may be used.
(c) Although most codes allow fluorescent fixtures less than 40 lb in weight to be
mounted directly on the horizontal metal members of hung-ceiling systems experience has shown that vibration, member deflection, routine maintenance operation on equipment in hung ceilings and poor workmanship can cause such fixtures to
fall, endangering life. It is strongly recommended that all fixtures, surface, pendant
or recessed, whether mounted individually or in rows. must be supported from the
black channel iron supporting the ceiling system (purlins) or directly frQm the building
structure, but in no case by the ceiling system itself. This is particularly important in
the case of an exposed "Z" spline ceiling system.
336

(d) Fixtures installed in wet plaster ceilings shaft utilize plaster frames installed for that
purpose.
(e) Fixtures installed in bathrooms shall not have an int~ receptacle and when installed on waHs shall have nonmetallic bodies. These are safety precautions.
(f) The voltage to ground on branch circuits supptyirig lampholders and lighting fixtures

shall bot exceed 1 50 v except for :

1. Mogul-base lampholders mounted not less than 8ft. above the floor, and
accessible only to authorized personnel .
2. Fluorescent lamp fixtures, permanently installed with appropriate ballasts,
in which case the voltage may be up to 300 V . Such fixtures may not have
integral switching but must use wall switches. This rule allows the use of
2 7 7 V fluorescent and mercury lighting. Use of li~ting circuits above
1 50 V is not permitted in residences.

S.t andards for Recessed Fluorescent Luminaires

The prevalence of fluorescent troffers, that is, fluorescent fixtures recessed into a
suspended-ceiling system, has necessitated industry standardization to reduce fixture ceiling incom patibility.
The FIVE t ypes are shown in these figures.

0
~ Tlaffw width -

fuminair~is one .havin& vertical tumed-~tp edges

which ar~ parall~l tQ the lamp direction and inlended

to "soap-in" or oth~rwise align tbe luminaire with a

c:onc:~aled T-ba.r suspension s~'St~m. 1he c:entl!r ~ning
of the Tees lxin! located on modular or otha symmetrical dimcnsi;ual lines.

'""""tli"

is on~ . havins edges ~A;hich are desi~d tor~ on or -lay-in~ lbe ~xJX*cl in\~ned T 0r

a suspmsioll S)"Stcm (aistoiaarily desaibtd as a gnd

ceiling ~-siem) wid! die w~bs of the T~ btin~ located
on modular or ocher symmetrical dimensional lines.

0
l11~ is

one haviaz liloriz.ooW ~which

lire' parallel to the lamp direCtiOn ud de5i&fted to con

c:eal the edges of the ~g ~ above which the

lum.iaaire iS supported by coac;calcd meclwUc:aJ suspemioo.

1-.ilftlin is oae. jy.vin& ~ucl bqckets_ boob or

other attaduncnts aAd designed to be sapportcd at the
.eDdsby ...bootintoD....to some member of the. ceiling
suspcosioe system.

is-a Type H lwniuire bavin& edges

piralld to the lamp direction ~ dcpmdcnt OiJ splines
of the ceiling suspension system for c:onaalmcnt of the
edges or the lumillairc.
T~. HS ~

r--

1)-pe HF lumi~ is a Type H luin.inaire having edges

lamp dim:tion and desipcd to conceal
11\e edp:s of c.bc:: cciliog openin! iA whick.the luminaire
~d to the:

Troffer width -

T~ S lumiiiOir~

is one wbicb is desi~ for mechanical suspension from ellposcd spliDc:s and dependent on

is~

splines parallel "' the lamp directiun for conceo~lment

of tbe edges of the: lumin.Ure.

luminaire Diffusing Elements

The diffusing elements usually considered include white plastic, striped and prismatic
glass, prismatic plastic, high-reflectance aluminum (alzac), baffles, and miniature eggcrate louvers. In addition to these types there are various sizes and shapes of metal and
plastic louvers and baffles, white glass, ribbed glass, etc. Each of these diffusers must be
considered on its merits and a decision arrived at (60 to next line) based on photometric
characteristics, cost .ease of maintenance, apperance, and fire safety. A rapid review of the
photometric characteristics of this most important element of a lighting fixture yields the
following:
(a) Plain White Diffusers
These have a circular distribution g1vmg equal light in all directions. Diffusion is
good, VCP is poor, and ESI is generally poor.

30"

30"

338

(b) Prismatic lens

There afe dozens of designs that vary one from another considerably. The figure can
be taken as,typical of ~his genre. They produce good diffusion, high VCP and fair ESI,
depending on viewing angles and positions.

r:r
{Cl)

(cl Louvers and Baffles

.. These are made of metal or plastic, in vari~us shapes and sizes. They generally have
circular to egg-shaped distribution, providing 'good-diffusion, good VCP and poor ESI.
(d) Parabolic louvers

These are available in:small and large designs, ttlfil princ!pal characteristic. of which is
extremely low brightness' yielding very high VCP ..-One such unit with miniature cells
is shown in this figure.

....

,.

A section throogh the unit is show'n

339

mttli~ figure . ..

....

..

Another design is shown in the figure below along with its distribution curves. Notice
the low value of high-angle and low-angle brightness of the crosswi~e curve. This
unit' therefore give very high VCP. good ESI. and good efficiency.

le) Batwing Diffusers

These diffusers are made in a number of designs. They are generally prismatic lenses
modified to give this special characteristic.

3Jr- 6tf;

---- --....-.... -..

(a) CompatUon of typictJl di.tribtdion

,..

curuer for CDift1ftDft JfuatDctm.t fi*m tliJfu-r

m.flftllr. 1'lae uihite plamc dijfuwt ~ is.

JIC1

altnDit circular. giting essentfolfr t1te .ne distributiM tu the batT lamps. AfiQIJ if coralrliu no Ul!)at
~~ 'llwcurwof ....~
di~liltowa ~~(low 6w:tpe)
bra.liitJt oa1pat ift dwO.fo ~ ~41!arilpts~
Balllling ~ ~~la.tlwi31J
to lt1" - - tdtile nDadng 1M 0 ~ 311' ..... ...

liD
~.s

at
2'111

-... n.s

no
~

~~All~
..,.---~-'
ofo2Jb:4JtlfJOIJ..I~....,~--fow
40..IIatpi&.

(b) Lirtear batwing ~ 10idt

dy Jwp cvlolf in tM . , . GnCI ~
,........., .Cit ~ HOfo:.
rtm!!lt. Cum!: fda t11a01:t -....
. . , ....
pharw ~ (...,..,.~*'tie ltmtp
e:rbts

unit.
~p~wJtowisefric cfGIG for

diol~Ja~fing cu.tribulion lnw. NOIIII ~ fhe

a,.

perpm- .

dicular. .paralW. tllld ~ ~ -., GlmO.tt

...-

..... t-140CW-

.,..,.

. 1UI' c.JMQE 2S , _

identical. Zonal Jlur is maximum in the 30 to fXJ

ol- both
dafmL

.,t:IRf aad dtopJ

free of
bOd\ direct and
reflected glare

.(.cl

(e)

relati~~ely

em....,

(6}

340

,.
"'

1M

.,...,
Q

PHOTOMETRIC DATA:

:rx~- .... -

..... - . . . , . . ..t.y

---

--I'UPEJIOICUI.AA
---PAMUEl

(c-)

~T:DC'f.

80

)5

.56
G

25

15
5
0

......

0
0
31 61
2112 22!1 288
!i53 .C 561

FWX

--

51
7lr1

526

181 813 100

1013
11h8 m
nsz 1045 ll30 (i!!8
1UO ~ 1CI80 !505
ta ta !I'Z1 283

1113
1113
880 880 880

83

wvnow~ EF~OOII.NCY -ttl.S'\

. A comparison of batwing distribution with that of louvers and white plastic is shown in
this figure.

(t.)

(g)

(r)

ESI - Equivalent Spherical Illumination

VCP - Visual Comfort Probability

Luminaire Efficiency
A luminaire, variously called a fixture, lighting unit, or reflector, comprises a device for
physically supporting the light source and usually for directing or controlling the light output of this source. Because of internal reflections, some of the generated lumen output of
the lamp is lost within the fixture. The ratio of output lumens to lamp (input) lumens, expresseq as a percentage, represents the luminous efficiency of the fixture. Although this
information is normally available from the manufacturer it is readily. calculated from the
fixture distribution curve by application of the zonal factors to the fixture curve.
However, this characteristic has little meaning by itself, since the actual overall efficiency
of a luminaire depends on the space in which it is used.
To illustrate, let us consider the case of a large high-ceiling room in which the ceiling is
dark and is covered with dirty piping and ductwork. If we were to use a high-efficiency
(say 80%) indirect lighting unit in such a room, most of the light directed upward would
be lost (absorbed) and the actual lighting on the. working plane 30 in. above the floor
would be very low. If however, this room were illuminated with low-efficiency direct
lighting units (ex: 50%) utilizing the same wattage, the illumination on the working plane
would be considerably higher than in the first case .
Sim,larly, if we consider a small room with dark walls and ceiling, lighted alternatiyely by
diffuse lighting and by direct lighting units of the same wattage and unit efficiency, the
horizontal - plane illumination will be higher in the case of the direct units because of the
large loss of the horizontal and upward components of the diffuse lighting on the walls
and ceiling. It should be obvious than that the fixture efficiency alone is not a meaningful
factor but that the overall luminous efficiency of a particular unit in a particular space is the
figure that merits our attention. This figure, since It describes the utilization of the fixture
output in specif;c space, is known as the coefficient of utilization (CUI. ~tis defined as the
ratio between the lumens reaching the working horizontal plane to the generated lumens.

342

Since each luminaire will have a different coefficient for every different space in which it is
used, a system of standardization has been evolved utilizing room cavities (explained below)
of certain proportions and various surface reflectances.
The fixture coefficients are then computed and tabulated as shown in the table. It should
be emphasized that the figures given in this table are for the generic fixture type only in an
actual job, actual fixture data should be used. The CU then is a factor that combines fixture
efficiency and distribution with room proportions, mounting height, and surface reflectance.

343

Colflclents of Utilization lor Typical Luminaires with Suggested Maximum Spacing Ratios and Maintenance Category
To obtain a Coefficient ol Utilization:
1. Determine cavity ratloa tor the room, ceiling, and floor from Table 20.8.
2. Oelermlne the elf~tive ceiling and floor cavity tell~tanoes from Table 20.9. Use initial ceiling. floor. snd wau re11&elances .
3. Obtain Coefficient ol Utilization (CU) l or 20'lf. ellectlve lloor cavity refl ectance from app ropriate table below tor luminaire type to be use<:l. Interpolate, when necessary, to obtain CU lor exact room cavity ralio for neeret effective ceiling cavity rettectances abov4r'end botow re11ectance obtained in Step 2: interpolate between these CUa to obtain
CU lor Step 2 ceiling cavity rellectance.

4. II ellactlve 11oor cavity rllfleclance differs significantly lrom 20%, obtain multip~er !rom Table 20. tO and apply lhls to the CU obtained in Step 3.
NOTE. In eome ca..t , lumlnalre data In thle tabla are b8$8d on an ach.tal typical tumlnaire: In oth er c<ses. the data represent a composite ol generic lum lnalre types. Therefore.
whanfJVec po"ibla. 1114!CIIIc lumlnalre data ehould be usee In prefeumce to lhi$ table or typical lununo~ires.
The polar lntenelty ekelch (candlepower distribution curve) and the correepond ing spacing-to-mou nting heignt guide are representative or many luminaires of each type shown . A
apecllic lumlnalra may differ In pat1141ndicular plane (cro awlsa) and parallel pla ne (lengthwise) intensIY distributions and In S1MH guide from the value. shown. However . the various cdttfllclente depend only on the average lntenally at each polar angle from nndir
...
- r-
70
80
30
.o
0
Typtcal Dl5trloullon
,,.
and Petcenf
50 30 10
50 30 10
50 30 10
Lamp Lumen$
50 30 10
30 10
0
p_. L ..
WDRC"

,,

...

Typical

t. um/fJa/rt

SIM/-f

RCR

GuldeoA

-----~

1.5

r--

4
5
6
7
8
9
10

~5%

Pendant dllfutlng ephere with

lncandeKOnt WT!p

1.3

IV

~
POfcelaln-enamaled ventilated
standard dome with Incand...
cant tamp

0
t

45%

I~

--

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

8
9
10

!
Coeftic~nl5

.1)7
.71
.61
. 52
.46
.40
.36
.32
.29
.26
.23

.87
.67
.54
.45
.38
.33

of Ullli.rarlon for 20'llo Enective Floor Cavity Reflectance (p,. : 20)

.8 I
.66 .6;>

87
.63

.81

. 49

.56 .50

.39
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.42 36

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.82
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so

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81
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16

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.41

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23
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.69
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59

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59

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69
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.47
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.23 .19 . 16

.20

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14
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.21
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.92
.83
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.92 .92
.80 . 78
.69 .66
.60 .56
.52 .48
.45 .41
.39 .35
.34 .30
.30 .26
.27 .23
.24 .20

.86
.79
.71'
.63
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. 17

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43
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32 .27
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13 . 11
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. 11 .08
.09 .07

.44
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8
7

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Alftectot clownllght with betlles
and lntlde. froewd lamp
..

9
10
Ill

1.5

4
5

&

65%

8
9
10

Wldeodlltrlbutlon ventilated re
ftectorwllh CIHr HID lamp
tl

IS%

DltfUM l lumlnum reflector with

35"CW ehleldlng
II

LJ

I.S/ 1.1

2~

~
DatM

1.5/ 1.3

'

Ml""'"""

reflector witt!
35 1 CW lC 35"LW. ehleldlng

1
2

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.39
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.52
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3
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Colllt:lnlt ol Utlllutlon.lor Typical Lumlnalr with SuggetH Maximum Spacing R11tlos and MalntManc Category
Typical Dl.,r/lxltlon
lltd Pen;anf
1
Lamp Lumna

Typlal Lumln11"

Malnt.
C1t.

.v1

M1111mum
SIMH

D.a
Ou~

p.."-+

,.--. 1

'

Luminous boUom tu1pendad

unit with &Jttra-hlgh-output lamp

Max. S/CII,.,P ,. I.S

1.!511.2

.Tw().lamp ptlimM wrap.

.around-multiply bY.
for

:!OUt lampe

o.as

1'!1

0'-'

1.0

o
1

s
4

s
8
7

10

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1
2
3
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1
8
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10

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o
1
2
.3
4
II

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two._.,. end o.tUor.

= 0.9

1 10 30 10. 1

50 30

ro

so :w

10
10

so so

0
10

o 1WDfCO

Coelt/olantt of Utlllzetlon for 20% Elfcllve Floor Cavity Rlt.clnc (p,. 20)

.n
.e7

.eo .el> .eo

Mu. S/M il,.,

10

1.05 for
alx tamp

:w

J.

Fourlamp, 2.ft-wlde' trorr.r with

!t& plntlo loUYif'...il ulltply ~ .

30

60

RCR'

1~

70

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.151 .$1
.47 ....
.42 .41
.:s9 .37
.ss .33

.11
.10
.09
.07
.01
.05
.05

.04
.03

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.03

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.04
.04

.03
.03

.03
.03
.03
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.58

.50
.44
.31
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.20
.18
.17
.16

.29

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.28
.23
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30

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.23

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.27 .24 .22

.27 .24

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.24 .21 .'UI

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.21 .18 .11

.23 :19 .11

.21 .111 .15

.t2 .19 .11

.20 .17 -.15

.15

.10

.08
.08

0%1.411.2

~
Fluo:escent unit with fla( prls
malic lane, 4-lemp, 2 It widemultiply by 1.10 for 2-lamp

65%

M:t)\.

S.~Ml 1..1, ~

1.1

.73 .73

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

.66 .64
.59 .55
.53 .48
.47 .42
.42 .37
.38 .33
.34 .29
.30 .25
.27 .22
.25 .20

1
2
3

.42 .40
.37 .34
.32 .29
.29 .25
.25 .21
.23 .19
.20 . t7
.18 .15
.17 .13
.15 . 12

Single row nuorescent lamp cove wllhout

reflector; mult. by 0.93 tor two rows ana
by .o.85_1or. tl'lree rows.
~~....

rrorn

----

Louvered ceiling.
'
1. Ceiling efficiency -50~: 45 ahleldlng
opaque louvere ot 8011. renectance. Cavity
with minimum obatruclloM and painted
wit!l ~ renectartce palnt-u ,.,
so.

5
6
7
8
9
10

.72 .72 .72

.68 .68
.65 .83 .61
.62 .eo
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.52 .48
.50 .46
.46 .42 .38
.. 45 .41
.
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.40 .38
.37 .32 .29
.36 .32
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33 .28
.30 .25 .22
.29 .25
.27 .22 .19
:28 .22
.24 .20 . 16
.24 .19

73
~2

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.....

.45
.39
.33
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25
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.17
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.36 .35
.32 .29
.28 .25
.25 .22
.22 .19
.20 .16
.17 .14
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32
.26
22
. 18
.16
. 14
.12
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09

1
2

3
4

5
6 ..
7

8
9

10

.33
.27
.23

.19
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.14
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.09
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.25 .24
.22 .20
.19 .17
.17 .15
.15 .13
.1 . . . 12
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. 11 .09
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.09 .07
.$1 .49
.46 ,44
.42 .39
.38 .35
.35 .32
.32 .29
.29 .26
.. 27 .23
.24 .21
.22 .19

Source. Selected and reprinted wllh ~rmlsston from tCS Handboolr, 5th ed.
p~

= percent lffectlve ceiling cavity reflectance.

b "

::a percent wall reflectance.

RCA "' Room ,C.vlty Rallo.

"' Ma11lmum $1MH gulde-rallo of ma1dmum lu~nlnalte spaclf19 to mounting or ceiling height above work plane.
:o: Wall 0111K:t Radiation Ooelliclerit

WDRC

..

.66 .66 .66

.63 .63 .63

.44

.54
.48

.$7 .56 .65

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.47 :~4 .42

.38
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.22
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.43
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.35
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.34
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.19 .16

.62
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.20
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13
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..

. Covet ere not recommended tor llgt\Ung

ollelt htvlng low relleclancee .

.47 ......45
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.a .a .sa

.33 .. 31 .. 29'

.30 .24 .2$

.28
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...

Wll Lumlnnce Coefflclntt nd Ceiling Cvlty LumlnMc Coefllc/ents lor Typical Lumlnalr
To obllln I IU..IIIIn. . -"'cllftttoiiOw ... ~re ~- Ill 1M llliiCI of Tebll 20.71 to lind I coelllc*>t ol utiiiJIIIOft.

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c.lilttg c:evlry o/umiMIICI co.lfloMtlll tor ~ 1ffNfW.
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wall Lumlnanc Coefllclent nd Ceiling Cavltyl..umlnnce Cofllclnltlor Typlcl Lumlnlr (Continue~

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Interior Illumination
Calculations

Having selected a luminaire on the basis of all the foregoing criteria, it remains only to
calculate the number of such units required in each space for general illumination. and to
properly arrange them. Although a number ~f calculation methods are available, the
lumen method is simplest and most applicable to our needs for area lighting calculations.
Intensity calculation from point, line, or area sources is covered in the next sections.

Light Loss Factor (llFl

in lumen Calculations
The lumen method of calculation is a procedure for determining the average maintained
footcandle illumination intensity on the working plane in a room . The .method presupposes that luminaires will be spaced so Jhat, uniformity of illumination is provided in
order that an average calculation have validity. The method is based on the definition of
one footcandle as one lumen incident ~n one square foot of ar-ea. Or

footcandles (fc)

lumel)s 11 ml

area in sq. f1.

'.

The ratio between the lu.mens reaching the working planeand the lum~ns generated is
the coefficient of utilization, CU ..Or

lumens on the working plane ::: lamp lumens x CU

Therefore:
fc

Lamp lumens x CU
area

The footcandle figure so calculated is initial average illumination. lNs initial level is
reduced by the effect of temperature and voltage variations. dirt accumulation on
luminaifes and room surfaces, lamp output depreciation, and maintenlnc:e conditions. All
these effects are cumulatively referred to do the light loss factot. llF:

Maintained fc

361

rnitial fc

LLF

Zonal Cavity
Calculation Method

In the zonal cavity method, the room is divided into three cavities, that is, CEILING,
ROOM, and FLOOR, and the "effective" reflectance of each cavity calculated. A detailed
explanation of the method plus several illustrative examples
demonstrate its use.
Reffir to this figure.

will

Room cavity

Step 1 . Refer to the above figure. The room is divided into three cavities; The ceiling
cavity is the space between the fixture and the ceiling, the floorcavity space
between the floor and the work plane, and the room cavity the space in between that is, between the work plane and the luminaire center line. In offices,
schools, and many other occupancies the work plane is 30 in. (0. 75 M} In
drafting rooms it is 36 to 38 in. (91 to 96.5 em), in shops 42 to 48 in. ( 106 to
121 . 5 em}, in carpet and sail-cutting rooms the work plane is at the floor level.
The 3 "h" terms are the heights of the various cavities. In this step also identify
the maintained reflectance of the room surfaces and fill in the sketch of the
above figure, CC, RC, FC. If the initial surface reflectance of the ceiling is 90%
and a 10% deterioration is expected, use 80% for the ceiling reflection.
Similarly, establish wall and floor reflectances by specification or by assumption. Utilize the nearest reflectance given in this table.

352

PtCMt ElfiiCfiH Ceiling or Floor Calflty Reflectance for vnous Renectance Combllfatlon
Parcent CeltJng or
Floor Reflectanca

90

90
89

70
90
89
88

50
90
88

30
90
87

86

89

85

87

85

83

88

86
85

83

81

81

0.7
0.8

84
88 . 83

80

78
76

78

74

87

77

0.9

87

1.0
1.1

86

82
81
80

73
71
69

79
78
85. 78

73
72
70
69
68

Percent Wall Ratlactanca . 90

0
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0.3
0.4.
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90

0.5

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1.2.

86
88

1..3
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85

77

1.5

85

1.8

85
84

76
75
74
73
73

1.7
1.8

1.9

a.o

84

84
83

72

76
74

87
65
64

62

80
80
79
79
78
78
77

77
76
75
75
74
74
73
73
72
72

66

61
69

65

58

71
71

64
63

56
55

70

62

53

69

70

80
70 60
80 80
79 78
78 77
71 75
76 7~
75 73
75 71
74 70
73 69
72 68
71 66
71 65
70 84
69 63
68 62
68 61
67 60
66
65
65
64

78

70
70
69

76

68

74

68

72

67

70
68

66'
65
65

30
80

66

65
63
61

69

64
63
63
82

70
60
70
69
67
66
65
64
62

61
60
59
58
67
66

68
57
55

61
6,1
60

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54
53

59
59

53

52

59

52

58

51

58

()0

57

49

57
57
48 .56

50
49
48

56

65

30

50

30
70
68
66
64
63
61

59

58
56
55
53
62

so
49
48
47
45
44
43
42
41

50
50
49

30
50
48

49
49

48

47

46
48
47
47
47
48

46

70

50
59

47
46
4~

44
43
43

46
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44
43
42
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65

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30
30
30
30
30
29
29
29
29

30
30
29
29
29
28
28
28

29

27

46

41

40
39
38

46

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37

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40
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39
39

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28
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43
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38
37

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37

34
33
32
32
31

30

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27

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27

29

26
26

28
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26

30
30
29
29

28
27
27
26
26
26
25
24
24

23
23

28 22
25
25

28

25
25

28
28

25
24

10

22
21
21
21
20
20

10
30
29
20
21

26
25
25
24

23
22
22
21
20

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19

18
18
17
17
16
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50

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10
10
10
11
11

10
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10
10
10
10
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11
11
11

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12
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2.7
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69 63
68 63
68 62
67 . 61
67 61
66 60

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3.2
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80

63

80

62

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3.5

79
79
79
79
78
78
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61

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. 82
82
81
81

52

60

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61
60
59
58

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3.7
3.8
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83

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71
70
69
66
68
67

66
65
64
64

3.6

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83
83

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78
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60

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59
59
58
57
57
56
56
55

53

52
51
50

49
48
48
47
46
45
45

44
43
43
42

51
50
4~

50

35
34

49

39

49

33

48

38
38

52

51
51
50

42

35

37
36

42.. 35
41 34

35

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41

34

26

3~

26

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40

33.
33

40

32

25
25
24
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31

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40
39
39
39

34
33

33
32

31
30
30
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31
31
30

23

22
22

27
27
26

22
22

30
30

21
21

26
26

28

39

27
27
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38
38

61

52

60
60

52
51
51
51
50
50
49

26
25

38
37
37
37

34

24

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33
33
33
32
32
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24
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37
36

27
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36
23 36
23 . ' 36

26

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28 '

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59

59
59
58
58
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36
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25 44
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60

15

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36
36
35
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25

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23 18

15

27

32

48
47
47
46
46
45
45
45

19
19

16

12 . 13

48

46

28
27
27
27..
27,
27

20
19

18
17

33

29
29

28

24
24
24
24

23
23
22
22

32
31

38

28
28

18

42
41
40
40
39
39
38
38
37
37

30

29
28
27

2~

42

30

29

13
13 13
13 : 13

54
53
53

76
76
76

38

36

47 . 38
46 37

53
52

38

54

4.8,.
4.9

53

48
48

4-1

40
39
36

53

36
36

43

62

54
54

5.0

51
50
49

54
54

42

62
62
61

77

38.

43
42

40
39

36

4.7

53.

44

47
46
46
45:
44
43
43
42
41
40
40
39

56

55

36
35
34
33
32
32
31
30
30
29

4.6

40

53

52

45
44
44
43

41
41

47
45

66 59
43 65;' . 58
42 ss 6!l
41 64 57
40 64 57
39 . 64 56
38 63 ' 56
37 63 55

7.7
77
77 . 55

4.5

60

55
54

27

29 21
29
29

28
2$

28
_';.7

26
26

27

c~

20

23

20
20

26

19

~~

19
19
19
18
18
16
18
17

26

13 13

9
9

9
9

12 . 13

12 13
13

16

11

22

16

11

21

15

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13
13
13
13

21
21

15
15

10

13

10

13
13
13
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13
13
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14
14

8
8
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8
8
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21
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21
20

15
15
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11

10
9

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9
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26
25

20
20

14
14

25

20
20'

14

8
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7
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17
16
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4
4
4

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4

14

4
4
4
4

14

1.c
14

81
4
8
4

Step 2.

See table below and the figure above.

This step involves determining the cavity ratios of the room, either by calculation or from the table.

I I I 1 I I

:C:

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I I I I t.,

I I t I

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355

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0.3
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200
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110

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100
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The basic expression for a cavity ratio (CR) is

CR

2.5

rea of cavity wall

area of work plane

In a rectangular space the area of the cavity wall is

hx(21 2w) or 2h( 1 w); therefore
CR

2 .5

2h

(l + W)

area of wor1c plane

or
CR

5h

L + W

LX w

For other than rectangular rooms. the area can be calculated as required. For instance. in
a circular room, the activity wall area = h x 2 r and the work plane area is r 2
Thus
2.5

CR

= -Sh
r-

2f

for each of the cavities in rectangular room we have:

a.) Ceiling Cavity Ratio. CCR

CCR

5hcc

L + W
L X w

b.) Room Cavity Ratio, RCR

RCA

5h,8

5hcc

L + W
LX

c.) Floor Cavity Ratio. FCR

FCR

+W

l XW

Most people prefer. for rectangular rooms, to use the table on cavity ratio rather than formulas . Fdr reference since all the CR figures are related, having determined one. the
others are
CCR

RCA ~
.hrc

RCA~

FCR

hrc

CCR

FCR~
htc

Step 3 . See table on step 1, re:, Percent effective ceiling or ftoor C8Vity Nflectatee and
the sectional drawing. This step involves obtaining lhe effective ceiling reflectance (PIX:) from the table. Note tllat the wl reflectance remains as saected in
step 1. If the fixture~are surface mounted Ol"reB1Ud, then CCR = 0 and Pee
= selected ceiling reflectance

Step 4.

See table as above and the sectional figure. The step involves obtaining the ef
fective floor reflectance Pee as above in step 3 for Pee

Step 5.

Select CU f rom manufacturer's data (coefficient of utilization).

Step 6.

Calculate footcandles and number of fixtures or area per luminaire in the usual
fashion.

Illustrative Examples
Given: classroom ; 20 x 25 x 12 ft . Elementary school

(6 .00

7.50

3.60 Ml

Initial Ref.lectanees; ceiling 80, wall 50, floor 20.

Provide adequate lighting using fluorescent lamp fixtures.
Assume yearly maintenance, lamp replacement at 70% life;
proper voltage and ballasts, medium clean atmosphere.
SOLUTION : From the table below, the required illumination level for pencil writing
is 70 fc ESI

fflumlnallon Le'tels
Recommended
Minimum
Footcandles

Recommended
Minimum
Footcandles

lnduslrfsl

Gar~AutomobDe

Airplane Manufacturing

Service garages
Repairs
ActiVe traffic areas
Parking garages
Entrance

Parts manufacturing
Drilling, riveting, and screw fastening
Flnal assembly

70
100

Airplane Hangars

Repair service only

Traffic lanes
100

AssembiJ

100

Fine

500

30

8akettes

50
30

Book Binding

Cutting, punching, and stitching

Embossing and inspecting

Storage

100

20
50
10
5

Inspection

Rough easy seeing

Medium

Mixing room
Oven room

and Trvck

70
200

Ordinary
Difficult
Highly difficult
Most difficult
Laundries

Washing
Fl atwork ironing, weighing, listing, and
marking
Machine and press finishing, sorting

CMmlcal Worb

Leathet Manufacturing

Hand furnaces. boiling tanks, stationary driers, stationary and gravity crystallizers.

Cleani,-.g, tanning, and stretching, vats

Finishing and scarfing
30

Locker Rooms

Clay Products lmd C..,.q

Mxhlne srw,p.

Molding, pressing, cleaning, and trimming

colOr and glazing-rough work

Rough bench and machine work

Medium bench and machjne work
Fine bench and machine work, fine
automatic fJ'ISchines

30
100

358

50
100
200
1000
30

50
70
30

100
20

50
100
500

Cloth Products

Cloth Inspection
Cutting
Sewing

2000
300
500

Elec1ltcal Equipment Manufacturf:ng

Insulating: coil winding

Testing

100

100

Exterior Areas

Entrances
Active (pedestrian and/or conveyance)
Inactive (normally locked, infrequentJy used)

Building surrounds
Active shipping area
Storage areas-active
Storage areas-inactive
Loading and unloading platforms

1
1

20
1

20

Wrapping. packing, labeling

Picking stock, classifying
Loading, trucking
Inside truck bodies and freight cars
Dipping. simple spraying firing
Fine hand painting and finishing

100

PoUshJng and Bwnlshlng

100

Presses

Proof reading
~

Md Shipping

Banks (see al$0 Otnces)

Punches

50
50

Stairways, Corrtdcn, and Other semc.

AreM

20

Inactive
Actfve
Rough, b11lky
Fine

10
50

Testing

General
Extra fine Instruments. scales, etc.
Toilets and Washrooms

50
200
30

Upholstering-Automobile, Coach,
Fumtture

100

Watch and Jewelry ManufacturfiVJ

500

5
50

70&
15()&

100

Churdles & Synagogues

Altar. arc
Pews
Pulpit (supplementary)
Club Reading Rooms

100
15
50
30

Courtrooms

Seating area
Court activity area

30
7()&

Hospitals

Autopsy
General
Supplementary
Corridors
General
local

Welding
50

1000

Woodwoffclng
Rough sawing and bench work
Sizing, planing, rough sanc;iing. medium quality machine .and bench work,
glueing, veneering, cooperage
Fine bench and machine work, fine
sanding, and finishing

Barber and Beauty Shops

30

100
1000
20

Emergency Rooms

warehouse (see Storage)

General illumination
Precision manuaf arc welding

200
100
70
150

(... llalllrtals Handling)

Lobby
Writing areas in lobby
Teller's stations, posting, keypunch

Storage Rooms or W..taouses

50

Printing lndusfrtes

Printing p&ants
Color inspedion and appraisal
Composition

50

dium bench work

50
30
20
10

Paint Shops

Exhibitions
Social activities

Sheet Melal WOfb

Miscellaneous machiAes, ordinary

bench work
Presses. shears. stamps, spinning. me-

Materials Handling

30
50

100

359

100
2000

Examination and Treatment Rooms

General
Examining table.
laboratories
General
Closework

50

100
50

100

Patients' Rooms

General
Supplementary for reading
Supplementary for examination
Recovery Rooms
Surgery

20
30
100

30

_Uiumlrution

u"ls

(Continue<~)

Recommended
Minimum
Footcandles

Stores, Oltlcs, and Institutions

.Art Galleries
General
On paintings (supplementary)
Dark paintings with fine detail may
require two or three times as much
illumination.
On statuary
In some cases, much more illumina~
tion is necessary to reveal the beauty
of statuary.

30
30

Lobby
General lighting
Reading and working areas
Power Plant
Boiler room
Equipment room
Storerooms

100

15
10
20

30
100
20
10
30

10

20
10

Lillrarles

Reading room s and carrells

Stacks
Book repair and binding
Check-in and check-out, catalogs,
Card fifes

70~

30
70
70
100

Offices

General
Cartography, designing, detailed
drafting
Accounting . auditing, tabulating,
bookkeeping. business machine operation
Regular Office VYork
Good copy
Regular office work-reading, transcribing, active tilling, mail sorting,
etc. fair..quality copy
Corridors. elevators, escalators. stair-

ways
(Or, no! less than
cent areas.)
~t

Offices

1 the level in adja-

General
Supplementary on table
Toilets
Waiting Rooms

200
2500
20
20

Hotels and Motels

Auditoriums

Assembly only
General
Corridors, elevators, and stairs
Entrance foyer
Linen room
Sewing
General

Recommende<J
Minimum
Footcandles

Bars and cocktail lounges (see Restaurants)

Bathrooms
General
Mirror
Bedrooms
Reading (books, magazines, newspapers)
Subdued environment
Quick service type
Bright surroundings
Normal surroundings
NOTE: Footcandle levels In dlntng
areas are highly variable. variations
depend on such factors as time ot
day, desired atmosphere, individuality, and attractiveness.
Food Displays-twice the general levels
but not under
Kitchen-commercial, hospital, hotel
Inspection, checking. and priclng
Other areas

~0

30

30

15
100
50

50

70
30

Schools

Tasks
Reading printed material
Reading pencil writing
Reading spirit duplicated material
Good copy
Poor copy

3()8

10Qa

Classrooms

1507()8

10()-

20

Chalkboards (supplementary illumination)

Drafting rooms
Laboratories
Lecture rooms
General
Special exhibits and demonstrations
lipreading classes
Shops
Sewing rooms
Slghtsaving classes
Study halls
Corridors and stairs
Stene

150
10()a

100

150
150
100
150
15()&

7()8

20

Illumination lenl (Conffnued)

Recommended
Minimum
Footcandles
P,)SI Otflces

Recommended
Minimum
Footcandles
Stores

Lobby. on tables
Sorting, mailing. etc.
Storage
Corridors and stairways

30
100

20
20

Restaurants

Dining Areas
Cashier
Intimate type
Light environment
Subdued environment
Leisure type
Light environment

50

Store interiors
Circulation ~
Merc:hafdll oy SeMce tiiDfes
Self.service stotes
Showcases and _... casas
SeMca sllores

30
100
200

200

Setl--*e SllaaiS
Featunt disPa,s
Serlice sb8S

500

30

Sell8ellriee stores
Stoc:booms

1000
3D

10

Theat.,.

.....

Auditoriums
During intermission
During performance or presentation
Foyer
Entrance lobby

(All a

EaliiiiDn.

au .,

...

500

... U

SUmuMIIr9

5
0.1

5
20

Residential (sH Table 000 p. 000)

Outdoor Roodliglttlng

I lis

Light surfaces
Medium-dark surfaces
Dark surfaces

Dn

5
15
20

15
30
50
50

Aaga
Parking Lob

Building

10

Construction
Excavation

Burletlns end Po. . . ....-

Self-parking
Attendant parking
Shopping centers (customer attraction
device)

2
5

Light surfaces
Dark surfaces

We select from the table on wall luminance coefficients (previous pages), fixture no. 23
for two lamps, which has semi-direct distribution, low brightness for high VCP (students
spend a large proportion of their time in heads-up position , reQuiring high VCP), batwing
type crosswise distribution for high CRF and low veiling reflection, and good CU which
means high efficiency and low energy use. Furthermore, maintenance category Ll is excellent as in the wide lateral spacing possible with the 1.5 s/MH listed. Arrangement of
fi xtures will be in rows, front-to-back. Based on experience, we would here design for 80
raw fc to obtain the requisite 70-fc, Esl average.
Calculations
Step 1.

From the table below, assume 24-in. stem length (in lieu of 21 in., for ease of
calculation). Also assume standard working plane as 30 in. AFF . Therefore :

hrc
7 .5
Pw =50

2.0
hoc
Pc = 80%

361

hfc = 2.5

Pt = 20%

Table 20.6 A Lighting Efficiency Comparison lor Common Fluol'e$cenl Rnures

Effectivea

Lumens
Flux Distribution

Fixture Description

per Watt

1. Recessed, 2 x 4ft. four-lamp, static, metal troffer;

synthetic enameled, 0.91 reflectance, with ctear
prismatic acrylic lens. without diffusing overlay.

Radial batwing

15.1

2. Recessed, 2 x 4ft. four-lamp static, metal troffer;

synthetic enameled, 0 .88 reflectance, with clear
acrylic prismatic lens, with 0.40-in . diffusing overlay.

Linear batwtng

15.3

3 . Recessed. 1 x 4ft. two- lamp, air-handling, metal

Linear batwing ,
low brightness

27.5

4. Recessed, 2 x 4 ft, four-lamp, air-handling, metal

troffer. with baked enamel reflector, 0.91 renectance, with semispecular anodized aluminum parabolic louvers (crosswise and lengthwise).

Linear .batwing

28.3

5. Recessed, 2 x 4ft. four-lamp, static, metal troffer;

balo;ed enamel. 0.87 reflectance, with cfear acrylic
prismatic lens, without overlay.

General prismatic

30.3

x 4 ft two-lamp.
7. Same as 5 with clear, acrylic, low-brightness prismatic lens without overlay.
8. Recessed, 1 x 4 ff, two-lamp, static, metal troffer
enameled: 0.88 reflectance, with specular Alzac

General prismatic

30.5

Low brightness

32.5

low bfightness

37.1

troffer w ith semispecular. anodized aluminum parabolic reflector and louvers (crosswise only).

6. Same as 5 above except 2

parabolic louvers.

Step 2 .

fr om fo rmulas
RCR

LX

5(7 .5)( ~ )
500

3.375

Similarly
CCR

5(2} { -~ 5- ) = 0.9
500

FCR

5 !2 .5} (-- ~ )
500

1.125

Step 3.

From table of step 1 (percent effective ceiling or floor cavity reflectance)

Step 4.

By interpolation between 10 and 30 floor reflectances and 1 . 1 and 1.2

cavity ratio, we obtain
fc

Step 5.

19 and w

By do uble interpolation
362

= 50 % as given

cu
68

50

0.545

0.54
0.509
0.49

70

Pee

- - ----. .. ---
-~

RCR

0.58
0.549
0 .53
0.545

3
3.375
4

RCR
therefore, CU =-

Step 6 .

Light Loss factors see figure below

GENERAL INFORMATION

Project identification:

BRiGHT CHILD ELE!fEHTAIN SCHOOl

(G~

of arN ant/101 buirdHig and room nvmt>er)

Average maintained illumination for design:

{!)

footcandles

Type and color:

Lumlnaire data:
Manufacturer:

Lamp Data:

F o TId-

CIN

Number per klminaire~-...:~

=---

A If'/ (i()OD

Catalog number:_--:0~0=-0.,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Total lumens per luminaire:

6i'02

SELECTION OF COEmCIENT OF UTIUZATION

Step 1: Fin in sketch at right

Step 2: Detennlne Cavity Ratios from Ftg. 20.34, or by

foonutas.
Room Ca'My Ratio, RCR
3. 315
Ceiling Cavity Ratio, CCR - _ _
0....:.'1::...__ __ _ _ __

1.1.7.5"

Aoor Cavity Ratio, FCR

Step 3: Obtain effective ceiling cavity reflectance

Step <C:

O~n

_ _ _ _ __ _

<Po,;) from

Table 20.9

etlective floor cavity reflectance (Pn_.) from Table 20.9

Step 5: Obtain coeffiCient of utilization (CU) from manufacturer's data.

PC(: =

68%

Pre

= ---'' -'f'-%......___

cu

O.Sf5

SELECTION OF UGHT LOSS FACTORS

Unrecoverable
Luminaire ambient temperature
Voltage to luminaire
Ballast factor
luminaire surface depreciation

Recoverable
Room surface dirt depreciation
Lamp lumen depreciation
lamp burnouts factor
Luminaire dirt depreciation
LDD

/.0
/.0

/.0
Q.9

Total light toss factor, UF (product of individual factors above): ~S''

363

o.y
0 .9
(. (J

().f/

CALCULATIONS
(Average Maintained llluminatlon Level)
. .
(Footcandles) x (Area in square lee!)
Number of Lumrna1res = ..,.:-------,:.___,----:,......,.--=,...,.,-----::-:-:::(Lumens per luminaire) x (CU) x (LLF)

3o .x ;;.o x
=--::-"~lf~C-0::..:..(....::0:;..:.5'::..~5:.:,.-:X

~5

6-=-5=,-::----- = f1.1j.S

=.:::0:--.

(Number
of _
luminaires)
x (Lumens
Footcandles = ..:._
___
_ _-..:.,_.:.__
_ _ per luminaire) x (CU) x (LLF)
(Area in squa~e feet)

....:..__--,--__;_-.:...........;___..:_~

See f~~f

=-----------~~~~~--------------------=

Calculated by;_

(I)

.....;B::....;_
. .:::.S..:..r._"E_ilf"--------------

'!o esr. eo

llF

Step 7.

Date:

11AR. '18

NJw

==

0.9

0.9

0 .9

0.9

= 0 .656

Footcandle calculations:
Number of Luminaires

80

3200

20

25

0 .545

17.48 f ixtures

364

0.656

LIGHTING
APPLICATION
RESIDENTIAL LIGHTING
a) Energy Considerations
1 . Provide means for reducing light levels in all areas. A kitchen during
food preparation does not have the same lighting requirements as kitchen being entered for a "refrigerator raid ." Low-level lighting provision should be made in all rooms, induding bathrooms. To accomplish
this use high - low switches, simple dimmers, multilevel ballast, and
multilevel switching. An ancillary benefit is that ambience can be
changed thereby in multiuse rooms such as dining roonis, family
rooms, and finished basements.
2. Provide local task lighting for difficult tasks such as the location at
w hich family accounts are handled.
3. Provide switching for accent lighting .
4. In large residences consider low-voltage control for its ease of remote
control. Considerable energy savings can be effected in this way.
5. Provide time switches for exterior lights,
6. Use daylight in areas normally occupied during daylight hours such as
kitchens and living rooms . Consider skylights with built-in artificial
lighting for these areas.

b) Sources

When using fluorescent, choose proper color for space. See table shown.
Despite their lower efficacy. use of daylight fluorescents as the artificial source
in lighted skylights is very effective.
A Guide tor Ump Selection Bllsed on General Color Rendering Propettles
,.

Lamp
~ranee

Ettect on
T)IPtl of

Lamp

Etrie;y
{tpw)

Neutral

Ertecron

SurfKes

"ittmOsphenl""

Cobts
Stl'efiJ. II

Effedon
<;-..

Gt-,.cJ.

pledcns

.
CooP white

High

'Miile

Newal to
moderately

coof

CN

Deluxe
cool white
CWX

~ '
_.-,.......
....

Medium

White

.....

366

Red :'

Pale pink Blenda wiUI natural

~t-good eolcw

None

Most

.,

M..-., .

Neutral to
modenilaly
coof

Rematb

" ~

iiPPfWCiably natural

Best CMK1III color

rendition; aimuLates
~aldaytislht

Wann'white

High

,..,..

..... green. Sallow

w...

Red, CQftSII.
yellow, green

Blue

Ruddr

v.y cool

Gr--., blUe

Red.

Gr.,.s

Yei!Qwish
white

w...

Yellowish
white

WN

Oefu:xe'

Medium

warm white

o-og..

tllue

wwx
Daylight

Medium- Bluish
high
wtlile
High

White

Soft white/
....tur ..

Medium

or-.

Pale ydlow- Moderately

ish white
warm

Or~.

Red. gr1!8ft,

yellow

blue

PtlfPiish

Red. orange

Wann pinltl$h

while

.....

Green.

.....,

blue

s**

Blends with incandes

cent light-poor
calor acceptanc:.

Good color rendition;

simUlates incandeScant ight
lJsualy

~ble

f--ew
~

,..,..,.abte

..........

..... cwc:.ww

Tllllld ..-ce _..,

CWXc.-WWX

r~ndescent

filament

Clear
merc:ury

Medium

While
mercury

Medium

G.-een;sh

Very <:OOI.

~e

greenish

GreeniSh

white

Delue white" Medium

me1'Cury

Purplish
white

Yellow,
blue, green

Red.

Moderately
cool. greenish

Yenow.

Red,
orange

Very pale Moderate cOlor

g~.blue

Warm. purplish

Red. blue.

Green

Ruddy

<?t"Bnll

Greenish Very poor oalor

rellderli'lg

rendering

yellow

Color acceptance
slmllal' to CW
ftuorescent

Mitt.a.l haIide"

High

H.gh-pressure High
ium

Yell~.

Greenish
while

Moderately
cool. greenish

Yellowish

Red,
Warm. yellowish Yellow
g reen. orange blue

Red

Grayed

green. blue

Color ac;ceptance
similar to cw
tluorescent

Yellowish Color acceptance

appro.ach ItS I hat of
ww lluocescenl

Listed below are the appropriate sources to be used in different areas of a

residence:
1 . Work and utility areas including kitchens, laundry and workshopfluorescent of appropriate color
2. Built-in architectural elements-fluorescent
3. Bedrooms, portable lamps, accent lights-incandescent, tungstenhalogen
4. Circulation areas, stairwells, closets-incandescent
5. Exterior: for short periods-incandescent; for long periods-HID
6. Bathrooms: General incandescent or warm white fluorescent; mirror
lighting-incandescent

7. All rooms~daylight where possible

8. All spacesuse incandescent when source is turned on and off frequently or-lighted for short periods only.

c) Recommendations

These are design recommendations which are applicable to residential occu

pancies of all types.
1. Use general/task - lighting concept_with rocommended levels as in
the tables below

Current F-ootcandle Recommendations lor Generaf Llght;ng

Typic a,

American Recommendation

Other

Authoriti~s

Activity or Area

Footcandlesa
Minimum at Any Time

Average
Footcandles

Conversation and relaxation

Passage areas
Areas. other than kitchen
Kitchen

10&
10&
30
50

5-10
5-10
10-20

30

:_me.!!_!_':_ootcandle Recommendations ~! Specinc Visual Tasksa

----------------------------Typical

American Recommendation

Other Authorities

Average
Seeing Task
M/nimum Footcandles
Footcandles
---------------~---------------------------------------Dining
15
10-15

Grooming, Makeup
Handcraft
Ordinary seeing tasks
. Difficult seeing tasks
Critical seeing tasks
Ironing
Kitchen Duties
Food preoaration and cleaning
involving difficult seeing tasks
Serving and other noncritical tasl<s

50

50

70
100

20-40
50-70

200
50

>125

150

20-30

50

70-90
20-30

Laundry Tasks
Preparation, sorting. inspection
Washer and dryer areas

50

20-30

30

10-15

Reading and Writing

Handwriting. repro~uctions. and poor
copies
Books. magazines. and newspapers

70
3J

30

368

70

Reading Piano Scores

Advanced
Simple

70

50

- ------ --- ----

-- ----------- - -

Sewing, Hand or Machine

Dark fabrics
Medium f abrics
light fabrics
Occasional-high contrast

- ----

200

>1 25

100

70-90
30-50

50
30
70

Study
Table Games

30

10-20

50-70
30

-These
-- levels
- -- - - - - - -- - - -- -- - 30
- ---- ----- --- ----ate based on young eyes with 20-20 vision. Older eyes. even when properly corrected by
glasses. have redu ced visual acuity. a longer period of adaptation. and dec reased resistance to glare.

2. Provide brightness ratios as in this figure.

lone 2 Tile immediate sunoundillts (am

~

ratio

ld~11t

to I~ ~isu.ll ~)

1/3 to equal tu Its*"

Minima111 ~ble llliD

1/5 to equaltD tm
Z011t 3 l'bt general $11110UIIdings (not imlllediataly adjQI!t to task)
1/5 ID 5 tillleS tast
1/10 ID 10 times tN"

-T,ut tan lumiNIICI flllte is ll to 35 foollamllerls (seldom exceetfs

60 loollambld$)

3. Provide general lighting in all sp~ces, sufficient for movement and

casual seeing. Hallways require little lighting; Stairs require more. Light
stairs from directly above or ahead to create a shadow directly above
or ahead to create a shadow directly below the tread front. Lighting
from front eliminates shadows and can create a safety hazard.
4. Do not avoid ceiling.lights as is so frequently done. Wide-profile ceiling
fixtures provide general lighting; sw.i tch-controlled table lamps do not;

d) Fixtures and Luminous Elements

1. Utilize diffuse distribution for general lighting, narrow-distribution
downlight for area and furniture accents, and narrow-distribution,
ceiling-recessed incandescent wallwashers for accenting surfaces
such as brick walls.

Wide Profile

Medium Profile

For~~ illumin.oticn lalmoll always uteel in multiple}.

lbsement, ~eaton rooms, kitctM!ns, laundries, halls
(servu). Ute~~ s;,.,;v or in ttNII I'OUPS for !tNIII areas
!ItCh as walk-in clottu, garage, ena:ry door's. overnal'lgl in
l)c)tthes. Beau of l'ligh lurninat1<2 of ditfvser, seldom
used in living or .,C., I ~

Used for specifit task lighting where

ea is large.
such as kitchen sink, kitchen island count or range,
laurdry tubs and ironing. game uble, workbench, hobby
aru. Used for ~en.IIV!ting in restricted arus suh IS
entries and baths. Multiple gro..pings ate satisfac
10ry fOI' tiM! 9""E~'allighting of kitchens and ~at ion.
r~ If wealtM!rptoof, ~ptiau f outdoor uw;s,
induding 0-.et"hangs, porches, entries.

'*'

Used itl mo.altiploo lor QIINfal lil'1tin!l itl kiedlcfls, ~

. ltundties,. rec:rMtian """"' Wid bmily rooms. Usad singly 01' in group~- gome tal*l. ~ lum~
lows this type of lumiNft to be u..t in living - if

sryrong p.mru.

U.!Nsi~lly 1he arne aslhe F,_l unit

UC~e~>t thlt the

listed abcNe.

m-- tum~ mal<.es this type of

equipment mote usable in living aod dining areas.

...,"',....""-=-::'"::-::;-:.~:.:::,pr
\
Domed-- ...._.._,
............
..,_

Cin:ular SMIHM'I
sllieldif\6i$1and

v.., widt dil1rtMion. aallnt-..,_. lightint tor

kitd.n.l~u~Gv

...,..,...
rcan
...,_

MdbMh.

B~of

S.. .-s a1 oPM ellipDdll unit IIIUd lbow but has

f ~c:onln>l of t.np lulft~

cutput. - units l1qUinld.

()fun .-1 siPY ......... en1rl ,... .... _foyws
and f<or1kvtilte dfld ....... "-Ds and~

..,... sile

Daign feotura of reassed lumWaita ~ IDfde. rntdiurn. ncln'OID. and~ projila.

370

Special Asymnietric Profile

Narro~ Profile

0111"1'---""'

,...,

Mltil Clllinllll* . .

...

WIJIIINI ......
~le beem an~...., pr-=illfV 10

Cenceottric: rinll. spiral

Of . .-<nlliooMI
Ac.unt liehtine- PllnU. codctall--. n:.

outline

........ ~ ~..s nicha. When limed dt

billie eylinW. or

rely ilc;wn.stu~WS- frMw If. . . . . . . CDdctml 01

goO. ..... Of other hGrilontal ~ Sc-i.tl higi>IW>l-'PIIt 11n1Ps prgricillg Q)lltn>llld be1mS often
.,.,.. in"*- units. ShoiAd
the """

"""*"

w.u

._..,-for

NQUiled.. MMty -

....~ ,.,ttt\ ~

~for~trvm~.

litfning-tnOUnted dola 10 ~lUff-SUCh as

brick, ttone. rough wood n WlricL T.lit &ahtlngfood PrePatltloft . . . . (mey '**~P"P'IIIr fdlection5l,
in multiple on quite eta. .-;no for ....,.I lighting.
Matt e,fiecti'te ..t1en u-.1 ..-l*lmcur of room to that

---

=-~p .

-light ~lis Ofi1D Wllll. o..n.tic.eHects for f-.ily

rooms, reaea(ion rooms ...t formll living -s. s~
rnenury $Uir lighting-iNdow pnums define tread$
.-1 riters. Oitling tlb~ "-'ionallighl on dining tibiA! to~ clec:otltivceffect from ~~engine
lumiruire.

_,.....

plttewilll~

u..f\ll f gallery or pietute li9hting and to light tculptuno. If ICIUopinQ effect is ~table can be U1ed for
Mil lighting ...t to .:cent f~ 1UrfacliL LMve aile
of bottom lf*'lll"' sometl- make thir. unocaptlble
f
scyled interion. Mly Ito be u-.1 for lightiog
pilncl ""'*and sewing~ .......

.ur1y

Same USti as type immedrv ebove. Low luminanor

very desirable, but larger liD~- prohibits
highly nvled interiors.

'* in

....

s...- ..-lldjusable lumilwire immedilltely

"'*

fiAICal ~iii. .
will! dropped
-noftedar

few uniform illumil\ltion of pllne 'wJIIIUI'f-. Ex

~ .tfectM-fOI' lighting munls .-1 for Minimiling
II imperfectiOns. Not ......lly 10 be Ulld for lighting
1llldlnd wall
it clirw:u no II'Vinll light
at II. Sp.cing of ttw. units II crita~l"- ouru-

.n---.

t.::lww's recommendltlom ~y.

371

2. Use built-in lighting to the extent possible, including architectural

light ing elements. We believe that t his demonstrates integrity of concept. For this reason, we recommend that the flexibility of track
lighting be ut ilized for accent and task lighting but n.o t for general
lighting or as the lighting system throughout the residence.

Track lights are at;a~labk in a wide C4J'i..

tty of practical and decoratir:e dmgns. Trjpes (a)
and (c) tt.te standord A-shape incandescent kzmps;
(b) and (e) are I&OOCI-grain finl&hed and fto(d an
R"...&hape lomp; (d) is an ad;wtabte. wall wash unit
wing a 500-w tungstm-halogen lamp. (f) through
(i) are decoriJtit:e ball units hold;ng R -lomps of diffr:rfmt si::e3. CourtQy of Lightcraft!ScoctU.

(a) Sirra the primary ob;ectiu of thi.s

lighting is display, track uniu offer the desired flexibility. Spill light is srtfficient for u:alking through
the corridor. When display is not requi~d. one unit
should be separately ~ontrolled lo procide needed
passage lighting.
(b) ThiCk light prooi.da ~ -~
lighting for mJding in bed or woYXing at the desk.
Tile remuining units ~hvuld be scparotely controlled. rince displtJg lighting ill 4 bedroom u

hatdlg ne<ed eorutantly.l~ ~of

Ug)atcraft!St:Oc4U.

3. Private residences are the exception to the rule of selecting off-theshelf items in preference' to specials. The lighting should compliment the architecture and furnishings, and frequently this can best
be accomplished by original designs.

Architectural

Lighting Elements
Reference to architectural lighting elements is usually made when dealing with coves,
cornices, valances, coffers, skylights, or other luminous surfaces not normally comprising a lighting fixture. Although such units are inherently inefficient, their use is often indicated by architectural consideration, since they generally create an attractive indirectlighting-source. Empirical design data given in these following figures.

(D) Lighted

Cornices

Cornices direct all their light downward to give dtamatic mt.er'e$t to well coverings, draperies, munars. etc.. May also be
used over window$ where space lboe window does not
permit valance lighting. Good for low<*lingad rooms.

(bJ Lighted Valances

Valances are alwaY$ used at windows. usually with draperies.

They P,.ovide URIigtlt which reflects off ceiling for general
room lighting and downlight for drapery acc;em. .When
closer. to ceiling than 10 inches use closed top to eliminate
annoying ceiling brightness:

(c) Lighted

Cows

Coves direct all light to the ceiling. Should be used only

with white or near-white ceilings. Cove lightine is soft and
uniform but fades punc;h or tmphasis. Best used to supplement other liftlti~ Suitable for hilJh1leiingad foom5 and
for places whete eeir~ng heights abruptly c:hilnge.

373

(d) Lighted High Wall Brackets

H1gh wall br.:ket:s pi'O'Iide both up and down light for ganeral room lighting. Used on interior walls to balance. window valMlte both chitecrurally and in liGhting distribution.
Mountint height determined by window or doof height.

() Lighted. low Wall 8rac:Ub

Low bl'adcm are t.11a1 fot special wall emphais ar tor l~t
ing specific tasks 1UCh sink. nnge. reeding in bed. etc.
Mounting height is ct.wmined by eve height of
ftOm
both .eted illd standing positio ns. Length should r.late to

..rs.

nearby furniture grouping\

'"

.net room a .l e.

~~ted Soffits

Soffits over work re.. are designed to P,ovide higher level

of 'ight directly below. Usually they :~~n~ Mlily insbNed in
furred-it~ area link ift k~ Also are excellent
for niches OYer so- pilnos. built-in detks. etC.

Bath or dressing roum soffits are designed to light user's

fec(e. They are almost .,_ys u.t with large mirrors ft:l
c:Ounter-tnp lavatOries. Length usually lied to sia of mirror.
Add luxury touch wiVI attnctively ~ted bot1llm dif

fuser.

374

The e1MIOP'/ ov.tlang is most applicab.. to Mth OE dressing

room. tt prOides exallent general room illumbn1ol> n
... IIIJt to the
fate..

__,.s

tb! Luminous .Ceilings

Totally luminoos ceilings provide $kylight effect ,..,.Y suit
able fOf interior rooms or utility spaces. sudl as kitchens,

baths. laundries. With attractive d iffuser patterns, more de-

corative supports, and color accents they becOme accept

able for many other living spaces such as fami ly tooms.
dens, etc. Dimming controls de$irable.

lj! Luminoos Wall

Pane_ls

Luminous wall panels create pleasant vistas; are comfon

able backgrourid for ~eing tasks; add lu xury touch in dining areas, fam ily rooms and as room dividers. Wide variety
of decor<Jtive materials available for diffusing covef$.

il

21$"

mil'litr>um~

~-.r

-I

LR <U

lJs"

;"'ini,...,
I

C{J

.......
!

.I
I

41f'

~m~~mu~

La ern
.

375

Using fluorescent tubes; it is possible to avoid dark spots between lamps by placing
lamps at a slight angle rather than end-to--end, thus enabling end to overlap. Reflectors,
when used, should be aimed 15 to 25 above the horitzontal and field-adjusted for best
ceiling coverage. When using double strips they should be stacked verticaUy as shown i.n
figure lm}. Coefficients for double-lamp installation rarely exceed 0. 7 5 times the singlelamp coefficient. Interiors of cove surfaces should be painted with a high-reflectance
white paint with diffuse (flat) rather than specular (gloss) finish.

----

--------:::--i:.]L-11

'3P
<t-- - - - - - -

--- -- --

Proper cove propanions~ Height of front lip of cove

should $hield COYe from the eye yet expose entire ceiling
to the lamp. Orientation of fluorescent wio as shown is
preferable to upright .rangement.

The figures below five dimensions of typical wall-washing cornices and valance. Reflectors, though not required, increase the efficiency of the installation. A$ in the case of
coves, finish of the valance interior should be flat white of approximately 30 to 40% RF.
Incandescent fixtures may also be effectively employed in architectural lighting.

Typical Valance

. . . . blocU'!I- .......................

This "typical" dimensional drawing i~PJ~Iies only to oommonly en<:01.1ntet'ed window 11alance situstiom. Obviously,
other window treatments rould neceSsitat~t modifications in
these Cl'itic<ll dimensions; i.e., vertical blinds, double track.
situations, curved bay windows, ett:.

The same -;ob-uilored" variations *' occur in the design

Ro other

of any type of structural lighting device. Therefore

dimensional drawings have been included here.

inif'1if'An t.~:Mf' .at! twoQ:~tnt'M. l""d

-a""tt>~ 4" 4t'1 fr.:.<":t ot 4r~ tt.ci(,

....-1 ol I~"< dOw - -

l--~
...

2'' bciW>d -

for ~ ttmcJ~ttl.

376

..
mWrna..m

fnJ Typical Cornices

Wall wa$hing equipm~nt mounted in valances and cornices

provid~ improved brightn~ ratios arid rnay be used for
lighting dnk$ against walls, or venical illumination of
walls and objects mounted thereon.

Wood bloc!~

~~~~~~~~~ Facong-wood. ::llastic or metal.

Soze depero~s "'"' heigt1! of

cornoce and requored Shoelding angle
Songle lamo ft"orescen; s:oos. onstall
to overlap ends and avoid
dar!< spots Lamps 40WTI2 Color
selected by arch. to complement
drape or wall color. Furno!.h
dimmong ballasts

car.:e<~

Paint all wrtaces matte white

Scale =::2"' ..

1-o-

Although not always considered as an architectural element, sections of luminous ceiling

are frequently employed in kitchens to some advantage. The difficulty lies in the lack of
sufficient ceiling height. Lamp spacing should not exceed 1 . 5 times the cavity depth, for
uniformity. An illusion of ceiling h!"ight may be obtained by blurring the ceiling-wall joint
with light via a valance illuminating a light color joint.

Portable Lighting
Add drama and individuality to your rooms. Highlight artwork, and treasured possessions, create intriguing shadow patterns, or introduce a glowing decorative touch with
plug-in units that are easy to install or move around, but give a lot of impact.

Decorative lamps
Since accent lighting is meant to personalise a room an9 not for functional light to see
by, you can indulge in whimsy, fashion or sentiment. Whether traditional styles, converted objects or luminous contemporary forms, truck small lamps in book shelves or on a
hutch, or use larger lamps on buffet or occasional tables. Use low wattage bulbsespecially if there are luminous parts-to avoid ~lare.

Floor Cans
Under plants or tucked in corners give dramatic uplight, creating shadow patterns on the
upper walls and ceiling. Use 50 or 75 W reflector bulbs.
378

Picture Lights
Picture lights that mount on the picture frame or on the wall highlight treasured paintings,
prints, or-photos, create interesting vertical brightness in a room. Use T-bulbs or Hilights.

Portable Spots
Free standing, wall mounted or attached .to a track, have a directional beam creating
sparkling highlight and deep shadow especially good OfT small sculpture and flowering
arrangements. Use 2 5, 3.0 or 50 watt spots or special narro\1\f spot reflector bulbs.
I

General Lighting
General lighting is background light in a space that reduces bright contrasts between task
lights and lets you move about easily. In living areas, it is a soft fi!Hn light provided by
reflected light from open top lamps wall lighting and ceiling or wall fixtures.
Living Rooms, Dens, Famity Rooms and Recreation Rooms accomodate a variety of activities which require lighting flexibility. Dimmer control of general lighting lets you
change the atmosphere of a room to suit your mood easily and quickly.
Diffusing ceiling fixtures in Kitchen and Laundry provide light to see into cabinets and
drawers for safe, speedy working.
379

General lighting is needed in Bedrooms for housekeeping chores, care of invalides of

children and for seeing into drawers and shallow closets.
Halts, Foyer and Stairs need overall light for safe passage.
Each space has its own aesthetic and functional requirements. Select the most appropriate technique listed here for your home.

Switches, if entrances to a room are more. than 10 feet (3.00m.) apart, there should be a
switch at each one. Conveniently located switches remind people to turn off lights when
not in use.

GENERAL LIGHTING RECOMMENDED FOR UVI'NG AREAS

Room Size

FixtuJU Suspended or
ceUin1 mQunt

Small
under 150
sq. ft.
Average
185-250
sq. ft.

lnc: 3 to 5 socket fi.xture,

toal 1.50-ZOOW or
Auor: 40-60W
Inc: 1 co 6 socket fi..\.-cure,
total 2~ to 300\V or
Auor: 60-SV\V
Inc: l .,;,.atr per sq. ft .
l unit per 125 ~- ft. or
Auor: 13 wan per sq. ti:.

Large
over 250
sq. ft.

wall Lighting Reflector

lncimdescent or linear
Fluorescent
Inc: four :i>W reflector bulbs
or Fluor. f:IJ-..&)W

Recessed Unics with

enclosed bottom
minimum 12. wide
Inc: four 75W cr
Auor:f!IJW

Inc 5 to 8 75W rdlector

bulbs or
Fluor:-120-160W

Inc: four l OOW or

Inc:~ 75W reflector bulb

for each ZS sq. ft. or
Fluor: 160W

Inc: Ol.'le
or l 50W
per -l\..'1-50 sq. ft. or
Fluor: I(i) co 200W

Auor: IZOW

trow

381

Incandescent Wall Lighting

Fixtures may be recessed, ceiling mounted or attached to track. When lighting a wall
behind a seating group, excercise care so people seated there do not see the brightness
of t.he bulb or interior of the fixture.

Open Reflector Downlights

Either recessed, surface or track mounted, create a scallop pattern on the wall and emphasiie texture such as brick, stone or a rubby wall covering. Space nOf);adjustable fixtures8 to 16 inches (0.20 to 0.40 M) from wall and 18 to 30 inches (0.4S toO.iSM) apart. The
light pattem fatls lower on the wall the f aster away the fixture is and the scallops are deeper
the farther apart the units are.
Mount track 24 to 28 inches from wall (0.60 to 0. 70 M).

r.

. ~--

...

382

Wall Washers
Wall washers light a wall evenly from top to bottom eliminating scallops and deemphasising texture. Especially suitable for lighting large artw~rk and picture groupings.
Generally, the distance between fixtures should be the same as 'the dista nee between the
fixture and the wall, ex: 2 feet out and 2 feet apart or 3 feet out and 3 feet apart. Not
suitable for us over a sofa against a wall.

384

Through Lighting
This consists of strips of small reflector bulbs, usually track mounted, concealed behind a
baffle orboard, or recessed in the ceiling. It produces a grazing light that dramatizes texture. Shielding should be 12 inches (0.30 Ml from wall, at least 9 inches (0.23 Ml deep
and have a 3 inches (0.076) return. Space 50 W reflector bulbs 12 inches 10.30 M)
apart, 75 W R 30's at 18 inches (0.45) apart and 75 or 100 W standard bulbs in special
reflectors at 24 inches (0.60 M) apart.

Wall Lighting

,. .

Lighted walls expa.nd space visually, making rooms seem larger. Whether you choose to
emphasize the texture of a wall or bathe it in a soft light, wall lighting provides a comfor
table background for task and accent lighting and enhances any decor.

Fluorescent Wall Ughting

Energy wise fluOrescent strips concealed behind a shielding board produce a soft diffuse.
light, suitable in Jiving and dining areas, bedrooms. family rooms and dens. Use soft
white home fluorescent for a flattering light that blends well with incandescent light.

Cornice Lighting
This provides downlighting only. Used to light draperies, walls or murals, it creates a
sense of intimacy and is equally at home in traditional or contemporary, formal or informal interiors.

-,

. . .:4.~. . 1(~-

1'!~~~~~;. -..~.../~~:~:;;.;,~~::v::-r

' '' ~/:,~;}}?i;j~/

386

Valance Lighting
Custom or ready made, used over draperies, provides both upward and downward. light,
bathing both the ceiling and draperies in soft illumination. Informal in character, it can
restore daytime lighting balance to a window wall at night.

386

Valance Brackets
Like valances, provide both upward and downward light on walls and ceiling. Available
in ready made units for use singly or in runs. When mounted low on the wall, they can
also provide task lighting; when installed over sliding door, closets, they give general
room illumination as well as lighting the closet when open. Informal in Character.

Recessed Lighting
Recessed -fixtures concealed above the ceiling give downward light only. Recessed incandescent is especially good for wan lighting and accent light while recessed fluorescent is .better for general and task lighting.

Shielding
Deep recessed cans need baffles, louvers or reflector cones to control fixture brightness.
Shallow fixtures, 4% inches to 6 inches, (0.115 to 0.152 M), require lenses, louvers or
diffusers across the bottom, none of which should project below the ceiling. For best effect use floor covering that is neutral in colour and has a fairly high reflectance. Use one
floodlight for every 25 sq. ft. approx. (2.30 sq. m) of floor area for general area lighting.
Avoid placing units directly above seating -locations.
light from recessed INCANDESCENT fixtures can be controlled and redirected by reflectors and lenses . Other than open downlights which usually take a reflector bulb, some
frequently used types are
a. An eyeball is an adjustable spherical fixture that projects below the ceiling.
Uses a reflector bulb.
b. A wall washer eliminates scallops, gives even light from top to bottom on a
wall. lhles 100 W or 75 or 150 W reflector flood.
c. A pinpoint spot has an inconspicuos 1 Inch diameter opening in a faceplate
that covers the fixture. Best to use a spot, or the bulb recommended by the
manufacturer.

....

388

Recessed .FLUORESCENT gives a wide spread of diffuse light suitable for task and
general lighting especially in areas with low ceilings. low brightness lenses or louvers
provide a more comfortable environment than diffusers. Use Soft White home fluorescent to blend well with incandescent lighting. Good for bathroom, kitchen, laundry,
recreation room.

Trackllg~ting

Tracklighting offers versatility and ease of installation. The track is a metal channel containing one or more electrical circuits. A wide variety of fixtures may be attached
anywhere along its length and just as easily detached and moved elsewhere. Track can
be mounted on the ceiling or watl or suspended. arranged in lines, T's, squares or other
patterns to suit your needs. It may be mounted on an outlet box or fed by a cord and plug.
Adapters for single outlet box mounting and for weighted bases are available.
Track attachments can be..,_~~~ or one of many modifications of a can, producing directional light and usUaly adjustable. Adapters are available for attaching
chandeliers, pendants and fluorescent fixtures to the track. Commonly used attachments in~
elude:

389

a. Open Oownlights for accent, task and wall lighting.

Gives directional light good for highlight and shadow.

b. Lampholder for decorative accent or general lighting with

exposed globe bulbs, 25 to 100 W.

c. Wall Washers bathe a wall evenly with light. Uses 100 A

or 75 or 150 W reflector flood .

d. Projector or Low Voltage Spots provide well controlled

beams of liQht for accent lighting. Use bulbs recommended by manufacturer .

390

Lighting for the

Foyer, Hall and Stairs
Welcome guests, keynote decor and provide safe passage with well chosen fixtures. In
sparsely furnished halls, they are an important decorative asset. General diffusing provide maximum lighting effect. Coordinate style with adjoining areas.

al large Entrance Hall: 75 to 150 square feet (7 to 13.50 sq. M). Use single
shielded fixture, minimum 1 2 inches (0.30 M), or multiple arm with shades,
minimum 18 inches (0.45 Ml diameter, or wall fixtures .
Bulbs and Tubes: Fluorescent - 22 + 32 W or 40 W circline, two 36 inches
30 W. or 48 inches 40 W tubes. (0.90 to 1.20 M l Incandescent .....:. one 150, or three
60W.
bl Small Hall or Vestibule: 20 to 75 square feet (1.80 to 7 sq.ml. Use single
shielded fixture, minimum 8 inches diameter (0.20 M}, or multiple arm with 10
to 1 2 inch spread, or wall fixture.
Bulbs and Tubes: Fluorescent - circlite 60, 22 or 32 W circline, 36 inches
(o.90) 30 W or 48 inches ( 1 .20 Ml 40 W.
Incandescent - one .100 W, two 60 or three 40 W
c) Hallway: repeat vestibule fixture every 10 feet (3.00 Ml. Use fluorescent fixtwas in windowless halls that need l~ght all day - saves energy, reduces bulb
replacement.

d) Stairs: locate hall fixtures near both top and bottom of stairs. Shielding across
the top is needed if you can see into a fixture when descending the stairs. If
there is a stair landing, mount matchinq fixture over it or use a fluorescent wall
bracket.

391

e) Closets: for yvalls - in areas over 9 square feet (0.90 M):

Fluorescent - circlite 60 or circlite 100, 22 or 32 W circline;
Incandescent. - 60 or 75 W (surface fixture), 100 A or 75 R 30 (recessed
unit).
It fixture is less than 18 inches (0 .45 Ml from shelf, it must be recessed.

Accent Lighting
Personalize your rooms and show of pri.zed possessions w ith pools of brightness that
.
'
draw the eye. Controlled beams of light make objects stand out from t heir background.
inviting attention. Accent liQht is usually directional in character and should be used with
gen.eral lighting for comfortable viewing. Most accent lights may be recessed or track
mounted.

Open Ref.ectors Fiber works, paintings. prints or photos benefit from directional light.
Aim adjustable units at a 30 angle to center of work or approximately 5 feet (1.50Ml
above the floor to avoid reflected glare - particularly important with glass covered
works. Use reflector spot for narrow beam of light or a flood for softer wider beam with
about Y, the intensity of a spot of the same wattage .

Low Voltage or Projector Spots can provide a very narrow beam for small area cir a long
throw. Good for small sculpture. Always aim at an angle. For good modeling effect use
one unit on either side for cross lighting . Light from straight ahead flattens objects.

Framing Projectors eliminate spill light around a picture or table top, shape a beam to fit
an object pr~cisely.

Pendant Downlights hung low ove[ a cocktail table invite people to gather around . A
series hung over a planter can enhance plant growth with Gro and Sho reflector bulbs as
well as act as a room divider.
Built-in shelving and display cases b.enefit from open refle.ctor downlights or shielded
fluores.cent tubes concealed inthe top. Fluorescent tubes or "T" bulbs may also be concealed along the sides.

392

393

LIGHTING

CREATING A MOOD
Apart from its many functional applications, well planned lighting can contribute a great deal
to the atmosphere in your home. The position and style of the lamps and fixtures determines
the kind of light they give. Candle light and oil lamps have long been associated with a warm
and cosy atmosphere, and you can create an almost identical mood with modern lighting
using small spotlights or shaded lamps to make isolated pools of light around the room. The
mood may be enhanced where a dark floor or ceiling. absorbs the light rather than reflects it.
If, on the other hand, you want to create a fresh, airy appearance, use reflected light from
pale coloured ceilings and walls. Ideally, ligh~ing should be as flexibleas possible so that you
can arrange it to suit the occasion; this cannot be achieved merely by fitting dimmer switches.

WELL BALANCED LIGHTING

When you .plan your lighting, first consider the size and position of the windows .a nd the
amount of natural light they bring to the interior. Some areas may have poor illumination and
will need subsidiary lighting during the daytime. The most efficient method of achieving the
correct balance is with a ligh.t-sensitive switch : When the natural light level falls below a certain point, artificial lig~t is automatically switched on. This is particularly useful in areas of
potential hazard such as stairway, where light should be thrown on to the stairs, so that the
edge of the.tread is well defined. Ideally, the light source should be to one slde so that your
shadow does not obscure the stairs when your are goina up or down; Always avoid sudden
changes in .light level.

PLANNING INSTAlLATIONS
Plan your lighting first bef9re you decorate or build any furniture into 8 room . Position
outlets carefully, to give you as much flexibility as possible. Place tights switches within easy
reach as you enter a room - a point to remember if you intent rehangilig a door. Two way
switches are very useful placed atthe top. and bottom of a staircase, or by the side of the
bed. Bear in mind that light fi;~etures have.t6 be cleaned and ma.intained, so if you need a light
in a normally inaccessible area, consider installing a flush-fitting or a recessed light that will
require less cleaning.

1. Creating atmosphere
Create small pools of atmospheric light by strategically positioning lamps at a low level
around the room. (188'.111ustratio~ no. 1).
2. Re~lfdlng Ughta
Reading lights are provided in this bedroom, by positioning strip lights behind a batten
running across ttle hea~board. Provide a separate light and switch foreach side of.the
bed so thaf one person can read without disturbing the other. (see illustration no. 2).
3. Reflecting light and textures
Position your light fittings to make the most of textural surfaces in the room. Supplement low level lamps by using reflected light from the ceiling. (see illus. no. 3}.

394

395

396

4. Reinforcing natural light

Directional spotlights reinforce natura' light from a skylight, while at the same time picking out pictures hung on the wall.

A GOOD SOURCE OF LIGHT

Plan carefully to create an overall, harmonious effect that will at the same time satisfy individual activities. You should arrange your light sources so as to avoid throwing shadows
into activity areas while reducing glare from a direct light source.

READING LIGHT
A centrally place ceiling light as in 1 is unsuitable for reeding, since it casts shadows on the
page. A better arrangement is shown in 2 where alamp is positioned behind and to ttle side
so that light is thrown on to the page. Another low-level light should be used to reduce contrast between the weB-lit page and th8 daf1tened backgrouno.

397

TELEVISION VIEWING
Low-level, indirect ligbt adjacent to the set, 3, reduces eye strain .

LIGHTING A DINING AREA

Avoid light fixtures in which the naked bulb ls visrbte to diners as in 4. If possible, install a
light with a wider shade that can be adjusted up and down thus preventing glare. Additional
lighting may be nec9S,88ry for .long tabtes as. in 6.

LAMPS FOR WRITING

Avoid light that throws yourown shadOw on to the page as.7. Much better is a concealed
light as in 8, which caU&M less shadow by partially reflecting on the wan. An adJ.ustable lamp
such as in 9 provides the beSt illumination and combined with 'a nother
light will reduce
eye strain.

room

398

BEDROOM LIGHTING
A reading light should be positioned to one side of the bed, or ~ehind it; as in 10, shaded to
avoid glare. Indirect light in child's room can be provided frory1 an adjoining area 11, or a dimmer switch 12.
r .
I

. .

. .
. . ..
~ .:. . ,._.-:
..

. .. .

j'

',<.~{...
,.~ ;-

BATHROOM LIGHTING
Position the nght to shine on you -not the mirror, 13. Place the light either side of the mirror
or around the perimeter and avoid tights which will reflect in it.

LIGHTING CUPBOARDS AND SHELVES

tnterior cupboard lights can be controlled by a switch operated by the opening and closing of
the door. Use as concealed or shaded strip tight, as 14. Position a light above shelves as in

15.

399

SELECTING
KITCHEN
COMPONENTS
Of all the components in your kitchen, lighting is afford to skimp on. Not only can poor lighting make the cheeriest kitchen seem dreary. It can also promote fatigue and even cause accidents. A good rule of thumb; incorporate enough general, task, and accent lighting in your
kitchen so that you're nevet working in a shadow.
You'll likely outfit y~ur kitchen with a combination of incandescent and fluorescent bulbs,
incandescent bulbs (or lamps, as they're known to the trade) are made in a wide range of
wattages, but those in the 00- to 200-watt range are your best bets .for a kitchen. Bulbs
typicalfy last from 750 hours (for high-wattage bulbs) to 2,500 hours (for low-wattage and
"long life" bulbs} .
Fluorescent tubes give off between two and three times as much light per watt as incandescent bulbs, and are more economical to operate . Though the life-span of a fluo.rescent tube
exceeds that of an incandescent bulb, it's shortened if the tube is frequently turned on and
off. Choose fluorescents for your kitchen carefully; "warm white" tubes Irather than the
harsher " cool white" type) are more flattened to food.
To light an average-size 10 x 12-foot kitchen, you'll need about 250 watts of incandescent
light, or 90 watts of fluorescent light. To combine the two, allow about 2 watts of incandescent or 3/4 watt of fluorescent light for every square foot of kitchen space.

Of course, your particular kitchen lighting requirements depend on a number of things-ceil

ing height, ceiling color, and your overall kitchen color scheme. Light, pale colors reflect
nearly as much light as deep, dark colors.

YOUR KITCHEN
LIGHTING OPTIONS
Since most kitchen chores take place at the sink, you'll want it especially well-lighted. If your
sink is under a windOw, opt for a recessed downlight that provides at least 150 watts of incandescent illumination, orj fluorescents behind a diffuser panef. For a sink that's under a
cabinet or shell, choose diffused fluorescent tubes, or soffit canister lights recessed in the
sOffit bulkhead or upper kitchen cabinets.

400

Of all your kitchen lighting options, track lights offer the most versatility. Fixtures come in
myriad styles, and give the look of built-in lighting without the installation hassle. Tracks
mount on ceilings or walls, for task lighting at work centers or general kitchen illumination.
For task lighting, fit track fixtures with spotnght bulbs; for general illumination, install more
diffuse floodlight bulbs.

A desk light augments your general kitchen lighting at a kitchen office or planning center.
An adjustable reading light fitted with a 50 to 75-watt incandescent bulb is adequate for all
but extended reading.

C. DESK UGHT

Easy-to-install under-cabinet fluorescent lights are excellent counter-top illumination.

Hide the tubes with a baffle, cornice, or diffuser panel, and let them extend at least twothirds of the length of the counter.

401

402

=~.

...

! '\ ~ ..

.. .

..

. :: :

: ;: :

..

..

..

.'

.,

#'I

. . .-

-..

...

-~

403

If you uie a dropped fixture over your eating area, choose one scaled in size to complement your table, and in brightness to harmonize with the rest of your kitchen. PlaA. on
minimum of 150 watts, but also use a dimmer switch or three-way bulb to V8fY the light
lewl. Mount a dropped fixture 28 to 36 inches above the table so it doesn't obstruct the View
of your diners.

Finally. a lighted range ventilating hood, outfitted with at least eo watts of illu~.
avoids shadows when you work at the range. For a range or cooktop not equipped with a
hood, achieve the same effect with recused downllghta or 8oft canisters.

F. LIGHTED RANG
VENTa.ATINO HOOD

VENTILAnNG
EQUIPMENT
Getting rid of food odors, fumes, and smoke is reason a10Ugh to ventilate your kitchen. But
removing 8XC888 heat and moisture-811)8Cialty if your home is air conditioned-alto 88\188
on the coet of anergy.
Ventilation aystem are lized eccording to the amount of air they'll move in one minute. To
determineb capacity you need, meaeured in cubic feet per rninuta ICFM), multiply your
kitchen equare footege by two. For example, if you haw a 15 x 20-foot kitchen, you'tl need a
system with a 800 CFM mlng (15 X 20 X. 2t.
Remember that fans differ in the amount in noise they make. Check the "sone" rating on
each unit you're considering; the lower the rating, the quieter the fan. Centrifugal blowers
usually are quieter than propeller-type fans.

The type and placement of your range hood or fan are just as important as the CFM rating in

getting the most efficient ventibltion. Here are your ventilation options.
404

EDUCATIONAL
FACILITIES
Institutional and
Educational Buildings
The lighting requirements for the various spaces in educational facilities are many and
varied and. to a considerable extent, coincide with requirements tor commercial (office)
and institutiona l byildings . To that extent the remarks herein are applicable there also.
Generally school buildings are constructed from capital budget funds and maintained
from operating funds. The former is often based on sale of bonds, and makes a fixed
amount available. The latter is financed through taxes and is always tight. Therefore, all
equipment in public buildings must be extremely hardy, long-lived, punishment-proof, as
maintenance-free as possible, and low in energy consumption. Maintenance in such
buildings is generally poor and on a repair rather than preventive basis. With this in mind
as overall criteria , the following remarks apply to lighting equipment.
(a) Use source with highest possible efficacy. Remember that daylight has the
highest efficacy, followed by HPS (high-pressure sodium) lamps, fluorescent,
and other HID (High-intensity Discharge) sources.
(bl Where specific color lamps are called for, such as deluxe white. The requirement should be permanently stencilled in large letters on the lighting fixture.
(c) Long-life sources should always be given preference because of lower
maintenance. Thus corridor and stair lighting should be fluorescent. This is
also important in locations where relamping is difficult as in high ceiling rooms
such as gyms and assembly rooms. In such spaces, relamping should be
possible by stick, and extended - life lamps are recommended, with
preference to HID sources.
(d) In calculating levels, low figures for LLF (light loss factors) should be used to
allow for aging of paints and dirt accumulation. Cleaning of lighting fixtures in
schools is Virtually unknown. A figure of 0. 5 to 0 .6 is reasonable.
(e) Most schools are not air conditioned. The masking air noise being absent,
careful control must be exercised on noise and vibration from ballasts, diffusers, etc. Ballasts noise increases with current rating, that is, 430-Ma very
high output lamps . The latter two must therefore be used with caution, particularly in locations that amplify sounds, or ..,here low NC obtains.
(f)

Lighting equapmel)t must be designed for . an absolute minimum of

maintenance. This means captive screws, rust-preventive plate parts,
captive-hinged diffy~_rs requiring only one man to maintain, ballasts replacement without demounting fixtures {plug-in ba118sts.are available). Non yellowing plastics, and high-quality finish and assembly levels of illumination are
tabulated in the table.

405

Illumination Levels
Recommended
Minimum
Footcandles

Recommended
MiniRtUm
Footcandles

Industrial

Garages-Aulomobl.. and Truck

Airplane Manufacturing

Service garages
Repairs
Active traffic areas
Parking garages
Entrance
Traffic lanes
Storage

Parts manufacturing
Drilling. riveting, and screw fastening
Final assembly

70

100

Airplane Hang.a,.

Repair service only .

100

Assembly

Bough easy seeing

Medium
Fine

100
500

Ordinary
Difficult
Highly difficult
Most difficult

50

Laundries

30

Washing
Flatwork ironing. weighing. listing, and
marking
Machine and press finishing, sorting

Book Bfndlng

Cutting, punching. and stitching

Embossing and inspecting

70
200

Chemical Worlts

LeaiMr ManutadUrlng

Hand furnaces. boiling tanks, station~

ary driers, stationary and gravity crystallizers.

Cleaning, tanning, and stretching, vats

Finishing.and scarfing

30

Color and glazing-rough work

30
100

Cloth Prqd~ts

Cloth inspection
Cutting
Sewing

2000
300

50
100

200
1000

30

50
70

30
100

20

PelntSbopt

100

5
20
1

. 20

50

30
20
10l.

50
100

Polishing and Bumlshing

100

..........

Printing ptants
Color inspection and appraisaJ
Cclmposition

. Presses
Proof reading

200
100
70

150

ReceiWtg and Shipping

(. . . . . . . . . . Handing)

Exhibitions
Social activities

50

500

Dipping, simple spraying firing

Fine hand painting and finishing
~rlntlng

50
100

Materials HandiJng

100

Sheet Metal :Works

isceUaneous machines. or:d~nary

bench work
Presses. shears, stamps, spinning, m&-

Rough bench and machine work

Medium bench and machine work
Fine bench and machine work, fine
automatic machines

500

Exterior ArMt1
Entrances
Active (pedestrian and/or conveyance)
Inactive (normally todc.ed, infrequentty used)
Building surrounds
Active shipptng area
Storage areas-active
Storage areas-inactive
Loading and unloading platforms

Locker Rooms

Wrapping, packing. labeling

Picking stock. claSSifying
loading, trucking
Inside truck bodies and freight cars

Eledrlc:al Equipment Manufacturing

Insulating: coil winding

Testing

50
10
5

Machine Shops

Cta, ProductS and Cements

Molding. pressing. cleaning. and trimmin~.

20

lnspec:tlon

30

Bakerte.

Mixing room
Oven room

100

30

BankS (see aiM otftcee)

Lobby

50

Illumination Le11els (Cof!UnufHI)

Recommended
Minimum
Footcandles
50
50

dium bench work

Punch~s

Staltwars.

Corrktots,

anc~

011w Sentce

AAN~

20

Storage Rooms or WarehouM!a

, Inactive
Active
Rough bulky
fine

10
50

Testing

General
Extra fine instruments, scales, etc.
Tofleta and washrooms

50

200
30

Upt\olstering-Automoblle, Coach.
Fu~

100

Watch and Jewelry Manufacturfng

500

Warehouse (see Storage)

Welding

General illumination
Precision manual arc welding

50
1000

Woodwolldng

Rough sawing and bench work

Sizing, planing, rough sanding, medium quality machine and bench work,
glueing, veneering. cooperage
Fine bench and machine work. fine
sanding, and finishing

30

50

100

Stores. Offices. IJnd Institutions

Arl Galleries
General
paintings {supplementary)
Dark paintings with fine detail may
require two or three times as much
illo mination.
On statuary
In some cases. much. more illumination is necessary to reveal the beauty
of statuary.

On

30
30

Writing areas in lobby

Teller's stations, posting, keypunch

70

1soa

Barber and a..uty Shops

100

Churches I Srnagogues
Altar, arc
Pews
Pulpit (supplementary)

100
15

, CJub Reading Rooms

50

30

Courtrooms
Seating area
Court activity area

30

7oa

Hospitals

Autopsy
General
Supplementary
Corridors
Emergency Rooms
General
Local
Examination and Treatment Rooms
General
Examining table.
Laboratories
General
Closework
Patients' Rooms
General
Supplementary for reading
Supplementary for examination
Recovery Rooms
.Surgery
General
Supplementary on table
Toilets
Waiting Rooms

100
1000
20
100

2000
50

100
50
100

20
30
100

30
200
2E;OO
20

20

Hotels and Motels

100

Audttortums

Aaembfy only
.General
Corridon, elevators. and stafrS
Entrance foyer
Linen room
Sewing
General

Recommended
Minimum
Footcandles

15

10
20

ao

100

20

407

Bars and cocktail lounges (see Res

tau rants}
Bathrooms
General
Mirror
Bedrooms

Reading (books, magazines, news

papers)
Subdued -environment
Quick service type
Bright surroundings
.
Normal surroundings
NOTE: Footcandle levds in dining
areas are highly variable. Variations

10

30

30

15
100
50

mumination Levels (Continued)

Recommended
Minimum
Footcandles
Lobby
General lighting
Reading and working areas
Power Plant
Boiler room
Equipment room
Storerooms

10

30
10

20
10

libraries

Schoofs

Reading ro oms and carrells

Stacks
Book repair and binding
Check-in and check-out, catalogs, .
Card files
Offices

General
Cartography, designing, detailed
drafting
Accounting, auditing, tabulating,
bookkeeping, business machine operation
Regular Office Work
Good copy
Regular oHice work-reading, tran
scribing, active filling, mail sorting.
etc.. fair-quality copy
Corridors. elevators. escalators. stairways
(Or. not less than! the revel in adja
cent areas.)

20()&

150&
7Q&

10Q&

20

Post Offices

lobby, on tables
Sorting, mailing, etc.
Storage
Corridors and stairways

Auditoriums
During intermission
During performance or presentation
Foyer
Entrance lobby

Tasks
Reading printed material
30*
Reading pencil writing
70&
Reading spirit duplicated material
Good copy
. 30*
Poor copy
1OQ&
Classrooms
Chalkboards (supplementary illumination)
150
Drafting rooms
1 ooa
Laboratories
100
Lecture rooms
General
7oa
Special exhibits and demonstra150
tions
Lipreading classes
150
ShoPS
100
150
Sewing rooms
Sightsaving classes
1 5Q&
Study haUs
70*
Corridors and stairs
20
Stores

30
100

20
20

Restaurants

Dining Areas
Cashier
Intimate type
Light environment
Subdued environment
Leisure type
Light environment
Thutets

Recommended
Minimum
Footcandles
depend on such factors as time of
day, desired atmosphere. individual
ity, and attractiveness.
Food Displays-twice the general levels
but not under
50
Kitchen-commercial, hospital, hotel
Inspection, checking, and pricing
70
Other areas
30

50
10
3
30

Store interiors
Circulation areas
Merchandis6ng areas
Service stores
Self-service stores
Showcases and wall cases
Service stores
Selfservice stores
Feature displays
Service stores
Self-service stores
StockroOms

......._

Building
(F1oodllghtM)

and

5
0.1
5

20

30
100

200
200
500
500
1000
30

Mont.II'Mflts
Bright
~

Dark

Light surfaces
Medium-dark surfaces
Dark surfaces

ResidMtial (see Table 000 p. 000)

Outdooi Roodllghtlng

Flap

Building

Parking LoiS

15

15

30

20

50
50

Illumination Levels (Continued)

Recommended
Minimum
Footcandies

Recomrmtnded
Minimum
Footcandles

Construction
Excavation
Bulletins and Post.-

Pant~~

light surfaces
0811< surtaoes

.........
20

so

50

100

Self-parking
Attendant parking
Shopping centers {customer attraction
deYice)
.

10
2

Table 11.5 FlowchMf

StotegeiiiMSanf

150

------~------------------------~------------1M(-15k)

l)leftt , _ . . . . , . 110

~-

-------------~----------no--200--200 t-20

C.....Wioft

yes

300

,_

,_

no---300--no--300

300--no--3QO-- aoo <-30 lc)

res

,./

-500--no--SOO--.SClO

It~-*
Ofltus: conltd rooms.

yes

m.0101m m.c:hininl.

Will!

rc)

500--SGO (-50 lc)

an<I-Oiy

DMo..-.g-*

750

yes

0Hj)1)1&n. <1<-ing (If

OUSnen mKIWI<t offices.

lnspect;on d medium
mac!Wiing

1000

I'IMtwOflf

\
!
yes
\
no---750--no---';so--,c--750

txh.. proc:nJtng. fine

\\

\\

yes
no--1000--no--tOOO-no--}000
yes

Color <liscrimination.

750--750 ( -75 tel

yes

1000-10GO ( -100 k)

yes

machining. and -embly

'

.,., II<HI .,.,._.

lSOO

y.s

Hand '""~'aing.
inspec:ton ot fine
macruning Ot iiSSelllbly

Mllovff-*
ln$pedi0ft

ll

yts,
no--150'3--no--500-no--~

3000

Y.lO'---- 1500-1500 (-150M.;

yes

yes

- - - 3 0 0 0 , - - - - 3000--ti0--3000>----3000-MIO <-300 lc)

ot ~ 1oM

a sse"'~

409

Art -Rooms

....

the primary requirement here is for constan t color daylight. Thus n.o.rth windows and
skylights are virtually indispensable. For artificial lighting, since color .is- SO. important,
...
.
..
deluxe fluorescent tubes are recommended. General illumination should be augmented
~y' user-adjustablE{ su~Me"mentary lighting in the form of ceili.ngmoun~e<;i,.ac!=~~t lights. If
modeling is anticipated, spotlights for this pUfpose are required. For display of artwork,
adjustable wall illumination is required . Ceiling tracl<-mounteq incandescent units are an
excellent choice.
. ,.,, !

"

..
..

...

Art exhibition
rwm, iUwtr4Jting good .
and bod techniq~.
Upper u:all fenestration
is excellent feN deep daylight penetration. Track
lighting# ideal for .display of art. The mixture

... .,.

of i:KandQcmt dou;nlighu for general lighting

is e:rce.ssiu and an eyesore. Also, the po:sitionlng

of the track lights can

create both direct and
reflected glare problems
unle.ss the sources are selected properliJ and cefl-

ing height is abote 9

..

ft.

Assembly Rooms, Au.gitoriums

And Multipurpose Spaces

!,(,.,

'.
The varied activities in these rooms make flexible lighting imperative. For performances,
low-level dimmed incandescent lighting is required. Here incandescent is the recommended source because of the lower cast of dimming and short burning periods. For
assembly, this can be augmented by architectural elements along walls and drapes, and
in the ceiling. For study, additional ceil ing fluorescents or HID units can be switched on.
The combinations are legion ; the different usages are the . critical consideration . See
figures.

410'

Schools f.req~ntly utiliu space3 f or multiple functions.

This space, rwrmolly used as a dining area, doobles as an assembly
rOom. The architecture did not lend
Itself to concenticrial Jixture3.
High-intensity, indirect tung$tenhafogen units, in cmtcreie beam
junctures, provide sujfo;iem light
for both.-.

:.~

..t

'.

lmtitutional C4Jetmo

illuminate.d by cooe lighting in

deep plf'amid61 cofferr. Lighting u
.~ glare ftu, soft in quality,
and pleasant. yet of sufficient intensity for we ar 0 womng mMing ~ Pfwlo by Stein.

The inaccessibility of high ceilings makes the use of very long-life sources such as HID
(high-intensity discharge lamp) imperative . W ith incandescent, 130-V or extended-life
lamps are recommendei:t. An additional consideration is step lighting. These should be of
very low brightness and mounted to the side of or in risers. Baffles and louvers must be
provided in these units to cast light down only, to illuminate the tread, and particularly its
leading edge. Acoustic considerations are acute because of the low NC criteria. Thus the
generally noisy ballasts
of HID sources should be located
with care.
.
.

411

Gymnasium Lighting
Gyms present a situation similar to auditoriums in that they have widely varytng usages.
All fixtures should be sturdy and guarded. For gyms deluxe-white mercury. HPS (highpressure sodium lamps}. and metal halide are excellent choices for color, life, control,
and efficiency. More than one level shO\.Ild be available by switching (see section on Mer
cury lamp lei dimming chapter 13). For dance and assembly use, other fixtures can be
lamped with long~Jife incandescent or Tungsten halogen, which provide good "Ciolor for
low-intensity lighting and also provide illumination during mercury startup or reStart after
an outage. Ratio of HID to in~andescent can be between 4 : 1 and 5:1 . All fixtures should
be designed for relamping from the floor by means of stick or pole. Locker rooma should
use guarded strip fluorescents. An interesting application of H1D lighting in an indirect
system is shown ln the figure below. Recognition of 8 possible problem with dirt ac
cumulation and relamping is necessary with such an arrangement.

This indoor tennis coarl usa 112

l(J()()..u;ott metal-halide luminair'e$ dirft:ted at the
ceflillf, dltd rejleding shadow-free ligltt of our 100
fc mcdltlcJined on to the plo!{ing mrfsa. Futura are
moual< 20 ft above the floor. Seeler~ luminaim
~d!men ft>r both photOmetric~ and
the low ..,.ntenanoe prooitkd by thdr dutproof
~

Classrooms
The essential room in the school is the classroom. Refer to the figure for rec(!mmended
surface reflectances.

412

Recommended refltancu for surfacu and fumishings In the classroom. (Xo~ control media
used at u;indou:s to reduce exterior brightness so thal they are in balance with interior brightness.)

The modem classroom utilizes extensive audiovisual teaching aids and therefore requires
multiple aids and therefore requires multiple lighting levels. This is most economically accomplish by multiple switching and multilevel ballasts.

(a) Energy Considerations and Sources.

Use fluorescent, standard 430-ma lamps, cool and warm white, for direct and
direct -indirect fixtures; 800-and 1500-ma lamps, same colors, for semiindirect and indirect lighting. Incandescent sources should not be used.
Daylight, to the maximum extent, is desirable. Lights adjacent to daylight
sources should be separately switched.

(b) Choice of Lighting System

With proper design, adequate lighting can be provided with 2.5 w/sq.ft. Since
ESI is so sensitive to viewing position and the recommended level is 70 fc
ESI, the designer must be inherently familiar with the type of system, fixtures
and arrangements th!lt will yield the requisite high ESI without exceeding
energy limitations. Some general guidelines are:

413

1 . Run rows of fixtures front to back and, if possible, between rows of

students.

2 . Use high VCP units

3 . Use semi--indirect lighting with HO or VHO (high: output or very high

output) fluorescent; direct-indirect, parabolic reflector, or batwing
distribution fixtures ~ith standard 430-ma lamps...

4. When using HO or VHO take special precautions -against excessive

ballast noise.

(c} ..Costs: .
:

-..:. .

Refer to the table. Convert annual costs to life-cycle costs using data given in
the section of life-cycle costing under Economic. A nalysisin the. next pages.
oo not compare cos~s
the ba'sis of Pesos (dollars) per footcandle, that is, by
dividing maintained .lllumination by cost, sinee this leads to preference f or
higher tootcandle levels and higher wattage levels. Do compare life-cycle
costs of alternate adequate illumination systems. Note that the analysis of the
table does not include wiring costs and the effect on air conditioning. The latter, though rarely important in schools, is very important in office occupancies.

on

Standard Form lor Calculation ol Lighting Sysl., Costs on

an Annual Owning Cost Basis
Ughting Cost Compwtson
Lighting, Method #1 Lighting Method ~2
Installation Data
Type of Installation (office, industrial. etc.)
Luminaires per row
Number of rows
Total luminaires
Lamps per tuminaire
lamp type
Lumens per lamp
Watts per luminaire (including acces&Ories)
Hours per start
Burning hours per year
Group relampirtg interval or rateo life
Light loss factor
Coefficient ot utilization
Footcandles maintained
Capital Expenses
Net cqst per luminaire
Installation labor and wiring cost per luminaire

414

Cost per luminaire (luminaire plus labor and w iring) .,

Total cost of luminaires
Assumed years of kJminaire tile
Total cost per year of ..
Interest. on investment (per year)
Taxes (per year}
Insurance (pet year)'
Total capital expense per year
Operating and Maintenance Expenses
Energy expense
Total watts
Average cost per kwh
Total energy cost per yearLamp renewal expense
Net cost per lamp
Labor cost each individual relamp
Labor cost each group relamp
Percent lamps that fail before group relamp
Renewal cost per lamp socket per year~'
Total number of lamps
Total lamp renewal expense per year
Cleaning expense
Number ol washings per year
Man-hours each (est.)
Man-hours tor washing
Number of
per year
Man-hours per dusting eaeh .
Man-hours for dustings
Total man-hours
Expense per man.hour
Total cleaning expense per year
Repair expense$
Aepairs (baaed on experience, repairmans
time, etc.)
Estimated total repair expense per year
Total operating and maintenance expense per year
Recapitulation
Total capital expense per year
T ota1 operating and maintenance ~nse per year
Total lighting expense per year

,e

dOStinVs

'J; tal
0

energy cost per yMI' ::

Total watts

burning hou!'s per year x cost per kwh

1000

The following formuln the 1M annual cost Pill' socut tOf lllmPII end r~ and tan be us-ed lor detemtining
the most economical r~ent method.
.

Jll<fMdual

repl~

Group repllcenlent
(urfy burnouts ~)

1'1

= R(e + f) dollars/socket/year.

8
= A(c: + g + eKL + K{)

(no ~:=-burnouts) :

dOiar's l ~el t year.

~(e + g) dollars, soctuet: year.

= burning hourw per yur

R = rated average lamp life. hou111
A = burning time belwNn replacements, hours
c = net c:os1 c1 lamps. dollars

where B

=cost per lamp for f'!Piilclng lamps indi'lidullly. doRus

~~
K =~ o1 ~ ~ befont ~~('from mort.tMJ wrw)
L =~ PQf1i0f1 olttw C05t of ariy bumoWI thlt II chllrged aoai"St group r.p!acem1111t.
.
No general rule am l;a fiR/n lot 1M Ule cif group ~C MCh initaJiiaflon Sho\lld be eOnside..-d Separately.
In' generel. group;pll -,.. 111au111 be .,e.. 001--.iori ""* ~ ~~ eoet 1 iS greater thall half
I

{I

the lamp

= c:oet per ~for ntplac:ing tarilpaln

east e anc1

""*' t'OiiP

epllleeA~~t

eoet r1 11 _ .. cam..,_, to I.

415

Lecture Hall Lighting

lecture hall lighting is similar with respect to sources and other considerations to
classrooms. Three-level fluorescent lighting which is readily accomplished via switching
and multilevel ballasts, eliminates energy-wasting incandescents. Low levels are
necessary during d~monstrations, films, and the like. Auxiliary lighting for demonstration
table and chalkboard complete the design. Step lights are not normally utilized. Highceiling installations can utilize mercury or metal-halide for general lighting. Controls for
lighting should be at the demonstration table.

Alit* llllt lamp

inftftw71t. ....

.Lengthari.Je ction lluough lecture

room shows elerated seats tou:ard rear, troffer general lighting in a suspendM mUng surftU
mounted adju.tfQble -R-IQ lomp unit~ Of:er demonltration table. and fluorescent challboard li{,hting.

Laboratory Lighting
laboratories differ from classrooms in that tables are fixed, bench surfaces are frequently
very .dark, many of the items used exhibit specular reflection, vertical surface illumination
is important, and visual task are not normally prolonged or severe. With low ceilings, use
direct "xtures located parallel to and slightly behind the edge of tables to avoid reflected
glare. These fixtures st'!ould have as wide a distribution as possible. If ceiling height is
sufficient, indirect lighting will also provide a high degree of diffuseness necessary .for
vertical surface illumination. (See the figure below.)

416

{b)

r
I

'o i
...,,

0 n

.J

(c)

(d)

tables or in oislea u gmnoll1J preferobk

from a rejlccted-r,lare a&pect. Scheme (a) utili::e.s pendont direct-indirect units, u:hik (b) ond (c) ore
wri11tions of th single, $e1J&i-indirect HO arid \ "HO 11nit design, illustrated in Table 20.7, Future No. M.
Relatit:ely high noi'e level of ballast.s is generally not ob;ectionable in IIJb.s. Sketch (d) utili:a direct
ur1its in loo; ceiling, pontio~d for minimum glare.
Laborot<mj lighting .schemes. Running ligllts

OCTOU

library Lighting
libraries comprise several different seeing tasks, each of which requires its own lighting
solution.
(a) General Reading Room
Here two solutions are possible and both are in common use. In the first,
general lighting is'supplied over the entire area, which is sufficient for reading
tasks. For this purpose fluorescent or HID sources such as deluxe mercury or
meta~halide (High-Intensity Discharge) are normaHy applicable, the latter two
with ceiling heights at least 3.00M (10ft).

417

 The tong life and good color .and. efficacy of these sources are suited to the
long burning hours found in libraries. The second sok.Jtion involves low-level
general lighting supplied by fluorescent of HID sources supplemented by local
reading lighting on the tables or carrels. R~ading lights should be fluorescent,
arranged to avoid veiling reflections (see section on nonuniform office lighting
in the next few pages).

Wherever HID sources are used, an additional instant restart source must be
supplied to supply minimal lighting after an outage. The units shown in the
figure above contain a small tungsten-halogen -source fot this purpose. Ballast
noise can be a problem in low NC criteria spaces such as libraries. Special lownoise ballasts and eclosures are availabe and should be employed.

418

SOlS GUTERL~ \'C ' .:.t'"-TCI.U

OCTA~"'ll*l cDrnl ~tu

(ia Mn::a;~ r qcln ,.r ~l

- - - - snentGuard ballast in speci&l mounting box

UltraQuiet ballast in special mounting box

(b) Stack Areas

In stack areas required vertical surface illumination is best supplied by one of
the special fluorescent units designed for this purpose . These are mounted
between, and no higher than 24 inches (0.60 M) above stacks for best
results. (see figure)

Single rapid-start or high output

lamp with special lens
ot parabolic reflector~

419

(c) Card Index Files

Vertical surface illumination is best supplied here by fluorescent or HID
sources directJy above and in front of the files.
(d) Work Desks and Checkout Areas
The lighting requirements for this area are the same as those for the reading
room except that levels are somewhat higher. Supplementary lighting is
recommended.

Specialty Room Lighting

Rooms with specific tasks such as sewing and typing rooms and shops must be carefully
considered. Where moving parts are present, adjustable local lighting may be necessary
to aid seeing by reflection from specular work. No general rules can be suggested other
than those previously explained in detail. Particular attention must be given to often
forgotten vertical illumination requirements, which are vital in areas such as storage,
stacks, and shops. Kitchens and cafeterias are color sensitive, and sources must be
carefully chosen. If dining areas serve other functions they must beconsidered in the
total lighting.

Corridors and Stairways All Buildings

Corridors intended only for circulation need only be lighted to 1 0 fc unless a specific
seeing task requires higher levels, for example, bulletin boards and lockers: (see figure)

Surface mounted

Wall j;ghti!'W with single lamp units

420

Stairs, as.previously noted, require clear delineation of the treads, generally by shadowing . lighting can also be used to give direction by longitudinal arrangement. Wallmounted across corridors, particularly when corridors are long, are effective in reducing
the tunnel impression. Incandescent sources are not recommended, because of low efficacy, high rflaintenance and frequency of relamping. Auorescent and HID sources are
also suggested for stairwells. Care must be excercised here, however, to avoid glare,
which causes attention to shift from the stairs to the light and may thereby cause a
hazard.

Commercial Interiors
Office Lighting
The following information applies primarily to offices in commercial buildings and
secondarily to similar spaces in other occupancies, such as in educational and industrial
buildings. In these latter cases, the general rerNif1(s applicable to those type facilities take
precedence.
(a) Sources:

Use fluorescent in low-ceiling areas and HID or pendant fluorescent in highceiling spaces. Color is not critical. Warm-white and cool-white fluorescent
and deluxe mercury or metal-halide ace usable. HPS can be used to advantage
when mixed with deluxe mercury or metal-halide to reduce possible objections to the yellow color. Because of high output, HID sources may create
direct g'lare problems, which can be minimized by use of a low-brightness,
lens-type diffuser (see figure).

421

Use low-wattage, energy-saving lamps as detailed in the section 'U" -shaped

lamps for fluotescents, Chaper 13. lncandescents may be used for storage
areas, closets, and other short-burning is used to illuminate displays of all
sorts.
(b)

Illumination Levets
These are given in the Tables of required illumination levels. in the illustrative
example of a classroom, Chapter 15, and recommended finishes for room
surfaces are given in this figure.

Notice in the figure that the upper-wall dado has a lighter finish than theremainder of the walt. This serves the double function of increasing ceiling cavity brightness, particularly with suspended fixtures, and increasing vertical illumination due to reflection from this surface. The basic design approach should
be for non-uniform lighting. See examples and explanations in Chapter 15,
lighting design, for supplementary lighting design.

422

(c) Vertical Surface Illumination

This is required for visual tasks in offices, such as files. desk drawers, card
flies and secretarial copy stands .. Large area lumina!res and a high degree of
diffuseness where wall
reflect ions are absent. Light-finish furniture surfaces.
.
surface-mounted fix.tures, and high-reflectance floors will also assist in this.

(d) Private Office

Here ~ lighti~g shou~d be cani tutly designed for the specific areas and work
involved; genera! and sUpplementary lighting with variable levels for desks,
downlights in sitting areas, wallwash for accent and brightening dark walls,
special lighting for.d.isplay boar68: paintings, and so on. If the ceiling is high,
pendant fixtures can C'reate a horizontal plane to correct poor room proportions : ,
(el General Offlta. ,..
These areas can use ceilings and mounting ~ights for fixtures. Direct-indirect
distril:iution pendant units provid~ good diffusion, low direct and reflected
glare, and good vertical light component but are dirt catchers and are unattractive set near walls, additional periphe~allighting is frequently required.
(f)

Office Lighting Equipmept

This should not be !:land led roughly . Fixtures may have to~.:~ch latches, light
hinges, and adjustable devices w ithout tear of breakage or vandalism

(g) Maintenance
In most offices maintenance is provided on~ trouble call basis. Lamps are replaced on burnout, and the fixture is then cleaned. Because of the long life of
fluorescents and HID sources, this generally means a 3-to--5-year cleaning cycle.
Since most office use lay-in troffers, an LLF of 0.6 to 0.65 is reasonable in air conditioned spaces; lower in open-window offices.
(h) Noise

Noise from air conditioning plus adjacent street, traffic, and process noise.
makes the use of higher-nois~ level ballasts, as are found on HO and VHO
lamps, frequently feasible. For private offices, A-rated ballasts for 430-ma
lamps are the best choice. {see chapter on building noise control)
(i)

Fenestration
When fenestration is absent, a lighted valance is recommended around the
room. This will remove the wall-ceiling line and will partially compensate for
the lack of windows. It will also brighten the walls and increase illumination of
desks placed adjacent to the w alls.

(j)

Supplementary Lighting
Supplementary lighting can be mounted on ceiling-trac~-fed poles of the type
shown in the figures below. These are in effect, track lights , mounted on vertical tracks.

Local coda ""y

permit t.lephone
cobltot in raaways
without COtn

racewaytelephone
Cable
adapter

assembly

ODS4 series plugmold,

', with snapicoil in G-4000
hal, tnel'lll
r.JC~~~Way - power

:\ siug.lt di.~trilmtiou dmt 1dt/t recepkt-

cle outlet.s. pland at 24-in. centers, feeds o Iorge

n11miJer of ret\'.t.w.>d .tr.~ff<rs itl thi~ brightly ligllted
merchantlisitt!! urct~ cdlirtg.. 1/urd uiring of this
dcH,'ifr ,,f !i;!.f:lito:. ./i.rlr,,.~ w,..,,frJ J,, . ,,,idralJlrt

424

G-4000
DettJiJ of Of)IJ design (of many) of Wire
mold's Tt!le-power pole. Other designs heve different dimensions, outlets, bases, and colors. The
power aNr~~Mtrment is prewired mth four single or
two duplex 15a. 125 v outlets, with top connection
as dftsired. In this case the power compartment is
winHJ to 11 flexible 11rmored cable terminating in a
spill/ polrrized plug. The communications com
partmtlflt is generally unwired. Pole lengths are
avai/a!JW to match Cfliling height requirement.

~-

11elephooe

0054 series

Stion A -A

raceway
i ~le-~~0 .. ~
:~b: e

--

21T-5

tele-power
pole
(b)

:e~der

racewav . ..

Telephone cable - ----

tela-power pole -- -- - - I c)

425

{k)

Switching
Provide switching to allow for:
1. Small grour>s of lights to remain while the remainder are off.

2. Path lighting through large spaces to permit traverse without turning on al)
lights.
3. At least two levels via alternate lamp switching in areas where tasks
severity changes or where daylight contibution varies. This is definitely
preferable to entire fixture sw,tching.
4. Central control to permit switching of large blocks of lighting.

Nonuniform Office Light;ng

Design Using Ceiling-Mounted Units
Modern office lighting design is predicated on nonuniform .layout. 'This approach has

three advantages:
a. Higher ESI
b. Lower first cost
c. Lower power and energy, yielding lower operating costs.

The general or ambient lighting can be either be a uniform layout at a low level, the spill
light from local lighting, or a combination of both. See figures below. The first figure (a) is
an example of the former; the other figures {b). (c) and (d) of the latter.

426

'

GoB
I

'

l..J
0
D

c ICledenD

co

I0

--Ceiling .~ l*lilio&IS

- - s cr Hi!lh partilio&a

[fJ File cabinets

Ref. 1ilbtlt

Overall room dine&ious 31 X 10 X 9' high

(]]Book case

0oesk
"on:

T ITyping stBtion

DT

Drafting table

III~Jnrin~tion levels on all task

surfaces shall be 50 fc except

as noted.

Refer to figure (b), which is an office layout for a small technical office. In accordance
with current recommendations, 50 fc is to be furnished on all work surfaces except the
drafting table DT, and two small offices where close work on poor copy will be performed. Figure (c) shows a standard uniform layout; generally using three-lamp, 2 x 4 feet
(0.60 x 1.20 m). Fluorescent troffers, with high-quality lens diffusers. VCP is good due
to low lens brightness. Illumination on the drafting table is also good because of the fortuitous position of the fixture above it. Other work surfaces receive more than adequate
raw footcandles but in many instances low ESI due to bad ceiling reflections.

."---".
;---,

c~.J

....._ .
f'-----,

__,

'

...------,. r-.......:

r-----,

4:

~--_...

___.
.,r-----.
r----:

r----:

.....__......_____.:.______
. . .._______ ..
All

3-~

t..,..._ .. -.J

""""'- ....... J

85~ 85
[_=:J.. 102n---~"

70

.B g____~
o

I
I

I
I.

L....----.1

r---:t
I

IT]

Et

r--,

- - -~'

jj--f0~ ___ J__t _______J_ _ _~_._--_'_

F40 cw fixtures ncept

rnarlted "4...

ESI - position dependent; generally poof' to f~ir.

A...age task illufritl8tion - alf task; 75 fc: I"'W,
45 in, ESI.

41:1

.S1

-- ;

'-'. ----

~-__.

I
I

~0---.f:l ,----,
L---~~

""-- -...J

" - ......

Foou:ancfles .-e average ower the desk.

35 fixture; 5600 ": total; 2.66 w/$1Q ft.
VCS' > 80.
;~pprox

ri]~

.:---1

10

70

___,

In figure (d). fixtures have been arranged to supply task lighting. Ambient lighting comes
from spill light and three fixtures placed in a relatively large, open circulation space. The
results are good VCP, much higher ESI footcandles on the tasks, and somewhat lower
energy use.

:--:
L----J

r--.. . . .,

r-----"\

t.. .J 70 100 ~-----l

rn? - . -- ;::;rn
l-----~----_;

.. ~
_____ .,

:--~

....

t-so--t-,. .............. 'T __ .....__ ...

:
;-~

71

.I .
'-1---J

: ---J:

4. .. - -.. .-.l ..

~ ..... .... 1

~~---.

"so

r --- :
\, .., ...... .J

As pointed but in the figure below, a disadvantage of this system is the jumbled appearance of the ceiling.

fa) The uniform layout of Figure- is neutral in that it does not dominate the space or draw the eye.
(b) The nonuniform layout can be dominant in the pejorative sense if the eye is drawn by the lack of
pattern or symmetry.

428

For this reason, nonuniform layouts are well suited to coffer-type ceilings, as in the
figures below, where the presence or absence of a fixture is not as prominent. This is all
the more important where large glass wall areas make the ceilings readily visible from the
outside. (See also the various configurations af 5 ft. square modules in the following
pages}.

:\ coffer ceiling room (a) is illuminated with 1 x 4, 2-ltJmp unit.t ln alternate coJJm. the
appearance unlighted (a) and lfghted (b) i.t &ymmetrical and pleasing. A nonuniform layout u:ould be lt!J8
ob;ectionalJle here than in a flat hung ceiling,

This appearance problem can be mitigated considerably by using a uniform arrangement

with adequate switching to provide the levels desired. This type of system illustrated
below, as added advantage of usefulness when the furniture layout is not known in advance a common occureoce. Its disadvantage is higher cost for fixtures, multi-level
ballasts and switching. and tack of fixture-position control. so important in achieving low
reflected glare.

& ..~~ -;-

k . *"-r...:.;,.'c;
S./ ll-......s1<12.50

--

)1 !~....

~1.16

429

The figure below, is another technique in minimizing the appearance problem of

nonumiform layout. Smaller sources are less objectionable when symmetry is absent.

Nonuniform Office Lighting

Using Furniture-Integrated Luminaires
In lieu of ceiling-mounted fixtures, ambient and task lighting can be supplied by furnituremounted units. This system has these ADVANTAGES:
a. The problem of furniture layout and layout changes is eliminated.
b. Initial construction cost is reduced
c. Energy requirements are lowered because of short distances between light
source and task.

430

d. Each occupant has ON-OFF control of his or her task lighting and, in some
designs, positioning control as well.
e. Maintenance is very much simplified, since fixtures are readily accessible from
the floor.
f. Floor-to-floor height can be frequently be reduced
g. Tax advantages nonnaHy accrue due to higher depreciation rates on furniture
than on the building.

OISADVANTAGES include:
a. Difficulty in dissipating heat and minimizing ballast noise due to proximity of
sources to user.
b. Veiling reflections can be severe.
c. Brightness ratios in the near and far surround may exceed recommended
levels.
d. Difficulty in lighting a free-standing open desk, since most of the fixture types
are undercounter or side-wall mounted. See figure {e) from the pain of a prototype space in the next pages.
e. Difficulty in evenly lighting large table or L'-'shaped desk areas because of the
concentrating natuFe of the lighting units.

431

LU 150

lamp Data:

~
H~
.

re

sod~um, 250 :: ~ 2SJlOO

14,000 lm
lm

~fl~\
"""'"';~

.:,~,

w~

tU 2SO oodom,
3200 '":. 1800 1m
tU 150 ;n. d;m, 32
1000 lm
F
-40/U
-Circularfluorescen in. diam, 22 w.
FC
12 -C.rc:ular
FC 8I

432

The figure below is a plan of a prototype office space using this system, with views 01
this office mock-up, taken at the points indicated. The reader may judge the effectiveness of this particular design, which is one of many now appearing commercially.

433

TIIS/c t;ghting srnmgement for the secretarial"work srtition ~~~ lf./8mp fluont.Jcent lurnintlire and 11 circul8r
fluorescent
luminst.e to light resks at the desk wiTh minimal-s;ze equipment 6nd minimUm ~ refktctlons.
Another open bottom unit utilizing the B-in circular fluorescent lamp fs .in s laterally tredcing unit to locate to the
right or left of the typfwriter for copy illuminaoon.

mmp

434

--------

--------

.... .....

<

~ ,\..... . .,J .~ ,. ...,. ... --~... .:t'~- ,...,:;....,-..,.. ,__ :- ... ' . .

Task lighting for the sales work station from the

U -lmp unit at the left provides fight with minimal ve1ling
reflections. It is reinforceiJ by the undershelf twolamp,
20-w, side mount unit located above the lateral fife
storage unit in the center of photo. There can be oppor
tunities such as this for lighting such tetsks that do not fie
on t/Jq_ work station work surface; but where there is not,
a sufficient amount of ambient illumination is then needed.

Integrated and Modular Ceilings

The cost, appearance, and design-flexibility advantages of .an integrated ceiling design
over field-assembled and coordinated systems has long been known. As a result ceiling
systems with integrated lighting, acoustic control, and air-handling capabilities have
been made commercially available in modular sizes, among which are 60 inch square
(1 . 50 x 1 . 50 ml, 48 inch square ( 1 .20 x 1 . 20 m) and 30 x 60 inch modules (0. 7 5 x
1 . 50 ml are made in flat and pyramidal shapes, the latter having several distinct advantages over the flat:
a. M ore interesting and aesthetically pleasing.
b. More acoustic absorbency due to ceiling angles and large surface area .
c. Recessed center provides visual baffling, permitting use of higher brightness
sources while maintaining high VCP.
A typically equipped pyramidal module is shown in 1he figure next page.

435

Plenum view of typical pyramidal module. Courtesy of Goth Lighting.

T. Typical hanger wire connection.
2. Pelforated metal acoustical coffer.
3. Fiberglass sound-absorbing insulation material.
4. Wiring access plate for fest electrical connection of liglrting fixtures.
5. Sound-attenuating panel prevents noise travel ftom the room to room through plenum.
6. Air diffuser available in insulated or noninsulsted versions.
7. Preassembled splay is ribbed for strength and rigidity.
8. Tr(lss channel sides painted black to give splay 8 floating appearance from floor level.
9. Trvss channel screws or rivets to intersection for fast accurate assembly of grid.

436

Possible luminaire arrangement for both flat and pyramidal shapes are given in this figure,
with examples of installations.

ft square fixture with 'U'tubes. Note low bright

ness of the miniature parabolic egg-crate diffuser.

(a} 2

(b). 3()..in. square luminaires alternating with blank

section. Note the .air intake along the module perimeter.

lei Note the shielding provided by the recess in the

pyntmidal shape. The effect is most pronounced with a
low ceiling. Compare to 1b} above.

ld) Spt;rt;ng the module in half, rsther than centering the fixture as in lcl, creates the dominant checkerboard pattem shown. Photos (aJ to (d).

437

Pyramidal
module

Seamlesf
flat f"'dule.

(II)

With 2' X 2'

lvmiNire.

(c)

With 3' x 3'

lumillaire

1' )( 4'

lumin.wile

With oo lumirwlire.

nn . :.I,
~- ~
With twin
Iu minairH

With

no

Juminaire.

luminaire

In addition to the design flexibility available, electrified track caa be integrated into the
system rumers, to supply both the lighting fixtures and power poles, as in the figure
below. This is increases the mobility of the fixtures, so necessary for adequate task
lighting.

Ceiling
G~

1..-

_,

raceway .

Telephone
Clble --- ------- --

21T-5
tete~

pole
(b)

438

Suspendedeeiling

---~::;;;_~~~'1P-...---

Hanget ------- ----------

,..., racew.y --------

tel~ pole -------- - - ---

(d

The partial recessing accomplished with pyramidal modules is particularly useful when
applying high-brightness HID sources to commercial interiors see the two figures below.

~----------48 718"-- - - - - -

1.

i-.

..

L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.:~,J
~----------------------~~
-----------------------~

439

Lighting and
Air Conditioning
The reduction of lighting density levels to below 3 w / sq. ft. in all but special areas has
considerably reduced the impact of lighting generated heat on a building's HVAC system.
In non air-conditioned buildings, the lighting heat contribution is directly applicable to
building heating. Fixture efficiency is directly affected by .its temperature. Fluorescent
units operate at an optimum temperature of 77F. Temperature above and below this
decrease output and fixture efficiency. Thus heat removal from units is desirable even at
low lighting-energy levels. The most effective method of fixture heat removal is by duct
connection to the unit itself. This method, however. is relatively expensive, and immobilizes the fixture. Alternatively the plenum can be exhausted with air passing through
the fixtures, picking up excess heat. These details are essentially part of the HVAC
design .

INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
General
In industrial lighting the prime and over-riding consideration of all work, lighting included,
is its profitability; that is, its economic impact on the company. Given acceptable standards of comfort and safety for the working staff, additional costs for lighting must be
self-justifying economically. In one case a good lighting installation was improved at considerable cost. Production jumped 15%, of which 3% was sufficient to amorti~e the cost
of the lighting alteration. In another case an outlay for new inspection lighting reduced
product failures and proved economically sound. In a third, improved lighting reduced accidents. improved employee morale, and consequently improved production. The cases
studied are far too numerous to mention; general principles will be adduced instead.

Industrial lighting
Levels and Sources
With increased lighting levels, and control of glare problems, industrial workers are approaching the lighting condition under which their forebears worked-out-of-doors. That
enviable situation, with 100 fc horizontally and vertically anp low glare, is not attainable with artificial lighting at its present technology without grossly excessive cost
and enery use - nor is it necessary. A lesson to be learned, however, is the need to
utilize daylight to a much greater extent than is now generally the case.
Industrial facilities lend themselves readily to daylighting, since many are one-story structures. Thus roof monitors, skylights, and clerestories are readily applicable and extremely
desirable. However, since industrial facilities are frequently sited in industrial areas with
attendant heavy atmospheric soot and dirt, a frequent cleaning and maintainance program is necessary if the LLF is to be kept at reasonable levels. This observation is obviously also applicable to indoor light facilities (to the extent that the door activity warrants).

440

Sources for industrial application should be high-efficacy, low-maintainance types, that

is HID and fluorescent. Where color is not critical, HPS is the recommended source.
Adaptation to its warm yellow color is rapid, and, as stated above. if it is mixed with
metal-halides or mercury sources are e~sier to maintain, store, clean, and relamp than
fluorescent and have equal or better efficacy, but have the disadvantage of delayed
restike time. Because of their concentrating nature, HID sources are more applicable to
high-bay I >25ft) and medium-bay (1 5-25ft) installation, while fluorescent are suited
for low-bay ( < 15 ftl. although specially designed low-bay HID fixtures are available,
hich minimize the inherent glare and distribution problems ir:wolved.

Industrial Illumination
Brightness Ratios
Brightness ratios in industrial situations must be cotrolled. Recommendations are given in
the table below, In many situations it is impossible to control the surrounding brightness.
as is shown in the tables. Note from table that ceilings that so frequently are covered
with piping, ducts and other equipment must be light. IR other words, the above equip.:'
ment must .be painted with high-reflectance finishes, maintainance and cleaning must be
good, and fixtures should have an upward component of light to avoid more than a 20: 1
ratio of task to ceiling luminance.

Industrial Lighting
Recommended Maximum Luminance Ratios
Environmental
Classification
A

1. Between tasks and adjacent darker

3 to 1
3 to
surroundings
2. Between tasks and adjacent lighter
1 to 3
1 to
surroundings
3. Between tasks and more '"mote
10 to 1 20 to
darker surfaces
4. Between tasks and more remote
1 to 10 ,
fighter surfaces
5. Between luminaires (or windows. skylights, et~.) and surfaces adjacent
20 to 1
to them
6. Anywhere within normal field of view 40 to 1

5 to 1

1 to 5

~0 20 I

..

lndustr/111 Lighting
Recommended Minimum Reflectances of Surfaces, Applicable
to Classifications A and 8 of TaOie 21.4a

-------------------------------------------------Reflectance
Ceiling
(all area above fixture line)
Watts
Desk and bench tops, machines and equipment

Floors

441

80 to- 9q%
40 to 60%
25 to 45%
Not less than 20%

Use of bright saturated .colors for general surface painting should be avoided. however.
since they draw attention and frequently have special significance. In addition to colorcoded piping (banding is preferable). red frequently means fire equipment; green, first
aid; orange, danger; etc . White is also to be avoided, being excessively bright and
susceptible to dirt. Light, unsaturated colors are preferable.

Industrial Lighting
Glare
The problem of direct glare can be acute in low-bay installations, and that of reflected
glare in high-bay designs, when Qoth use point sources. One method of reducing direct
glare is the use of low-brightness prismatic lens units that utilize a black aluminum reflector behind the prismatic lens. The pronounced reduction in high angle brightness of such
luminaires (shown with 400-w mercury Iampl is shown in the figur.e below. This reduction in brightness is accomplished with only a 10% reduction in useful light.

(a) By utilizing a b18ck reflector surface

behind the pri$1T18tic glass fining in lieu of a
p olished aluminum one. fixture brightness
can be dramatically 1educed without g1eat
light loss. (b) Photometric comparison of the
two lamps shown in (a}.

{b)

.
ArrTEjTA
'

06110:..:.00 0.~

.....

Detrte

:.

~~
1:i

11

S3l5

3M

IS
10

121.S

~
z:lj;O

liUI

1540

1190

~
~
i.~

;;,

IS

,.

Ill

Iii!

10
WI

125

,_...IW-IGI.it ...... Colol

'-21101

Tm~Sftot

WllbU

ltst Col . . ' "'

\'db

.......... ,__,_'l fl.

a.ar-11

Tosaod bJ
r..rtilioll bJ

'~

15

ReOUik$ S.. to Ill. l4t. b6o 1.5

1133

!Ill
:'~I

~
~
156
116

~~~

z-

11

211

IS

Ul

JIS

;~

1?'l

lG

lJO

SIS
:t~

:~

~~

II-III

t-

21000 lumens
~

...

.0

3000

.....

'

e.... 2000

'...

~ 1500
1000

53.1

lie
llJIS

u
u

1\

4U

IIZJI

''
\

%folll
~

Holophane Company, Inc.

Research & Development Center
--
C..lculated_trom
T~ No. 20189 & 22979
JAS: db 8-6- 68

..!!

of
.s

3500

<

-...- -

Holopftane No. 575 vs. 575-ELS

4NN. R33- IGUC lmptcwed Color Mrrcury LMnp

32!1

ll~

~
~

411

; :~ 'f~ .p-:

Jll~
J2g)

lll6

l)

p.,.:... ot um' lililt ~o!tr us btlaw tot o1

UMIS

lll!O

.IS

1tst of H'*""- Ia S1S- E18

c..

500

1\.

'"

~~- r--.....

...........

. . . . ,1!8

0#

65

442

575

575-~

Another low-brightness unit with its photometric characteristics and an application using
an HPS source are shown in the figure below. Methods of minimizing veiling reflection
frorrf all sources have been discussed previously.

Industrial
lighting Equipment
The cost of maintainance increase with labor rates. For this reason, high-quality lighting
equipment will yield lowest owning and life-cycle costs. For instance, the cost of replacing a ballast for an HID lighting unit frequently exceeds the cost f the ballast. It is thus obvious that it is more economical to utilize long-life, high-quality ballasts, particularly
where luminaires are mounted high or are otherwise not readily accessible. This is
graphically demonstrated in the figure below, which relates annual savings for a
1000-fixture installation to the labor cost for ballast replacement, when using higher
priced, long-life ballasts. Thus for a medium-bay installation, at a replacement labor cost
of $30 (P600.00), not including production loss, an annual saving of $2600
(P52,000.00) is realized .

:a"'

5000

!400J
~3000

>

=2000

l(XX)

0
Low bay

10

20

30

40

50

High bay
Labor 1St to replace one ba!last in dollars

443

Other suggestions for lowering costs, both initial and operating. include using ventirated
luminaires that tend to be self-cleaning by connection. See figure below.
In addition to giving the needed upward light component, using bus-mounted fixtures for
rapid installation and repair {see figure below), using lowering mechanisms on high-bay
units to avoid catwalk or platform relamping with concomitant extremely high cost, using
fixtures arranged .for "stick" relamping from the floor in medium-and low-bay work, and
generally incorporating the most modern equipment into the plant. Typical industrial
reflector fixture designs are given in this figure below.

Typical industrial reflector fixture designs are given in the fi gure below .
Typical designs
Ventillation
slots

(b)

(a)

444

Refledor dir~ts li&ht on working area.

Shleldin& angllr protects eyes from glare

Proper maintainance is of paramount importance in indu strial facilities because of the

prevalence of dirt, vibration, and rough service: Under maintainance is subsumed cleaning, relamping, inspection, and preventive maintainance. Relamping on a burnout basis is
extremely uneconomical because of disruption of production and lowered production due
to lumen depreciat ion before burnout. Relamping is normally done on a planned group
basis. Similarly, it the specific facility has a high dirt accumulation rate, cleaning must
also be done on a planned group basis. rather than o nly at relamping time.
Ballast noise, including the high levels of HID ballasts, is not usually a factor in industrial
facilities bacause of high ambient noise. In relatively quiet installations and/or where
fluorescent fixtures are mounted a short distance above the w or k bench as in inspection
and fine assembly, this is not true and noise ratings and conditions must be examined
carefully.

Vertical-Surface
Illumination
In industrial facilities more than any other, the illumination of vertical surfaces is crucial.
This is a result of the nature of the work; machines, storage, gages. etc. all require highlevel vertical-surface illumination. Examining the figure below, and the deviration given
there, we bote that maximum vertical illumination (illumination resulting from the
horizontal-lighting component) is obtained when the angle between the fixture's vertical
axis and the work is approximately 35%. Her;1ce , we should select a fixture whose
candlepower distribution curve demonstrates such a characteristic most closely.

Vertical surfa.c:e illumination.. TM iUr.Atainotion on the cerlialliiUif~ u the resvlt of the

horizontal romponenr of the lighting. Thu is
fc _ cp ..i- _ cp X R _ cp x cor2 (J sin (J
-

J)Z ...,. 8 -

--or- -

H'

To m<Uirniz<fl the hori;;.ontal component. we set the

deriootioe of FC with ~ct to e. to~.
Thus

dfc

cp

dii= w<-2cor88in2 6 + ro~l8) = 0

or

2 .rin7 B

= coilS;

14nl..=

R
0.707 = -;
H

tan 2 (J ::::

%:

8;:;.: JS

The fixture of the figure below shows the above's characteristic and would be a good
choice. Of course. the derivation is tor a single location and fixture. For good vertical and
angular illumination over a large area, select a fixture as above, and arrange fixtures with
considerable overlap.

445

Layout for good t:cr

tical surjf'Ja! illumination.

Special lighting
Application Topics
Emergency Lighting
Emergency lighting is required when the normal source is interrupted for any of three
reasons:
1. Interruption of current flow through operation of a circuit disconnect. For ex
ample, inadvertent de-energizing of a circuit at a panel or switchboard.

2. Failure of the building's electrical system.

3. General power failure.
Systems that cover the above three situations are normally defined as follows:
Type 1 - all three situations
Type 2 - situation 2
Type 3 - situation 3
Therefore. sensors for type 1 systems are highly localized, those for type 2 less so, and
those for type 3 are only at the service entrance point.
(a) Codes

Since this item involves safety, it is covered in various codes, all of which have
jurisdiction and unfortunately not all of which agree in their requirements. The prin
cipal authorities
1 . Fire and Safety Code

2. National Electric Code

3. OSHA regulations
(b) Occupancies Requiring Emergency lighting
The codes require that emergency lighting be provided automatically for means of
egress, in specific occupancies. These are usually taken to mean:

1. Places of assembly for 300 or more persons; type 1, 2, or 3 with more than
1000 persons; type 1.

446

2. Structure into which daylight does not penetrate, with occupancy of 100
persons or more: Types 1, 2, or 3.

3. All educational and institutional occupancies: Type 1 or 2.

4. Multiple residences with 25 or more dwelling units: Types 1, 2, or 3.
5. Merchandising spaces with areas greater than 3000 sq. ft. (300 sq.m.l.
with levels above or below the street, and those on one level that are so large
that daylight will not penetrate sufficiently: Type 1 or 2.

6. Office building with occ.upancy in excess of 1000 persons; types 1. 2. or 3.

(c) Type, Amount and Duration of

Emergency Lighting
The codes and most authorities accept 1.0 fc of illumination as sufficient to avoid
panic and permit orderly egress. This level is usually understood to be the average
illumination but none of the codes makes uniform coverage mandatory. This point is
further discussed under equipment arrangement. Duration of emergency lighting
varies with the codes, from 1/2 hour to 1 1/2 hours for egress. and up to indefinite
periods (at higher levels} for facilities that cannot be evacuated. The table below give
general criteria and typical recommendation for emergency lighting for egress as well as
for other purposes.
(d) Types of Emergency lighting Systems

Generators supplies selected portions of the normal lighting system through special
emergency-lighting panels. While central battery systems can supply a d-e distribution system or, if equipped with an inverter, can supply a~c as well. The availability of
efficient inverters has practically eliminated central d-e systems. These have the added disadvantage that the incandescent fixtures they supply are not part of the normal system, and may obtrude upon the architecture, even when recessed and attractively finished. This is also true of package units spotlight-type heads {see figure
below). Such units are best applied in individual rooms and isolated locations. The
central battery with inverter, like the central generator. supplies lighting units that
are usually (although not necessarily) part of the normal system. This arrangement
has the advantages of economy, neatness, ability to use a-c sources {fluorescent),
ond reliability.

447

This arrangement has the advantages of economy, neatness, ability to use a-c
sources (fluorescentL and reliability (see figure below}. These units are usually
designed to provide the 1 1/2 hours of illumination required by the code and to be
completely maintainance-free for 7 to 1 0 years, after which the battery is simply
replaced. Since high temperatures seriously affect battery life, it is advisable to
mount these integral packages in a location other than that occupied by the fixture
ballast. (See second figure).

The use of an integral ot 'emote (shown) co~

cealed batterylinve1ter sllows instantaneous
emergency lighting of areas blacked out by local or
general power failure. The use of fluorescent
sources provides seven times the iflumination possible with incandescent, for the same battery size.

A cylindrical design containing battery, charger-invertet, and controls is mounted in the lamp sectiOn of the fix
ture, thereby avoiding e!(posun~ to the high temperatures of the liB/last compartment. The iHustrated unrr can be
mounted irt tandem with B 36-in. /#Imp, replacing a 48-in. lamp as in (a). The 3-ft 18mp is activated duting normal and
emergency operation. Altematively, the lJnit can be mounted between the lamps ss in (bJ.

(e) Arrangement of Fixtures

When the illumination level in an interior space drops sharply from a level of 30 to
150fc to 1.0fc. the eyes require up to 5 minutes to fully accomodate. During this
long period the space's occupants are essentially sightless - a condition that lends
itself readily to panic. For this reason, we recommend that the emerge_ncy lighting
units be designed to give 1 .0 fc uniform, not average, illumination. The difference is
that the latt~r can be accomplished with bright, spotlight-type heads which, unless
carefully arranged, can create disabling glare, distorting shadows, and impede eye
accomodation. In such an event they do little to fulfill their primary function; Arequirement for uniform illumination will normally result in a design using selected normal fixtures or lamps within such fixtures. This will result in altering only the level of
lighting during a power failure - not the quality. This allows the eye to adapt rapidly

448

Similarly, an exits must obviously be well illuminated so that traffic will flow smoothly.
The well-known exit sign can also be equipped with an integral battery and control equipment to illuminate itself ~nOrmally with incandescent lamps) and the area immediately
below it. (See these figure below}.

.".

Building Retrofit
Existing building lighting systems can be modified to increase efficiency , decrease glare.
and decrease energy consumption by applying the procedures, techniques, and
knowledge gained in the last four chapters.

(a} Sources
1 . Replac~ standard fluorescent tubes with low-energy units.

2. Replace continuous burning incandescent sources with high-efficacy

fluorescent sources or HID {see figure}

...

,'

'

f .

:f..

. '

~(ti

..

~..... .

~--f
: .

450

3. Replace general service incandescent lamps in downlights with lower wat

tage, R, PAR; or elliptical reflector lamps.
4. Replace existing HID sources with higher-efficacy HID units such as HPS
and metal-halide. Use those that can be operated on mercury-lamp
ballasts, to avoid the cost of ballast replacement.
5 . . Increase daylight-use add reflectors to increase penetration.

(b) Fixtures
1. Replace diffusers with more efficient ones-reduce glare, increase CRF and
ESI footcandles; this will permit reducing lighting levels.
2 . Install multilevel ballasts.
3. Add two-level control to HID units.
4. Institute a program of maintainance that will permit decreasing energy use
by at least 20 % while maintaining output.
5 . Modify f ixture locations to give minimum direct and reflected glare.
6. Add task lighting.
7 . Reduce overall lighting to apropriate ambient level by fixture removal.

(c) Other
1. After making the above adjustment check that levels do not exceed
recommendations. Reduce levels by removing two of four lamps in a f ixture. Also remove the associated ballast with two-lamp fixtures, remove
one tube and replace with a dummy tube if the ballast will be adversely affected by one-lamp operation.
2. Rearrange tasks so that the most difficult ones benefit most from daylignt.
3. Install low voltage or sonic switching to give requisite local light control.
4. Repaint to give requisite reflectances.
5. Install time switches to automatically coordinate lighting with tasks and
time, for example, reduce lighting during lunch.
6. Operate doset lights with door switches.
7. Install pilot lights outside storage rooms to indicate lighting "on".

Floodlighting
floodlighting, both interior ana exterior, is extensively used for such diverse locations as
are listed in the table in the next page, in addition to the more common sports lighting,
which is not listed. At the designer's disposal are a variety of sources w ith respect to output,
color, life, efficiency, and wattage (See chapter 13).

451

Lighting Application Guide

Application

Automobile Pancing
Attendant parldng
tndustrial lots
Self-parlting lots
Shopping Centers
Neighbomood
Average commercial
Heavy traffic

Billboards aoa Signs

Good contrast
Poor contrast
Protecti\'e Lighting
Gates and itaf area
Building surrounds
Roadways
Along buildings
Open areas
Storage yards (ac1i\'e)
Storage yard$ (inactive)
Shopping Centers
Parking areas (attraction)
Buildings (atlraction)
Ueed Car Lots

Mercury
Units

0.38
0.13-0.15
0.13-0.15

1
2

0.13-0.19
0.26-0.3
0.65
10.
1.5-1:8

50

10

Building
Construction
Excavation

Light surtaces
Medium ligtlt
Dark surfaces

Tungsten
Halogen

Automobile Sales Lots

Front rt:H~ (Front 2o tt)
Remainder

Buildings up to 50 ft High

wan. Per Squate Foot Generelly R4K~Uw.d

Minimum
Footcandles
Maintained"

10
2

1.5--1.8

0.26-0.3

Met<ll
Halide

High-Ptessure

0.17
0.06-0.07
0.06-0.07

0.11
0.037-0.044
0.037-0.044

0.075
0.026-0.03
0.026-0.03

0.06-0.09
0.12-0.135
0.29

0.037-0.055
0.075-0.087
0.19

0.026-0.038
0.052-0.06
0.13

4.5
0.68-0.81

2.9
0.44-0.52

2.0
0.3-0.36

0.68-0.81
0.12-0.1.4

0.44-0.52
0.075-0.09

0.3-0.36
0.052-0.06

1.5

0.96 0.35
1.25 0.64
29 1.25

0.66 0.24
0.86 0.44
20 0.86

Sodium

Adj. Aru
f./gilt Dark

15
20
50

5
10
20

3.3 1.2
4.3 2.2
10.0 4.3

4.5

10.0 4.3
20.0 10.0

4.5 1.94
9.0 4.5

2.9 1.25
5.8 29

2.0 0.86
40 2.0

1.2
0.15-0.19

0.54
0.07-0.09

0.35

0.044-0.055

0.24
0.03-0.04

0.24
0.08-0.1

0.11
0.036-0.045

3.6--4.3

0.15-0.19

1.6--1.94
0.01-0.09

0.07
0.023-0.029
1.04-1.25
0.044-0.055

0.05
0.02
0.72-0.88
0.03-0.04

0.65

0.29

0.19

0.13

1.94

0.54
1.0
1.94

Adj. Ara1
Light Dirk

so

20
50

100
5

1
0.5

20

(See Buildings)
(See Automol)lle P.arkiftg)

An footcal'ldle le~tels for ground area applications ate horizOfltal va..._.

Although a detailed floodlighting design involves complex calculations beyond the scope
of this work. it is often sufficient for the designer to utilize a watts per square foot tablle
such as the table in the page in order .to determine the approximate floodlighting requirements.

Thus, if one is concerned with lighting a self-service parking lot at a neighborhood shopping center, and metal-halide is selected, the table tells us that apRroximately 0.055
w/sq. ft. will suffice. If the lot is 200 x 500 ft. or 100.000 sq. ft. (66 x 1'65 m or
10,000 sq. ),then 0.055 x 100,000 = 5,500 ware required.

452

Ughting

Appll~tion

Guld
W.tr. Per Square Foot Gflherally Required

Minimum

Footc.andles
Uaintained&

Tungslefl
Harog.tl

Mercury
Units

0.38
0.13-0.16
0.13-0.15

Neighborl'lood
AVage commercial
Huvy traffic

1
2
5

0.13-0.19
0.26-0.3
0.66

Aartomobile Salea lots

Front row (Front 20 ft)

so

/l.ppliUtion
AutDmotlile Pariling
Attendant partling
Industrial lots
Setf.partling lots
Shopping

Met-'

Higtr-Pr.ssure

Halicle

Sodium

0.17
0.06-0.07
0.0$-0.07

0.11
0.037-0.044
0.037-0.044

0.075
0.026-0.03
0.026-0.0:l

0.06-0.09
0.12-o.135
0.29

0.037-0.055
0 .075-0.087
0.19

0.026-0.038
0.052-0.06
0.-13

4.5
0.68-0.81

2.9
0.44-0.52

2.0
0.3-0.36

0.88-0.81
0.12-0.14

0.44-0:52
0.075-0.09

0.3-0.36
0.052-0.06

0.96 0.35
1.25 0.64
2.9 1.25

0.66 0.24
0.86 0.44
2.0 0.86

ce,,.,..

R41tft&indet

tO

Bulldi11Q
Corlaltuetion
Exe.vatlon

10
2

Buildings up to 50ft High

light SUtf aces

Medium light
Dark surla<:es
Billboard& and Signs
G 00<1 contrast
Poor contrast
Proteetive Lighting
Gates and vi1al area
Building surround&
RoadWays
Along buildings

1.5-1.8
0.26-0.3

Adj. ArN
Ughf Dart
15
5
10
20
20
50
Adj. ArN
Ugbl Dart
50
20

5o

100

Stonl!le yards (actNe)

Stor.ge yards (Inactive)

Shopping Cencers
p~ - - {.ttraetioft}
8ulldlngl (etttactlon)
UMdCVI.ds

1.5

0.54
1.0
1.94

3.3 1.2
4.3 2.2
10.0 4.3

4.5

10.0
20.0

4.5 1.94
9.0 4.5

2.9 1.25
5.8 2.9

2.0 0.86
4.0 2.0

1.2
0.15-0.19

0.54
0.07-0.09

0.35
0 .044- 0.055

0.24
0.03-0.04

0.24
0.08-0.1

0.07
0.023-0.029
1.04- 1.25
0.044-0.055

0.05

0.15-0.19

0.11
0.036-0.045
1.6-1.9
0.07-0.09

0.65

Q.29

0.19

0.13

5
1

,
o.s

Opettaru~

AJI fOOtCal'ldle

10.
1.5-1.8

4.3
10.0

3.&-4.3

20
1

1.94

0.02
0.72-0.86
0.03-0.04

(See Buildings)
(See Automobile Parking)

Ieveii tor ground .,.. appliCations are norizontal values.

Arrangement anq choice of equipment remains then, before the problem can be considered solved. Considerable assistance on this score can be obtained from either the
lighting engineer involved or from representatives of the equipment manufacturers .

Although most floodlight installations use a single type, the installation of the figure
in the next page used a combination of metal-halide and H PS to obtain the desired effect.

463

{b) Floodlighted section of u;all :surrounding tile Old City of /emmlcm. lsrael, adjacent
tc the Jaffa gate. Ligllt sortrt-e.~ arc-100-JL', high-pressure S(ldium units. ~il'ing n n acerage illumination
len!/ of .'5() lu:r.
(a} The Stntue of Uberty tt.:as relighted
;or tlw ..\maicau Hicente11nial. It u:as found tl1at

~SR- 1000 rwtt metal halide units gire -10 to 50 J c of

rdrite lihl r>rl tlw .r totur. flet:en -100-w liPS tmitt
tt't'TI! sel~cteJ to wmplimenl the color of the granite
!Jase. which they light to 10 fc.

(c) Church of All Nations, Mount of

Olives, Jerusalem, Israel. Floodlight sources are
250- and 4(}()-wart mercury and metal-halide units,
giving an average iUu"mination of 70 lux. Sources
were selected to compliment the colors
the mosaic at the top of the facade.

rn

Street lighting
Alth ough detail ed street -lighting calculations and design considerations are beyond our
scope , a few remarks are in order . New installations now use HID sources almost exclusively !High Intensity Discharge lamps like high pressure sodium (HPSl lamps). The
low efficacy and short li fe of incandescent sources and the bulkiness of fluorescents
m ak e them obsolete. Furthermore, high street-lighting levels reduce vandalism and
crime. improve night merchandizing, and add to an area's attractiveness. Some typical
designs of street lighttng and other outside luminaires are shown in these figures.

454

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460

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LIG HTI NG/SU M MARY

Good light and good lighting, the one natural and the other man-made, are as central to the
success of any room as ~are to sight. and yet curiously, they are often the least planned,
the least thought-about of aH do111astic ingredients - very much the afterthought, in fact. It
is odd, for after afl a mass of daylight is one of the few free assets anyone is likely to get with
a home and should be de the most of - enhance, filtered, or allowed to flow to the best of
one's ability. Artificial lighting, on the other hand, is certainly the most flexible way to
change mood, atmosphere, or feefmg, and .will exaggerate space or diminish faults at the
flick of a switch or the tum of a dimmer. Unconsidered lighting can make an otherwise exemplary room look dreary, whereas Imaginative lighting can imbue the simplest ingredients
w ith a near-mystic excitement - almost as if they had never really been contemplated
before.

Ideally, architects should give the same amount of thought to the planning and placing of
lighting equipment as they give to the proportions of windows and their treatment. But then,
everybody should have the same concern for artificial" light as they do for daylight. More,
perhaps, because it can be controlled and manipUlated at will that there is not the same concern - that there is often a failure to make the mOst of even the daylight that is given seems such a waste.

The reason for this disregard - at least as far as artificial lighting is concerned - is mostly,
that many people tend to light their homes as their forebears did, though with electricity instead of oil, candles, or rushlights. They seem unaware that artificial lighting has developed
from being a poor daylight substitute to the point where its potential has a fundamental influence on design. When they think of lighting, they think of lights. or lamps, the actual fixtures, rather than how to manipulate the stuff. When they buy fixtures, they buy them very
often for their shapes and looks but neglect to f ind out about their effect.

Even when they are searching out the more sophist icated lighting in a store or in a catalogue
- the spots and wallwashers, the downlights and uplights - they mostly buy for looks
rather than for what those looks will achieve.

And it is difficutt to display the effects of lighting anywhere except in a showroom devoted
to nothing else. How could it be possible to show how the position, color, and intensity of
tight sources will give definition to various spaces in a house; to display light and shade,
strength and subtlety, in a cramped area full of dozens of different fixtures crammed
together for maximum choice?

Whenever possible, if only to get an enlightened view of current techniques, it is wise to visit
proper lighting showroom. If it is not possible, take careful note of p4easing lighting in other
people's houses, restaurants, museums, and galleries- anywhere and anything that seems
transfatable into a domestic setting. For reference, here is a summary of the choice of lighting generally available.

461

462

TYPES OF LIGHTING

There are basically four different types of domestic lighting equipment - six, if you count
the most subtle but the least effective for seeing, candlelights, spotlights, and floodlights,
which have all been adapted from theatrical and industrial lighting; conventional ceiling
lights, wall lights, table lamps, floor lamps, and strip lights; fluorescent lighting, and the
more ambitious lighting equipment that makes light a decoration or an architectural element
in itself. This last will be dealt with separately later.

Downlights
Downlights are just that: round or squate metal cat:ti~ers that can be recessed into a ceiling,
semi-recessed, or ceiling-mounted to cast pools.ot light on the ground or any surface below
them.

The kind of pool of light depends on whether the.bulb inside is a spot, a floodlight, or an ordinary bulb. A spot will throw a conCentrated cl~ of light, which is at its most effective
bearing down on a plant, or a bowl of flowers, or acoHection of glasses as on a dining table .
A floodlight will give a wider, less intense, cone-shaped light, and an ordinary bulb will provide soh over-aft lighting.

Most downlight are fitted with some sort of antiglare device, and some of them are halfsilvered to give a directional light. Some types cai'l be used for wallwashing and some for
pinpointing. By wallwashing, It is meant literally bathing a wall with light. Angled close to a w all
of paintings, wallwashers will splash light onto the varying surfaces, leaving contrasting
shadows in between. Or they will simply make a color more brilliant or a molding more effective.

463

Uplights
Uplights are downlights in reverse, round or square metal canisters in different diameters,
which will hold varying intensities of bulbs. Put them on the floor, under glass shelves,
behind sofas, behind plants, and in corners, and they will give a beautiful, dramatic accent
light, bouncing reflected light off ceilings and into the room, creating shadows and moods
that could never be imagined by day. A well-placed mixture of uplights and downlights,
judiciously bolstered by pin-pointing spots and light to read by, gives great atmosphere to a
room, as well as the sort of reflected light that lighting designers consider the best since it
gives the least glare.

Spotlights
Spots are used for accent lighting and to give strong, direct light. The simplest spotlight
consists of a reflector fitting that will take an ordinary bulb. Others take specially designed
spot bulbs which are often internally silvered with built-in reflectors for special intensity. A
third variety hold low-voltage transformers to cast especially narrow beams on small objects
or narrowly defined areas. Although normally the hotter the wire or filament, thebrighter the
light, a low-voltage transformer will produce the same amount of ligh.t from a lower-wattage
bulb, so that in this case the lower heat makes it possible to have brighter light. There are
also eyeball or framing spots for the specific lighting of paintings or objects.

464

Most spotlights can be mounted straight into the ceiling, onto walls, or onto tracks and
pointed at anything that would benefit from special illumination. Some small spots have a
magnetic backplate so that they can be attached to any surface and pointed in any direction.
These are useful for concealing on the sides of bookcases or in wall recesses or ceiling
angles to give extra accent. Even smaner free-standing eyeball spots or miniature freestanding high-intensity, low-voltage spots can be pushed in among books or objects on
shelves to give more pools of light and shade. These eyeball spots can also be recessed in
the ceiling.

465

Tracks are an excellent way of getting a lot of light from one outlet without extra and expensive electrical work Cas well as the making good afterwards that such work generally entails).
Mount them on or recess them into a ceiling or down the side of a wall. Arrange them in lines
or rectangles or squares or circles a few feet out from the edge of the room, or straight down
the middle. On them go spotlights or floodlights, which - ever seem bestfor the purpose,
or a mixture of both that can be angled at will. Some of the more sophisticated varieties contain multicircuit systems to allow even greater flexibility of control. Plug-mold strip is another
variation and comes in a variety of lengths. It can run around the edge of a room behind a
concealing baffle or pelmet of some sort. It will take any variety of bulb with the use of a
socket adapter, and bulbs can be plugged in at 6-inch intervals for varying effects, but it is
particularly good for wallwashing. Plug-mold strips can also be mounted on shelves and
covered with opal acrylic or frosted glass, or used as ribbons of light in much the same way
at the base of a seating platform. Lyte Trim, a miniature track with miniature spots, is also
extremely useful for shelves, bedheads, and so on.

It is particularly important for spots or floodlights to be used in conjunction with dimmers so

that their intensity can be controlled at will; besides, dimmers both save energy and prolong
the life of the bulbs. Most dimmers are combined with an on/off switch and can be installed
quite easily. If it is impossible to rewire a room for one reason or another, a dimmer plug,
which is a little like an adapter, can be used to control a couple of fixtures. Unlike a regular
dimmer, however, a dimmer plug uses as much electricity as any ordinary fixture.

Conventional Lights
Conventional lights and tamps of this sort need little explanation and there is an enormous
choice of shapes, color, and materials, depending on taste and space and pocket. But some
are more suitable for certain purpOses than others. And some, such as those Italian snaky
coils of light, are like pieces of sculpture or art objects in their own right, quite apart from
their light-throwing qualities.

Pendant fixtures are ubiquitous, but they. tend to flatten shadows and do not give enough
light by which to read or work eomfortably. The amount of light they let out depends very
much on the type of shade used and the height at which they are hung. Directional pendants, which are good over dining tables and sometimes over side tables, have opaque
shades so that the light shines downward. The shade should be deep enough to prevent
light shining into eyes, and the pendant is best mounted on a rise - and - fall fixture.
Ceiling-mounted lights give good over-alt general light, but it looks fiat unless this general
source is used in conjunction with other types of light.

If wall lights are used, or have to have to be used because that is the way a space has been
wired, they are best if they are directional and used to bounce light off a ceiling or off the
wall itself, or to light an object, picture, or surface. Other wall frttings, such as bare bulbs
placed at the side or the top of a mirror as in a theater dressing room, given an exceptionally
good light for putting on makeup or shaving.

Table lamps are meant to provide concentrated areas of light. Again depending on the type of
shade, they will bounce light. up or down or spread it horizontally. Directional desk and table
lamps for working by should be adjustable and let the light shine down on the paper or work
in question.

Floor lamps give general or directional light depending on type @nd shade, and the variety fit. ted with spots can be a good substitute for spots or track. They make useful reading lights
and can be.moved around, set to shine on a book - preferably over the left shoulder - or
directed onto a wall or ceiling. When choosing shades, remember that translucent silk
shades are the best light diffusers, followed by linen anq paper.

Strip lights of the incandescent variety, as opposed to f luorescent tubes, are useful for concealed lighting when they are put behind a baffle or pelmet to shine down on shelves in an
alcove, or to light up curtains or a working surface.

Fluorescent Lighting
Fluorescent tubes; either straight or circular, give about three times as much light as a
tungstenor filament bulb of the same wattage and have an average life of 5,000 hours. They
are therefore, a good deal more economical to use where high levels of light are needed for
long periods at a time. In fact, for maximum efficieooy these lights should be switch on and
off as little as possibte; The tubes are best .. ,asked by a baffle of some sort, or by a panel of
milky plexiglass or Perspex.

Because fluorescent light can distort color, it is important to choose the right color tube for a
particular area. If tungsten and fluorescent are to be used together, for example, "de luxe
warm white" is the nearest in feeling to tungsten light and when diffused is useful for kit

467

chens and bathrooms. "De luxe natural" gives reasonable color quality, is tolerably warm,
and is quite good for kitchens, but because it dramatizes color, it is not so good in

bathrooms. Used with discretion, a little can be mixed with candlelight for dining in a working kitchen. "Plain natural'' simulates daylight and can be used as a booster when daylight
lacks luster or penetration. But tubes sold with names like "warm white" (without the "de
luxe"), "cool white," and "daylight" emphasize greens and yellows and skill pinks.

Useful Principles
The most common lighting problem is how to improve the light in existing houses, especiallY
when there is no lighting consultant on hand to give advice. Unles there is already a wellplanned electrical layout that provides for all kinds of lighting, or an enormous number of
electrical outlets - both of which are desirable but unlikely - the choice is either to add
new outlets to existing circuits (which is best, but expensive) or to install lengths of lighting
track, which can take a variety of extra fittings, to the odd ceiling outlets that are in place
already. If there are no ceiling outlets, make do with the kind of floor lamps that carry adjustable spots. If major rewiring is proposed, it should be planned In detail before the electrician starts work and completed before any decorating is begun.

In any event, whatever the circumstances and the problems, it is useful to know something
about the principles behind modern lighting design. I have divided them into the practical
considerations (making the most of daylight; what works best where; the comfort the safety
factor) (!nd the decorative aspects (what works best with the structure of the place; what
works best with paintings, objects, and texture, and the effect of light on color and vice
versa).

Making the Most of Daylight

Although many people tend to think of artificial light as the counterfeit of daytight and the
two as separate issues, an effective lighting system which will provide comfortable light at all
times means that a balance must be struck between the two, the one discreetly boosting the
other when necessary. To do this successfully it is important to understand the limitations of
daylight as well as its qualities. It has, of course, all the advantages of variety: variety in intensity, in almost hourly as well as seasonal changes; and variety in color, from intense blue
to overcast grey, from the clear light of early morning to the bluish dusk of evening, from the
burnished light of high summer to the bright white cast up by snow. During each phase the
interior of a building will look subtly different. That is why small windows should be left as
uncluttered as possible to make.the best of what light there is, why large windows should
have screens or shades or blinds or nets that can filter any superabundance, and why it is
useful to see a room in as many different lights as possible before deciding on a color

scheme and furnishings.

468

469

However, it ought to be remembered that daylight does not have great qualities of penetr~
tion, although the low angle of the sun is winter gives deeper penetration at certain times of
day than in summer. In most average rooms about 1 percen~ of the available daylight outside
will reach the parts of the space furthest from t he window, as opposed to as much as 10 percent near the window. In rooms with windows at botl"l enos, light will f all off towards the
middle. For large periods of the year, demanding visual tasks like reading, writing, drawing,
or sewing can only be done close to a window, and many rooms in buildings w ith a narrow
frontage, or in buildings surrounded by other buildings, will have poor lighting at all times of
the day. This means that a good many rooms will always need the boost of artif icial lighting
for some purposes, and that many dark central areas in deep buildings usef for service rooms
such as kitches, bathrooms, and storerooms, as well as halls and passageways, will need
constant artificial light.

Again, this raises its own problems, for during the day the eye will have become so adapted
to the high level of natural light, either from outside or from bright rooms, that in order to remain comfortable in dark inner areas it will require an equally high level of electric light. That
is to say, a higher level than is usual at night, when the eye will haveadapted again to the
lower normal levels of artificial light all around. This means that ideally - and I stress
ideally - there should be either a separate lighting system for perpetually dark rooms with a
separate day. night switch, or some form of dimmer control on the existing system whereby
the level of light can be controlled.

470

What Works Best Where

Quite clearly, any lighting system must first of all be dictated by practical considerations like
the function of each room, since the aim should bs to make each space as comfortable, easy
to use, and safe as possible. Methods of lighting for cooking, washing, shaving, eating,
writing, and reading all need a different approach, although rooms such as kitchens and
bathrooms and passage ways and halls have fairly static lighting requirements. Living rooms
in particular need to be extremely flexible, since in just one genera_! area there will probably
be a need for reading lights, perhaps a desk lamp and a light over a dining table, lights to illuminate pictures and objects, and general diffuse lighting.

Once plans have been made for each room and the furnishings decided, work out whether
the space will be used more by night than by day; what type of lighting is needed (direct, indirect, concealed, background, very bright) ; whether any more electrical outlets, switches,
or dimmers are needed and if so, where (for example, if an outlet would be useful in the middle of a f loor, could it be done?). And think what style of lights would be best for each area.
If spots or downlights are to be inset into a ceiling or at any great height, make sure that the
bulbs will last a reasonable length of time and are easy to change and that the fixtures can be
cleaned easily.

When the principles have been settled, it will be a great deal easier to make a final choice.

The Comfort Factor

Comfort in anything is always variable, and perhaps the best that can be said in lighting context is that light should never be uncomfortable. Of course; one can get used to poor lighting
- one can get used to anything - but ideally it should not be a strain to carry.out any visual
task or occupation. Glare should be reduced to a minimum, which means that reflected
light, which gives the least glare, should be used as much as possible for general illumination. And in order to avoid glare, lighting fixtures, when lit up, should not be very much
brighter than their backgrounds. Nor should a light source be too close to the object that
must be seen, because the brightness of the light will raise the adaption capacity of the eyes
to a point at which the less bright object will be more difficult to see. This sounds complicated, but it makes sense.

A painting, for example, soould not be hung next to a bright window unless there is some
additional booster light available, either from another window at right angles or from artificial
light. In fact, the position of all pictures should be chosen carefully and quite as much from
the lighting viewpoint as from the ae$thetic, especially when the pictures have glass fronts
that pick up reflections.
Light and shade should ~ balanced. An evenly lit room can be boring at night and often
curiously depressing, whereas areas of strong light where it is needed and dark shadow
where it is not can be dramatic and interesting and still be comfortable. The whole point of
good contemporary lighting is to have poc)ls of light, with spots of accent light wherever
they are useful.
471

The Safety Factor

There are enormous numbers of accidents in the home and thousands of death each year as
a result of falls, particularly in the winter when it is darker. When assessing a home for
potential accident ateas, walk around it at dusk with the house or apartment unlit,
remembering that eyes deteriorate with age so tht the average sixty-year-old needs twice as
much light as the average thirty-year-old, and that what seems tolerably safe to a healthy
adult might not be so for the elderly or for a small child- who might also be afraid of the dark.
If these factors are borne in mind, possible accident areas should soon show themselves.

Stairs and corridors should be well lit at all times with light on the floor to show changes ir1
levels or surfaces, and light on the walls to show switches and door handles. When starting
the lighting plan from scratch, the ideal would be either to have a night circuit ~'lf low-level
lights in these areas, controlled by a dimmer switch that can turn them down to right level at
bedtime, or to have a separate circuit of miniature lights that could be left on the full twentyfour hours if desired because they consume a minimum of electricity. Although the latter is
more expensive to install, it is convenient. Both types should provide a deterrent to burglars
and prowlers.

There are also far too many accidents caused by a disregard of common-sense safety rules:
by the failure to replace old and faulty wiring; by loading too few outlets with too many appliances; by the careless use of appliances near water; or by the thoughtless placement of
cords leading from wall outlets to table or floor lamps.

To be safe as well as good, a lighting system should be neat, adequate for all present needs,
and flexible enough to provide for unknown requirements in the future.

Uplights set close into a corner will define the parameters of a room. The same uplights set
underneath glass shelves or side tables will add considerable sparkle, and if they are placed
behind plants they will cast intricate shadows on the wall as well as glossing up the leaves.

Be careful about the angles of light sources lik~ spots and downlights. Textures can be completely flattened by bad positioning of light sources, beautifully brought out by good. For example, a textured wall covering is accentuated by a ceiling-mounted downlight positioned
close to the wall, but deadened by a spot trained full upon it.

472

The lighter and whiter the surfaces in a room, the more they reflect the light. A dark-walled
roo~ will look surprisingly light with a white or off-white carpet and ceiling. And a general
diffusing globe pendant hung in an all-white space will give a higher level of light than the
same fixture in a darker-walled room.

During daylight hours, most windows will direct the. light coming in onto the floor, which, if
it is pale, will reflect the light upward. When a floor is dark, it will reflect less light and the
room will naturally seen darker.

At night, the scene will change because light sources are inside the room. If their position is
well chosen, they will give direct eight to ceiling and walls. Direct downlight on its own and
shining on a dark carpet will be dramatic, certainly, but not bright enough for any sort of
work.

The color of bulbs will change the feeling of room colors. For example, white bulbs cast a
yellowish light but pink ones give a pleasantly mellow effect. And plain white walls can be
refurbished practically at will by putting different-colored bulbs in two or three sockets, or by
using colored filters over downlight, spot, or wallwasher fixtures.

Then too, quite different colors are reflected from different surfaces. When people are
choosing clothes and fabrics in a store, they are likely to take them to a source of natural
light to judge their "true colors," but they should take equal care to examine them in an artificial light as like as posaibee to 1he sort of night Sight that they use. Two fabrics that seem
identical in cx;lor by day can look quite different at night, and even more peculiar under
fluorescent tubes. Most reds, for instance, are emphasized by artificial light, while blues and
greens tend to be diminished.

473

lighting Different Areas

The following summary of the information given so far, plus tned and tested methods, might
be helpful, even if it seems repetitive. Look back over the illustrations for other examples of
the points raised.

Living Rooms
Sitting, talking, entertaining, liStening to music, reading, writing, and watching television
are the normal accepted activities in most living rooms, and therefore the best kind of light is
a good measure of general or diffuse light with a play of light and shade. There should be
adequate working light where necessary, and well-controlled highlighting for the more interesting display of an, plants, objects, and arrangements.

Most lighting designers agree that the best sort of general light is the reflected variety light that bounces off a wall - because it gives the lest glare. This is obtained either from indirect sources like more or less concealed uplights, or from light concealed behind coves, or
from wallwashers of one kind or another or from direct lighting like table and floor lamps.

474

Whatever happens, do not let general light be all at one level of brightness. Our eye see by
means of contrasts, and nothing makes a room so flat, even boring, as bland light. Dimmers
are a great help here w ith their easy-going control of. intensity. And dramatic light can be
provided by a mixture of. judiciously placed downlights,and uplights, with highlights from
spots.

Reading lights should be at a reasonable distance behind anyone reading, _or if the light is a
downlight, about a foot in front of the book or work; otherwise, the light on the page will be
too bright. For writing, light should fall over the left .shoulder of a right handed person and
vice versa. Alternatively, a portable desk lamp or adjustable walt-mounted light should throw
light onto ttie work.

Looking at television in an otherwise dark room is a strain. As a light near the viewer will
reflect in the screen, a dimr,ned light behind the set is best .if the set is-on a shelf. If the set is
free-standing, use a downlight or a floor lamp shining at the wall or down to the floor.
.
. ... .... .
.. .' .
.
Dramatic lighting.
be.provkfeet in storage units and on shelves or in alcoves. Collections
of glass and ceramics look ~r bilst in front ~fa translucent waU of light (made by fixing vertical strip lights.to the watl behil1d the .~ and cOncealing them with panels of pearly
plexiglass, acrytic, or glass), or with a spot 'shining down on them f rom an angle. Single
precious objects like a piece of sculpture, or even a plant or arrangement of flowers, are best

can

,~

475

served by a single downlight set above them, and other shelves can be lit up the sides by baffled vertical strips. Objects on shelves can be picked out with tiny portable spots, and deeply
recessed sections of wail units can be similarly treated.

Conventionally, paintings are lit from above by so-callea p1cture lights, but they are better lit
by spots fixed to the ceiling or walls, and better still by specific spots for the purpose, such
as the parabolic variety with inbu ilt transformers, or tramming spots which can be specially
adjusted to the size of the picture . These particular spots also make a dramatic job of lighting
foliage, plants, or objects. An entire wall of paintings can be beautifully lit by plug-mold or a
wash of light from recessed strip,s. This has the advantage of staying beautiful however
much the paintings are juggled about.

Kitchen
A kitchen should have good general light plus booster light for any precise activity like studying cookbooks,.chopping, assembling ingredients, and washing dishes. Most kitchens have

a ceiling light-often a strip of fluorescence - and little else, but this can be harsh. Wellplaced general diffusing lights fixed flush to the ceiling, or spots, or a mixture of wall~
washers, downlights, and spots, make a good background light, stepped up with strip lights
con.cealed under high-level cupboards to shine down on the work surface. Fluorescent lights
should be the "de luxe warm white" variety because these make food look appetizing, which
is more than one can say for most fluorescents. If at all possible, storage cupboards should
be lit inside as well.

476

Halls, Corridors, and Staircase

So many halls have only one ceiling outlet, which is usualty dreary and inadequate and quite
often unsafe. The ideal is to have a series of downlights and wallwashers with supplementary lighting for m irror, telephone, telephone books, and so on hall closets should certainly
have an incandescent strip set behind a baffle just Inside the top of the interior, or else an
angled light on the ceiling outside, to avoid a constant irritating grope in the dar for coats.

If it is not possible to conceal the wiring required for these lights, attach the fixtures to a
track, which, as I have explained, can be worked from a single outlet. If installing a track is
difficult for one reason or another, run more cord from the original outlet and loop it across
to another area, suspending the cord and extra light from a ceiling hook.

When stairs are properly lighted, there is a distinctly noticeable difference between tread and
riser. The best way to achieve this is to have a strong light above the stairs and a softer one
below. If the light are on a dimmer switch, they can be turned down to an acceptable level
and left on all night with very little waste of power. This is especially useful in households
where there are small ch~dren or elderly people. Alternatively, but more expensi~ly, a
separate night circuit of miniature tights can be installed. A cheaper solution would be a
single low-wattage bulb in a well-chosen position.

Dining Areas
Candlelight has still not been bettered for dining, but make sure that the candles are either
above or below eye level, not flickering directty in the dinerss eyes. Candlelight combined
with a discreet downlight in the ce~ing above the center of a round table, or at either end of a
rectangular table, especially if the secondary lights are on a dimmer, is better still. Pendant
lights with opaque shades cast a pleasant light downward, but they should be on rise-andfall fixture and so placed that they do not throw light into people's eyes. The serving area
,should be lit separately, perhaps by a spot or wallwasher, or by concealed strip lighting
above.

4n

478

Bedrooms
Bedroom lighting usually needs to be as flexible as that in the living room: soft enough to be
relaxing ; bright enough to see to dress by;.good enough at the dressing table for putting on
makeup; well placed enough for comfortable reading in bed. Bedside-table lamps should be
high enough to shine on a book, but not so high as to disturb anyone else. Small wallmounted, adjustabie spots or angled lamps are another good idea. Dimmers should provide
all the variation needed for the main lighting .

.....-- :~:,~~:~70~~~~
!..;~ .~~~~:'tfM!~

~~~~~~

. -:

Light above a mirror used for putting on makeup is not a good idea because rt casts shadows
under the nose and eyes. Lights side-positioned to shine outward rather than on the mirror
itself are be.tter. The same applies to long mirrors: the light should be directed on the viewer
rather than on the glass.

479

Children's Rooms
All outlets should be childproofed, at least in small children's rooms, and lighting fixtures
should b~ kept well out of reach. A dimmer is useful for children who are afraid of the dark;
alternatives are one low-wattage bulb or the separate night circuit of miniature lights
discussed earlier. Do not forget that older children will want to read in bed and probably to
do hS:tnlework in their rooms, so provide adequate reading lights in good positions.

Bathrooms
Small rooms may well only need one ceiling light and lights on either side of the mirror if it is
to be used for shaving and putting on makeup, or just above it if only for shaving. It is irritating to have a baffled light over a mirror only to see the lighting fixture reflected in the
mirror behind. Prevent this by inserting a smaller baffle between the bulb and the glass.
Downlights are effective in bathrooms, too, and one over the bath is worth considering.

480

Furnishing with Light

Up to now, general lighting and its possibilities were discussed without going into the use of
ligrtt as an integral part of the architecture and fumishing of a room. The more elaborate
methods of defining spaces were not touched; the creation of whole walls of light, or the ways
of making seating or tablets or seating platforms appear to float. Then there are the complete
sound/light/air systems giving light, air conditioning, and hi-fi from the same series to tracks,
and the sort of moving patterns and images that can be achieved in endless variable effects
by lighting projectors, or spotlights shining through rotating wheels of colored lenses. It can all
cost a lot of money, but there again, lighting like this is an art form in itself, and a particularly
exciting one .

Light walls might seem light years away for most people, and yet they are comparatively
easy to install instead of windows with depressing views or as a backing for a series of
shelves or a background for display. To disguise a dreary view on an ugly window, install
strip lighting or spots on the old wall and conceal the fixtures about a foot behind sheets of
translucent white or off-white plexiglass fitted into a wood frame or frames that can slide on
runners attached to ceiling and floor or remain static. Standard panels of plexiglass come in
widths of up to 4 feet (122 centimeters), but they can be specially ordered in any size. Alternatively, it is possible to install panels of refractive glass between two rooms, or a room and
a corridor, which will diffuse both daylight and artificial light in due season.

481

Paths and ribbons of light made from the plug-mold strips described on page 60, or simple
strip lighting sunk into a recess and again covered with a translucent plexiglass or acrylic,
can edge their way around the bottom of seating platforms or the top of conversation pits to
particular effect. Cleverly placed tubes of neon can be amusing, especially in the context of a
painted wall ..

Other fascinating, effects can be made by shining spots through any chosen object to cast
intriguing shadows on the wall, especially when the spots shine through rotating the wheels
of colored lenses mentioned above.

482

INSULATING
AND SOUNDPROOFING
HOW MUCH
INSULATION
DO YOU NEED7
Key quastions about insulation are how much do you need and how much can you afford?
One way to answer them is by figuring out the "payback period," which is how long it takes
to get your money back in lower energy btlls. With fuef costs still rising, you might think that
any money spent on insulation will be repaid quU;kJy. Not true, installing insulation is sometimes an expensive affair, so it's important to put your money where it will do the most good

fn 1he shortest time;

The tables shown oppOsite will he+p you pinpoint the best investments for your particular
UN, If you follow thlt explanation and work through the accompanying examples, you'll be
able to find the ani\Wf's to those key questions about insulating your home.

The upper table gives indivKtuat energy index numbers (energy numbers) for eight diff8fent
u888 of insulation and two uses of storm windows and doors in homes in 20 cities. Under the
name of the city is the .type ofheating and cooling system common in that area !New York
City has two listings, for example).
The tower table works with the upper table to give you "energy payback numbers" - the
energy numbers you'll need to repay an investment in 88\len years.
The numbera ailo indude the assumption that energy costs will go up 10 percent each year
lind that money vau use from savings to buy insulation will cost 6 percent in lost interest.

When Uling the tables, keep this formula in mind ~ If the pay bact< number in the lower table
is lell than the energy number in the top t&ble, the payback period will be less than seven
years. If the payback number is large than the ~nergy number, the payback period w ill be
m()ftt than seven years.

PLAYING OUR NUMBERS

Now let~s look at a couple of examples. Assume you live in cleveland . You use gas heat and
air conditioning and have some insulation in the house. Note that the energy Aumber in the
upper table for ceilings / attics in Cleveland is 2630. Now look at the lower table. The second
category in the first column applies because you have less you decide to add R-19 insulation
and do the worl< yourself. In that case, the payback number is 1610, which is a little more
than hatf Cleveland's energy number of 2630. That means you should easily recope your investment in less than seven years.

Let's take another example. This time assume an oil-heated, air-conditioned home in New
York. "fhe front door is so6id wittt no~- Would it pay to install a storm door?
Look at the first table. The energy number for storm. doors in New York is 3290. The lower
table shows that adding a storm door to a single exterior door without glass has a payback
number of 5311> if you do the work yourself. That new storm door will take nearly 1,1 years to
pay for itsetf . Now, compute your own home's enefgy numbers. Find the City nearest your
hometown. tf you're in the middle between two cities, pick the one with climate most like
your own. The formula provides a handy way to determine the value of your investment.

483

INSULATION PAYOFF INDEX

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380

ao

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Add R-30 Clilir1g inUIIion

1340
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2120

2150
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484

1?20
7160
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S180

s
4CIO

If you add insulation to your home, the money you save wiil depend on the climate, the level
of insulation already in your home and the cost of energy studies show the upgrading an
older house that has inadequate insulation can reduce energy consumption by 50 percent,
upgrading a newer, partially.inauhited home may mean saving of 20 to 30 percent.

KNOW WHAT YOU NAVE

Before rushing out to buy insulation, find out how much you already :have. The illustrations
below shows those areas in your home most likely to need extnt insu6ation .

Places where you may need insulation are

1)
2)
3
4)
5)
6)
7)

Ceilings al".d unfinished attic floors, including dormer ceiling

Knee walls in a finished attic
Between attic collar beams
Sloping sections of a roof in a finished attic
Exterior walls
Floors above cold crawl spacei, over a porch or unheated garage
The outside walls of heated basements.

485

The easiestptace to begin your survey is the attic. Use a ruler to measure the depth of the in
sulation in an unfinished attic. It maybe stapled to rafters or laid bet>.Yeen floor jotat, teke
care not to compact it.

Inspecting walls is a bit tougher. Remove the switch plate from an outlet; and peak Into the
wall cavity with a flashlight or make a small hole and patch ittf you see any insulation your
house is probably in pretty good shape if it is not, insulating a finished wall is bestleftto a
professional (see topic on insulating walls).
In any event don't poke with sharp objects you may puncture a vapor barrier made from
kraft paper, foil, or polyethylene, vapor barrief3 stop moisture from seeping into the insula
tion.
tf you have vapor barriers, they should be facing heated erMa-directly under floors, walts,
and ceiling coverings.

486

INSULATING
AND SOUNDPROOFING
Insulating your home will mean lower energy bills and better living. If both are comforting
thoughts into action. Start at the top in your attic. Because warm air rises, uninsulated or
poorly insulated attics allow valuable energy to slip away quickly, more quickly than any
other spot in the house. If vou button up your attic first, things will begin to improve immediately.
All attics aren't created equal. The way you insulate yours will depend on whether it is finish-

ed.

UNFINISHED ATTICS
In an unfinished attic that you do not intend to use as living space, place insulation in the
floor (for add to it~ to prevent losing beat from the rooms below. It spots such as this, use
batts, blankets, or loose-fill insulation. Batts, made of fiber glass or rock wool, usually come
with vapor barriers attached. Spread loose-insulation between joists, but add a vapor barrier
first.
If ypu're working in an unfinished attic that has no floor, take some precautions. Install temporary lighting so you can see what you're doing, and place boards across the floors joists to
use as a walkway.

FINISHED ATTICS
In a finished attic or in one you plan to. finish, use blankets, batts, or loose-fill insulation.
If the attic ceiling is open, add rigid insulation, which consists of boards made from extruded
polystyrene, urethane, or fiber glass. Nail the boards to the undersides of the exposed roof
deck, using large-head, galvanized nails. (Roofing nails work well.) Nail on 8-inch centers in
both directions, penetrating the wood at least 1 Y.. inches. Take care not to puncture the
roof.
Because much rigid insulation is combustible, be sure to cover it with gypsum board before
you put up paneling or other materials.

STEPS TO A SNUG ATTIC

Add a vapor barrier when pouring loose-fill insulation or when installing unfaced batts or
blankets on the attic floor. Use 2-mil polyethylene, smoothing it in place between and over
the floor joists. Staple with care, and mend any tears in the barrier should always face the
living area).

487

Adequate ventilation is important. Don't block eave vents when you install insulation. Extend it far enough to cover the top plate, but stop batts or blankets short of the vents. If you
pour loose-fill insulation, install baffles.

When adding insulation to both walls and floors, try to crate a continuous barrier so heat
doesn't seep out at the eaves. Use a long stick to push bans into position. Cover the top
plate with insulation, and keep it under wiring wherever possible .

If you install blankets in the attic floor, unroll the insulation and cut it to the desired length.
Press the blankets between the floor joists, then staple them to the inside of the joists, spacing staples every 6 to 8 inches.

To install blankets so they insulate a finished attic, stan at the top plate of the knee wall. Cut
the blankets and fit them between the wall studs. Make sure the vapor barrier is facing you,
then staple the blankets into place. Don't try to run a continuous piece of insulation up one
wall , across the collar beam , and down the other side, instead. use three separate pieces,

488

over-taPJ>ing the vapor baniers. If you use batta of unfaced insulation in a finished attic, cut
them longer than required end wedge them into the stud space. Add a vapor barrier of
polyethelene film.

Keep insulation away from recessed light fixture and exhaust fans. Coveriny them may
create a fire hazard, instead, build baffles to keep the insulatior. at least 3 inches away from
any motors or fixtures.

489

If you use loose~fill insulation in an attic floor, pour it between the joists to tne desired depth.
(line the floor first with a vapor barrier.) levef the insulation with a wood slat or a rake as
you work.

If your attic floor a l~eady has some insutation, use unfaced batts or blankets (those with no
vapor barriers attached.} But if the floor is uninsulated, install faced batts or blankets. Be
sure the vapor barriers point toward the heated areas below.

INSULATING FLOORS
After you insulate the attic, lower your sights and examine another energy-waster at floor
level: your home's crawl space or basement. Once these areas are properly insulated, you'll
warm up considerably. You can do both jobs yourself; they usually don't require the services
of a professional.

BUNDLING UP UNHEATED SPACES

1. Insulate the floors over unheated areas by working from below-in the basement, crawl
space, or garage. You'll need batts or blankets of insulation, a tape measure, a heavyduty staple gun and staples, wire mesh or chicken wire, shears to cut the wire, and a
knife to cut the insulation. Staple the chicken wire or mesh to the bottom of the floor
joists, then slide in blankets of insulation, working with small sections, vapor barrier up.
Or you can use the method shown at left. Wedge batts or blankets into the space bet
ween floor joists . The insulation will temporarily stay in place without support.

490

2. Beginning at one end, tack the wire mesh or chicken wire across the floor joists, as
shown at left. Staple or nail one roll at a time in place, making sure the insulation fits
snugly up to the band joist and overlaps the bottom plate. To do the same job. You can
cover exposed joists with rigid urethane, polystyrene, or fiber-glass boards. Apply them
with adhesive to the joists. Check the local building code to find out whether you need
to cover the insulation with a fire-resistant material such as gypsum board, if the joists
are covered , as they are in a finished garage ceiling. You best bet is to b.l ow in loose-fill
insulation .

491

3. For the walls in a crawl space, use batts or blankets. You'll need a sharp knife, tape
measure, hammer, nails, furring strips or nailers, and gloves . Where joists run at right
angles to the wall, tuck in small sections of insulation against the header. Cut longer
pieces and attach them to the sill w ith furring strips, as shown at left . Ext end insulation
down the wall and 2 feet along the ground . Where joists run parallel to the wall , use
longer pieces of insulation and nail them directly to the band joist .

4. After you install the insulation, lay a vapor barrier of 6-mfl polyethylene on the ground,
tucking it under the batts to the foundation wall. Tape the joints of the vapor barrier or
lap them at least 6 inches. Finally, secure the polyethylene and insulation with rocks or 2
x 4 studs, as illustrated at left.

492

INSULATING WALLS
If you're up against a wall that needs insulation, don't despair. It's possible to blow or to
spray insulating materials into finished exterior walls without ripping up those on the interior.
However, doing so is difficult and expensive. In all likelihood , you'll need the servi ces of a
contractor w ho has special eQuipment and experience to do the job properly. !Partly for
these reasons, if your walls already have some insulation, it might might not be economical
to add to it).

If you decide to go ahead, search carefully for a reputable professional. Try to get a number
of written bids specifying A-Values, the amount of insulation required, and the overall cost
of the job, in a properly insulated, standard 2 x 4 wail. You can reasonably expect R-8 for
fiber glass or rock wool. R-10 for cellulose (both are blown in; see information at right) , and
R-11 .5 for foam .
(One note of Caution: Don't use urea formaldehyde foam when insulating any area of the
house. Recent studies suggest that the formaldehyde has given off by the insulation can
cause health problems . In fact, the sale of urea formaldehyde foam has been banned by the
U.S . Consumer Product Safety Commission. If you want the advantage of fQam's higher
A-Value, use another kind, such as uret hane.)
Don't let insulating basement walls get you down, installing boards of rigid insulation and fitting in soft batts or blankets are two useful methods . The one to use depends partly on
where you live and partty on how much room you're wiNing to take up with the instillation.

THREE ALTERNATIVES
To install insulation in a finished wall, a contractor must reach all the spaces betw.len studs
in the wall cavity. For each spaee, the contractor removes the siding the doesn't ha~ to
'Jtrip the entire wall} and drilll holes, usuatly in the sheathing of the outside wall, as shown
at left. Don't worry about all the drilling. A good contractor will leave no traces when the job
is completed.

If the home has a brick -veneer exterior. the same procedure is followed except that it may be
less expensive to do it from the inside of the wall .
(Blowing insulation into a vertical space more than 4 feet high requires what is called the
double-blow method . In this case, the contractor cuts
access hates for each stud .)

two

After drilling the holes, the contractor checks the spaces w ith a plumb bod, looking for
obstructions below the hole. Then special equipments blows the insulation under air
pressure through a large, flexible hose into the spaces between the studs .

If the contractor is using foam, it is pumped t hrough a hose w ith an applicator. With both
methods, each wall space is completely filled. When the insulation is in place, the holes are
covered with a rectainer or plug and the siding is replaced.
Frame a stud wall in the basement by nailing the bottom plate to the floor and the top plate
to the joists. Nail in studs 18 or 24 inches on center. Tuck in batts or blankets between the
studs. vapor barrier facing you, and staple them securely. Apply gypsum wallboard or paneling over the insulation, as shown on next page.
If you don't want to frame in a stud , use rigid boards to insulate basement walls . With
masonry nails, attach furring strips to the w"lls and around windows and doors. Cut the in~
sulation to fit, and apply it directly to the wall with mastic. Then cover the insulation with at
least %-inch-thick drywall.

493

494

In regions with mid winters, a rating of R-7 is sufficient. In colder areas, you'fl need a
minimum of R-11.
To reach either value using batts or blankets, you first have to frame out 2 x 3 or 2 x 4 stud
walls over the top of the masonry. Then staple the soft i{'lsulating material, vapor barrier
facing your, between -the studs of the new buff-out walls. Don't be stingy with the staples;
drive one every 10 or 12 inches. To finish. cover the studs with drywall or paneling.
Using rigid-board insulation allows the new wall to be as thin as po81ible, thereby saving a
epece in your basement. Line the watts with furring (to attach the ftnished wall material),
then glue up or tuck in boards between it. (Rigid fnsulation often comes with an adheeive

already applied.)
Because much, rigid insulation is combustible, cover it with a minimum of %-inch drywall,
even if you plan to install wood or hardboard paneling later.

Before staning either project, dry up your b11ament tf tt il wet. Moist insulation hat no value
at all. However don't be concerned by mind condensation. The insulation and vapor barrier
usually will solve that problem.
Insulation becomes less important below ground levet. Although insulating walls to their full
height will provicte benefits, you might decide to save money by insulating only down to
ground level).

SOUNDPROOFING
A ROOM
Common househoki noise can be irritating. Power tools, dryers, diswashers, kitchen
blenders. and others noise-maiiiBrs disturb the peeoe in nearly fiVerv American home. Putting
your ear under pillow or plugging vour ..,. isn't the nswer . Your can't eliminate 1 the
noise from your life, but you
reduce it& impact. By combining common sante with
monly available materials, you can sound:-eondition or even soundproof your rooms.

can.

cOm

Although your home may not be as noisy as a factory. the jarring effect of household sounda
can put you in a bad temper or give you a headache. Those reasons alone are enough to
make you want to out a damper
the noise in home .

on

495

Start with the basics. Use earplugs when you're working with noisy power tools. Shut windows and doors to keep out the din of passing traffic. Apply weather stripping if needed,
and add double-pane or storm windows to reduce noise from the outside, Landscape the
grounds to block and absorb sounds by strategically locating trees, berms, and shrubs.
lndoon;, caulk all gaps and cracks with acoustic sealant. Use solid-core doors, acoustic tile,

and soft surfaces (fabric, carpeting, draperies) wherever noise is problem.

The resistance of a wall or floor to the passage of sound is rated by its sound transmission
class (STC). The higher the STC value, the better a wall or floor blocks out sound.

A rating of 45 is a good level for walls or floors. New or improved insulation can help control
sound dramatically. An uninlu&ated stud wall covered with gypsum board has an STC rating
of only 32, but a staggered stud wall with 1 ~ inches of insulation and ~fl-inch gypsum wallboard has an STC rating Of 49.
Add fibM-glass or-mineral wool insulation to stud walls. On masonry walls, apply rigid polystyrene board insulation over furring strips, then cover with ~-inch drywall.

QUIET WALLS AND DOORS

Start your attack on noise with the least expensive solutions, then move on to more costly
steps if needed. First, pinpoint the source of noise and try to muffle it there, using carpeting,
heavy draperies, and acoustic or cork tiles. Next, try caulking to block the transmission of
sound from one from to another. If you're building a new wall, apply non-hardening acoustic
caulk under the plates, at tops and bottoms of drywall panels, and around all receptacles, if
you're trying to button up existing walls, remove the molding around the ceiling and base
boards and take off the outlet covers. Then apply an acoustic sealant as shown at left.
Weather stripping windows atso will help keep out noise.

496

Effectiwfy combining soft and hard materials is a simple way to control sound from loudspeakers. Fabric, carpets and drapes absorb sound well; wood, metal, and tile do not. Try

1he

.-.lhowft below.

AJ/ItJl'f

.....-...nor....._. bllcUd w.yt

to,.._~

walls on the "hard" sides ot me room to bounce sound. Then cover opposite walls and ceil
ings with 80ft, soundabsorbing materials such as carpet, draperieS, or fabric. The music will
sound better and will be less audible in adjoining areas.

Most wood-stud interior walls don't insulate sound welt The ones that do are buih for the
job. The chwing below ahows In engineered 8yiC8m that ............, raducas 1he 1J8n8mia.
sion of sound. It u8es a double layer ot drywall applied over 2 x 4\N'OOd studs, fiber-glass insulation, and resilient metal channels. For even better results, stagger 2 x 4 studs to create a
2 x 8 well cavity, then weave the insulation between the studs hori~ontally. Finish with dry
Will. Adding any insulation to the walls will help make a room quieter and cozier.

497

If you invest a few extra dollars in a sotid-core door and add weather stripping around the
door frame, you'll help keep sound from leaving the room. To make a qu.ist door, follow the
drawings below. Cut four 8-foot 2 x 416 to fit the doorway, 111owing % inch for new carpet or
weithet stripping. Next, assemble the 2 x 4e as shown, then glue and nail one sheet of
1 ~ -inch plywood to the 2 x 4 frame. Stuff and sta~ insulation in place. Glue and nail the
second sheet of plywood to the other side: Hinge the door so it opens into the room, then
apply self-stick weather stripping.

_ _, j

I.

:.i.;:i; - .

. ..

498

tl~t.

GUIDELINES FOR ENERGY CONSERVING

DESIGN OF BUILDINGS AND UTILITY SYSTEMS
!ction 1.0 PURPOSE
1 To en~o~:~rage and pro~ote the energy conserving design
of bu1ld1ngs and thetr services to reduce the use of
energy with due regard to the cost effechveness, building
function, and COfl!fort, health, safety and productivity of
the occupants.
2 To prescribe guidelines and minimum requirements for the
energy conserving design of new buildings and provide
methods for determining compliance with the same to
make them always energy-efficient.
~ction

2.0 APPLICATION AND EXEMPTION

1 Requirements are set forth for the design of new energy
efficient buildings for human occupancy, covering their
exterior envelopes and the selection of their systems and
equipment for power, lighting, air conditioning and other
energy-consuming auxiliary systems.
2 These guidelines are applicable to the design of new
buildings classified as offices. hotels. shopping centers
and hospitals as well as those portions of industrial
buildings that are used primarily for human occupancy.
3 Buildings with industrial and/or process requirements may
exclude those areas devoted to the process from these
requirements. Buildings or portions thereof whose peak
design rate of energy usage is less than 1 0 W/m2 of
gros s floor area for all purpose are excluded from these
requirements.

3.3 General Requirements of Energy-efficient Lighting

Design
3 .3. 1 The lighting system shall be chosen as to provide a
flexible, effective and pleasing visual environment in accordance with the intended use. but with the least possible energy requirements. The use of task-oriented
lighting shall be used whenever practicable. In the desJgn of general lighting in buildings with centralized air
conditioning equipment, consideration should be given
to integrated lighting and air conditioning systems which
use luminaries with heat removal capabilities.
3.3.2 The lighting system shall be designed tor expected activity. The task shall be analyzed in terms of difficulty.
duration. criticalness and location in order to determine
the lighting needs throughout the space, always keeping
in mind that higher illumination levels than necessary
are likely to waste energy while on the other hand, levels lower than needed could impair visual effectiveness.
Table 3 .1 lists the recommended illuminance levels.
3.3.3 The most efficient lamps appropriate to the type of
lighting, color rendition and color appearance shall be
selected. The use of such types of lamps reduces power
requirements. Table 3.2 shows that high intensity discharge lamps are more efficient than incandescent
lamps.

Table 3.1 RECOMMENDED DESIGN ILLUMINANCE LEVELS

ection 3.0 LIGHTING

Task

.1 Scope
.1.1 Interior spaces of buildings;
.1.2 Exterior areas of buildings such as entrances. exits,
loading docks, parking areas. etc.;
. 1.3 Roads. grounds and other exterior areas including open
air covered areas where lighting is required and is energized through the building's electrical service.

.2 Exemptions
.2.1 Industrial areas of manufacturing concerns, storage ar
eas and processing facilities .
.2.2 Areas devoted for theatrical productions, television
broadcasting, audio-visual presentations and those por
tion .. of entertainment facilities such as stage areas in
hotel ballrooms, discos, night clubs and casinos where
lighting is an essential technical element.
.2.3 Speciaiized luminaries for medical or dental purposes.
.2.4 Outdoor athletic facilities.
.
.2.5 Display l:ghting required for art exhibit or display in galleries. museums and monuments.

.2.6 Exterior ligr.ting for public monuments.

.2. 7 Special lighting for research laboratories.
.2.8 . Emergency lighting that is automatically ''off" during
normal operations.
.2.9 High risk security areas identified by local ordinances or
regulations or by security or safety personnel as requiring additional lighting.
.
.
.
.2.10 Classrooms. specifically designed for the hard-of-seeing, hard-of -hearing and for elderly peroons.
.2.11 Lighting for dwelling units.

499

Mon. & Max.

(Lux)

Appheattons

Lighting lor
infrequently usod
areas

so. 150
100. 200
100. 200

Circulation areas and corridors

Stairs. escata1ors
Hotel bedrooms. lavatories

Lightioog for
working intedors

200. 300
300 . 750

Infrequent reading and writing

General offices. typing and
computing
Conference rooms
Deep-plan general offices
Drawing offices

300 . 750
500 . 1000
500. 1000
Localized lighting
for exacting tasks

500. 1000
750. 1500
1000.2000

Proofreading
Designing. architecture and
machine engineering
Detailed and precise work

Tab le 3.2 EFFICACY RANGES AND COLOR RENDERING INDICES OF

VARIOUS LAMPS

Lamp Type
Incandescent lamp (10100 W)
Fluorescen1 Lamp (1040 W)
HP Mercury Fluorescent (502000 W)
Metal Halide (up to 10000 W)
LP Sodium lamp (20-200 W}
HP Sodium Lamp {501 oo W)

Efficacy Range (")

(lumens/Watt)

15-25
5095
40-63
7595
100180
80 130

Note: () Values exclude power usage of ballasts.

Color
Rendering
Index (CRI}
100
52-86

2045

70
25

3.3.4 In general, the normal artificial light source should be

the fluorescent iamp. In downlight installation, high
pressure discharge lamps can be used. In large high
bay areas. high pressure discharge lamps should be
used. Where good color rendering is required, the
tubular fluorescent lamp and other high pressure
sodium lamps should be used. However, if moderate
color rendering is of comparatively minor importance,
high pressure sodium lamps can be used. If very good
color rendering is required, the tubular fluorescent ramp
should be used.
3.3.5 The most efficient combination of luminairies, lamps and
ballasts appropriate for the lighting task and for the envi
ronment shall be selected- so that tamp light output is
used effectively. The selected luminaire should meet the
requirements with respect to light distribution, uniformity
and glare control. The use of highly polished or minor
reflectors is recommended to reduce the number of
lamps installed without reducing the illumination level.
Where ballasts are used, these should be of the low
toss type and with a power factor of at least 85%.
3.3.6 The highest practical room surface reflectances should
be considered in the lighting design. The use of light
finishes will attain the best overall efficiency of the entire
lighting system. Dark surfaces should be avoided because these absorb light. Table 3.3 lists the recommended room surface reflectances.

3.3.7 Selective switching possibilities should be provided :

that individual or specific group of fixtures can be turnE
off when not needed and lighting revels can be adaptt
to changing needs.
3.3.8 The lighting system shall be so designed that daylightir
can be coordinated with artificial lighting, taking in
consideration the problems of glare, brightness imbo:
ance and heat buildup in the building interior.
3.3.9 In selection lighting systems, the costs of operation ar
energy usage and not simply the initial cost should t
considered.

3.4 Maximum Allowable Power Density for Building lntf

rior Lighting Systems
3.4.1 The total lighting load for the interior spaces of buildin!;
shall not exceed the summation of the maximum value
for building areas/activities as specified in Table 3.4.

3.5 Maximum Allowable Power Density for Building Ext

rior lighting Systems

3 .5. 1 Basic lighting power requirements for building exterio1

shall not exceed the values given in Table 3.5.
3.5.2 Basic power lighting requirements for roads ar
grounds shall not exceed the values given in Table 3.6 .
Tabltl 3.5 MAXIMUM VALUES FOR LIGtmNG POWER FOR BUILDIN
EXTERIORS

Table 3.3 RECOMMENDED ROOM SURFACE REFLECTANCE$

% Aeflectanca

Surface
Ceilings
Walls
Furnitures
Floors

80 -92

40 .60
26 . 44
21 39

Table 3.4 MAXIMUM LIGHTING POWER DENSITY FOR BUILDING INTE

RIO AS

ltghting

Area/Activity

Power DnsJty
(W/m2)

Auditoriums. Churches
Food Service
Snack Bars and Cafeteria
Leisure/Dining Bar
OHices and Banks
Retails Stores ()
Type A( ...)
Type B (-)
Shopping Centers/Mal!s/Arcades
ClubS/Basements/Warehouses/
General Storage Areas
Commercial Storage AreaS/Halls
CorridorS/Closets
Schools
Preparatory/Elementary
Higll School
Technical/Univ ersities
Hospitals/NUrsing Homes
Hotels/Motels
Lodging roomS/Guest rOQms
Public Areas
;:Janquei/Exhibit
Note:

8
14
10
21

23
22

BuJldtng Areii/Space
Exits (w/ or w/o canopy)
Entrance (w/o canopr)
Entrance (w/ canopy
High traffic (e.g., retail. hotel
airport. theater, etc.)
Light traffic (e.g., hospital,
oHice, schoof, etc.)
Loading afea
Loading dOOf
Total power allowaoC1t for the
eKieriof (inclusive of above
allowances) of building
perimeter for buildings ot
up to 5 storeys (above
ground) plus 6 W/lm of
building perimeter for each
additional storey

Note: W/Lm

4
17
18

18
16

60 W/lm of door opening

90 W/Lm of door opening
100 W/m2 of canopied area

10 W/m2 of canopied area

3W/m2
SO Wilm of door opening

100W/Lm

Watts per linear meter

Table 3.6 MAXIMUM VALUES FOR LIGHTING POWER FOR ROADS ANt
GROUNDS

AreiiSpace

Llghling Power
(W/m2)

15

Llghtmg Po~r

Store and work area

Other activity areas for casual
use (e.g., p icnic gmunds,
~ardens. parks, etc.)
Pnvate driveways/walkways
Public drivewayS/walkways
Private parking lots
Public parking lots

2.0
1.0
1.0

1.5
1.2
1.8

12
17

20

3.6 Lighting Controls

,,,.,DI

All lighting systems except those required for emergency ()(

exit lighting for s~urity putp0$65 shall be Pf'Ovided with manual, automatic or programmable oontrols.

{") lnc/M<Ics
RIUCirllttdising tmd displlly ligltliltll ucqr{or flortlfro/tl, ftC.
(*"I T~ A - FIM 1111d "'"" "''rcha11<iul"1.
(""") TYfH 8 0.MrtiJ.fC1od Md 11risc.Ua,..,,., ,._,cltllndittl!f.

500

6.1 Each space enclosed by walls or ceiling-height partitions

shalt be prov1ded with at least one lighting control. capable of turning off all the liQhts within the space.
Exception:
Continuous lighting required for securitv purcoses.
6.2 One lighting control point shall be provided for each tasl<
location or gfoup of task locations within an area of
45m2 or less.
6.3 The general lighting of any enclosed area 1 0 m2 or
larger in which the connected load exceeds 10 W/m2 for
the whole area shall be controlled so that the load for
thetights may be reduced by at least 50% while maintaining a reasonably uniform level of illuminance
throughout the area. This may be done with the use of
dimmers, by dual switching of alternate lamps, or by
switching each luminaire or each lamp.
6.4 The minimum number of controls required shall be determ ined using Table 3 .7 which lists the types of lighting
controls and the equivalent number of control points
they represent. The minimum number of controls, however, shall not be less than one for each 1500 W of connected lighting load.
6.5 Exterior lighting not intended for 24 hours continuous
use shall be automat1ca11y switched by a timer, photocell
or a timer-photocell combination but provided with manual override.
6.6 Hotel and motet g!.lest rooms, except bathrooms, shan have one master
sw~ch at the main _entry door that turns off all permanentfy wired light,
ng lrxture~ an!l.swtched receptacles. except for security lighting. ifrequrred. Tnos sw~ct'l may be activated by the insertion and removal of
the room key.

2. Manual anct automatic control devices may 1educe the number of

cont"'Os reqUired by using an equivalent number of controls from
Table3.7.
3. Automatic controls.
4. Programmable controls.
5. Controls1equiring trained operators.
6. Controls for safely hazards and security.

Section 4.0 ELECTRIC POWER ANO DISTRIBUTION

4..1 Scope
This section applies to the energy cooservaHon requirements of electrk:
motors. transformers and distribution systems of buildings except those
requ~red for emergency purposes.

4.2 Electric Motors

42. 1 This sectioo shall apply to all permanently wired sq uirrel-cage induction
type motOfS of 0.4 kW size and larger serving the building. It sna~l not
apply to other types as regards efficiency requirements.
4.2.2 Motors expected lo operate mOle than 500 hours a year shall have fua
load effociencies not less than the values shown in Table 4.1.
4.2.3 The nameplates of these motors shall include not only all the ioforma
tion required by the Philippine Electrical Code. Pan 1, but also the rated
full load efficiency and full load power factor.
Tabl9 4.1 MINIMUM ACCEPTABLE FULL LOAD EFFICIENCY
Motor Size

n .o

0.4 kW ( 1/2 HP)

0.8 kW (1 HP)
4.0kW (5 HP)
8.0 kW (10 HP)
40.0 kW (50 HP)
80.0 kW (100 HP}
100.0 up (150 HP)

tble 3.7 CONTROL TYPES AND EQUIVALENT NUMBER OF CONTROL

POINTS
N(Jl: / .
pe of Control
Equivalent Number of Control Pomts
3-nually operated on-off switch
:cupancy Sensor
-ner - programmable from
!he space being conttolled
_evel step-control
:including off) or pre-set
:limming
_eve! step-control
:including off) or pre-set
:limming
lfltinuous {Automatoc) dimming

Min. Efficiency {%}

82.5
84.0
875

89.5
91.0
917

.,.<~polyp/tote 91rnl-car ~dwcliOIO _ , , , "'lin """'''

l'ft'ls of 1 ]()(), 1100 O' )6()(} RN Dr 60 H~ wlr~ opu. dTip-proof t>r rDroll)!
.-:~-.1 ftur-CQOI<d CJtclo..,u.
2. Motor ~rotiftt,..,.. "'"" 7j() ltDOlrt PQ ~ar thold be of rho h1glt t/Ji<~ncy rypc
wir/1 ~ll*ltiU ltigllu lito" rluue J,.~. Higlt-e!Jic;.ecy otors arc p1CU1'111y DW>ilablc

1
2

r 4.} etpplJctiD ..,.,,

~t~~l

wil>\lyptictrllfO;...,/-Jflctc""i of
~.OkW

B.OkW
40.0kW

n .otw

).7 Where adequate daylighting is available, local m anual or automatic

controls such as photo-electric sw.tches or aulomatic dimmers shall be

provided in daylighted spaces. Controls shall be provided so as to op
erate rows of lights parallel to facade/el<terior wall .
;.a Feature display lighting in retail and wl101esare stores sh all be sepa
rately switched on citcuits not more than 20 ampere s. If there are
more lh~n four of these display circuits, the display lighting shall be
automatica lly c~troUed by a programmable tim er with provisions lot
temporary override by store personnel.
;_9 Valance lighting in retail and wholesale stores shall be switched independent of general and display lighting.

r Control Loc:Miof\
r.1 All lighting controls should be so located to be readily accessible by
lfl8C& occupants.

r.2 Switches p.-OYided for task areas, if readily acceS&ible. may be mounted
as part of the task lighting fixtures. Switches controlling the same load
from more than one location should nO( be credited as increasing the
number of controls to meet the requifem811ts of Section 3.6.

EXceptions:

1. Llgf!ting control requiremfHlts for~ which must ~ IJMd as a

wnoT. should be controiiJ in accordance wit/! the worlc activities and
controls msy ~ centralized in remote locations. Thfie areas inch.Jde

public lobbifl of oHic. bulldln~. hotels and 11~1)/18/s; rtttail and

deparlment stores and warehouses; storerooms and UfVil C()(tidors
u~ centralized supetvislon.

92.1"

9$.1"
JSO.OkW
9~. 2"
J . Mot<JI' w;IJI ,.,,;..,, d,g.,..,r fr""' tllou /m-.1 holl h~-. lf'~J~n~y rorr~s IIrile' or
,,....,.,.,lloM r11<>1 lis111d for r~ 10cr /owr '~-

89.$"
91.0"

4.2.4 Motor S.tction

4.2.4.1 The type and the size of the- SC induction motor shall be selected only
after. an accurate determination of the starting and runr~ing
rt>qu1rements of the load has been made. taking into account the
following factors:
1. maximum overload expected
2. ambient condition s
3. power supply conditions
4. future expansion
5. deterioration of the driven toad
6. duty cycle
7. speed
4.2.4.2 The first five factors above should lie considered carefully as they
suggest the selection of larger motors at the expense cf low power
factor and low efficiency.
4.2.4.3 1n cases where higher kW rating is necessary due to special requirements of the application . the motor rating may be increased but not to
exceed 125% of the calculated maximum load to be served. If th is
rating is fiOt available. the next higher rating may be selected.
4.2.4.4 Loads of rower duty cycle may be powered by smaller n.otors which
win have good overall eflicienc.es.
4.2.4.5 Motors with high speeds are genet ally more efficient than those of
tower speeds and shOuld be consodered as much as poss11lle.
4.2 4 6 Where an_application requires varying outpul operatior'l of motor~rcven_ equ1pment. such as a centnfugal pvmp. a variable speed
nducuon motor wth a vanable frequency supply should be considere<l
instead of lhroltHng tile output of the pump. The former is a high
eff1crency operat1on. wh1le the other is a tow efficiency operation.

501

4.2 .4.7 High efficiency motors are basically high nux density, low core loss
and tow current density motors whtch should be applied properly in
order to obtain maximum energy savings.
4.2.4.6 O ther applicable requirements specified in the Philippine Electrical
Code, Part 1 shall be complied with.

4.3 Transformers
4.3 . t All ownersupplied transformers that are part of the building electrical
system shall have efficiencies not lower than 90% at rated toaa cooditions.
4.3 .2 The average power factor of the loads being served by the transformers
at any time should not be less than 85%. In cases where toad power
factors are below this value. capacitors or power factor improving devices shall be provided so that automatic or manual correctiOn can be
made.
4.3.3 Transformer load grouping schemes shall be so designed such that the
transformers are load ed to not tess than 75% of their full load ratings
and that noload circuits or partially loaded circuit combinations should
be minimizedas much as possible.
4.3.4 Dis connect switches or breakers shall be pr6vlded for llansformers
which are anticipated to have no loads during certain periods.
4.3 .5 The transformers should be located inside a building so that water, d irt,
heat and corrosive atmosphere will not impalt the efficiency and oper
ation of the transformers. However. suflicient ventilation should be
provided.
4.3.6 Where it is necessary to install transformers within a building space
which is air-conditioned. the space shall be enclosed by acceptable
means. and provided with appropriate temperaturecontrol fan to exhaust gen erated heat to th e outsid e.
4.3. 7 The installation of tran sfornfers indoor s shall comply with Ar1icle 6 .9 -
" Transformet and Transformer Vaults" of the Ph~ippine Electrica l
Code . Part 1.
4.3 .6 In the selection of transformers , extreme care should be exercised so
that they are not unjustil iably la rge. Oversized transformers operate at
Jew power factor and low efficiency.
4 .3 .9 In order to minimize heat losses due to current. the transformers should
be set such that the utilization voltage is on the higher end of the al
towable voltage range so that motor currents, line currents and transform er currents are reduced . In this manner, the 12R tosses is reduced
and efliciency is improved.

5.2 Exterior Walls (without Dayllghllng)

5 .2 .1 The design crite1ion for building envelope, known as the Overall The
mal Transfer Value (OTTV}. shall be adopted. The .O TTV requireme
wh1ch shall apply only to airconditioned buildings is aimed
a~h~e~ing the energy con~erving design o f building envelopes so as
~tmmz~ eJtt.ernal h eat gam and thereby re duce the cooling toad of t1
atr-oondthonmg system.
5 .2.2 The Overall Thermal Transfer Valu e IOTTV) for the exterior walls
buildings shall not exceed 48 W/ m2. The OTTV for all wal ls of
building is the we ighted average of all OTTV's (OTTVi) OOC'IlpUted 1
the individual walls.
5.2.3 The Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTlVi) tor each eKterior wall sc
tion that has a d if1erent orientation shall be determined using Equati
5 .1.
OTTV. ~ 12.65 A (1 -WWR) Uw + 3.35 0f'/INR) Ug-+ SF rN'IJR) SC
'
(Equation 5.1a - OHicf
OTTV 5 .40A (t -WWR) Uw + 1.10 (WWR) Ug-+- SF (ININR} SC
(Equation 5.1b Hole
where: A Solar absorptance of the tlpaqu e wall. Typical valu
are giv en in Table 5 .1:

WWR = Window-to-wall ratio for the orientatiOn under consld

ation:
.
Uw,;, Uvatue of the OP.iiQUe wall (W/m2-0C). Thermal condl
tivities of building ft1aterials are givan in Tables.2:
..
Ug =U-value of w indow glass (W/m2-0C). Typical U -values
glass are given in Table S.S;
SF = Solar Factor fY'//m2) The SF values for tl!le different c
ental ions are listed in Tal:lle 5.6;
.
SC = Sh ading coefficient of window glass. Values of SC a
given in Table 5 .7. Manufa<:turers data may also be used.
5.2.4 The OvGrall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) for the total wall area of 1
building shall be dete1mlned using Equation 5 .2. The OTTV iS 1
weighed average of the OTIV;'s for each wal calculated using Eqt
tion5.1 .

4.4 Power Distribution

4.4.1 All distribution lines that lead to the different loads and equipment, such
as lights. motors and tra nsformers, have resistances and therefore
heat up. These affect the ef1iciency of distribution and therefore should
be minimized.
4.4.2 In the calculation of the wire sizes to be used. the Philippine Electrical
Code. Part I has specified the procedure and the factors to be
considered in order to arrive at the minimurt:~ acceptable wire size.
4.4.3 To conserve e::ergy. the wire size should be increilsed by ooe or two
sizes depending on wtlictl is more critical: first cost or energy cost .
4.5 Sub-metering an d Clleek-meterl ng
4.5.1 Buildings whose designed connected electri~l load is over 250 kVA
shall have the distribution system designed to include sub-metering
facilities.
4.5 2 The electrical power feeders for each facility of the building for which
submetenng ts requred shall be subdivided into the following
categon es:
.
4.5 .2.1 Lighting and receptacle outlets;
4.5.2.2 Power systems (for ventilation and airconditioning, elevators. computers. etc.).
4.5.3 In m ultiP!e tenant buildin.g s. each tenant unit sh all have a provision for
m~_a sunng the tenants energy consumption. Power to common
utolthes such as water pump. elevator, etc. need not meet these tenant
sub-metering p rovisions.
4 5.4 The feeders for each category tn Section 4.5.2 may include provisions
tor check metering for energy conservation monitoring.
4.5 .5 In order to factlttate check metenng safety and quickly by qualified personnel. an adequate working space in front of the etectncal panels and
meters shall be provided.

Section 5.0 BUILDING ENVELOPE

5.1 Scope
This section apphes to air-conditioned buildings with a total cooling toad of
175 kW or greater: The requirements and !jUklel;oes of this section cover
ext~rnal walls (wth and Without dayhghling}. roofs (with and without
skyl1ghts) and air leakage through the building envelope.

502

onv

A1 (OTTVt)-+ A2 (0TIV2) + ... + Ai (OTlVi)

z ........ . . .. . .. . . ---..-.. - --- -- ..... --

A1 ~ A2 + ... -+ A i

[Equation 5
where: Ai = Gross area of the ith exterior wall (m2). The grc
area includes the opaque waU surface and the window surface
the wall being coosidered.
OTTVi = Overall thermal transfer value for the IJh wall, as c
culated using Eqn. 5 .1.
Table 5.1 PERCENTAGE OF SOLAR RADIATION ABSORBED BY'S
LECTEO BUILDING MATERIALS
Building Material
Brick (c()(Ttlllon)
U ght red
Red
Marble
While
Dark
Polished
Metals
Steel
Galvanized iron, new
Galvanized iron. dirty
Copper, polished
Copper. tarnished
Lead sheet. old
Zinc, polished
Paints
White emulsion
White paint, 4 .3 mm on aluminum
White enamel on iron
Aluminum oil base paint
Gray paint
Red oil base pai nt
Black gloss paint
Green Oil base paint
Black paint. 4.3 mm on alumirnun
Roofing materials

Asbestos cement: whit9
Asbestos cement.. 6 mos. exposure
Asbestoscement,' 12 inos. exposure

Percentage('

55
68
44
66
5060
45 81

64
92

18
64
79

46

1220
20
25- 45

45
75

7
90
50
94-98
42

61
71

69
64
6591
15
60
60
7
60
59
15

25 - 40
40 .50
50.70
70 80
80.90
100

DemJity
(kg/ m3)

1488
720
2240
1925

2065
2400

64
960

1120

1290

or1< board
ber board
ber tass (see Glass Wool
and inaral Wool)
tass. sheet
tass wool. mat. or guilt (dry)
ypsum plaster boarcl
ard board:

(ai

!ilal"'~ard

(b m edoum
etals:
(a) A luminum alloy. typical
(b) copper. commercoal
(c) stee~
ineral wool. left
.aster:
(a) gypsum
'(b) perlite
{cl sand/cement
(d) vermicuite
:>lystyrene. expanded
~lturethane. foam
oJ flooring
:>il, loosely packed
tone. tole:
(a) sand stone
(b) QranitP.

1890

0836

608
702
528
80, 12
800
400
480

0. 125
0. 138
0 .138
0065
0. ,44
0086
0101

Thermal Resistance
{m2-0C/W)
Smm

20mm

tOOmm

90

lble 5.2 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

oncrete, light weight

Type of Air Space

72-76
7580

'hite: smooih surfaces

ray to dark gray, light green
reen to clark green. red, brown
ark brown. _l:llue
111k blue. black
aifectly black ..

sbestos; cement sheet

i>bestos Insulating board
sphalt. roofing
tum en
i ck :
(a) common
{b) face
oocrete

1298

Table 5.3 AIR SPACE RESISTANCES FOR WALLS AND ROOFS

10

% AbJ11orp11on

onstructlo11
4!1eriels

2640

Note: Thermal conductivities are per unit of length thickness.

93
67
67-69
82
91
45
94

here specific f1,ateriai is not mentioned above. an approximate value rna

1 assigned with the use of the following color guide:

olor

(c) marble/terrazzi.ceramic
mosaic
Tile. roof
Tomber:
(a) across grain sohwood
(O\ hardwood
(C} pl~-wood
.
VP.rmiculote. loose granules
Wood chrpboard
Wood wool slat>

83

Ast>ostos cement, 6 yrs. exposure

Asbestos cement. red
Tile clay, red
Tile
liscellaneous
Aluminum. polished
Concrete
Conctete , rough
Plaster. wh ite wall
Wood
.
Asbestos cement board, white
Aluminum foil

round cover
ASphalt pavement
Gl-ass, green after rain
Grass. high and dry
Sand. dry
Sand. wet
Sand, white powdered
Water
Vegetable fields and shrubs, willed
Common vegetable fields and shrubs
Gcoond, dry and plOwed
Bare moist grout:td .

144
264

Thermal
Conduc:tlvity
(W/m-OC)

Air Space Resistances {Ra)

for Walls
Venical air space (Heat
flows horizontally)
(a) H igh Emissivity
0 .110
{b) Low Emissivity
0.250
Air Space Resistances {Ra)
lor Roof
Horizontal or sloping air
space (Heat flows downward)
(a} High Emissivity
(i) hor.zontal air space
0.110
(ii) sloped air space 22.50 0 .11 o
(m) sloped air space 450 o. 11o
(b) Low Emissivity
(l) horizontal a ir space
0.250
(li) sloped air space 22.50 0.250
(iii) sloped air space 450
0 .250
Attic Space Resistances (Ratrcl
1
(a) High Emissivity
(b) Low Emissivity

0.148
0.578

0 . 160
0 .606

0 .1 48
0 .148
0.1 48

0 .165
0.1 58

0.572
0.571
0.570

1.423
1.095
0.768

0.174

0.458
1.356

Notes: 1. Ordinarily, high emissivity is assumed for air spaces

bound_e'! by but1ding_ materials of moderately smooth surfaces. Low
em1ssrvity only apphf!S where one or both sides of the air space is
bounded by a reflect1ve surface such as that of ;m "''"minrJm foil.

0 .317
0 .106
1.226
1.298

.
~- Interpolation within the range of pitch angles from horizontal to 450
perm~tted_. For angle beyond 450. Jhe value for 450 can be used no extrapolatiOn 1s needed.
'
. 3. /nterpojation with the range of thickness from 5 mm to 100 mm is
perm1tted. For~" space less thaf! 5 mm, eKtrapolation basing on Ra = o for
zero lh1ckness IS allowed; otherwiSe Ra IS assumed to be zero. For air space
greater t~an 100 mm, the Ra for 100 mm should be used, ie. extrapolation is
not perm1tted.
4 .. If! the case o! air space in roof. reflective foil used should N installed wtthm the r~flecttve surlace facing downward as dust deposit will ten
der an upward-factng surface ineffective after a while.

IS

0 .721
1.297
1.442
0 .144

0.303
0.346
0 .476
0 .042

0.052

Table 5.4 SURFACE FILM RESISTANCES

2512
32

680

1.053
0 .035
0 .170

1024
640

0.216
0. 123

2672
8784
7840
32-104

2 11
385
47.6
0 .032.{).035

1216
616

0.370
0 .1'15
0 .533
0 .2020303
. 0 .035
0 .02-4
0 .713
0 .375

1568

6-40-960
16
24
1360
1200
2000
2640

Type of S\lrface

Walls
Inside surface
Smooth ~inishes
Reflective finishes
Outside surface

Rl)()fs

Inside surlace
Aat (smooth finish)
450 sloped (smooth finish)
F1a1 (celleclive ftnish)

450 sloped (reflective finish)

Outside surface
Flat or sloj)ed

1.298
2.297

Thermal Resistance
(m2.DC/W)

0.12
0 .30
0.04
0 . 16
0 . 15
0.80
039

0 .56

Note: Interpolation between angle of stope from horizontal to 450 is valid.

503

Clear Out and In

Heat Absorbing Out and In
Re1lecti11e, coated

Table 5.5 GLASS THERMAL TRANSMITTANCE VALUES

U-Value (Glass only)
(W/m2-0C)
Exposed
Sheltered

Glass Type

Flat Grass
Single pane, clear
Single pane, with low
emi11ance, coating

e :.0.60
e = 0.40
e ... 0.20

Insulating Glass
Double pane. clear
4.6 mm air space
6.4 mm air space
12.5 mm air space
Double pane. with low
emirtance coating
e "0.60
e = 0.40
e,. 0.20

5.91

4 .60

5.68

4.54

Notes:

5.11
4.26

3.97

3.69
3.46
3.18

3.29
3.12
2 .95

3.01
2.67
2 21

2 .78
2 44

3.12

2.04

lac

Correction Factors
Inside

Singte pane
Clear
Lowe
Double pane
Clear
Lowe

Outside

Exposed

Sheltered

Exposed

Sheltered

0.48
0.50

060
056

0 .48
0.65

0.60

0 .64
0 .71

065
0.70

0 .65

066
0 .98

0.77

0.80

1. For reflective glass. see manufacturer's literature for exact val

ues.

2. For shading coefficients of glass with indoor shading devices

see Chapter 27 of ASHRA Handbook of Fundamentals {I 9) .
5.3 Exterl W11ts (with Dlylighting)
5.3. 1 The calculation procedUfe for the OTIV of exterior walls considtrin!

To accoun t for outside or inside sashes/framP.s. the following correction

tors shall be used:

G lass Type

0 .83

0.55
0.20-0.40

daylighting is the same as gi11en in Section 5 .2 . The daylighting aspec

is explained in the following sections.
5 .3 .2 A credit for daylighting is provided for several reasons. Jn daylightln!
applications. the window to wall ratio (WWR) is usually large. Gluinc
allows more heat gain to the interior space than an isolated wall and
due to this, a larger WWR normally causes a higher level of coolin~
needs in the space. However, artificial lighting energy savings due II
daylighting can be greater tnan the additional energy penalty lor space
cooling due to the increased glazed surface area when the buildin~
en11elope is carefully designed to al low daytigtlting. The transp.aren
portiOns of the bu~dong envelope should 1>4! designed to pteveot sola
gains above that necessary for effective daylighting. To make sure lha
dayhQh!fng is being effectively utilized, automatic daylighting control:
shall be used to turn off the artificial lights when sufficient natural light I!
a11ailable.
5.3.3 DayJighting credit may be taken for those antas with installed automatl
lighting controls for all lights within 4 meters of an exterior wall . Day
lighting credit is accountell for by a 10% reduction in the OTTV;'s (a!
calculated using Equation 5. 1) of that particular wall where daytightins it
applied. These reduced OTTVi 11alues are then used in the calculahOI'
of the building's OTTV using Equat ion 5.2.
5.3 .4 If the automatic claytight control credit is takeo, then the visible tr.,s
mittance of the fenestration system used tor that ewterior wall(s) wheu
daylighting is applied shall not be less than 0.25.

5.4 Roofs (without Skylights)

5 .4.1 Solar heat gain through the toot can contribute a substantial amount tt
the cooling load of an air-conditioned building. Hence. roots should bf
provided with adequate insulation in order to conserve energy.
5 .4.2 All roofs shall be provided with inSt~lation . Roofs shall not have a thaf
mal transmittance value. greater Ulan the values listed in Table 5.8.

Table 5.8 MAXIMUM THERMAl. TRANSMITTANCE VAl.UES OF ROOFS

Table 5.8 SOLAR FACTORS FOR VARIOUS BUILDING WALL ORIENTATIONS

Weight Group

Weight Range

(kg &1m2)
Orientation

Type A
{Wim2)

North
East
South
West
Northeast
Soulhwest
Southeast
Northwest
A11erage
(All Onentations)

Notes:

rx~B
Jm2)

119.1

101 .0
202.4
165.1
175.7
145.9
174.6
199.5
t34.3

143.1

162.3

88.2
164.3
138.9
154.5
133.7
1.!:0.1

1'76.0

TypeC
(W/m2)

96.7
166.2
157.2
182.2
122.0

176.8
171.6
138.8
151.4

Type A Ail dayl1ght hours operahon (e.g., HOtelS, Rosp1tals).

Type 8 Operat1on between 0700 HRS to 1700 HRS (e.g . Offices).
Type C Operation between 0900 HRS to 1800 HRS (e.g..
Stores).

Table 5.7 GLASS SHADING COEFFICIENTS

Gluing Type

Single Glass
3mm Clear
6 mm Clear
13 mm Clear
6 mm Heat Absorbing
13 mm Heat Absorbing
R 'i! flective. coated
Insulating Grass
6 mm air space
13 mm air soace

Shading Coefficient

1.00
0.95

0.88
0.67

0.5/J
0 .30-0.60
0.89

Light
Medium
Heavy

Under 50

50 230
Over 230

Max. U-Vtl'"
(W/mz.oc:

0 .50
0.80
1.20

5.4.3 The use of reflective coatings which are reasonably impervious tc

moisture degradation are strongly recommended 101' roofs as to~

overlays.
5.4.4 The values in Table 5.6 may be exceeded by 50% if any one of the fol
lowing applies:
1. The roof area Is shaded from direct solar radiation by ventilated
double roof;
2. External roof surface re11ective treatments are used wflere the sola.
reflectivity is equal to or greater tharl 0. 7 and the treatment is free frtJm

algae growth.
5.5 Air l"kage
5.5.1 General
The infiltration of warm air and exliltration of cold air contribute substan:
ti.JIIy to the heat gain of an air-conditioned building. As a basic requirement, buildings must not have unenclosed doorways, entrances
etc., and where heavy traffic of people is anticipated, self-closing doors
must be provideil.
5.5.2 Windows
Windows shall be desi(Jned to limit air leakage. The air inMration rate
shall not exceed 2 .Bm3'/hr per l inear meter ol sash crack when tested
under a pressure differential of 75 Pa Manufaeturers $hall provide
. ~ocumentatiOn c~ifying ~ompliance with this criterion.
5 .5.3 ::iwrng10g, Revo!vng or Sliding Doors
ihe_se types of ~oors shall be useo at all entrances and they shall be
des1gned lo hmt air leakage. The air infiltration rate Shall not tKceed
6_1.2 m3(hr per linear meter of C!oor crack wnen tested under a pressure
dtlferenhal of 75 Pa. Manufacturers shall provide documentation .::erti
fy1ng compliance with this criterion.
Air rurtaios may be used in very nigh 1101ume entrances only when
re11oiV1ng Of selfclosing sliding doors are not appropriate.
5.5 4 Effective m.tans of caulking and weatherstripping shaN be use6 to Mal
all penetralions through the exterior surfaces of the boiding.

504

etlon 6.0 AIR CONDITIONING SVSTEM

~~:':quiremenls

in this Section represent minimum design cri1eria. The

designer should evaluate ottter energy conservati0f1 measures which may
be applicable to the proposed tM.Iilding.

or

: Load Cak:ufatlona
:.1 Calculation Procedures
Cooling system design loads fOf the purpose of sizing system and
equipment should be determined in eccordance with the proeedures in
!he latest edilion of the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals or other
equivalent publications.
:.2 Indoor Design Condili0f1S
The indoor conditions in an a ir-conditi0f1ed space shall conform to the
following:
1. Design Dry Bulb Temperature
250C
2. Design Relative Humidity
55%
3. Maximum Dry Bulb Temperature
270C
4. Minimum Dry Bulb Temperature
230C
5. Maximum Relative Humidity
60%
6. Minimum Relative Humidity
50%
le: Indoor design conditions may differ from those presented above t>ecause of special occupancy or process requirements, source control.
sir contamination or local regulations.
~.3 Outdoor Design Conditions
The outdoor conditions shall be taken as folloW'!:
1. Design Ory Bulb Temperature
340C
2. Design Wet Bulb Temperature
270C
~.4 Vent~ation

The quality and quantity ol air used to ventilate air-conditioned spaces

shall always be sufficient and acceptable to human occupants and
comply with applicable health and/or air quality requirements.
Ventilation requirements shall confo.-m to the following design criteria
(Table 6 . t ) .
E>Cceprion:

Outdoor air quantities may fiXCeed those shown in Table 6. 1

becaus->A of special occupancy or process requirements,
source control, air contaminstion or local regulations.

1ble 6.1 OUTDOOR AIR REQUIREMENTS FOA VENTILATION

1ellity/ Area

>mmercial Stores
Sates l!oors & showrooms
Stockrooms
Dressing rooms
Mans &arcades
Shipping & receiving areas
Warehouses
Elevators
Smoking areas
>ons & Amusement Facilities
Ballrooms & discos
Bowling alleys (seats)
Gymnasiums
Spectator areas
Game rooms
ltels & Other Lodging Facilities
Bedrooms (SID)
Uving rooms (suite)
Baths, toilets
Lobbies
Conference rooms (small)
Large assembly rooms

Outdoor Air Requirements (Vs}

Smoking
Non-Smoing

12.5

12.5
12.5
50
5.0
5.0

17.5
15.0 (b)
10.0 (b)

25.0 (b}
7.5
17.5
17.5

35

Exception:

Systems with tDtlll t.n motor po-r requiremflflt of 7.5 kW or less.

6.4.2 Constant Volume Fan Systems

For fan !JY:st8ms ltwt prollide a constMI air volume whenever the fans
are operating, the power required by the mot()($ of the combined fan
SStem at design conditions shall not exceed 0.5 WJm3fhr.
6.4.3 Variable Air Volume fYAV) Fan Syatems
6.4.3.1 For fan systems that are able to vary system lllr volume automatically
as a function of load, the po-r req1.1ired by the motors of the combined
fan system at design conditions shall not exceed 0.75 W/m3{hr.
6.4.3.2 Individual VAV fans wittl motors rated at 7.5 kW and larger shall include controls and dlwicas Oec8$5411'f to mace the fan motor operate efficiently even at flow ratea of u low as 40% of the raled flow.
6.5 Pumping Syalem Dealgn Cr1tefla
6 .5.1 General
The following ~sign eti\efla apply to all pumping systems uaed for
comfort air conditioning. For purposes of this Section, the energy de
mand of a pumping Sstem is the sum of the demand of all pumps that
are required to oper411e at design conditions to supply fluid from the
cooling source to ttle conditioned space(a) or heat transfer device(s)
and return It b~~ek to the source.
Exception:
Syst.rns with tor.f pump motor po-r requirement of 7.5 kW or ~s.
6.5.2 Pressure Crop
Chilled water and cooling water circuits of air conditioning systems shall
be desigoed at a m8ldmum velocity of. 1.2 m/a tor a 51 mm diameter
pipe and a pre1111ure drop limit of 39.2 kPa per 100 equive~nt m for piping over 51 mm d~\ef. To minimize erosion for the attainment of the
piping system, the following water velocitiea should not be exceeded:
Table 6.2 MAXIMUM WATER VElOCITY TO MINIMIZE EROSION

3.5
7.5 (b)
5.0 (b}
25.0 (b)
2.5

Normal Operation
(hours per year)

3.5
35

1500

10.0

2.5

17.5

3.5

4000

17.5 {c)

3 .5 (c)

17.5

3.5

6000
8000

10.0

Recovery & ICU rooms

otes:

3.5

35

8.4 Fan Symm Design Clherla

6.4.1 General
The following design eti1aria apply to ell air conditio"ing fan aystems
used for comfort ventilating and/or air conditionillQ. For fie purpose of
this Section, the ene1gy demand ol a fM system 1S the sum of the demand of all faoa which are required to operate at design corfditions to
supply air from the cooling source to the conditioned space(s) or exhaust it to the outdoors.

2000
3000

12.5
17.5

Water Velocity
(fps)
(m/s)
10

9.5

7
6

3.1
2.9
2.7

2.4
2.1

1.8

,._,. The nois crilefill is nof included Mymore sine noiM itt piping tystems
is UWIIIy caMUid by entrainfld u wtlich could be elimins1ed.
6 .5 .3 Variable flow
Pumping systems that are provided wiltl control valves deSigned to
modulate or step open or close, depel"ldlng on the load, shalf be required for variable fluid flow. The system 1han be capable of reducing
system flow to 50% of the design flow or less.
Flow may be varied using variable apeed driven pumps. multiple stage
pumps or pumps riding their performance characteristic curves.
Pumps with steep performance curves shall not be used since they
tend to limit system flow rates. Variable speed or staged pumping
should be employed in large pumping systems.

7.5
30.0
7.5

Autopsy rooms
Physiall therapy-

tuealional Fac~itiea
CIAS:$1'09fTIS
Laboratories
Training shops
Libraries
Auditoriums

2 .5
7.5

10.0
17.5

~K:es

Work ereas
Meeting & waiting areas
l$pitals
Patient rooms
Medical procedure ereas
Operating rooms

2 .5
2.5
2.5
3.5
2 .5

25.0
17.5
17.5

t.3 System O..lgn and Sizing

Air conditioning system and equipment ahaM be sized as dose as
possible to the space and system loads calculated in accordance with
Section 6.2. The design ol ttle system nd the associated equipment
and controls lhould take into account Important factors such as nature
application, type of buading construction, Indoor and ootdoor
condibons, internal load patterns. control methods for effK:ient energy
utilization and economic factors.
6 .3. f Engineered systems and equipmeot should be properly sized and selected to meet maximum loads and should have good unloading charactefistica to meet the minimum load efficiently. These should be arr~ in multiple _un~s or increments of capacity to meet partial and
mnmum load requ~rements wi1hout short cyclin!f.
Chilled water systems 700 kW (200 TR) or less minit'num of 2 chiller units
/obove 700 kW to 42t 8 kW {1200 TR) - minimum of 3 chiMer units
Above 4218 kW to 8787 kW {2500 TRJ - minimum of 4 chiller un~s
Above ~787 kW - depends on t.~e qood judqm~nt olthe desi~n enQineer
6 3 .3 Consderattens should be g1vAn at the deSJgn stage lor provid1ng centralized monitoring and control to achieve optimum operation with minimum -:onsumplion of energy.

25
5.0
3.5
2.5

3.5

(a) AU rtgures are m liliii per UCOfld {f/} ,., penon, except:

(b) Unit is on a ,., room buia;

(c) Unit is on a per bed basis.

Exception:

505

6.7.3.3 Zones may be grouped into a single isolatlon area provlded the to
conditioned floor area does not exceed 465m2group nor
elude more than one floor.
6.7.4 Tempei-atur11 Controls
Where used to control comfaf\ cooling, temperatUre coottollers shol
be capable of being set locally or remotely by adjuslment or selecti
of sensors, between 230C and 270C or in accQ(dance wilt! 1o1
regulations.

6.7.5 Location
Thermostats in controlled zones should be located where they mE
sure a condit~ representative of !he whole space and where tney <
not affected by direct radiation, drafts, or abnormal thermal conducti
or stratification.

1. Systems where a minimum flow greater than 50% of the design flow
rate is required for me proper operation of tfle equipment sefved by
the system.
2. Systems that serve only one control valve.
6.5.4 Pumping Energy Consumption
The amount of energy used in hydronic systems can be gauged from
the Water Transport Factor. Th1s is the ratio of the rate of sensible
heat chan11e in the circulating water t~ power inpot to all pump me ors
operating 1n the circulating system, with the heat change measured at
the main heat exchange deviCe (e.g., chiller&, coodensers,_etc.).
6.5.4.1 The water transport factor shall not be less than .the fOlloWIIlg values:
ChiHed water system
30
Cooling water system (Open or Closed)
50
Hot water system
60
6 .5 4.2 For constant volume flow systems. the factor should be based on the
design water flow.
6 .5.4.3 For variable volume flow , the factor should be based on 75% of the
maximum design water flow.

per

6.8 Piping lnaulallon

6.6 Air Distribution System Design Criteria

6.6.1 General
S.S. 1.1 The temperature and humidity of the air within the conditioned space
shall be maintained at an air movement of from 0.20 to 0.30 mJs.
6.6. 1 .2 The air in such conditioned space(s) snould at au times be in constant
motion sufficient to maintain a reasonable uniformity of temperature
and humidity but" shall not ~use objectionable draft in any ~c~pi~d
portion(s). In cases where1n the only source of atr contam1nat1on IS
the occupant, air movement shaft have a velocity of not more than
0.25 m/s as the air enters the space.
6 6 2 Air Distribution
6 6 2.2 Air distribution should be designed f_o r minimur:n resistance and noise
generation. Ouctworks should d_ehver condlll~ned a1r to the spaces
as directly, quietly and economcally as possible and return the ar
to the cooling sourca. When the duct layout has few outlets.
conventional tow velocity design which corresponds to a flow
resistance of 0 .8 to 1.5 Pa per equivalent m shalt be used. In
complex systems with long runs and medium to high pressures of
375 to 2000 Pa ductwork should be designed at pressure drop of
nm greater than'3 to 5 Paper equivalent m ..
6.6.3 Sepatate Air Distribution System
6.6.3. 1 Areas that are expected to operate non-simultaMously fOf rnot:e t~an
750 hours per year $hall be served by separ ate air dist~but1o_o
systems.. As an alternative, off-hour controls shall be provided m
accordance with Section 6. 7 .3.
6 .6.32 Areas with special process temperature and/or humidity requirements
should be served by air distribution systems separate from those
serving the are~ requiring only comfort -cooling, or shall include
supplementary provisions so that the primary systems may be
specifically controlled lor comfort purpc.ses only.
Exception:
Areas requiring comfort cooling only that are served by a system
primarily used for- process temperature and humidity controf, need
not be served by a separate system if the total supply air to these
areas is no more than 25% of the total system supply arr or the total
conditioned area is less than 100 m2.
6.6.3.3 Separate air distribution systems should be considered for areas
. having substantially different cooling characteristics. such as
perimeter zones in contrast to interior zones.

6 .8.1 All chilled water pipings shall be thermally insulated in acc:ordance w

Table 6.3 to prevent heat gain and avoid sweating on the lnsulati
surface. The insulation shall be suitably protected from damage. .
6.8.2 <?hiH~r surface& esp~i.ally the evaporator Shell and comptessor Sl
t1on ltne(s) should be 1nsulated to prewnt sweating and heat ga
Insulation covering surfaces oo which moisture can condense or tflo
exposed to ambient conditions must be vapor-sealed to prevent a
moisture seepage through the insulation or to prevent condensation
the insulation.
Exception:
1. Piping that convey Ruids tl}at have net been cooled through the u
of fossil fuels or electricity.
2. Piping at fluid temperatures between 200C and 400C.
3. When !he heat gain of the piping without insulation does n01 .
crease the energy requirements of the building.
Table 6.3 MINIMUM INSULAnON THICKNESS FDA VARIOUS PIPE
SIZES
Piping
System
Types

Fluid
Temp.
Range
(OC) .

CoiNed
Water
R"efrigerant or
Brine

P tP E

...

SIZES (mm)

Condenaate
drains to 50

SO or 63to
78

89 ar
larg

4.5to
13.0

25

38

38

50

4.5and
below

50

50

63

63

nsu at1on t rc nesses mm m a e . are ased on msulat10n havu

thermal resistivity in t e range of 0.028 to 0.032 m2-0QW.mm on
flat svrface at 11 mean temperature of 240C. M inimum insulatit
thickness shall be increased for materials having R values less the
0.028 m2.oc;w-mm or may be reduced for materials having R valu1
greater than 0.028 mZ.oc;w-mm.

6.8.3 For materials with thermal resistance greater than 0.032 m2-0CJV\I-mr
the minimum insulation thickness shall be:
0.032 x thickness in Table 6 .3
t:
Actual

6.7 Controls
6. 7. 1 System Control

R value

[Eq~tion6.

6.7. 1 , Each air-conditioned system shall be provided with at least one control device for the re~ulation of temperature.
6.7.1.2 All mechanical yentilahon system (supply and e)(hau~) equ!pment ~i
thet' operating continuously or not shall be prov1ded with read1ly
accessible manual and/or automatic controls or other means of vol
ume reduction , or shut-off when ventilation is not required.
6.7.2 Zone Control
6.7.2.1 Each air-clinditioned zone shall be controlled by individual ltlermostatic controls responding to temperature within tile zone.
6.7.2.2 Systems that serve zones that can be expected to operate non-simultaneously for more than 750 hours per year (i.e ., approximately
3 hours per r1ay on a 5 day per week basis) shall include isolation
devices and controls to stl\Jt off the supply of conditioned air to each
zone independently. Isolation is nOl required for zones expecteO to

=:cn~tinuou.sly.

1. Systems which are restricted by proce!JS requil8ments such as

combustion air intakes.
2. Gravity and other non-slactrical ventilation system may be
controlled by readily accessible manual d;jmper.
6 .7 .3 Control Area
6.7.3.1 The supply of cood~looed air to eacfl zone/area should be controlled
by individual cootrol device respooding to the average temperature
within the zone. Each controlled zone shall not exceed 465m2 in
area.
6.7.3.2 For buildings whwe occupancy pa~erns ~~not ~~~ow~ at the time of
system design, such as speculatiVe butldtngs, tsolallon areas may
be oredesiqned.

where:

I minimum thickness, mm
A .. actual thermal resistance, m2-0C/W-mm

6 .8.4 For materials with thermal resistance lower than 0.028 m2--oC/W-mr
the minimum insulation thickness shall be:
0.028 x thickness in Table 6.3
t "
Actual R value

[Equation 6.:
t minimum thickness. mm
A "' actual thermal resistance , rn2-0CIW-mm
6.9 Ai r Handling Sytem Insulation
6.9.1 Ali air handling ducts and plenums installed as part of ltle air dlstributiCi
system and which are outside of air-conditioned $p8Ce$ shall t:
thermally insulated sufficiently to minimize temperalute rise of the a
stream within them and to prevent sUrface condensation.
Insulated ducts located outside ot buildings shan be jacketed It
raintightness and for protection against damage.
Air ducts or plenums within air-conditioned spaces may not be ins1
lated if the temperature difference, TO, between the aw outside arr
within the ducts or plenums would not cause surface conde.nsatic>
Due consideration should be paid to the relative humidity of air su
rounding the ducts or plenums.
The required insulation lhiclcness shall be computed using insulatic
material having resistivity ranging from 0.023 to 0.056 m2-0C/Wm
and the following equation:

506

where:

~<Rs(Dp -

Table 8.5 MINIMUM PERFORMANCE RATING OF VARIOUS AtR CO~DI-

tol

L =--------

110HING EQUIPMENT

(Db - Dp) .

where:

Db
Dp
to

As

ambi en_t still air dry bulb temperature, OC

de.w pomt. oc
operating temperature, oc
surlace thermal resistance
0.115 m2.oCNJ
mean thermal conductivity, W-mm/m2.oc
thickness. mm

Air Conditioning Equipment

kWe/'t<Wr

COP

p to 20 kWr capacity
21 too 60 kWr capacity
61 to 120 kWr C&Pl!City
Over 120 kWr capacity
Centrifugal chillatS (up to 800 kWr)
air cooled
wat cooled
R~
chillers (up to 120 kWr)

0.56
0.53
0.50

1.80
1.90

0.39

2.60

Wlllercooted
Centrifugal chllenl (above 800 kWr)
aif cooled
watlf cooled
Recipro<;ating chillers (above 120 kWr)

0.26

3 .85

0.37
0.22

2.70
4 .54

~nitarr, AIC units

Exception:
1. wmtn the heat gain of the ducts, without insu/Jition, will not increase
ffle energy requirements of the building.
2 . Exhaust air ducts
.9.2 The thermal resistance of the insulation, excluding film resistances,
should be:

TO
R -- m2-0CIW-mm
347

[Equation 6.3)
where TO Is in OC.
.1 0 Air Conditioning Equipment
.10.1 Minimum Equipment Performance
Air conditioning equipment shall have a minimum performance corresponding to the rated conditions shown in Table 6 .4. Data furnished by
equipment supplier or manufacturer or eertified undirr a nationany re<.ognized certlfcatiOn program or rating procedure shall be acceptable
to satisfy these requirements.'

Notes:

0.48
0 .44

0.25

2.00
2.10
2.30
4 .00

kW9'1fWr =kilowatt elsctricity ~r kilowatt refrigeration

kWefTR "' kiloWatt electricity per ton of retrigeration
1 TR = 3.51685 kWr
Table 65 should be in confonnity with Table 6.4.

6.10.2 Field-assembled Equipment and Components

6.10.2.1 When components from more than one supplier are used as parts of

the air .cond~ioning system, component efficiencies shall be specified

baSed On !he data provided by the suepli9f's7manufacturers. Which
Sl\all provide a system that complies with the requirements of Section 6.10. 1.
.
6.10.2.2 Total on-site energy input to the equipment shalf bedetermmed by
the energy inputs to all components such at compressor(s).
pump(s}, lan(s), purge device(s}, lubrication accessories and controls.
6. 10.3 Air Conditioning EQuipment Controls

Evaporator coil frosting and excessi~- compressor cycling at part
toad conditions should be controlled by limited and rego1aled cycling
olthe refrig~ant rather than by the u9e -of higher hot gas by-pass o'
evaporator pressure regulator control. :

ab.. 5.4 STANDARD RATED CONDITIONS FOR AIR CONDITIONING

. _-_,_~rs~jNs

Water Cooled
Water
Chillers
(OC)
:hilled water
Supply
:hilled Water
Return
:ooting Water
Supply
:ooting Water

Return

7.0

7.0

12.0

12.0

Water Cool ad
Package
A/C Units
(OC)

Section 7.0 STEAM AND HOT WATER SYSTEMS

29.5

29.5

35.0

35.0

:ondenser Air
Inlet
:vaporator
Inlet

lote:

Air Cooled
Water
Chillers
(OC)

7.1 Scope
. .
.
This section applies to the energy conserving desi~o of sleam and hot
water services in buildings such as l)otels and bos.p ilals.. The purpose of
this section is to provide ctileria for desiQil and equipment selection that
will provide energy savings when applied to steam ana hot water systems.

35.0
270 DBT ()
19.0WBT { ..)

(") Dry Bulb Temperature

(*") Wet Bulb Temperature

;.10.1.1 Coefficient of Performance (COP)

The COP of an air conditioning system is the ratio Qf the useful
cooling effect to the total energy input. The total energy input refers
to the combinaHon of the energy inputs of all elements of tne
equipment, including but not limited to: compressor{s). pump(s).
fan(s), COOling lower(s) and control(s).
:. 10. 1.2 Unitary Air Conditioning Units Electrically Operated
This section applies to, but not necessar~y limited to, room air conditioners, package air con<fitiorrers. direct expansion units and in
general, all unitary equipment.
The COP shall not be less than those quoted in Table 6.5.
:.10.1 .3 Water Chillers- Electrically Operated
This section applies to. but not necessarily limited to. individual
components forming part of a system and which are not instailed as
part of a supplier's matched or complete system.
The COP at design full load shall not be less lhan the values shown
in Table6.5.

7.2 System Design and Sizing

7.2. 1 In large scale schemes, a choice has to be made between central storage ol llot water with a circulating loop and individual storage heaters
placed locally at demand eenters. The system with the loWest overall
ene~y usage (considering the heat losses in the calorifier and the circulating loop ol a centralized system and the total heat losses from a
system of individual storage heaters) should be chosen.
7.2.2 Service water heating system design toads for the purpose ol sizing
shall be determined using the procedures given in the latest edition of
the ASHRAE Handbook on HVAC Sysutms and Applications or other
equivalent publications.
7.2.31n systems.where boilers are vsed both for tt~ water service and other
heating applications {steam systeryls) , the boiler capacity should be
based on the total heat d8milfld of the hot water system, as eaJcvtatect
~~- accofda.nce witt>. S<acti<:ln 7 .1.2: the expected maximum steam consu ~ptlon or a~< nstaued s1eam neareo equ~Jlf'lenl , as turn isned by the
equ~pment s':'pph~r or manu facturer. or cert1f1ed under a nationally recogmzed cert1f1call0f1 program or ra11ng procedure; and other misceltaneous loads such as the heat required to initially Ileal up the water in
the system and the heat losses in the steam distribution system.
7.3 Minimum Equipment Efficiency
All boilers and h:)t water storage tanks shall meet lhe criteria in Table 7.1.
Exception:
Hot wat11r storage tanks having mor& than 2 m3 of storage capacity nfi#XJ
not ~' the standby loss or heat loss rt~quirements of Table 7. 1 if th9
lank surface is thermally insulated with 11 suitable insulating material with
R = 0.045 m2-0CtW.rnm.

507

Tabl 7.2. MINIMUM PIPE INSULATION (HEATING SYSTEMS)

Table 7.1 MINIMUM PERFORMANCE RATINGS OF STEAM AND HOT

WATER SYSTEMS EQUIPMENT
Equlpmant

System
Types

Minimum Criteria

Shell Boilel (li ht oil fired)

@ Rat~ Capacity
@ Part Load Capacity

Shtll Boiler (heavy oil fired)

@Rated Capacity
@ Pan Load Capacity
Urlfll'ed Storage Tans (att volumes)
Su.rtace Heat Loss (max)

Rar~ge

85% bo~et efl.

80% boiler eft.

Steam
and
Condensates

85% boiler eft.

80% boilet etf.

7 .5 Control
7.5.1 Hot water systems shall be equipped with effective automatic tempet'ature controls which ate capable of holding the wateo- lempefature to +/
30C of the temperatures set irt Sec. 7.4.
7.5.2 Systems designed to maintain usage temperatures In the circulating
loop shall be equipped with automatie time switches 0/f other controls
ltlat can be set to turn off lhe system when use of hot water is not re-

Hot
Water

Note:

to so

less

50

38
38

63
50

6~

25
12
12
12

38
38

63
50
38

25

25

25

25

25

38

63 to
76

89 and
larger

76
63

89

50

50
38
38

38

89

38

=
=

7.7 Waste Heat Recovery and Utlllzatlo"

7 . 7. 1 Consideration should be given to the use of condenser heat. waste he<
or solar energy to supplementl'!ot water requifemenls.
7 .7.2. Storage should be used to opttmize heat recovery when the llow of he.:
to be recovered is out of phase with the demand for hot water.

trols when necessary. Controls shall be accessible to operatinl) per

sor.nel.
7 .5.4 Controls of Hot Water Consetvation
7.5.4.1 Showers In bathrooms shall have outlets wtlictl restrict the flow to not
. mote than 0.2 lis. LavatorieS in public. areas o4 buildings $hall have
taps with controlled flow at a rate not exceeding 0.05 1/s. This applies
to both cold and hot water taps when separate taps are used.
7.5 .4.2. Single outlet mixing taps with a flow of 0 .05 1/s should be used in
preferl!f'lee to separate cold and hot water taps.
7.5.4.3 Polnt.of-ute water heaters shall only be consldefed if ltleit use is
guaranteed to reduce energy cost.

7.1 Piping lnaulatlon

7.6 .1 Circulating Systems
The insulation of steam, condensate and hot water lines shall conform
to the requirements in Table 7.2 Olf an aquivalent level as calculated in

31 to

Thermal resistivity (m2-oC;W-mm) ranges are as follows:

0.020 0.022
(b) R ~ 0.0220.024
(C} R., 0.023 0.026
(d) R z 0.024 0.028
(e) R 0.025 0 029
(a} R

i.5.3 Manual controls shalt also be provided to override the automatic con-

accordance wilfl Eqn. 7 .1.

12 50.8 do (((1 +2 It/do exp (r21r1H 1)

250(

>16Q(a)
120. 180 (b)
95 120 (c)
6095 (d)
40-60 (e)
40 & (e)
above)

43W/m2

SIZES (mm)

Run outs

(OC)

7.4 Hot Water Temper~ture

The maximum hot water supply temperaiUres shaM be as follows:
For washing ,etc.
400C
Fot hot baths
450C
For kitchen use
600C
It is reoo'mmended that two separate systems be installed when two
different temperatutes are reqtJired to nWiimae piping heat losses. This
should always be done where the demand at the lower temperature ill
greater than 25% of the demand at the higher temperature.

quired.

PIPE

Fluid
Temp.

(Equation 7.1J

where: t.,, t 1 ... minimum insulation thickness of matQI'ial& with r 1 and

t21hermatres1Stlvity , respectively, mm
r2. r, .. thermal resistiv~in. m20CfWmm
do;;: outside pipe diameter, mm
Subscript 1 refers to values quoted in Table 7.2: subscript 2 refers to
values corresponding to alternate insulating material.

NOla: Th8 11se of asbestos in 11ny pDition of llle piping system is not
allowed.
7.6.2 Non-circulating Systems
The first 2.5 m of outlet piping from a storage system that Is maintained
at a constant temperature and the inlet pipe between the stOifage tanl<
and the heat trap shall insulated as provided in Table 7.2 or to an
eouivaH!nt level as calculated in accordance with Equation. 7 .1.

508

PubiiMed In 1883
by 1M Department of Energy
Phlllpplnelt

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Acoustical Designing in Architecture

. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .

MIH Living Magazine ........... .. ...... ..... ................ ...... ...... ..

How to Decorate without a Decorator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brochures from different companies... .................................

Architect's Data . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .
Asian building and construction .. .... .. , .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. ..

509

Vern 0. Knodsen
Cyril M. Harris
McGuinness
Stein
Reynolds
Oct 1983
Mary GiHiatt
Pointer Enterprises, Inc.
ACI House
Campos Rueda Inc.
AVD Marl<eting Corp.
Ernst Neufart
March 1974

.INDEX

candlePoViler... :...... .. .. ... ... ...... ..... ...... ... .. 221

Card Index Files ...... ..... ............... ..... ....... . 420
Cathode .. .. .. ..... ... .... .. ..... ..... ................. 275
Cathode Lamp ........... :. . ... . ... ... .. ... . ... .. .. .. 276
Cavity Ratios ......................... ....._. ... .. 354, 366
~ailing ... ,......... """.. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. .. . . . 375
Ceiling Cavity . . ... . .. .. ... . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. ... . .. 309
Ceiling Cavity Luminance
Coefficients .. . .. .. .. .. .. . ... .. . .. .. 348, 349, 350
Cellulo&e Produ c~s. ... . .. .. ... .. ..... ... ..... ........ . 106
Celotex Mineral
. Fibttr Til~ . .. ......... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... . . .. ..... . 169
Central Speake"r Arrays ................. .. :....... ... 131
Cementitious .. .. . .... .. ......... ...... ... .. ... ... ... 101
Chalkboard lighting Units .. ... . . . . ... . .. . . .. .. 305
Chromaticity ............... . .......... ......... ... ... 301
CIE Calculation Systems . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. 252
Coffer type Fixture .. .. . .. ... .. . ... .. . . .. .. . .. . . .. .. 318
Combustible.... ........ .... ... ... ... .. ......... .. ... 88
Cones .... ... .... ........ .... ..... ...... ...... ..... .... .. 329
Contrast Rendition Factor ............ .... ........ 233
Cornices.... .. .. ........ .. ... .... ..... ... .. . 321, 373, 377
Cornices Lighting . . .. . ... .. .. . .. ... .. . . ... .. . .. .. ... 385
C~t of Errors ......... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Coves ........ .. .. .... ...... ...... .... ..... ............. . 373
Creep ... ... ...... .... ... ... ........... ... ...... .. ...... 85
Critical Distance... ......... ........ ... .. .. .. ....... ... 135
Cusl1iontone.. ... ...... ... ... ... .... .. .... ..... ...... .... 96

Aesthetic
Abrasion .. .... .. ... .. . .. ... ... .. . . ... ... . . .. .. ... . ... . 100
Absorption ........ ...... -:-.......... ........ ..... 140, 204
Absorption Coefficient
forAuditoriums .. .... ...... ... 197. 198, 203, 205
for Stage Openings .. .. . .. ... . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 206
Absorption Coefficient ... .. ......... ,. .. . .. .. .. .. ... 163
Absorptive Properties .. :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
Ab10rptive-Strips .... .. .. .. .. . ......... . ..... .. .. ... 215
Accentuated .. .-: .. :::.. .... . .. . ....... .... ... .. .. 322
Accent ljghting ...... :: ... ,............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Acceptable"Noise Level ......... .. ... ..... .. ...... 141
Acoustic Absorbent . -~ --- .. . .... ..... .. .. ....... .. 147
Acoustic-Celotex.. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . ... . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . 91
Acoustics . ....... ..... .... ... .. .... .. ... . 112. 146, 197
Acoustical Condition.. ... .... ... .... .. ........ ..... .. 2(!i
Acoustical Defects ....... .. .. ... .. .... . . .. .. ... ... 207
Acoustimetal Perforated
Metal Panel . .. ... . . ... . .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . 169
Acoustical Power . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. ... . .. .. . .. .. .... . 14
AcousticaiTreatment . ....... .. ..... . ... .. ... 124,216
Air-Borne Sounds .. ... ..... ...... ..... ........ ...... . 148
Ambient lighting . .. ... . . ... . .. .. .... .. .. .. . .. . 426, 428
Amplifier ...... ..... ......... ........ ....... ...... ... .... 129
Amplifier Rating.... ... ...... ................ .. ... ... .. 209
Amplitude Vibrator .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. . .... .. . . 07
Angle Reflector . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . ::JJ7
Antithetical. .. .. .. .... ....... .. .. ..... ......... ...... .. . 294
Apertude ....... .. .. ...... ...... ... ....... ...... .. .. .. 102
A rchitectural Acoustics .. ... .. . .. . . .. . .. ... . .. .. ..
2
Architectural Features
or Pattern ... . .. .. . .. .. . . .. ... ... ... .. .. .. . . . ... . 294
A rchitectural Motif .. . .. .. .... .... .. . .. .. .. . ... .. . . 322
Articutation Index .. .... .... ..... .. .. . ....... .. .. ... . 61
Attenuation ............................ ..... ... 138, 148
Audible Sound . .. .. .. .. .. .. . ... .. . ... ... . .. .. .. .. .. . .
2
Auditorium....... ..... ... .... .... ......... ........ ..... 114
Auditorium Design .. .. . .. .... . ... .... . ...... .... ... 133
AuditCJI"y Masking .... ......... .... .... .... .......... 42
Azimuth, Altitude .. ...... .. ........ ...... 248, 249,250

D
Damping.... ........ .. ... .... ... ... .............. .. .. ... 180
Daylight . .. . ... .. ... .. . ... .. .. . .. ... . .. .. .. ... .. . . ... ... 247
Daylight Continual Variation .. .. .... . ... .. .. .. .. . 247
Daylight in Construction
Principles . .. .. ... . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. ... .. .. . .. ... . .. 2S8
Decibel ... .... .. ...... ..... ..... .. ..... ...... .. ..... 150, 18
Delay Mechanism.. ... ... ..... .... ... .. ..... .. ....... 130
Dense Plastic Reflector......... ...... .. .. ... .. .. .. .. 306
Diaphr11gm . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . 148
DiaphragmaticActions .... .... .. ......... .......... . 148
Diffraction ... ... .... ..... ... . ... ..... ...... 53, 150, 171
Diffusion .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .... .. .. . . .. ... .. . . .. .. . . 84, 109
Diffusing Sheet . .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . 308
Directionality .. .. .. .. .. . .. ... ... .. .. .. .. . ... . .. . .. .. .. . 48
Directivity . ... . .. .. .. .. .. .... .. . ..... . .... .. .. 124, 40, 78
Direct Downlight ... . .. .. .. ... ... .. . .. .... . ... . . ... . . 299
Diret Glare .. . ... .. . .. .. . ... . .. .. .. .. ... . . .. .. .. .. ... .. . 298
Direct-indirect Lighting........ .. .... ... ..... ....... . 309
Direct Lens Unit.... .. ... ... .. .... ... .. ... ....... .... .. 299
Diractiooal Lighting . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 299
Direct Troffer Lens ... ...... ...... ... ... ........ ... .. 299
Direct Open R eflecton~ .. .. .. . ... .. .. . .. ... .. .. .. .. . . 2:99

8
Baffles.. ............... ..... .... .. ... ... ..... ... .. .. .. ...
Baked Enamel Finish .. :.. ...... .. .. ... .. ...... ... ....
Band ... ... ... ... ...... ..... .. .. .... ......... ..... ........
Barely Perceptible........ ... ....... ..... . .. . .. ... .. .
Batwing Diffusers .... .... ..... ... ............. .... ...
Batwing Distribution.. .... ....... ..... ......... ......
Black Cone Downlights .. .... .. .. .. .. . . .. ... .. ....
Building Orientation .. .. . ... ... .. . ... . .. .. .. .. ... .. ..
Built-in Lighting ......... .. .... .... ................ .. ..
Bulbs .. .. .. ...... ..... ..... .... .. ... ....... ..... ...... ..

339
172
43
172

340

342
316
256

372
263

510

Disabling Glare . .. .. ........... .. ... ... .. ..... ... .....

301

Distribution CLH'V8S .... .......... .. .. ........ ...:...

330

Divergence . ....... . .......... : . . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .

Draperies ............................. .. ........ : .. ...
Drop Fixture ............. ......... .... .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .

148
107

G
General Diffuse .. .. .. .................... ...... . 299.309

302

General Lighting .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... . .. . 368, 379

for Living Areas ............. . .. ..... ....... ..... 380
General Reading Room.. ............................ 417
G9QfJletrical Optics ....... ............. "' .. . . . .. . .. . .. 71
Glass Diffuser Panel ..... .. . .. .. .. .. .. ...... . ...... .. 336
Glass Fiber Baffles.......... ................ ......... 173
Glare .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .... . ..... ...... .. ... 22.7, 442
Glare Control .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . 255, 302
GlareZone ............ ....... ........ ............. .... . 22.1
GymnatQrium....... ......... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. ....... .. .. 196
Gypsum Board .. .. .... ................. ..... . .. . _ . ... 100

176
209
275
246
247
148
339

Hannonies .......... ....... .... ... .. .. ..... , .. ... .. .. .. 50

. Hearing Mechanism .......... ............... .. . /.... 24
Heat Control .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 255
Heat Insulator .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. 146

404

E
Ear Plugs........ ...... ..... .. .... ... .... .... ... .........

139
248
83, 215

Earth Motion .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .
Echoes .. .. ......... .... ..... .. .... .. .. .. .. .. ...... .

246

Efficacy ... ' . ' .. .. .. . . . .. . . . .. .. .. . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

Efficacy L8mp ................ : .. .... .. .......... .. .'.
.. Efftcacy of Radiation ......... .... ..... .. ..... .. .. .. ..
Electto-Acoustical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electric Discharge Lamps ........ ... ..... ....... . .. .
.. Electrical Lighting ............ ....... . . : .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. Electric Ughting System .. . .. .. . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .
Elevator Shafts ... .. .. .. . ... .. . .. .. .. . . .. .... . .. . .. .. .
Elliptical Cones .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. ..
Emergency Lighting System ........... ..........
Equal Loudness Contour .......... ....... .. ..... ...
Equalization .......... ........ : . ... ... .. : .'. .... .... :..
Eyeball. .......................... ....... ........ .......

Hellt Removal Fixture

447

......................., ......

130
388

Huygen's Principle ...... .. .. ... ........ .. . .. .... .. .. :.

Fiber Board .................................. . .... ...... 160

Fibrous Materials .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Film (background} Noise ...... .. ... .. . .. . .. .. .... .. 212
Fire Resistant ................ .. ..... ... .. .'. . .......... . . 88

IES daylight Calculation .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. 246

Illumination, Exterior ........... ........ ........ : .. .. . 248
Illumination Levels ............. :. 260, 360, 363, 404
Illumination Uniformity ................. .. . :.. .. . .... 334
Immobile Trade-off ................. : . .......... :.. .. . 197
Impacts .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. 176
lmpactf!Qise Reduction .. . ... .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 1n

158
299
176
88

IIT1C)8fmeable .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. ..

182
353

294
304

Construction .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. . 279

Efficacy

Temperature
Voltage
Dimming and low-output

Calculations .............. :... : .. .. .. . .. :.. .... . 351

Interstices............. ............ , ....... , ... .. .. .. .. ... 88
Isolation .. .. ............. ..... .. .. ......... ....... 181, 189

Fluor~ntTubes .............. .... ... ...... ......... : 3?6

f lutter ......... ......................... ..... ............. , 83
Flutter Echoes .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . ..... .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . 119
Focusing................. ............ .. .... "' ...... .'... 83
Fool Roof .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. ...... 88

Fool\;andles .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 299
.. .. Foodambert ....................... ... .............. , .. 223
FramingProjectors ... .. ..... .. .. .. .. .'........ :: .. :.

' .. Journeyman ............................ _. .......,. .. .. :.:: ...._. .. 88

392

. =...:.::::..:.::::.:.:::.<:. :. ..::::.:.:.:.:'~:.~ - ~
,'fuzzing . ... .............. .. ...... : .. :: ; .. : .. .,. -: .. .'....

168

Imp u lse Sounds ............ .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .... .. . .. ,, . 40

Incandescent Asymetric Lens Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
lndancescent Filament Lamp

Construction .................... .. ... .. .... .'. ~ .. 261

Special Design . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . 262
lncidentSounds ............................ .. ..... : .. : 69
Incombustible ..... ........................ .. . : ....... _ 94
lnstantaneousSpeechPower ....... :.. .... ...... : 54
lnteg1111ted Ceiling Design ........ .. .......... .'. ..... 435
Intelligibility ..................... .......... . ..... : .. .. :., 76
lntelli(Jibility of Speech ..................... :.. 53, 116
.. , lntenaitylevel ........ : ..... : ... : .. .. ... .. : ...... : .... .. 18
. Interfering Reflection ................. .....:... .... . 215
. Interior Illu mination

Data (typical) ................. ... . .'. ... .......... 279

Characteristics and Operation .......... ..... 281
Interchangeability .............. ...... .'. ......... 'ZT1
Fluorescent lamp Life .. . . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. 281, 284

l umen OutPUt

74

.I

Fixture Pattern, Attractiveness .. .. .... .. ........ 322

Fixture Regress .. .. .. .. .. . ... .. . .. . .... .. .. .. .. .. . ... . 318
Flanking . .. ..... ............... ...... .. .. ....... .... .. ..
Flexible Lighting Control .. .. .. ...... ...............
Flexible Mounting .. .. .......... ............ :.. .. .. .. .
Flexural Vibration ...... ... ... ..... .. .... .. ... .'.... .. .
Floating Floor System .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. ..
. Floor Cavity Reflectance ........ .. ... , .. .. . .. .. .. ..
Flowchart Figure ................. . ... .'... . .... .. ....
Fluorescent .................. ..... , ................ .'.
Fluorescent Lamp,

HID Sources ................................. ,.. 417,418

High-level lllumi Mtion .................... .. .. . .. .. . 197
High Reflectance Finish .. .... .. .. .. ... .. .. ..... .... J06
-. Horizontat-planelllumination . ....... ........... , .. . :IJ7
Hori.zont.lll Surfaces . .. .... .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. ... .. .. . 254

321

Kitchen Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

Kit chen Lighting Options ...... .. .... .. ... ..: ..... : . 400

173

511

Noise Level Reduction .. .. .... ......................

Noise Rating... ...... ................ . .. .. .. ... .. ... .. ..
Noise Reduction Coefficient ................... ..
Noise Reduction Measures ...... ... .... ...........
Noise, Street .............. .. ... ...... .. ...... ........
Nomogram... .......... ... .... .. ...... . .... .... .. ......
Nomograph .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. . ..
Nonuniform Layout .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. ..
Nubby... ... ............... ......... .. ...................

Large Area lndifect

Diffusing Units .. .. .. .. .. ... ... . .. .. .. .. . ....... 300

Lamps ...... ..... ..... .. .... ..... .... , .. .. .. .. ...... 262, 263
Lamp Data . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247, 266
Lamp efficiency..... ..... ..... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265, 266
lamp Holdefs.......... ... ............................. 390
lamp life Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
lamp, other Characteristic . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Latitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. 249
Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Law of Reflection .. .. .. ..... ... .. .. .. .. ........ 70, 1 T8
LeBARON Design ............... .. .. .. ............. .. 169
Lecture Room ... ................... . ...... .......... 114

248
268
339

306
298
390

lumen .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . 22, 301

lumen Maintenance... .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. 286
Color
Sorroundings
luminous Transmittance .. .................... .....

Panel Reaonators .......... ....... .... ........ ...... .

155

PARLampa ................ ..... ........ ....... .... ..

272
D
306
329
54
392
247

Parabolic .Louvers .......... ......... .... ... ......... .

Trough .............. ......... .. .... ............ .
Cones ...................... .... ......... .. .. .... ..
Peak Speech Power ... ...... .......... ... .........
Pendant Downlights .. , .. .. ........... ... ..... ..... .'.
Pennanent Lighting ....................... .. ..... .. .
Periphy .... ...... ...... ... .... ... ................. .. 155

219

PiO:hole Downlight. .. .... . ... .... .. . ... .. . .. ......

nJ

Pinpoint SPots ....................... ... ........... .. 388

Pitch
. 26
Pourous Materials ............. .... ,. .. ..... .......... 146

Mesldng Audiogram .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . 41
Masking .................... ............. .............40, 41
Masking Data ....... ................... . :....... .... ... 41
Masking Sounds . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . 42
~asking Spectrum . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 41
Malking'Tone . .... .... .. .. .... ..... ... ......... ........ 42
Mecl\anical Noise Sources .. .. .. .. .... . .. . .. .. .. .. 187
Medlanization ... .............. . .. ...... .. ......... .. 138
Metal Halide .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. 299
Minifnum Audible Threshold .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . ... .. 26

Porosity . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. . .. .. ..

8B

Public Buildings............ .......... .. . ............ ..

Pumps. ...... ......................... ... . , . .. .. . . .. .. . ..
Philips Theater .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . ...... ..

406
t91
122

Phonemes .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. ..

15'

Phosphore Fluorescent ...... ...... , . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 276

4
Physical DiSturbance.. .'........ .'......... ,.. .. .. ... ...
Opdes . .. ...... .. ... ........ ............ .. ...... ..
Acoustics .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. 71

Monolithic Partitions.......... .. ..... ........... .... . 153

Monitor loudspeeklf' Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Multi-level Ballast~ .. ... .... .. .. ... .. . .............. 299
Music Effect ............. .. ...... ....... .. .. .......... 1519

PlaidDesign ................... ....... .. ...... ..... '.

tee

Planning Installations . .. .. .. ....... . ..... .. .... .... 384

Plastic Diffusers, lens . .. ... . .. . .... .. .. D, 336, 338
Pre-heat lamp . .. .. .. .... .. .... ..... .. .. .. .. .... .. ...
Presaure Pulsations .. .. . .. .... .. . .. . .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . 152
Spectr\!m .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 163
Prismatic lena .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. ... .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 339

zn

N
Nadir ............................ ........ ............... 315
Narrow Beam Downlight ... .. .. . .... .. .. .. .. .... .. 300
Natural Fissured.................... ................... 169

Near Field .. . .. . .. ... .. . .. . .. ... .. . .. .. ... . .. .. .. ... .. ..

430
169

Octave-band SpectrUIT! ....................... , .. .. . S3

OffiCe .. .... ...... ................ .... . .. ... .. .......... . .423
Maintenance Fenestration ...... .. ...... .... 423
Office Ughting Equipment .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 423
Opal Ughting Globe .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .... .. .. . .. 3m
Open Downlights . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . 390
Open Reflectors......... ..... .. ...... .. .... ........... 382
Open Plenum............ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 159
OpenW,ndow ......... ..... .............. . .......... 148
Operable Sun Control .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 2!56
Operating Energy Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Optimum Reverberation .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. 198, 210, 216
Volume ................. ......................... 210
Outdoor Brightness ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. ... .. 250

Lens Reflector . .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. ... ... . .. .. .. 328

light Sourea. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. ... . .. .. .. .. .. . .. ..

1!56
9

Life Cycle Coets ... .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . . .. . . . .. 294

Life Hours .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 302
Ught ....................... .... ....... ............... .. 218
Lighting . .. .. . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. 394
lighting, Artificial .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . .. .. 247
lighting Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462. 453
Ught Control .. .. ... .. . .. . ... .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 294
Ughting Effectiveness Factors .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Lighting Quality . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 'lZ1
Lighted Ranged Ventilating Hood ........... .... . 404
Long Life lamps .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
louvers .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .
louv8nld Spotlight .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. ..
Low Rllflectad Glare ..... ......... .. , .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .
lowVoltageSpots ..... ....... .... .................

163
63
163
201
50

Spotlight................... ............ ........ ..

306

Private Office.................................. ... .. .. . 423

PI"'OCttniuma .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 101
Pro;ect lighCing Cost .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 218
Energy Budget .. .. .. ... . .. .. ... .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. 296
Projector Spots . .... .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. ... .. 390, 382

36

Nciea Criteria .. ... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ... .. .. . 82

Noile Concrol Treatment . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. 148
Noise Level ......... .... .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. 138

512

Propagation . .... .. ............... .................. _.... 8

Sound .... ............................................ 4
Pyramidal Module . . . .. .. .. . . . . .. . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . 436, 439

Noiae .... ................................ ...... 49,56

Order...... .... .................................. ... 50
Pre.ure . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 14, 108
Sensation .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . 4
Spectrum .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. 43
Spectrogram ........ ... ................ 50. 57,58

Q
Quite Diffuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. .. .. . . . .

308

System .. . .. .......... .. ... .. .......... .. ........ 129

Transmission ............................. ....... 146
U11Wanted.. ... ..... .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .......... . .... 50

Speech .................... .......... ... 49, 78, 114, 186

Behavior .. .. . .. .. . . . . . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 49
Effects ........................... .. ............... 58
Interference . .. . . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 101
Speakers.... ...... .. .................................... 206
Specific Visual .. . .. .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. 380
Specialligl'lting .... . ... .. ..... .... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Sport lighting lnttallatlon ........ .. .. ............ 266
Sptlericallllumlnation .............................. 319
Speed of Sound.. ............. ........................
5
Spectrum . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . .. . . .. . 43
Specular Reflection ... .. .. .... .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. 79, 81
Splav ...... ..... ... ......... .. ............. ............. tt9
Spling Alignment .. .... .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .... .... 104
Stack Areas ..... .. ... ...... .......................... 419
Stapling . .... .. . . .. .. ... . .. .. . .. .. .. ... .... .. .. . .. . .. .. . 172
Standing Waves .. ..... .. ..... , .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. 86
Stadium Installations . .. ... .. ... .. ........... .. .... 226
Start Time . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . 304
Stereophonic .. .. .. .. . .. ........ .... .. ................. 212
Straited Design .. ........................ ... .......... 169
Supplementary lighting .. ......... ................ 423
Suspended Ceiling . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1<48
SwitclMng .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 426

Revs ........ ......... ............... .....................

81
Diagraming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . 80
Recessed Luminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 370
Incandescent . ........ .. .. .. , ........ ..... ....... 387
Fluorescent .. .... . .. .. , . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 389
ReceptionofMusic. .. ......... .... ... .......... .....
56
Reflectance Factor .... . ... ...... .. .. ............... 219
Coefficient ...... .. .. ... . .................. , . .. ... 219
Reflection ..... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . 96
Sound . .... ... .. ................... ............... 70
Reflector..... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Lamps .. ... ........ ... .. ................. , . . . . . . . . . 304
Reinforced Sound .. ..... ............. ................ 208
Relampino Cost ........ ,....... .. ..................... 291
Repititiveness.. ...... ..... .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Resilient Covering .... ... ............ ................. 175
Resonance . ... .... .. .... .. . ... ....... .. ......... .. .... 85
Resonant Frequencies .. ............... , .. .. ... .. .. . 152
Restrik.e Time ........... ,.... .......................... 302
Resultant Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. 322
Reverbenidon ........ . .. .. ..... . . .... fi1,123,D, 368
Characteristics .. .. ............................ . 123

Field . .. .. . .... .... ....... .... .. .. .. .... ....... 36, 147

Noise Level.. .. ................................... 1<46
TlnMI ..... ..... .. .. .. .. .. .........................
Rigid Mass .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..

153
153

T
Tacking ......._. ...... ... ....... .. .. .................. .. 173
Task lighting ....... . , .. .. .. ... .. .. ...... ............ .. 434
Duration ..... .... .. .. ...... . ............ ......... . 296
Tekrpower..... . ......................... ............. . 425

s
Sabins ................................................... 94
Sanacoustics ...... ................ .. .. .. .. 94, 161, 211
Scallop Path!t'n ..... ..... .............. ............... 394
Scattered Wave .......... ............................ 75

Scattering...............................................

76

Scuffling........ ........................................

148

Texturing ............................................ . 100

Taxtum .... ................ .... ....................... ..

169
Three Space .............. .......................... .. 213
Thraehold .. .. .. ... . . .. .. .. .. ... . .. .................. .. 26
Cracks....... ... , ..... ..... ... ................... .. 154

Throu~ lighting .................................. .. 386

llme ~ ............................ ...... ................. . 40
Tanal Quality ... ....... ........................... .
26
Talk Duration ........................... .-......... .. 296

Sensitivity................................................ 28
Sl'llelding .. .. .. .. . . . . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 380
Silica Coating..... ..................................... 283
Soffits .............. .... .... .............................
Solar Angles .................................. ....... , 250
Solid Borne Sou neil . .. ... . .. .. .. . ... . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 148
Sounds .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. .. 2. 24, 88
Absorbers ... .. .. .... ......... ..... .............. 148
Ampliftar.. .... .. .. .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. .. .. ..... 129,212
Analyzw ........ ................................. 43

Basic Elementa ... .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ..

Lighting ............................ ............ .. 434

Trac.k ............................. .......... .... ...... .. 389

l.ls;rt ................................... .. ....... .. 372

Atachments .. ......... .... ........ ... _..... ... . 389

Tungsten .. ........ ...... ......... ........... .. ...... . 299

129

Borne Vibnnlort .. .. ........... .... ...... ...... .. 176

Disordered .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. .. . .. . . . . 50
Dispersion .. .. .. .... .'. .... ... ..... .... . .. ........

Unbeffted Ducts ........... ...... ... ....... .. ....... 159

Under Cabinet Fluorescent . .. .. . ... .. .. ..... .. .. .. 401
U~mical .. .. ... .............. .. ................. tote
Uniformity ............ , .. .. .. ... .. . .. . .. .... .... . .. .. .. . 322
Uniform Arrangement . .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. 429
Utilitarian .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. . 294
Utilization Coefficienta ...... ........ .......... 344, 347

108

Fieldll.. ... ............. ........ .. ................... 36

lnsulatioo .. .. . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . 130, 140, 14e
Loudspelkar .. . . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. . 131..131
Magnitude .. .. . . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . l.l

Music ............................................. 49

513

v
Valance . . .. .. .. .. . . ..... .. .. .. .. .... 321, 373, 370, 376
Lighting .... ... ..... ............... ............. :. 3H7
Variability . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . ....... .......... ... . 296
Velocity .......... .... . .. ................................
6
Propagation .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . ..
5
Velour Heavy .. .. .. . ... .. . .. .. ........... .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . 168
Light .... ... ...... ................ .. ......... ..... 168
Medium ..... .... ... ............... .... ........ .... 168
Veltveteen ~ .. ..... . .. .. .. .......... ... .... ..... .173
Ventilating Ducts .. .. .... ........................ .. .. 148

Wains Coating . . ... . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . ...

Vermin......... .........................................

88

Vibration . .. .. . . . .. . . . . .. .... .. . . . .. .. . . . . .. .. .. . .... ....

12

Well Shielded.................. ........................ 309

Window Floodlight ... . ... . . .......... .. .. .. .. ... .. . 305
Wood Furring......... ... ....................... ....... 172

Wall Brackets... ........... ....... ............ ..... ....

lighting . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . ... . . 385

Luminance .. :.. ... ................ ......... 348, 350
Panels................. ........................ .. ..

322

Viscous Resistance . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .

88
168

Volume ........... ........ ...................... .......

375

Treatments......... .......................... .... 211

Washers....... ..... ........ .......... 384,388,390
Waveform . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Wave Motion . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 4

Reduction . .. .. .. . .. . ... .. .. .. . .... . . ... . .. .. .. . 189

Visibility .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .

374

514