Islam

WORLD RELIGIONS
ISLAM
FOURTH EDITION
WORLD RELIGIONS
African Traditional Religion
Baha’i Faith
Buddhism
Catholicism & Orthodox Christianity
Confucianism
Daoism
Hinduism
Islam
Judaism
Native American Religions
Protestantism
Shinto
Sikhism
Zoroastrianism
WORLD RELIGIONS
ISLAM
FOURTH EDITION
by
Matthew S. Gordon
Series Editors: Joanne O’Brien and Martin Palmer
Islam, Fourth Edition
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gordon, Matthew.
Islam / by Matthew Gordon. -- 4th ed.
p. cm. — (World religions)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60413-109-3
1. Islam—Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series
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CONTENTS
Preface 6
CHAPTER 1 Introduction: The Modern Islamic World 8
CHAPTER 2 Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 16
CHAPTER 3 The Spread of Islam 34
CHAPTER 4 Quran, Hadith, and the Law 52
CHAPTER 5 The Variety of Religious Life in Islam 66
CHAPTER 6 Muslim Ritual Life 84
CHAPTER 7 The Patterns of Islamic Life 98
CHAPTER 8 Islam and the Modern World 116
Fact File and Bibliography 138
Further Reading and Web Sites 139
Glossary 140
Index 142
About the Author and Series Editors 144
Picture Credits 144
Preface
Almost from the start of civilization, more
than 10,000 years ago, religion has shaped
human history. Today more than half the
world’s population practice a major reli-
gion or indigenous spiritual tradition. In
many 21st-century societies, including
the United States, religion still shapes peo-
ple’s lives and plays a key role in politics
and culture. And in societies throughout
the world increasing ethnic and cultural
diversity has led to a variety of religions
being practiced side by side. This makes
it vital that we understand as much as we
can about the world’s religions.
The World Religions series, of which
this book is a part, sets out to achieve this
aim. It is written and designed to appeal
to both students and general readers. The
books offer clear, accessible overviews of
the major religious traditions and insti-
tutions of our time. Each volume in the
series describes where a particular religion
is practiced, its origins and history, its cen-
tral beliefs and important rituals, and its
contributions to world civilization. Care-
fully chosen photographs complement
the text, and sidebars, a map, fact file, glos- Current Muslim Population
sary, bibliography, and index are included
90% and over
to help readers gain a more complete
understanding of the subject at hand. 50%–89%
These books will help clarify what
10%–49%
religion is all about and reveal both the
similarities and differences in the great 0%–9%
spiritual traditions practiced around the
world today.
6 ISLAM
© Infobase Publishing
Preface
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION:
THE MODERN
ISLAMIC WORLD
I slam, one of the most widespread religions in the world, is

second only to Christianity in number of followers. The peo-
ple who believe in the principles of Islam and practice its ritu-
als are called Muslims, and they make up a large segment of the
world population. Of the roughly 6.5 billion people in the world,
around 1.4 billion are Muslims.
On the continents of Africa and Asia and in the area known as
the Middle East, Islam is the dominant religion in many countries,
including Afghanistan, Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Malay-
sia, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. There are also Muslims in
the states of the former Soviet Union, in China, and in Europe as
well as on the continents of North and South America. The four
countries with the largest Muslim communities are Indonesia,
Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh—all in Asia.
Like the Jewish and Christian communities, the Islamic com-
munity comprises a large number of groups, among which beliefs
The mosque in Mecca with the black stone of the

Kaaba at the center. As the birthplace of the prophet
Muhammad, Mecca is one of the three holy cities for
Muslims, Medina and Jerusalem being the other two.
It was in Mecca, in the early seventh century, that
Muhammad began to receive his divine revelation.
8 ISLAM
Introduction: The Modern Islamic World 9
differ. There are, however, two overarching divisions within the
faith: Most Muslims belong to the Sunni sect and are known as
Sunni Muslims; all other Muslims belong to the Shii sects and are
known as the Shia. The word “Shiite” is a variation of this term
and is commonly used in the Western media. The largest group
of Shia are known as the Twelver Shia. They form a majority in
Iran and are represented by large communities in Iraq, Kuwait,
Lebanon, and India. Several smaller branches of Shii Islam form
communities in Yemen, India, and other countries as well.
two MIsConCEPtIons About IsLAM

Despite its huge following around the world—and growing Mus-
lim communities in the United States—Islam is foreign to most
Americans, who are more familiar with
Christianity or Judaism. Because most
Spellings
Americans know little or nothing about
Following conventional usage in Islam, they have many misconceptions
Arabic, which is increasingly being about Muslim beliefs and rituals. One
accepted as conventional use in common misconception is that all Mus-
English, Quran is used instead of lims are Arabs. It is true that the Arabian
Koran, Muslim instead of Moslem,
Peninsula was the birthplace of Islam,
madrasa instead of madrassa, and
Hijra instead of Hegira. Conventional
that in the early years of Islam the major-
English spellings have been retained ity of Muslims were Arabs, and that the
for Mecca and Medina. When there is holy text of Islam (the Quran) is written in
reference to Shii Muslims as a group the Arabic language. However only a cen-
or collectively, the term Shia is used tury or so after the founding of Islam the
(for example, the Shia). Shii is used religion had spread to parts of southern
as an adjective (for example, Shii Europe and east to Central Asia, India, and
law) and as a noun for an individual beyond. As it spread Islam attracted grow-
(for example, he is a Shii). In order to
ing numbers of converts among the peo-
make this book more accessible to the
ples of these areas. Gradually the Arabs
non-specialist, no diacritic markings
have been used for foreign words and became but one in a variety of peoples
the terminal h has also been dropped that practiced the Muslim religion. As a
(for example, shari’ah is now sharia result most Muslims today are not Arabs.
and sunnah is now sunna). They do not speak Arabic and the great
majority live outside of the Middle East
10 ISLAM
A Muslim from Zimbabwe,
Africa. Islam is widespread
particularly in North Africa
where Islam is the state
religion of Egypt, Mauritania,
Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,
Libya, Djibouti, and Somalia.

and North Africa—the two areas where the Arab population of
the world is concentrated. Some Arabs are Christian.
PERCEPTions of MusliMs
Another misconception is that Muslims are harsh and violent,
and especially that they are hostile toward Westerners. Reports
of the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in
1998; of the leveling of New York’s Twin Towers on September
11, 2001; of the blasts in Indonesia’s Bali in 2002 and 2005; of
the destruction of a Catholic church and school, a Presbyterian
church, and a Salvation Army Hall in Sangla Hill, Pakistan, in
2005; the torching of thousands of automobiles in the cities of
France in the same year; and the unending killing of thousands
of coalition soldiers and tens of thousands of native soldiers and
civilians in Iraq have filled newspaper pages and television screens
throughout the past decade. These acts of Muslim extremists
have often been associated with Islam in a way that implies that
all Muslims are violent—even that the teachings of Islam advo-
cate violence. In fact the great majority of Muslims are peaceful,
as their religion teaches them to be.
HisToRiCAl lEgACy
It is not just the recent catastrophes that have led to this portrait
of the violent Muslim. The Western image of the hostile Muslim
has a long history, beginning with the invasion of Spain in 711
and the spread of the Moors into southern France, where they
were repelled by Frankish ruler Charles Martel in 732. Spain itself
was finally recaptured only in 1492, when the army of King Ferdi-
nand of Aragon and Queen Isabel of Castile retook Granada. The
Crusades, beginning in 1095 and lasting until 1291, pitted Mus-
lims and Christians in battles that left bitter attitudes toward one
another. The invasions of Austria and Croatia by the Ottoman
Turks in the late 17th century also engendered bad memories of
the Turkish Muslims as barbaric and uncivilized. A few scholars
and travelers from Europe and later the United States realized
that these were ugly stereotypes and tried in vain to paint a more
12 ISLAM
positive picture of Islam and the Muslims. subMIssIon to ALLAh
However the image of the barbaric Muslim
has survived for centuries and has spread
throughout the Western world. T he word Islam is Arabic and means
“submission to Allah.” According to
Islamic belief Allah (the Arabic word for
Stereotypes are false generalizations
God) has sent a series of revelations to
resulting from a lack of understanding.
human beings over the course of time.
Many have judged Islam and Muslims
These include the revelations received
without making an effort to consider this by Moses and Jesus. The Islamic tradition
religious tradition on its own terms and holds Moses and Jesus, as well as other
without bothering to become acquainted prophets revered by the Jewish and Chris-
with its teachings and the ways in which tian faiths, in great esteem. However Mus-
Muslims actually practice their faith. The lims believe that these revelations, which
purpose of this book is to provide a better came to humanity before the revelation of
understanding of Islam so that the reader Islam, were corrupted—that human ideas
and words were mixed with the divine
can begin to go beyond stereotypes.
message and that in their ignorance men
and women neglected to follow God’s
IsLAM: An ovErvIEw
teachings.
Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam is
a monotheistic religion—based on the
belief in one God. Muslims use the Arabic word for God, Allah, to
refer to the creator of the world and of all life within it. For Mus-
lims Allah is the lord of the universe.
god’s REvElATion To MuHAMMAd

Muslims believe that God sent his message to humanity in order
to guide those who were faithful to him and to warn the evildoers
of his anger. The man whom God chose to receive this new mes-
sage was Muhammad ibn Abd Allah, a 40-year-old merchant of
the Arabic town of Mecca. Sent to Muhammad in the early part
of the seventh century, this revelation came to be known as the
Quran. To the present day the Quran remains for Muslims the
literal Word of God.
Ordered by God to spread the divine revelation, Muhammad
slowly won over followers in Mecca and later in the nearby town
of Medina. This was the first Islamic community and the seed
from which would grow the modern Islamic world.

thE qurAn
M uslims believe the Quran is the literal Word of God. As the Quran itself says:
Allah, there is no god but He, the Living, the Self-subsistent.

He has revealed to you the Book with the truth, confirming
that which came before it. He also earlier revealed the Torah
and the Gospel, as a source of guidance for people, and (now)
He has sent down the Salvation.
A page from a handwritten Quran.
14 ISLAM
Umma—CoMMuniTy
Muslims refer to their community as umma, an Arabic word
meaning “community.” For Muslims, umma has a special con-
notation, however, because it occurs many times in the Quran.
There the term is used to mean religious community, including
the religious communities of Jews and Christians and Muslims.
sHARiA—lAw And guidE

The foundation of the Islamic umma is the collection of religious
laws and duties known as the sharia. The term is often translated
as “holy law,” but it is better thought of as the religious path Mus-
lims are expected to follow. For devout Muslims the sharia is a
set of regulations whose direct source is God; thus to follow the
sharia is to follow and obey God’s will.
However the sharia addresses more than matters of prayer
and faith in God, which many people think of as strictly religious
concerns. It also deals with life in this world—how the commu-
nity organizes its affairs and how members of the community
live their lives. According to the sharia there is no real separation
between religion and all other aspects of life. Therefore devout
Muslims seek to use the sharia to guide them in every area of
their day-to-day lives.

CHAPTER 2
MUHAMMAD AND
THE FOUNDING
OF ISLAM
M uhammad ibn Abd Allah was born in the trading and pil-
grimage city of Mecca, a small but bustling commercial
center in the northwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula, around
the year 570. He was was a member of the Banu Hashim, one of
the town’s Arab clans. His father died about the time of Muham-
mad’s birth; his mother died when he was six. The orphan was
then cared for by his grandfather, and upon the latter’s death two
years later, by his uncle Abu Talib. At the time Abu Talib was the
head of the Hashim clan.
ArAbIA PrIor to IsLAM

For most people who lived there Arabia in the late sixth century
was a difficult place in which to grow up. Most of the peninsula
consisted of desert or arid steppe areas—an environment that
demanded a great deal from even the strongest individuals. Only
along the southern coastal areas, where higher elevations and sea
breezes caused a milder climate, and along the far western moun-
tainous region, was nature less harsh.
At the center of the sacred mosque of Mecca stands the holy Kaaba. In the pre-Islamic period
the Kaaba contained a number of idols worshipped by the people of Mecca. Shortly before his
death the prophet Muhammad ordered that the idols be destroyed. From that point forward
the Kaaba became the sacred sanctuary of Islam.
16 ISLAM
Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 1
In the wide stretches of desert life centered on two kinds of
communities. On a few oases and in small commercial centers,
such as Mecca, people earned a living from agriculture and trad-
ing. The majority of the people who lived on the peninsula, how-
ever, were nomads who moved each year with their belongings
and animals from one grazing area to the next. In both the sed-
Arab nomads in an area of
entary and nomadic communities society was organized around
the Syrian desert. In the
seventh century, during clans. These in turn made up larger tribes.
the prophet’s lifetime,
nomadism was a common TRibEs And TRibAl lEAdERs
way of life in many parts of The tribe was the cornerstone of society in early Arabia. It pro-
the Middle East including
the Arabian Peninsula. Over vided its members with support, protection against enemies,
the past century nomadism and a sense of identity. Belonging to a powerful tribe that could
has slowly dwindled, in always protect its members was obviously advantageous.
part because many nomadic The tribal leaders, known as shaykhs, usually came from the
groups either choose or are
larger, wealthier clans of each tribe; they made most of the deci-
forced to settle down and
must seek other forms of sions affecting the tribe. Poorer, smaller clans had to abide by the
livelihood. decisions of the larger ones and often resented doing so.
18 ISLAM
The nomadic tribes got milk and fresh meat from their flocks
and herds as well as the wool and camel hair they needed for
clothing, blankets, and tents. Because most tribes were poor and
had few possessions apart from their animals, they sometimes
raided others for whatever they could carry away. The purpose
of the raid, or ghazwa, was seldom to kill one’s enemies. Rather
it was to steal animals, goods, and when possible, women from
the opposing tribe. The animals and goods added to the meager
wealth of the tribe; the women were either kept or sold as slaves.
The raid was also a time for tribes to demonstrate their strength
and, for the individual members of the tribe, their courage.
REvEngE And fEuds

Although killing the members of opposing tribes was not usu-
ally the goal of a raid, it was often unavoidable. Arabia, before the
coming of Islam, had no central government; tribes took it upon
themselves to avenge the wrongs done to one of their members.
As a result vengeance killings were common among nomad-
ic tribes. On occasion these acts of revenge led to costly feuds
between tribes. While many decried the human costs of these
feuds, there was little anyone could do to prevent them.
Leading a tribe was consequently no easy task. In an environ-
ment where threats from nature and from other tribes were con-
stant, only the most practical and courageous could succeed in
positions of leadership. Those who displayed such qualities were
highly respected by all. Only one other voice in the community
was listened to as closely as the shaykh’s—that of the poet.
THE influEnCE of THE PoET

For the Arabs of this period there was no higher form of expres-
sion than poetry. However the poet was more than a valued mem-
ber of society who sang of the joys and hardships of life. Poets,
especially those who showed great eloquence, were believed
to be possessed by jinn—the spirits that inhabited the natural
world. Thus it was thought that poets had supernatural powers
with which they could defeat enemies and often poets were called

on to use these powers. The early Arabs
Placating the Jinn
also revered certain gods and goddesses.
In the harsh Arabian environment Although these divinities varied according
many people looked to religion for to the tribe or area of the peninsula, there
comfort. Although Christianity seems to have been a common belief in at
and Judaism had made inroads
least one of these gods: Allah, the creator
into the peninsula by the time of
of the universe. Allah was probably con-
Muhammad’s birth, most people
practiced forms of religion that were sidered the supreme god but, unlike the
native to their area. They believed, other deities beneath him, he was thought
for example, that the jinn (the spirits to have little involvement in the daily lives
that inhabited the natural world) of people.
could work evil or good, and it was
important never to anger them. thE town oF MECCA
Consequently in certain areas, such as In Mecca and the surrounding region,
sites believed to be the burial places known as the Hijaz, the most popular dei-
of spirits, mounds of stones were
ties were three goddesses said to be the
erected and offerings, sometimes
of food, were left beside these stone
daughters of Allah. Idols were dedicated
markers to please the jinn. to them and often the surrounding area
was considered sacred, within which no
animal could be killed and in which tribes-
men in trouble—for whatever reason—could claim refuge.
THE kAAbA—A sACREd sHRinE

At the time of Muhammad’s birth Mecca was an important reli-
gious center for the tribes of western and central Arabia. Its sanc-
tuary dedicated to the three principal goddesses was located in
an area known as the Kaaba, which held idols representing these
and other gods and goddesses. The area had been built around a
mysterious black stone, perhaps a meteorite, that was venerated
by the tribes of the area. Each year local tribesmen visited Mecca
to see the Kaaba. The pilgrimage, known as the hajj, included a
ceremonial procession around the sacred shrine.
influEnCE And ConTRol in MECCA

Mecca was therefore not only a commercial but also a religious
center. Pilgrims came to worship at the Kaaba and, because it was
20 ISLAM
a sacred shrine around which violence was prohibited, many also
came to buy and sell their goods. Those who benefited the most
from this activity were the merchant families of Mecca.
By the time of Muhammad’s birth the leaders of these families
had come to dominate Meccan society because they controlled
the flow of goods in and out of the town. They were business-
people who recognized that much of the commerce within the
town depended upon the pilgrims. To ensure that the pilgrimage
ran smoothly these families took control of the sanctuary of the
Kaaba. As a result they virtually controlled life in Mecca and the
surrounding areas. For these large clans it was a time of prosper-
ity and political strength.
Although these groups certainly benefited from Mecca’s pros-
perity, many other people of the area did not. With the growing
commerce had come new sets of values and concerns. Where
once the tribe and the health of the community were given prior- A tile from Istanbul painted
ity, now materialism and a new concern with individual wealth with a drawing of the
and power undermined traditional values. Increasingly the larger Kaaba. When Muslims visit
the Kaaba, they try to come
clans dominated the smaller, poorer ones, denying them a share close enough to kiss the
in the town’s growing wealth. As values changed and the gap black stone which is shown
between rich and poor widened, resentment among the less for- in the center of this tile.
tunate began to intensify.
sPiRiTuAl QuEsTions
It was an uneasy world into which
Muhammad was born. The shift from
communal values to a more individualis-
tic way of life caused many to ask difficult
questions about the world around them.
These questions were less about money
and power and more about the meaning
of the world and individual destiny. Tra-
ditional practices and beliefs no longer
provided the answers these people were
seeking. For many it was a time of spiritual
uneasiness.

The lights from a minaret Some may have converted to Christianity or to Judaism,
shine out as night falls. In which had spread to the Arabian Peninsula. Jewish tribes had
Muslim countries the call for
lived in the town of Yathrib—a prosperous agricultural center
Muslims to come to prayer is
made five times a day from not far from Mecca—for generations and were a well-established
the top of the minaret. part of the community. Although no Christian tribes inhabited
Arabia at the time, there were numerous Christian Arabs in areas
north of the peninsula. These groups, which comprised various
Christian sects, were ruled by the Byzantine Empire, the capital
of which was Constantinople (known today as Istanbul, the larg-
est city in Turkey). The merchants of Mecca no doubt traded with
these Christians regularly.
MuhAMMAD’s EArLy LIFE

In Mecca the powerful merchant clans remained in control of
religious life and presumably were careful not to allow across the
borders new practices and beliefs such as Christianity or Juda-
ism, both of which were being practiced in the area at this time.
Meccans who did not travel therefore sought new beliefs and reli-
22 ISLAM
gious guidance within Mecca itself. The orphan Muhammad was
soon to fulfill this need.
ExPERiEnCing THE ouTsidE woRld

Little is known about Muhammad’s early life. His uncle Abu Talib
provided him with clothing and a home but never taught him
to read or write. Later in his life Muhammad depended on his
followers to write down the words of the revelation in order to
preserve them. It is believed that in his teens Muhammad worked
as a camel driver, accompanying his uncle and other merchants
on their travels into southern Syria and on the peninsula itself. In
this way Muhammad gained exposure to places outside of Mecca
and grew familiar with their different customs. For the most part
the Meccans traded with other Arab tribes and the settled Arabic-
speaking population of Syria. Because these included Christian
communities Muhammad came into contact with this mono-
theistic tradition. How much he actually learned about Christian
beliefs remains uncertain.
MARRiAgE inTo THE MERCHAnT ClAss

In the year 595 Muhammad’s life took a dramatic turn. For a
time he had been working for an older merchant—a wealthy
woman named Khadija. He had shown himself to be intelligent
and responsible, impressing her so much that she proposed mar-
riage. He accepted and thus became a successful member of the
Meccan merchant class.
During the next 15 years Muhammad enjoyed a life of pros-
perity. As a merchant he continued to travel to other areas of the
peninsula and farther north, encountering the ideas and practic-
es of Jewish and Christian communities. Again, it is hard to tell
what he learned about these beliefs.
Unlike other merchants Muhammad found only passing satis-
faction with the comforts such a life provided. He seems to have
been aware of the decline in traditional values within Meccan
society and of the unhappiness felt by many in the area. Having
known poverty as a young boy, Muhammad was sensitive to the

grievances of the less fortunate. He began to question the direc-
tion that both his life and that of his community was taking.
thE CoMInG oF rEvELAtIon

By the age of 40 Muhammad had begun to spend time alone,
meditating on the questions that troubled him. On occasion he
would spend nights in a small cave near Mecca. It was common
for men to go on retreat, so few thought his behavior odd. Dur-
ing one such night Muhammad experienced what he thought
were strange visions. As Muslims are taught, the angel Gabriel
appeared before him in human form. Seizing hold of Muham-
mad, the angel ordered him to recite a short set of words. When
he did so the angel released him.
Overwhelmed by his visions and the message he received,
at first Muhammad told only Khadija and a few close followers.
Slowly he began to preach more openly to the Meccan communi-
ty. As the biographers of Muhammad tell
thE MEssEnGEr oF GoD us, Muhammad continued to receive rev-
elations for the next 20 years, and until the
A fter a vision of the angel Gabriel
first appeared while he was spend-
ing the night in a small cave near Mecca,
end of his life he passed them on to his fol-
lowers. This is why Muslims call Muham-
Muhammad was convinced that either mad the Messenger of God.
he was losing his mind or spirits had pos- At first Muhammad’s message was a
sessed him, and he fled from the cave. simple one: He declared that there was
Partly down the hill he heard a voice only one god, Allah, and that there was
behind him say, “Oh, Muhammad, you are nothing like him. Like the prophets before
the Messenger of God, and I am Gabriel.” him Muhammad also preached of the
Confused and terrified, Muhammad was
power of God and the certainty that the
convinced his sanity had left him. Only as
day of judgment was to come.
the experiences continued—and with the
encouragement of his wife, Khadija, who
At first Muhammad’s preaching was
was sure the words came from God—did ignored by the leaders of Mecca. They had
Muhammad come to believe that the heard similar ideas from Jews and Chris-
words he was asked to recite were revela- tians, so they assumed that Muhammad
tions from God and that God now expected was only repeating those ideas. Before
him to serve as his divine messenger. long, however, the Meccans began to real-
ize the meaning of Muhammad’s teach-
24 ISLAM
ings. For instance Muhammad called on people to worship only
Allah and to reject the cult of the goddesses. He stressed that to
worship any other deity—whether goddess, idol, or jinn—was to
violate the absolute oneness of God.
These teachings challenged the entire system upon which
Meccan leaders had established their power and wealth. Real-
izing that if Muhammad succeeded in convincing people of the
truth of his message, that structure would collapse, they were
determined to see that Muhammad failed.
thE oPPosItIon to MuhAMMAD

As the top Meccan families turned against Muhammad, using
threats and insults as well as physical violence, Muhammad real-
ized that he and his followers must leave Mecca. In the year 619
they moved to Taaif, a nearby town, for refuge, but the main tribe
of Taaif, the Banu Thaqif, refused to let them remain and they
were obliged to make their way back to Mecca.
This was only one in a series of setbacks for Muhammad in
619. Two of his most loyal supporters had died earlier that year:
his beloved wife, Khadija, and his uncle Abu Talib. With the death
of Abu Talib, who had protected the Muslims, Muhammad lost
an important friend.
THE JouRnEy To HEAvEn The Prophet of God

However the year 619 was marked not It took Muhammad several years to
only by sadness; it was also the year in overcome his initial doubts and to
which, according to the Islamic tradi- realize the importance of his task.
tion, Muhammad experienced one of the However by 613 he was convinced
that he was meant to follow in the
most remarkable events of his life. Asleep
footsteps of the prophets before
one night near the Kaaba, Muhammad
him—Abraham, Moses, and Jesus,
was awakened by the angel Gabriel. With among others—and to bring God’s
Gabriel as his guide Muhammad journeyed word to humanity. As a result
to Jerusalem and then, from a prominent Muhammad assumed the title
rock, to heaven. There he is said to have Prophet of God and began to preach
met with the great prophets Abraham, openly in the streets.
Jesus, Moses, and others. At the climax

thE IsLAMIC CALEnDAr of his journey Muhammad is believed to
have stood before God. For Muslims this
T he Islamic Calendar is a lunar calen-

dar as opposed to the solar calendar
used in the West. It is based on the rota-
miraculous journey is further evidence of
Muhammad’s profound spiritual nature.
tion of the moon, consists of 12 lunar An ouTsidER To REsToRE PEACE

months, and has about 11 fewer days
Muhammad still faced the hostility of the
than the solar calendar. The first month
of the Islamic calendar is Muharram; the
Meccans. It became essential that he find
last is Dhu al-Hijja—the month when the a place outside Mecca that would wel-
pilgrimage to Mecca is carried out. It is come him and his followers. The solution
believed that Umar, the second caliph, or came in the year 620. Among the pilgrims
successor, established this calendar. who visited Mecca that year was a group
of men from the northern town of Yath-
rib (also known as Medina). The men had
heard of Muhammad and were impressed with his teachings. In
their first meeting with him they told him of the problems facing
their town. Rival tribes had taken up arms in a bloody feud and
chaos threatened the town. Having failed to find a solution, the
men had come seeking an outsider who could restore peace.
Over the next two years the men returned to Mecca with
others from Medina, and a group of them converted to Islam.
Encouraged by this new support Muhammad urged his Meccan
followers to make their way to Medina, where they could begin
a new life as Muslims. Gradually they left
Mecca and traveled north to what would
The Hijra
become their home for roughly the next
Muhammad’s journey from Mecca decade.
to Medina is one of the key events
of Muhammad’s life. It signaled not MuHAMMAd’s EsCAPE fRoM MECCA
only his escape to safety but, far more When Muhammad received word that a
important, the establishment of the
group of Meccans were planning to kill
Islamic community. The journey is
known to Muslims as the Hijra, and
him, he arranged to leave Mecca that very
the event came to be recognized as night. In late September 622 Muhammad
marking the beginning of the Islamic and his closest adviser, Abu Bakr, made
calendar. their way to a cave outside the town. There
they hid from the assassins for three days.
26 ISLAM
The golden dome of the
Dome of the Rock, a shrine
in Jerusalem. For Muslims
this marks the site where
Muhammad ascended on a
night journey to heaven to
meet the great prophets and
to stand before God.
According to legend the mouth of the cave was covered by the

web of a spider moments before the Meccans rode by. One of
the assassins glanced down from his horse, saw the delicate web
covering the entrance, and remarked that surely no one could be
inside the cave.
With the way clear Muhammad and Abu Bakr traveled to
Medina, where they were greeted joyfully by the waiting Muslims
and their Medinan supporters.
MuhAMMAD: PoLItICs AnD ProPhEthooD

The community of Muslims that welcomed Muhammad to Medi-
na was made up of both Meccans and Medinans. Muhammad
knew that he had to avoid showing favoritism to either group. In
one of his first decisions as leader of this community, he demon-
strated his political skills. Faced with offers from both groups to
make his home with them, he wisely avoided making the deci-
sion. He simply let his camel roam free and at the spot where

the animal came to rest, Muhammad established his home. Huts
were erected for Muhammad and the two women he had married
since the death of Khadija in 619. Beside these a large space was
cleared and a rough structure built. This was the first mosque, or
place of worship for followers of Islam, built in Medina. Muham-
mad was now set to continue his divinely appointed task.
CHAllEngEs foR THE MusliM CoMMuniTy

Muhammad’s responsibilities in Medina were daunting. Not only
did he continue receiving revelations from God and teaching his
followers, but he was now also the leader of the young Muslim
community. He faced a host of problems: He had to find a solution
to the feuds that were dividing the town, he had to find work and
shelter for the Meccans who had come to Medina with him, he
had to counter opposition to the teachings of Islam within Medi-
na, and he still faced the challenge of the Meccan merchant clans
that were determined to see him and his community destroyed.
In solving the problems between the Medinans Muhammad
convinced the feuding clans that they should join the communi-
ty of Muslims. He worked out a series of agreements that forged
strong links between the Meccans and those Medinans who
accepted his teachings. He faced, however, mounting distrust
from one group in Medina—the Jewish tribes.
ConfliCT wiTH THE JEwisH TRibEs

Three tribes made up the Jewish population of Medina. At first
they had welcomed Muhammad because of the peace he prom-
ised to bring. Soon however they began to have second thoughts
about his leadership and his teachings. Initially Muhammad
considered incorporating certain Jewish practices into the ritu-
als of Islam, and for a time Muslims and Jews prayed together
in the direction of Jerusalem. Then in the year 624 Muhammad
received inspiration from God to instruct his followers to pray
in the direction of Mecca. This caused a break with the Jewish
tribes. From that point forward relations between the Jews of
Medina and the Muslim community worsened and ended finally
28 ISLAM
in violence. Two of the Jewish tribes were driven from Medina
while the male members of the third tribe suffered execution at
the hands of the Muslims.
fARMing And RAiding

Muhammad turned his attention to the problem of providing
for those of his followers who had come with him from Mec-
ca. Medina was an agricultural town, but the Meccan Muslims
lacked experience in farming. Instead of having them learn to
farm Muhammad decided to have them engage in a more famil-
iar activity—raiding. Arming his male followers Muhammad
sent them against the trade caravans that crossed the peninsula.
A series of raids were carried out successfully and in this way the
Muslim community was able to provide for its needs.
thE CLAsh oF ArMs

The Meccans were outraged. They depended on the caravan
trade for their livelihood and viewed these attacks as an attempt
by Muhammad to undermine their power. Their opportunity to
respond to the Muslims came in the year 624. A large caravan
was reported to be on its way to Mecca from the north. Expecting
the Muslims to launch a raid, the Meccans sent a strong force to
escort the caravan into the area.
Muhammad had indeed sent a group of Muslim raiders against
the caravan. At a place named Badr the two small forces clashed.
Although the Muslims were outnumbered 3 to 1 they fought
bravely and finally routed the Meccan fighters. This victory was
seen by the Muslims as proof of divine guidance and evidence
that they were indeed chosen by God for a special purpose.
dEfEAT And A TEsT of fAiTH

The following year the Meccan leadership set out to avenge
the loss at Badr. Organizing a huge force, they set out against
Muhammad and his people. The two armies met near the moun-
tain of Uhud and this time the Muslims met with defeat, losing
both dead and wounded to the Meccans. This came as a blow to

A night scene at the the Muslims, some of whom questioned whether God was really
Prophet’s Mosque in behind Muhammad and his community. The debate was settled
Medina. In the year 622
when a revelation came to Muhammad in which the defeat was
Prophet Muhammad
left Mecca to escape the represented as a test for the true believer. Those who held firmly
hostility of the Meccans and to their beliefs would find reward from God.
made his way to Medina.
This event is known as the ConfliCTs wiTH MECCAns And THE JEwisH TRibEs
Hijra. In Medina the prophet
established the first Muslim Despite their victory the Meccans returned to Mecca, giving the
community. Muslims a chance to regroup. The following year the Muslims
faced perhaps their greatest challenge from Mecca. In an effort
to crush the Muslim community the Meccans organized a huge
force and marched on Medina. Following the advice of one of his
followers Muhammad had a long trench dug in front of Medina.
The trench prevented the Meccans from riding up to the town.
After a time the Meccan forces grew restless, many of the nomads
in the army left, and the campaign was called off. Although little
30 ISLAM
fighting had taken place the Muslims viewed the event as a vic-
tory—and further proof that God was on their side.
The mihrab in the Sultan
Following this battle Muhammad turned against the last of the Hassan mosque in Cairo,
Jewish tribes. The tribe had negotiated with the Meccans and so Egypt. The mihrab, a small
was accused by the Muslims of treachery. After surrendering to niche located in all mosques,
Muhammad’s forces the men of the tribe were put to the sword, indicates the proper
direction of prayer. Muslims
and the women and children were sold into slavery. This brought must pray in the direction of
to an end all opposition to Muhammad within Medina. Muham- Mecca, the site of the holy
mad now resumed his efforts to defeat his sworn enemies—the Kaaba.
leaders of Mecca.
In the hope of settling matters with-
out further bloodshed Muhammad
announced that he and a group of Mus-
lims would go to Mecca to perform the
traditional ceremonies at the Kaaba.
When they reached Mecca, however, they
were met by an armed force. Muhammad
insisted his intentions were peaceful but
the Meccan forces would not budge. After
heated negotiations the Muslims agreed
to leave and not return until the follow-
ing year, when they would enter the city
to perform the ceremonies. While many
Muslims were disappointed with the deci-
sion not to attack Mecca, Muhammad
told them that the agreement represented
recognition from the Meccans of Muham-
mad’s leadership and of the strength of
the Muslim community—and thus it was
a victory for them and for Islam.
viCToRy ovER oPPosing TRibEs And

THE suRREndER of MECCA
Having set aside the issue of the Meccans
for the moment Muhammad sought to
subdue those tribes of the region that had

supported his enemies. He marched on the town of Khaybar,
which his forces took after a prolonged siege. Then the Muslims
moved steadily against other tribes that had allied with their ene-
mies. One by one they defeated these tribes and made them swear
allegiance to Islam. With these victories Muhammad’s hold over
the peninsula was secure.
The following year the Meccans opened their town to the Mus-
lims, who peacefully carried out the ceremonies under the leader-
ship of Muhammad. The next year, however, tensions reemerged
and Muhammad decided to use force against the Meccans. With
his army Muhammad marched on Mecca ready for battle. As he
approached the city, however, he was met by the head of the Mec-
cans, Abu Sufyan, who had decided that Mecca could no longer
resist the Muslims. Abu Sufyan surren-
kAAbA, thE CEntrAL sAnCtuAry dered the town and the sacred sanctuary
to Muhammad.
E ntering the town of Mecca after its

surrender Muhammad proceeded
directly to the Kaaba, a sanctuary dedi-
vICtory AnD thE FInAL PILGrIMAGE
The year was 630 and Muhammad stayed
cated to the three principal goddesses
that held idols representing these and
for only a short time in Mecca—long
other gods and goddesses. Placing his enough to establish Muslim control over
hand upon the black stone (a mysterious the town and to win the support of the
stone, perhaps a meteorite, which the Meccan population. For the next two
Kaaba had been built around) Muhammad years Muhammad expanded his influence
shouted in a clear voice, “Allahu Akbar” throughout the Arabian Peninsula. He sent
(God is most great). With this Muhammad envoys to distant tribes, calling on them
was affirming the most basic of Islamic to convert to Islam. Many of the tribes
beliefs—the supreme oneness of God. He
did so with little protest, whereas others
then ordered that the idols of the Kaaba
were convinced only with the use of force.
be destroyed. This brought an end to the
cult of the goddesses and the use of the Before long Muhammad controlled most
Kaaba as a shrine of this cult. The Kaaba, of the peninsula.
from that moment on, was claimed by the
Muslims as the central sanctuary of the THE lAsT gREAT sERMon
Islamic religion, a status it retains to the In the year 632 Muhammad again set
present day. out for Mecca to perform the annual pil-
grimage to the Kaaba. In previous years
32 ISLAM
Muhammad had permitted both Muslims thE FInAL rEvELAtIon
and non-Muslims to carry out the pilgrim-
age. This year, however, he ruled that now
only Muslims could worship at the Kaaba.
M uhammad ended his last sermon
with this reminder: “I have left
amongst you that which, if you hold fast
From that time forward the rituals and to it, shall preserve you from all error, a
the sacred sanctuary were to be dedicated clear indication, the Book of God, and the
solely to the worship of Allah. word of His Prophet. O, people, hear my
On the 10th day of the pilgrimage, after words and understand.”
the required rituals, Muhammad spoke He then recited to them the final rev-
to the Muslims in his last great sermon. elation, one it is believed he had received
He spoke to them of their obligations as from God only a short time earlier:
members of the community of Muslims Today the unbelievers have despaired of
and he urged them to treat each other well your religion;
and thus maintain the unity of Islam. therefore fear them not, but
fear you Me.
THE fAREwEll PilgRiMAgE Today I have perfected your religion
With the pilgrimage complete, Muham- for you,
mad left for Medina. Known as the Fare- and I have completed My blessing
upon you,
well Pilgrimage, this was to be the last
and I have approved Islam for
time Muhammad would see Mecca and
your religion.
the Kaaba. Not long after his return to
Medina Muhammad fell ill, and late on the —Quran 5.3
12th day of Rabi I, the third month of the
Islamic calendar, he died.
The Islamic community now faced a troubling question: Who
was to lead the community now that Muhammad was gone? In
bringing the Quran to humankind, he had fulfilled his tasks as
the messenger of God. However he had also founded a commu-
nity that had come to depend upon his leadership and teachings.
After Muhammad’s death it was up to the community to find a
successor.

CHAPTER 3
THE SPREAD
OF ISLAM
M uhammad had not left instructions on how to choose a

successor. The Muslims had to resolve this problem as
best they could.
On the evening of Muhammad’s death a group of Muslims
debated the issue. Finally they selected Abu Bakr as their new
leader. He had been one of the first Meccans to convert to Islam
and had consistently shown his loyalty to Muhammad. The deci-
sion was approved by the community and Abu Bakr was given
the title of caliph, or successor, which meant that he took over
Muhammad’s role as the political leader of the Islamic commu-
nity. The state that he and those who ruled after him would run
would be called the caliphate.
thE FIrst thrEE CALIPhs AnD thE EArLy ConquEsts

Under the leadership of Abu Bakr an important step was taken
by the Islamic community: the final conquest of the Arabian Pen-
insula. During Muhammad’s lifetime most of the Arab tribes in
A close-up of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Muslims believe that

it was from this site that Muhammad journeyed to heaven. The building
was erected in the late seventh century by an Umayyad caliph. In the
16th century the exterior walls were redecorated by the Ottomans, then
rulers of a large Islamic empire with its capital in Istanbul.
34 ISLAM
The Spread of Islam 35
Arabia had agreed to accept the teachings of Islam. Following his
death, however, many broke away. Abu Bakr sent forces to bring
these tribes back under the rule of Islam. Within a short time the
entire peninsula fell under Muslim control.
The decision to send forces beyond the limits of the Arabian
Peninsula had been made earlier by Muhammad. Since he died
before carrying out these plans, it was up to Abu Bakr and his
successors to do so.
byzAnTinEs And sAssAniAns

The Middle East was then controlled by two rival empires. In the
areas of what is today called Syria, Egypt, and Turkey, the Byzan-
tine Empire held sway. Further to the east, in Iraq and Iran, was
the empire of the Sassanians. For decades
IsLAM unDEr CALIPh uMAr conflict between the two empires had
weakened them both politically and eco-
S killed in both politics and military

strategy, Umar is considered one of
the greatest figures of early Islamic his-
nomically. Neither empire was prepared
to meet the unexpected threat from the
Arabian Peninsula to the south.
tory because under his leadership the
Although Abu Bakr organized the first
Islamic empire flourished and spread. He
sent his armies deep into Syria, where attacks against Syria and Iraq, he died
they defeated the forces of the Byzan- shortly after the fighting began in 634. The
tine Empire (395–1453). They captured position of caliph then passed to Umar ibn
the cities of Damascus and Jerusalem al-Khattab. Umar, who would rule over the
and then moved against Egypt, where Muslims for about a decade, proved to be
once again Byzantine forces were an excellent choice. Under his leadership
defeated and sent into full retreat north. Muslims ran successful campaigns against
Meanwhile Muslim armies battled the
the Byzantine and Sassanian empires.
Persian Sassanid dynasty (ca. 224–651)
throughout Iraq and Iran. In several bat-
uTHMAn, THE THiRd CAliPH
tles the Muslims inflicted heavy losses on
the Persian troops. Although Umar would With Umar’s death in 644 a new caliph
not live to see the final collapse of the Sas- was chosen for the growing empire. He
sanid Empire, by the end of his life all of was Uthman ibn Affan, a merchant from
Iraq and a large area of Iran had fallen into the Umayyad family. This family had been
Muslim hands. opposed to Muhammad when he began
his preaching in Mecca and after his move
36 ISLAM
to Medina. Although the family finally CALIPhs In thE FIrst PErIoD oF
converted to Islam there were still bad IsLAMIC hIstory
feelings between the Umayyads and other
groups within the Islamic community. Death of the prophet Muhammad: 632
During Uthman’s caliphate these feelings First caliph:
deepened until many Muslims began to Abu Bakr: 632–634
oppose Uthman. Second caliph:
Umar ibn al-Khattab: 634–644
Under Uthman Muslim forces contin-
Third caliph:
ued to conquer new areas: From Egypt
Uthman ibn Affan: 644–656
they pushed west into North Africa, and Fourth caliph:
in Iran they continued to defeat the Sas- Ali ibn Abi Talib: 656–661
sanians. Soon, however, the Muslims
were forced to turn their attention to the After the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib in 661
increasing tension between Uthman and Muawiyah took the title of fifth caliph and
various groups within the community. moved the capital of the empire from
Medina to Damascus.
MusLIM AGAInst MusLIM
Tensions finally exploded in the year 656
with the assassination of Uthman. Although a new caliph was
quickly chosen Uthman’s murder sent shock waves throughout
the community and led to civil war. For the first time Muslims
were armed against each other. The man chosen to succeed Uth-
man was Ali ibn Abi Talib, the son-in-law and cousin of Muham-
mad and one of his earliest converts. Though highly respected
for his close relationship with Muhammad and for his service to
Islam, Ali soon found himself in serious trouble.
MusliM ConfliCT: Ali And MuAwiyAH

Uthman’s family, the Umayyads, was now led by Muawiyah, who
was then the Muslim governor of Syria. He was critical of Ali
for not having done enough to punish Uthman’s killers. When
Ali tried to make Muawiyah step down as governor, Muawiyah
refused; Ali felt obliged to send an army against him. At first Ali’s
troops did well against the Syrian forces but Muawiyah was able
to convince Ali to open negotiations. Ali agreed and the fighting
was stopped. It was a decision that Ali was soon to regret.

The core of Ali’s army was made up of his closest followers.
When Ali opened talks with Muawiyah and the Syrian forces a
group of these followers broke with him, saying that he did not
have the right to halt the fighting. Fiercely devout Muslims, they
argued that only God had the power to make such a decision.
In their view the only person with the right to rule the commu-
nity was the successor to Muhammad, who was now Ali; anyone
who challenged the ruler was standing against the community
and, worse, against the will of God. They argued that because Ali
had not defended the community by defeating Muawiyah he had
gone against God and therefore was no longer worthy of being
ruler.
dEATH of Ali—THE fouRTH CAliPH

This group of dissidents, known as the Kharijites, now took up
arms against the community. Ali, as ruler, had little choice but
to send troops against his former followers. In several clashes he
was able to subdue the Kharijites. He was not able to crush the
movement completely, however, and in 662 a Kharijite stabbed
Ali to death.
Civil strife had created deep divisions within the Islamic com-
munity and it was not clear who would rule. Into this vacuum
stepped Muawiyah, who was still governor of Syria and head of
a powerful army. Claiming the title of caliph for himself, Muawi-
yah moved the capital of the empire from Medina to Damascus.
Although many opposed this decision no other group could
challenge Muawiyah.
thE uMAyyADs AnD thE shIA

The move to Damascus brought an end to the first period of
Islamic history. What had once been a small community of
Muslims centered around Muhammad had become a powerful
empire in control of a large part of the Middle East and North
Africa. A new dynasty, the Umayyads, was now in control of the
caliphate and it faced all the problems that come with trying to
run a huge empire.
38 ISLAM
oPPonEnTs of THE uMAyyAds
Among these problems was the opposition of the Kharijites.
Although they had been defeated by Ali the Kharijites continued
to attract followers with their radical message that the Umayy- The courtyard of the
Umayyad mosque in
ads had seized power against the will of God. Branding these rul-
Damascus, originally the
ers as illegitimate, they called for Muslims to rise up against the cathedral of the city. Besides
dynasty. In response the Umayyads sent a series of forces against being a place of prayer the
the Kharijites but with mixed results. Although they defeated the mosque was also a focus
radicals in battle, they could not squash the spread and influence for the community, with
areas for study, debate,
of Kharijite ideas. administration, and a place
The Umayyads also faced opposition from the followers of Ali of refuge for the sick and the
ibn Abi Talib and his family. As an early convert to Islam Ali had homeless.
attracted an intensely loyal group of fol-
lowers known as the Shiat Ali, or the Fol-
lowers of Ali. These Shiis, as they came to
be known, fought with Ali against Muawi-
yah and the Umayyads. Although Ali’s
assassination shook them deeply they
remained loyal to both his name and his
family.
sHiA And THE fAMily of MuHAMMAd

The Shia believed that when Muhammad
died he had intended for Ali to succeed
him as leader of the community. They
argued that Muhammad had given a ser-
mon in which he said that after he was
gone the Muslims should follow Ali. For
this reason, when Abu Bakr, Umar, and
Uthman were chosen as the next caliphs,
the Shia protested, saying that only Ali and
his family had the right to lead the com-
munity after Muhammad. The Shia would
remain from this time forward a minor-
ity Islamic sect—often persecuted by the
majority of Muslims, who belonged to

the Sunni branch of Islam and found the
The Shia
Shia’s beliefs unacceptable.
The fourth caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib, After Ali’s death the Shia turned their
attracted a loyal group of followers attention to Ali’s son, Hasan. At the time
known as Shiat Ali, the followers of
Hasan was a religious scholar in the town
Ali. They held the belief that only Ali
of Medina, and he stayed clear of politics,
and his succeeding family had the
right to lead the community after to the disappointment of the Shia, until his
Muhammad. They are known as death in 669. The loyalties of the Shia then
the Shia. shifted to his brother, Husayn. Although
cautious, Husayn was proud of his family’s
name. When the Shia urged him to claim
his right to the caliphate in the year 680, Husayn agreed to try.
Only a short time before, news had come of the death of Muawi-
yah. Muawiyah’s son Yazid had taken over, but the Shia felt that
the time was ripe for revolt. Their center of activity was the city of
Kufah. They sent messengers to Husayn in Medina, urging him to
come to Kufah to lead them against the hated Umayyads.
HusAyn’s dEfEAT And dEATH

Husayn decided to take his chances. He set out for Kufah with his
family and a small band of followers. The Umayyad caliph, Yazid,
hearing news of Husayn’s march, imme-
CoMMEMorAtInG husAyn diately sent troops to prevent the group
from reaching Kufah. Near the town of
H usayn’s defeat and beheading near
the town of Karbala, which occurred
during the month of Muharram, were felt
Karbala tragedy struck. Husayn and his
small group were attacked by the Umayy-
deeply by the Shia. They had placed great ad troops. One by one Husayn’s followers
hopes in Husayn, so his death cast a pall fell, followed finally by Husayn himself.
over their community. Mixed with this It is said that the soldiers hesitated before
sadness was guilt because they had failed dealing the final blow to the grandson of
to come to Husayn’s assistance when he the prophet.
needed them. Since that time the Shia Husayn is said then to have been
remember Husayn’s sacrifice through spe-
beheaded by one of the soldiers. His head
cial rituals and prayers held every year
was sent to the caliph Yazid in Damascus.
during the month of Muharram, the first
Islamic month. Yazid gloated over the head and made
crude remarks about Husayn and the rest
40 ISLAM
of Ali’s family. For his role in Husayn’s death, Yazid would never
be forgiven by the Shia.
The killing of Husayn did not bring an end to the activities
of the Shia, many of whom began looking to other members of
Ali’s family to lead them. During the next few decades these men
would lead revolts against the Umayyads but with no success. For
the Umayyads the Shia remained a thorny problem.
thE uMAyyADs AnD nEw ConquEsts

Although the Umayyads were eventually overthrown the Shia
continued to see them as the symbol of unjust government. Even
today when the Shia criticize modern political leaders, they often
compare them to the Umayyads of the seventh century.
The Umayyad dynasty lasted for roughly 100 years during
which the Islamic Empire grew in both size and power. Umayy-
ad forces extended the rule of Islam west across North Africa to
the Atlantic coast. Turning north the Muslim armies crossed the
Straits of Gibraltar and invaded Spain. They moved swiftly across
Spain and into southern France. Only in the year 732 were they
finally halted by a Frankish army under the command of Charles
Martel. Despite this defeat Spain remained in Muslim hands. For
the next 750 years Spain would be a dynamic Islamic land.
The Umayyad armies continued to drive eastward. The remain-
ing areas of Iran fell to the Muslims, as did Afghanistan and the
area now called Pakistan. With these new possessions the empire
reached new levels of power. Much of the wealth of the Umayyad
caliphate came from the taxes that the caliphs imposed on the
peoples conquered over the years.
For all their authority the Umayyads still faced serious political
problems. The Kharijites and the Shia were still active, and both
groups spread propaganda against the Umayyads. On occasion
one or the other of the two movements would organize a bloody
revolt. Nor were these the only groups opposed to the Umayy-
ads; many other Muslims were angry with the ruling dynasty.
One common complaint was that wealth and privileges were not
fairly distributed by the Umayyads and their supporters.

These feelings of frustration helped fuel a revolutionary move-
ment that had secretly been forming in the eastern province of
Khurasan, which is today part of Central Asia. By the year 750 the
Umayyad family was on the defensive, and much of the empire
had fallen into the hands of the revolutionaries, who at that point
selected a new caliph for the empire: Abu al-Abbas. He was a
member of the Abbasid family and ruled only for a short time
before his brother, al-Mansur, came to power. Al-Mansur ruled
for many years.
thE AbbAsID CALIPhAtE

The Abbasids ruled from 750 to 1258. In the first 200 years of
their rule they reached dizzying heights of power and wealth.
Their empire stretched from Morocco to India and the Abba-
sid caliphs earned the respect of the entire world. Their wealth
came from many different sources. With their army and navy the
caliphs controlled the trade routes that crisscrossed the empire.
Their empire produced vast amounts of agricultural products
and took in revenue through taxation, allowing the early Abba-
sids to live comfortably in great splendor.
To run their empire the Abbasids
Arabian Nights developed a large bureaucratic govern-
Under the early Abbasid caliphs the ment centered in Baghdad. Soon this new
Islamic community experienced capital became a major urban center—the
a period of cultural brilliance. In hub of political and economic activity for
Baghdad and other cities the caliphs the whole empire. To defend themselves
used their influence to encourage and the empire they established a pow-
poets, writers, and musicians. As a
erful standing army based in garrisons
result many great works were created
throughout the Islamic lands. An impres-
in this period, including the famous
Arabian Nights (also known as One sive intelligence network backed the army
Thousand and One Nights), a collection with informants who worked in every
of Arabic popular narrative tales that corner of the empire. The most important
encompasses adventure, war, trickery, army was kept in Baghdad, where it could
love, animal fables, travel stories, defend the ruling family and the state.
folktales, and historical anecdotes. Among the accomplishments of this
period was the development of the Islam-
42 ISLAM
ic legal system. The basis of this new code
was, of course, the Quran and the teach-
ings of Muhammad. Using these two
sources as their guide the scholars worked
out a set of laws and regulations that came
to be known as the sharia. As they saw it
this was to be the foundation of Islamic
society. To enforce these laws and regu-
lations the scholars also worked with the
government to establish an Islamic court
system. At the head of this new system
were the chief judges, the qadis.
thE CoLLAPsE oF thE EMPIrE

By the middle of the 10th century the
Islamic Empire had given birth to a new
and great civilization. The Arabic language
and the religion of Islam had taken root
throughout the Middle East, North Africa,
Spain, and Central Asia. In law, religion,
education, art, science, and commerce the
Islamic community was living through a
golden age. By comparison, Europe was
in the midst of the “Dark Ages.”
divisions And dEfEAT Ornate tilework in a mosque

in Isfahan, Iran. Many
Although the cultural achievements during the Abbasid rule
mosques feature calligraphy
would live on, the 10th century brought new political problems and geometric and floral
that the caliphs proved unable to solve. Preserving the unity of the motifs since representations
empire was especially difficult. For more than a century, through of God and human beings
diplomacy and the strength of the army, the Abbasid caliphs had are not permitted.
controlled the empire. By the ninth century this control began to
slip. In North Africa and other regions local leaders began to go
their own way. Often they continued to recognize the leadership
of the caliph while establishing their own rule over a particular
region.

Arts AnD sCIEnCE unDEr By the middle of the 10th century the
thE AbbAsIDs caliphs were forced to recognize the end
of their power. In 945 a strong army led
T he Abbasids commissioned archi-

tects and builders to construct
palaces and magnificent homes in the
by a Persian family named the Buwayhids
swept into Iraq and captured Baghdad.
Although they allowed the caliph to retain
capital and other regions. For a short
his official title, they ran the empire.
period the capital was moved to the city
of Samarra, like Baghdad on the Tigris Another development further divided
River, where the ruins of the many pal- the Islamic world in the late 10th centu-
aces built by this dynasty are still visible. ry. Earlier in the century a group of Shiis
The Abbasids also provided a great deal had succeeded in establishing a small
of support to the scholarly community. In state in North Africa. From this center of
Baghdad and other cities brilliant work power they launched attacks to the west,
was carried out in intellectual centers. against Egypt. In 969 these leaders, called
Working with Jewish and Christian schol-
the Fatimid dynasty, conquered Egypt
ars, Muslim thinkers set out to translate
and established a new city, Cairo, which
and study the works of other great cul-
tures, including Greece and India. Many
became their capital. This dynasty would
works of mathematics, medicine, theol- rule Egypt for 200 years, during which it
ogy, and philosophy were translated into would be in almost constant conflict with
the Arabic language. Using these works the Sunni regions, which were still under
the Muslims created their own bodies of the nominal rule of the Abbasid caliphs.
original ideas, which they laid out in the Fatimid rule came to an end in 1171
many books written during this period. when Cairo was overrun by the army of
Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi, known in the West
as Saladin. His victory brought an end to
Shii rule in Egypt and was warmly welcomed by the inhabitants
of Egypt. Most of them had never accepted Shii beliefs, prefer-
ring to remain Sunnis or Christians. While happy to receive their
praises, Salah al-Din had to turn his energies to Jerusalem, then
under the rule of the Christian Crusade forces.
THE CRusAdEs
The Crusades were a series of campaigns launched over four cen-
turies, beginning with an attack on Jerusalem at the end of the
11th century, to return it to Christian rule. Initially the Christian
armies succeeded in achieving their goal—the conquest of Jeru-
44 ISLAM
salem. This victory in 1099 was followed by the establishment of
small kingdoms along the Mediterranean coast.
The fall of Jerusalem came as a shock to many Muslims. To
them Jerusalem was of great symbolic importance. It was, accord-
ing to Islamic belief, from Jerusalem that Muhammad had trav-
eled on his miraculous journey to heaven. The Umayyad caliphs
thE ruLE oF thE FAtIMIDs
A t the height of their power the Fatimids

(969–1171) ruled over a large area that
included Egypt, large parts of Syria, Persia,
Cairo, many of which can still be seen today.
Among their accomplishments was the cre-
ation of the al-Azhar mosque complex—a
the Arabian Peninsula, and North Africa. As religious and educational center that would
a result it became a powerful state. Under survive the fall of the Fatimid dynasty in the
the Fatimids Egypt experienced a period of 12th century. Today it is a major university,
great cultural achievement and Cairo became attracting students from all over the Islamic
a large, bustling city. The Fatimids built a world. Originally a center of Shii education, it
series of mosques and palaces throughout is now a center of Sunni thought.
View from the Citadel of Old Cairo with the al-Azhar mosque
and university in the foreground.

had built a famous mosque, the Dome of the Rock, on the site
believed to be the place from which Muhammad started on this
journey. Many Muslims grew determined to see the city back in
Muslim hands.
It fell to Salah al-Din to organize an army to carry out the task.
After taking Egypt he had gone on to conquer Syria and Meso-
potamia, thus establishing a unified state. From this position of
strength he sent his army against the Crusaders in 1187. After
defeating the Christian army his troops reestablished Islamic rule
over Jerusalem.
Meanwhile in Baghdad the Abbasid caliphs continued as mere
figureheads. The empire over which the dynasty had once ruled
was now broken into many small parts. Most of these states were
controlled by military men who had little interest in religious
matters. Deep political and religious differences divided the
Islamic community.
Mongol ConQuEsT of bAgHdAd

During the early part of the 13th century Mongol armies had
been sweeping across the vast lands of China and Russia, mov-
ing west into Central Asia. By the 1250s the Mongols, under their
leader Hulagu, moved swiftly through Persia and to the gates of
Baghdad. There they demanded complete surrender from the last
Abbasid caliph, al-Mustasim. With few political and no military
forces at his disposal, the caliph had little choice but to agree.
Baghdad was overrun by the Mongol troops. The caliph and his
family were later taken to a small village and executed, bringing a
sad end to the once powerful Abbasid caliphate.
thrEE nEw MusLIM EMPIrEs

Never again would one dynasty rule over the whole of the Islam-
ic world. The death of the last Abbasid caliph closed a long and
often glorious chapter in the history of Islam. In the heyday of
the caliphate the power and cultural achievements of the Islam-
ic world were renowned. The political unity of the empire that
had made much of this possible was now at an end. What had
46 ISLAM
not ended, however, were the deep spiritual and cultural links
between the many regions of the Islamic world.
Even with the achievements of the Abbasid caliphate, the
Islamic world had yet to reach its political and cultural peak. The
Mongol invasions had been devastating. However, by the 15th
century not only had the Islamic world recovered from the inva-
sions, but it had also begun to take great strides forward. With
the rise of three new empires the majority of the regions of Islam
now had dynamic political leadership.
At the height of their power these three states ruled over a The Sultan Ahmed mosque,
also known as the Blue
vast area stretching from what is known today as Bangladesh
Mosque, was built in
west to modern-day Algeria. In the east, ruling over the Indian Istanbul between 1609 and
subcontinent, was the Mughal Empire with its capital in Delhi. In 1616. In 1453 one Ottoman
Iran the Safavid dynasty arose to establish a new Shii state ruling ruler, Mehmet II, laid siege
from Isfahan. And beginning in the middle of the 14th century a to Constantinople, the
capital of the once-great
Turkish state known as the Ottoman Empire arose in Anatolia. In Byzantine Empire. The city
time, the Ottomans would control most of North Africa and the fell and the new Muslim
Middle East, all of Anatolia, and much of southeastern Europe. rulers renamed it Istanbul.

The Taj Mahal is one of the
best-known examples of Islamic
architecture. Located in Agra, India,
the building is a mausoleum for
Mumtaz Mahal, the favorite wife of
the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.
Construction began in 1632.
48 ISLAM
The rulers of these three empires were not spiritual guides or
teachers in the way Muhammad had been. Their role, at least in
theoretical terms, was to uphold the Islamic faith and to see that
the lands of Islam were well defended against both internal and
external threats. In this way, like the caliphs of old, the Mughal,
Safavid, and Ottoman rulers had both political and religious
responsibilities.
ARCHiTECTuRE And CulTuRE of THE EMPiREs

The political power of these dynasties coincided with cultural
and economic activity throughout the Islamic world. Like the
Mughal rulers, the Safavids also took a keen interest in religious
and cultural matters. Abbas I, the greatest of the Safavid leaders,
ruled from 1588 to 1629 and did much to promote Iranian art
and architecture. Along with magnificent buildings erected in
Isfahan, the capital, Iranian artists produced works of calligraphy
and miniature painting as well as manuscript illustration. Others
in the dynasty also encouraged the work of the religious and legal
scholars, many of whom worked as government functionaries in
schools, mosques, and cultural centers.
The achievements of the Ottoman sultans were no less bril-
liant. At their peak of prestige they provided an atmosphere in
which scholars, artists, musicians, architects, and poets all flour-
ished. The beautiful mosques and other buildings of present-
day Istanbul attest to the cultural environment fostered by these
rulers.
CoMMERCE, REligion, And PoliTiCs
This period also witnessed a great deal of commercial activity.
All three dynasties were able to provide the areas under their con-
trol with political and economic stability. Throughout this peri-
od merchants bought and sold a great variety of goods—from
expensive spices, clothes, and jewels to basic foodstuffs such as
rice and wheat. This commerce was carried out within each of
the empires as well as across frontiers, as great trade caravans
and ocean fleets crisscrossed the regions of the Middle East and
southern Asia.

This was also a period when the religious scholars, or ulama
(meaning “learned ones”), became deeply involved in a wide range
of activities—largely with the blessings of the political rulers.
The religious scholars served the community as teachers, prayer
leaders, and spiritual guides. Some ulama served as local political
leaders, voicing the wishes and grievances of their followers to
the state. The governments in Isfahan, Istanbul, and Delhi all rec-
ognized the value of having control over these religious figures.
As a result they employed growing numbers of these men in the
Interior of the Sultan Hassan government bureaucracy.
Mosque, Cairo, Egypt. The Eventually the ulama became a divided group. Whereas the
flight of steps leads to the
minbar, where the Friday top scholars—those men with good positions in the bureaucra-
sermon is given to the cy—supported the state, other ulama kept their distance from
congregation. the government. In Iran especially, the lower-ranked members of
this religious community refused to serve
the state. Some of these men became crit-
ics of the political establishment, while
many others stayed completely out of pol-
itics. Those few who spoke out won the
support of the general public.
ConQuEsT, EduCATion, And PREACHing

During the 15th to 18th centuries Islam
spread further afield in both Asia and
Africa. The spread of Islam took place in
a variety of ways. Conquests brought new
areas under Islamic rule. For example areas
of Central Asia, India, and Central Africa
were conquered at different times by Mus-
lim forces. Education and preaching by
Muslim missionaries, teachers, holy men,
and scholars spread Islam to newly con-
quered areas and to remote parts of previ-
ously established Islamic territories. Often
these were charismatic men who won
people over to Islam through the force of
50 ISLAM
their character and message. Just as often such missionaries and
teachers worked within populations that had long been under
Islamic rule but had not yet converted. In Anatolia, for example,
under the Ottomans, many Christians converted to Islam.
Just as important was the role played by merchants who were
active during this period. In coastal areas from East Africa to the
islands of Indonesia, merchants established contacts with local
populations. These social exchanges led to the establishment of
small communities where missionaries, among others, would
come to settle. In this way Islam gradually spread, for example, to
the interior regions of Indonesia and Africa.
THE End of THE EMPiREs

As with all empires the days of prestige and power came to an end
as strife slowly sapped the strength of all three of the dynasties.
What were once dynamic states slowly became hollow shells that
finally collapsed under the pressures of both internal upheavals
and external threats. The Safavid and Mughal states disappeared
by the 19th century, and the Ottomans held on until the early
part of the 20th century before finally vanishing.
By the 18th century, however, Islam had established itself
throughout vast areas of Africa and Asia. In many of these
regions Muslims were the dominant majority. Of course differ-
ences remained great in languages, local customs and values, eat-
ing habits and dress, art and music, and economic systems from
one region to the next. However despite these differences strong
and lasting bonds developed to tie the disparate Islamic regions
together. As Muslims all the peoples of these regions worshipped
the one God, Allah, and venerated his messenger, Muhammad.
All prayed facing the sacred city of Mecca, and all carried out
the other specific rituals expected of Muslims. And of course all
sought guidance from Islam’s great book—the Quran.

CHAPTER 4
QURAN, HADITH,
AND THE LAW
M uslims believe that the text of the Quran is the literal Word
of God—revealed to Muhammad during his lifetime,
written down by his followers under his supervision, and put
into book form soon after his death. For this reason the Quran
provides the foundation and guiding spirit of Islam.
thE worD oF GoD

Muslims become acquainted with the Quran at a young age and
many continue to study it throughout their lives. Verses of the
book are recited into the ears of babies, and as soon as Mus-
lim children are old enough to speak they begin memorizing
and reciting Quranic verses. Muslim children learn to read and
write by reciting the book and by copying out verses by hand. As
young Muslims approach adulthood they learn to use the book
in prayer. The attachment to the Quran continues until the last
days of a Muslim’s life, when sections of the book are often read
to the dying. Finally, following Islamic tradition, selected passag-
es of the Quran are recited over the grave of a deceased Muslim.
A Muslim family studying the Quran at an Islamic center in Indonesia.

Today the majority of Muslims are not native speakers of Arabic and
therefore the Quran is made available to them in translation. However,
any translation of the Quran ceases to be the literal word of Allah.
52 ISLAM
Quran, Hadith, and the Law 53
Memorization and recital of the Quran
The Arabic Language
are highly valued activities in the Islamic
Public recitations of the Quran are world. Most Muslim children learn por-
always conducted in Arabic, as it is tions of the Quran by heart and use them
believed that God revealed the Quran continually in prayer and on other occa-
to Muhammad in Arabic: “We have
sions. Some Muslims go on to memorize
revealed it, a Quran in Arabic, so that
you might understand” (12.2). For this
the entire book—an act that earns them
reason even the many Muslims who the respect of their communities. Muslims
do not speak or read Arabic view that also place great value in the recitation of
language with great respect. the Quran. Throughout the Islamic world
Muslims gather to hear the book recited
and show great appreciation for those
with particularly well-trained voices.
It is difficult to convey the depth of appreciation and attach-
ment that Muslims feel toward the Quran. For Muslims the book
is a unique event in the history of humankind. It is often described
as the one true miracle brought by Muhammad. It is thought that
since the Quran represents the Word of God, it is a perfect work.
Like God it is eternal and unchangeable.
A British Muslim girl quietly

reading the Quran in Arabic.
The Quran teaches that its
words were sent down to
Muhammad from God in the
Arabic language.
54 ISLAM
thE MEssAGE oF thE qurAn
According to Islamic tradition and the Quran itself, the Quran is
the last in a series of revelations sent to the world by God. Among
his messengers were Moses and the other Hebrew prophets, who
brought the Torah, and Jesus Christ, whose followers document-
ed his life and his teachings in the New Testament of the Bible.
Like them Muhammad was the bearer of a divine message—the
Quran.
Therefore Muslims do not reject the earlier messages brought
by Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets who came before
Muhammad. On the contrary the Islamic tradition views these
earlier prophets and their messages with great esteem. However
the Quran teaches that over time both the Jewish and Christian
scriptures have been corrupted by the men and women who have
tried to interpret them.
For example the Jews and the Christians are criticized in the
Quran for having claimed to be a divinely chosen people. The
Quran states that only God will decide who, if anyone, is to be
chosen and for what reasons. The Christians are also criticized
for having thought of Christ as divine. In the view of Muslims
this is to say that God shares his divine nature or that God has a
divine partner. This idea contradicts one of the most fundamen-
tal Islamic principles—the absolute one-
ness of God. SURAS AnD AYAS
The Quran condemns any individual
or group that tries to associate any object
or being with God. Muslims use the term
T he Quran is made up of 114 chap-
ters known as suras, each of which is
made up of a varying number of verses,
shirk (associating anything with God) for called ayas. The longest chapter contains
such an act, which they believe is the one 286 verses, the shortest only three. The
unforgivable sin that humans can commit. longer chapters are known as the Medinan
Muslims believe that Christians commit chapters because it is believed they were
an act of shirk when they claim that Jesus revealed to Muhammad after his arrival in
is divine. Medina, following his journey from Mecca.
The shorter chapters are believed to have
Muslims believe that the role of the
been revealed earlier, in Mecca, and are
Quran is to correct the errors and false
called the Meccan suras.
ideas that men and women have added to

LorD oF thE worLDs God’s earlier revelations. As the final rev-
elation from God, it is believed to be the
I n addition to uniqueness other charac-

teristics of Allah (God) are described by
the Quran. The first chapter of the book,
most perfect. It was sent to warn human-
ity that the earlier revelations had been
corrupted and to bring people back to the
called Surat al-Fatihah, describes some of
true religion.
these qualities:
In the name of God, the Merciful, the GoD, huMAnkInD, hEAvEn, AnD hELL
Compassionate. All praise belongs to According to Islamic tradition God is first
God, the Lord of the Worlds, the of all merciful, ready to forgive the sinner
All-Merciful, the All-Compassionate, the as long as that person repents and turns
Master of the Day of Judgment. It is You
back to the worship of God and a truly
we serve and to You we pray for support.
Guide us on the right path, the path of religious life. God is also generous. The
those that You have blessed, not that of Quran speaks often about the bounty
those with whom You are angry, nor of of the natural world given to humanity
those who go astray. by God. It says, “God is He Who created
the heavens and the earth and sent down
—1.1–7
water from the clouds, then brought forth
with it fruits to sustain you.” (14.32)
The greatest proofs of God’s mercy and compassion, howev-
er, are the prophets and the revelation, particularly the prophet
Muhammad and the Quran. These provide men and women with
the guidance they require to make their way through the world
and ultimately to salvation. The revelation and the teachings of
Muhammad accomplish several tasks: They warn humanity of
the evils of sin, they provide knowledge of God and of the proper
ways to worship, and they describe the rewards that await the
person who follows the revelation and Muhammad’s example.
MAsTER of THE dAy of JudgMEnT

However God is also the Master of the Day of Judgment, whose
power and justice are as great as his mercy. For those sinners who
repent God will show forgiveness, but for those sinners who per-
sist in their corrupt ways God will be unforgiving. One verse in
the Quran says that the sinner who attempts to win forgiveness
with all the wealth of the world, and even twice that, will fail. God
56 ISLAM
will review their lives on the Day of Judg- sPIrItuAL CrEAturEs
ment and find them unrepentant. Their
reward will be the fires of hell.
The Quran offers vivid descriptions of A
ccording to the Quran, in both heaven
and hell humans will be joined by
spirits created by God. The spiritual crea-
both heaven and hell. In hell sinners suffer
tures of heaven are the angels. Created out
from both physical and mental anguish.
of light, their role is to serve as messengers
While despair and fear fill their hearts
between God and humanity, delivering
and minds, their bodies are tortured with the divine revelation to those chosen by
fire and molten metals. A very different God. It was the angel Gabriel who brought
experience is promised for those who are the revelation from God to Muhammad in
saved. Heaven is described in the Quran the cave at Hira. Below the angels are the
as a place of rich gardens with running jinn, who are made of fire and who can be
springs, where the saved will delight in either good or bad. Like human beings,
the best of food and drink and the com- these fiery spirits will be judged by God at
the end of time and sent to either heaven
panionship of beautiful young men and
or hell. In the period before Islam the jinn
women.
were thought to inhabit rocks and trees.
In hell the sinners join Satan and his fol- With the establishment of Islam belief in
lowers. The story of Satan, who is known the jinn was incorporated into the new
as Iblis in the Islamic tradition, is one of religion, seeing them as intermediaries
the most vivid parts of the Quran. It begins between humanity and the angels but not
with an affirmation of the special relation- always to be trusted or believed!
ship that exists between humankind and
God. God created people to serve as his
representatives on earth. At the moment of creation God sum-
moned the angels to inform them of humanity’s special quality.
He ordered them to bow down before the first of humans, Adam,
but Iblis angrily refused.
When Iblis refused to bow down before Adam, God cast him
out of heaven for disobeying the divine command:
Then all the angels bowed together, except Iblis, who refused to join
those who were bowing. God said: “Oh, Iblis, why are you not among those
who are upon their knees?” He said: “I am not going to kneel before a being
formed out of clay, of shaped mud.” God said: “Then leave here, you are
cast out, and indeed you are cursed until the Day of Judgment.” He said:
“My Lord, spare me until the Day of Resurrection.” God said: “You may

join those waiting for that appointed day.” He said: “Since you have made
evil of me, I will certainly make the world attractive to those on earth, and
I will make evil of all of them, except those of them who are your sincere
followers.” God said: “This is the path that leads directly to me. As for my
followers, you will have no influence over them except those who go astray
to follow you, and surely Hell will be the place for them.” (15.30–43)
HuMAn REsPonsibiliTiEs
The Quran clearly states that God expects humans to perform
the rituals of Islam and read the Quran. However it also provides
guidelines for living life as a Muslim. According to the Quran
human beings are individually responsible for their own actions
and thoughts. Consequently the decision to follow the true path
of God, to live a sincerely religious life, is up to each person. Those
who choose to do so will win God’s mercy, and those who do not
will earn only his anger.
thE MusLIM CoMMunIty AnD thE qurAn

The devout Muslim is not only an individual but also a member
of the Islamic community. That community has the responsibil-
ity to follow God’s will, which means to uphold the teachings
of the Quran. As the Quran says, God made the Muslims into a
particular community, or umma, just as he had earlier done with
the Jews and Christians. He expects that community to act as an
example to all other communities.
guiding THE CoMMuniTy

To guide the community the Quran provides regulations that
every Muslim is expected to follow. These include not only the
ritual duties of prayer but also rules regarding inheritance, mar-
riage, and other aspects of life. Over the course of Islamic his-
tory these rules have become the basis of Islamic law. The Quran
says that the goal of the Muslim community is to create a just
society. So the Quran not only teaches human beings about God,
Muhammad, and the revelation but also serves as a guide to the
community of Muslims on how to follow God from day to day.
58 ISLAM
A page from an 18th-
century Turkish Quran
decorated with geometric
patterns. The Quran
contains many passages that
require much study before
their meaning becomes
clear. Since Muslims
throughout the ages have
sought guidance from the
Quran, it has always been
important for them to know
what the book is teaching.
As a result those who study
the Quran are looked to by
other Muslims for guidance.
Often these people become
teachers in their local
communities.
Studying and explaining the Quran became, very early on,

an important branch of Islamic education and intellectual life.
Tafsir is the term used by Muslims for Quranic interpretation or
explanation. In the ninth and 10th centuries Muslim scholars
spent years studying the verses of the Quran. The best of these
scholars produced multivolume works—still used today in uni-
versities throughout the Islamic world—in which they laid out
their detailed interpretations. Perhaps the most famous of these
works, Mukhtasar tarikh al rusul wal muluk wal khulafa, was written
in the early 10th century by a scholar in Baghdad named Abu
Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d. 923).
lifE And TEACHings of MuHAMMAd

Although the Quran embodies the teachings of Islam, there is
another source of guidance Muslims look to as well—the life and
teachings of Muhammad. No individual is viewed with the same
awe and respect by Muslims as is Muhammad ibn Abd Allah. In
countless biographies and poems Muslims have spoken of their
profound attachment to the prophet. He is revered by Muslims

for his special relationship to God. Like
Al-Tabari’s Universal History
the prophets before him he was selected
The greatest work of the scholar Abu to bring the divine message to humanity.
Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari However Muhammad is thought to have
is his universal history, Mukhtasar
been closer to God than were any of the
tarikh al rusul wal muluk wal khulafa.
other prophets. He was the one chosen to
The adjective mukhtasar, meaning
“short or concise,” must be taken as bring the Quran, God’s last revelation, to
a sign of modesty of the author of humanity. For that reason his relationship
this work, which fills 12½ volumes. to God was unique.
This universal history begins with
the Creation, gives details of the Old MuhAMMAD AnD hADIth
Testament prophets, and provides Muhammad is also revered by Muslims
a detailed account of the life of the for having lived a remarkable life. A gifted
prophet of Islam. He continues his
teacher, Muhammad inspired his listen-
history up to 915, seven years before
ers. A great political leader, Muhammad
he died.
turned a small group of followers into a
powerful community, the foundation of
an expanding empire. A skilled military chief, he led his follow-
ers to victory against more powerful enemies, eventually gaining
control of the entire Arabian Peninsula.
For all these reasons it was not long before Muhammad was
seen by his followers as a model human being. For them and for
the generations of Muslims after them, he became the example
for all Muslims to follow—not only an exemplary human being,
but even incapable of error of any kind.
THE HAdiTH
Even during Muhammad’s lifetime Muslims began to collect sto-
ries of his activities and teachings. His closest followers—those
who had observed Muhammad on a daily basis for years—passed
on these stories to others after his death. These accounts, known
as hadith, grew very popular and soon were circulating through-
out the Islamic community.
As the hadith began to circulate through the community,
Muslims listened with great interest. These reports were passed
on from person to person, community to community, in both
60 ISLAM
written and oral form through the centuries. From the hadith
Muslims learned about Muhammad’s accomplishments as a mil-
itary and political leader as well as details of his private life. For
instance there are accounts of Muhammad’s methods of battle
and diplomacy as well as descriptions of his religious activities
and family life. No Muslim could ever hope to be like Muham-
mad in every way, but many Muslims believe that if they strive to
follow Muhammad’s example, they will live a pious and mean-
ingful life.
finding THE TRuE HAdiTH

By the time Islam had spread beyond the Arabian Peninsula it
became obvious to many in the Islamic community that most
of these reports about Muhammad were fabrications, that they
had been created after Muhammad’s death by members of the
community who claimed that they had heard the reports from
someone who had recorded them in the time of the prophet. Very
often those who made up these reports were well-meaning Mus-
lims who thought that their act of fabrication was a sign of their
reverence for Muhammad. Others had created new hadith in an
attempt to put forth their own answers to
problems facing the early Muslim com- DEMAnD For thE hADIth
munity. While no one was punished for
this activity, it became clear that the fab-
ricated reports would have to be weeded
W ithin 200 years of Muhammad’s
death the numbers of hadith
(accounts of Muhammad’s activities and
out. After all, if the community was going teachings) circulating around the Islamic
to use the hadith as a source of guidance, community probably were in the hun-
it would have to be sure that only the true dreds of thousands. By that time the
hadith were being used. Islamic Empire had spread well beyond
In order to find the true hadith Muslim the limits of the Arabian Peninsula. In the
areas conquered by the Muslim armies
scholars began to examine large numbers
large numbers of people had converted
of these reports. Since the empire had
to Islam. Like those before them these
grown so large scholars often had to travel new Muslims were eager to learn about
vast distances in order to collect the many Muhammad and his teachings. This fur-
accounts. Gradually the scholars were ther increased the demand for the hadith.
able to distinguish the real hadith from the

fabricated ones. Out of this exhausting effort came a number of
collections of hadith that were considered reliable.
As time went on six of these collections were shown prefer-
ence by the scholarly community of Islam and became the stan-
dard works of hadith—still read today by students and scholars
in universities throughout the Islamic world.
thE LAw oF GoD

For Muslims the sharia, or Islamic law, is the divine plan for the
Islamic community. It lays out the regulations and duties that all
Muslims are expected to follow during the course of their lives,
including the rituals that Muslims are expected to perform when
worshipping Allah as well as the regulations for behavior with
one’s family and in society.
The sharia developed from the deeply
felt needs of the early Muslims. The con-
quests had transformed the small com-
munity in Medina into a powerful empire.
For many Muslims, however, the riches of
the empire were only of secondary impor-
tance. The first priority was the assurance
of a moral Islamic community. If it was
to follow the Word of God and the teach-
ings of Muhammad, these Muslims said, it
needed a body of Islamic law.
From the eighth to the start of the 10th
century scholars of Islam worked at the
difficult process of developing this body
of law. One problem they faced was that
many passages in the Quran were inter-
preted in different ways by different schol-
ars, resulting in arguments and disputes.
The Quran moreover did not contain
A man praying using mishaba, prayer beads. There are 99
answers—even partial answers—to all the
prayer beads corresponding to the 99 names of God. By
repeating these names, such as the Compassionate and the questions they faced. In those cases where
Merciful, Muslims are brought closer to God. even the hadith did not provide answers
62 ISLAM
the scholars were obliged to come to a
solution by using their own opinions, The Way Ordained by God
guided as closely as possible by the prin- The early Muslim community read
ciples of the Quran and hadith. and memorized the Quran and
By the beginning of the 10th century hadith (accounts of Muhammad’s
the legal experts had reached their goal: activities and teachings) much as
Muslims continue to do today. The
The basic elements of the sharia were in
scholars of the early community also
place. This code of regulations, set out
put the Quran and hadith to work
in legal manuals written by the various to develop Islamic law, or the sharia.
scholars and their students, showed that Although the term sharia is often
the disagreements among the different translated as “holy law,” a better way
groups of legal scholars had not disap- to interpret it is probably “the way
peared. On certain issues of law, such as ordained by God.”
how divorce between a husband and wife
could be achieved and how the property
of a deceased person was to be divided among the person’s heirs,
the scholars had reached conflicting conclusions about what the
Quran and hadith permitted. These differences led to the emer-
gence of various schools of Islamic law.
thE sChooLs oF LAw

The schools all developed in the same way: A gifted scholar would
set out his ideas in his classes and writings; his students would
refine these and pass them on to their students, who would in
turn do the same. In the early period a number of these schools
came into being, but most of them dissolved quickly. The few that
survived were named after the men around whom the schools
had first formed.
HAnAfi sCHool
The two oldest Sunni legal schools are called Hanafi and Maliki.
The former was named after Abu Hanifa (d. 767), a legal scholar
who lived and worked in the Iraqi city of Kufah. He acquired a
reputation among scholars for his liberal views on the law and
for his great intelligence. Abu Hanifa used legal precedents other
than those found in the hadith to expand Islamic law and advised

that extreme Quranic punishments should be used rarely. Some
of the greatest legal scholars of the following generation were his
students. The Hanafi school is currently dominant in India, Cen-
tral Asia, Turkey, and parts of Egypt.
MAliki sCHool
The Maliki school took its name from Malik ibn Anas (d. 796), a
scholar from the city of Medina—the first capital of the Islamic
Empire and the center of vigorous work by legal and religious
scholars. Malik was one of the most highly respected of these
men. The Ummayad caliphs had claimed that laws could be made
without reference to the Quran, but Malik ibn Anas overturned
this right and once again placed emphasis on the importance of
the hadith. He is known to the present day for his dedication to
Muslims in the courtyard collecting hadith and for writing the al-Muwatta—one of the most
of Vakil mosque, Shiraz, influential early books on the law. The Maliki school is currently
Iran. Mosques throughout dominant in North and Central Africa.
the Islamic world are used
for prayer, study, and
contemplation. During sHAfii sCHool
the month-long fast of Perhaps the greatest legal scholar in Islamic history was Muham-
Ramadan it is common for mad ibn Idris al-Shafii, who gave his name to the Shafii school of
Muslims, usually men, to
law, which is currently followed in Malaysia, southern Arabia, and
spend long hours in the
mosque reading, praying, East Africa. He was born in Palestine and studied in various parts
and quietly conversing. of the Middle East, including Medina, where he studied under the
great Malik ibn Anas. He then taught in
Baghdad and later Egypt, where he died in
819. Al-Shafii laid out his ideas on the law
in the Risala—one of the most renowned
books of the early period of Islam.
In his book al-Shafii argued persuasive-
ly that after the Quran the most important
source for legal scholars to use in reaching
their decisions was the hadith. It was to
a great extent because of this argument
that the hadith became so highly regarded
by all Muslims. With al-Shafii’s work the
64 ISLAM
stature of Muhammad rose to new heights. Like Abu Hanifa, al-
Shafii attracted many fine students, some of whom went on to
contribute to the development of Islamic law.
HAnbAli sCHool
The last of the Sunni legal schools to emerge was the Hanbali
school—named after Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), who was a
younger contemporary of al-Shafii in Baghdad. Early on ibn Han-
bal acquired the reputation for being outspoken and very conser-
vative. Frequently he had bitter arguments with other scholars
over a variety of religious and legal issues. He even became
involved in an angry dispute with the court and at one point was
arrested and beaten for his opinions. This helped strengthen his
following among students and younger scholars who shared his
views. Today the only area where the Hanbali school is dominant
is the modern state of Saudi Arabia.
sHii lAw—THE JAfiRi sCHool

Besides the schools of legal thought in the Sunni Muslim com-
munity, there is the Shii law school, which is known as the Jafiri
school. It was named after a great Shii scholar who lived and
taught in Medina and later in Baghdad: Jafar al-Sadiq. In his early
career al-Sadiq lived a quiet life, writing and holding classes for
his students. In 750 the Abbasids swept into power, and in a short
time the quiet of al-Sadiq’s life was shattered.
Al-Sadiq was by that time one of the leading members of the
Shii community. This status was not entirely to his liking. The
new Abbasid caliphs from the very start of their rule viewed the
Shia as political rivals and therefore kept a close eye on al-Sadiq
and other Shii leaders. Although al-Sadiq had always been care-
ful to stay out of politics—partly for fear that he would end up
beheaded like Shii leader Husayn—the second Abbasid caliph, al-
Mansur, ordered al-Sadiq arrested on several occasions. Al-Sadiq
died in the year 765 and it was believed by many that he was poi-
soned on the orders of the caliph. For the Shia, his death would
drive one more wedge between the two Muslim communities.

CHAPTER 5
THE VARIETY OF
RELIGIOUS LIFE
IN ISLAM
T he division of the Islamic community into the Sunni and Shii

traditions began with the deaths of Ali (Prophet Muham-
mad’s cousin, son-in-law, and the fourth caliph) in 661 and his
son Husayn in 680. Deprived of their leaders the Shia grew frus-
trated as the Umayyads took over the caliphate. Despite the loss
of Ali and Husayn many of the Shia remained loyal to the Alid
family.
The title given by the Shia to Ali, his two sons, and a select group
of men who came after them was imam. Following Husayn’s bru-
tal murder the Shia agreed that the position of imam should go to
a member of the Alid family. But which one?
A number of the Shia argued that the new imam was now
Husayn’s son, also named Ali, the only one of Husayn’s male
offspring to survive the massacre at Karbala in 680. Ali, known
also as Zayn al-Abidin, was then a respected scholar esteemed
for his deep piety. However others of the Shia had another choice
in mind. This disagreement led to a division within the Shii com-
munity. Although a number remained faithful to Ali, the son of
Muslim girls greeting each other. Muslim women

traditionally dress modestly. As long as they stay within
religious guidelines, the type of clothes that are worn may
vary according to cultural tradition and personal choice.
66 ISLAM
The Variety of Religious Life in Islam 6
Husayn, others threw their loyalty behind
Imam
a third son of Ali ibn Abi Talib, a man
In the Sunni Muslim community the named Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya.
term imam is used in different ways. It When ibn al-Hanafiyya died in 700
is used to address respected religious and Ali Zayn al Abidin died in 712, once
scholars and teachers. Early in their again, the Shia—including the followers
history the Sunnis also used it to
of ibn al-Hanafiyya and Ali Zayn al Abi-
address the Abbasid caliphs. It is used
today for the individual who leads
din—faced the problem of finding a new
prayer sessions in the mosque. The imam. As before they could not agree on
Shiis use it to refer to Ali, his sons, which Alid to choose as their next leader.
and the men who succeeded them to A number of small Shii groups appeared,
the leadership of the Shii community. each with its own candidate for imam.
This pattern of disagreement over the suc-
cessor of a deceased imam would repeat
itself frequently over the next 200 years. Most of these groups
were small and disappeared quickly. Only a handful of them sur-
vived this early period.
thE shII brAnChEs

Of these various branches of the Shia, the earliest to emerge
was the Zaydi tradition. Zayd ibn Ali, after whom this group is
named, was the son of Ali Zayn al-Abidin. Unlike his father Zayd
was willing to fight for the rights of the Alid family. In 740 he
organized a rebellion in Kufah against the Umayyads. As with
Husayn years earlier, the Kufans promised their support to Zayd.
Once again, at the crucial moment the Kufans backed out. The
Umayyad soldiers overwhelmed Zayd’s followers, killing Zayd in
the process.
Despite Zayd’s death his followers remained active. Led by
other members of the Alid family one group of Zaydis settled in
northern Iran, where they established a small state that survived
into the 11th century. Other Zaydis made their way to Yemen
in southwestern Arabia. The state they established there would
have a long, frequently violent history throughout which the
Zaydis maintained their presence. In the early part of the 20th
century the leaders of this Zaydi community were able to create
68 ISLAM
an independent state that lasted into the
The Druze
1960s before succumbing to revolution.
In the 11th century a new movement
THE isMAilis emerged within the Ismaili sect that
The history of another sect of the Shia was came to be known as the Druze.
Today the Druze number roughly
no less eventful. The Ismaili Shia emerged
300,000 and live in Syria, Israel, and
after the death of the man they looked to
Lebanon. Many Muslims believe that
as their imam. Ismail ibn Jafar was the son the Druze hold ideas that violate
of the famous Shii scholar Jafar al-Sadiq, the basic tenets of Islam and for this
a great-grandson of the famous Husayn. reason should not be considered part
Although he died at a fairly young age of the Islamic community.
Ismail was seen by a number of Shiis as
their imam. They transferred their loyal-
ties to his son Muhammad ibn Ismail and
then to his descendants.
The Ismailis, like the Zaydis, showed
a great deal of resourcefulness in spread-
The Alawi
ing their doctrines. Organized in small
cells Ismaili activists moved into various The Nusayri community, also known
regions to form small communities. The as the Alawi, is another small Shii
movement broke apart in the ninth centu- group that emerged during the
medieval period. This group, which
ry when one of its leading activists, Ubayd
continues to exist today, has lived
Allah, claimed that he was the new imam. for centuries in small villages in
Rejected by the other Ismailis, he and his northern Syria. The present ruler of
followers went to the area of North Africa Syria, Hafiz al-Asad, is an Alawi, as
known today as Tunisia. In a mountain- are members of his government and
ous area Ubayd Allah and his men orga- top officers of the military. There is
nized a small army. They then overthrew much opposition within Syria today
the Abbasid governor who controlled the to the Asad regime; one reason for
area. The result was the birth of the Fatim- this is the resentment felt by the
Sunni majority over being ruled by a
id dynasty in 969.
minority that holds certain different
religious beliefs such as the human
THE TwElvER sHiA body being a trap entombing divine
The most influential and numerous Shii souls and that souls transmigrate into
groups is known in Arabic as the Ithna human or animal form.
Ashariyya and in English as the Twelver

Shia. Today the Twelvers form a majority in Iran and are present
in large numbers in Lebanon, Kuwait, and Iraq. With little doubt
the most significant member of this sect in recent years was the
man who led the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran, the Ayatollah
Khomeini. Before his death in June 1989 he had become one of
the most controversial figures in recent world history.
Muslims praying in the

direction of Mecca in the
Islamic Center of America.
The Islamic Center was
established in Detroit
in 1963 and the current
building was completed in
2005. Many members of
the community are Shiis
but the center is open to all
Muslims.
0 ISLAM
thE twELvE IMAMs
As the name of the sect indicates the Twelvers believe that the
position of imam passed from Ali ibn Abi Talib down through
a chain of 11 other men, all descendants of Ali’s family. Among
them were Ali ibn Abi Talib and his two sons, Hasan and Husayn,
who were the second and third imams after their father. The fourth
imam was Ali Zayn al-Abidin and the sixth was the renowned
Jafar al-Sadiq. Famous for his deep piety and brilliant scholar-
ship, he was responsible for developing many of the doctrines
of the Twelver sect. These doctrines centered on the figure of the
imam. According to the Twelvers the imams possessed certain
distinguishing characteristics.
divinE insPiRATion
First the imams were divinely inspired. Like Muhammad they are
believed to have had a close relationship with God. In the books
of Twelver scholars the imams are referred to as The Proof of
God or The Sign of God. These titles are used to show that the
imams are God’s representatives on earth and that devotion to
the imams is required of all.
Unlike Muhammad the imams did not carry a divine message
to humankind. However insofar as the imams were the provid-
ers of spiritual guidance, they were considered the direct heirs
to Muhammad’s legacy. Some Twelver writers have described
the imams as having been created out of the same substance as
Muhammad. The substance is described as a brilliant light creat-
ed by God before the creation of the world. From this divine light
God is believed to have created Muham-
mad and the imams as well as Fatima, the Fatima
prophet Muhammad’s daughter, the wife
As the daughter of the prophet
of Ali ibn Abi Talib, and the mother of
Muhammad, the wife of Ali ibn Abi
Hasan and Husayn.
Talib, and the mother of Hasan and
Husayn, Fatima is highly revered not
APPoinTMEnT by iMAMs only by the Twelvers but by other
The Twelvers also believed that each of Shiis as well.
the imams was appointed by the imam

before him. Just as Ali had appointed Hasan, Hasan appointed
Husayn, and so on. This idea grew from the belief that Muham-
mad had chosen Ali as his successor in a sermon he gave at the
end of his life. In his sermon Muhammad reportedly told the
Muslims gathered before him that upon his death they were to
follow Ali. Although Sunni Muslims deny this ever took place,
the Shia believe that it did, and for them it is an event of great
significance.
PossEssing knowlEdgE And wiTHouT ERRoR

The imams, according to the Twelvers, possessed two other char-
acteristics as well. First they were incapable of error or sin. Second
the imams were in possession of a special body of knowledge,
which they received from God through
thE onE GuIDED by GoD Muhammad, and which allowed them to
serve as the spiritual and political leaders
T he term used for the Hidden Imam is
al-Mahdi, or “the one guided by God.”
In his role as the Mahdi the Twelfth Imam
of the community.
These were characteristics possessed
is expected to bring a new social order to by all 12 of the imams. Clearly in the eyes
the world—an eternal age of justice in of the Shia they were unique and remark-
which the sufferings of the Shii commu- able human beings. Of the 12 there was
nity will end. As we have seen, the Shia one who stood out among all the others:
were a minority in the Islamic community the Twelfth Imam.
and too often a persecuted minority. They
had seen their leaders killed and impris-
thE twELFth IMAM
oned; moreover, early in their history they
had attempted several revolts against the
In 874 Hasan al-Askari, the Eleventh
rule of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, Imam, suddenly died in the city of Samar-
only to see these revolts harshly put down. ra—then the capital of the Abbasid caliph-
It is believed that with his armies of angels ate. Just as had happened after the deaths
and followers rising up with him on that of the other imams, the Shii community
chosen day, the Hidden Imam will finally argued over who was the successor to al-
end the suffering of the Shii community. Askari. Some said it was his brother Jafar;
He will then rule with justice and wisdom
others disagreed. The Twelvers had their
over that community until the Day of
own opinion.
Judgment, when God will decide the fate
of every being.
They insisted that al-Askari had an
infant son whom he had chosen to suc-
2 ISLAM
ceed him. This was the first that many in the Shii community
had heard of the boy, so they reacted with skepticism. How were
they to know he existed? The response came that to reveal his
identity was to risk having the boy and the whole Shii commu-
nity attacked by the Abbasid authorities. While the Shia were less
politically active than they had been in earlier periods, they were
still viewed with suspicion by the Abbasids. For this reason it was
considered unwise to reveal the identity of the new imam.
While many expressed doubts about this mysterious child,
the majority of Shiis slowly came to accept the idea that he had
become the new imam and that he was in hiding until some
future time. Thus he was given the title of the Hidden Imam. The
scholars of the Twelver community taught that he had gone into
hiding in a small cave in Samarra. Today Shiis still gather in the
small mosque located over this cave to pray for his return.
thE rECkonInG DAy

Following the disappearance of the Twelfth Imam many in the
Twelver community began to wonder when he would come out
of hiding. When asked, the Twelver scholars said that the Twelfth
Imam would emerge from hiding when he was summoned by
God; in other words at the end of time. On that Last Day, the
scholars explained, the Hidden Imam will reappear in a burst of
celestial light. He will stand at the head of an army of angels and
of all the Shiis who over the centuries followed the imams faith-
fully. He will be wearing Muhammad’s sandals and ring, and in
his hand he will wield Muhammad’s sword. His destinations will
be Mecca, then Medina, and then the rest of the world. In each of
these places he will promise eternal life to those who were faithful
to the imams. And with great violence he will then turn against
those who oppressed the imams and the community of Shia.
DIsAGrEEMEnt bEtwEEn thE sunnIs AnD thE shIIs

Held dear by the Twelver Shia these ideas about the imams were
never accepted by the Sunni community. In fact such notions were
a major cause of the division between the two communities.

For the Shiis political and religious leadership could only come
from one source: the imams. The Twelfth Imam would eventu-
ally return to right all the wrongs of the world. For these reasons
the imams—and they alone—could serve as the proper leaders
of the community.
The Sunnis had a different idea of leadership. They respected
the imams as men of great learning but they could not accept
that the imams were inspired by God. Nor could they agree that
the imams were the direct heirs of Muhammad. For the Sunnis
the leaders of the community were the caliphs.
It was not believed that the caliphs were divinely inspired or in
possession of special knowledge of any kind. They were simply
human beings chosen to lead the community in this world: to
defend the community from internal and external enemies and
to uphold the sharia. They were never considered a source of reli-
gious guidance in the way the imams were by the Shia.
THE PATH To sAlvATion

Another major disagreement between the Shiis and the Sunnis
was over the idea of salvation. The Islamic community, it was
believed, would win God’s mercy on the Day of Judgment only
if the community as a whole lived according to God’s law. For
the Sunnis the sharia, as the embodiment of God’s law, had to
be respected and followed by all. The caliphs were there only to
defend the sharia and to protect the community, not to lead the
community to salvation. Only the entire Islamic community
working as a whole could achieve this goal.
For the Shia the quest for salvation lay not with the communi-
ty but with the imams. Without them it could never hope to win
God’s mercy; only the imams could lead the Islamic community
along the right path.
ulAMA—guidAnCE And lEAdERsHiP

During the years that each of the imams lived and taught within
the community, the Shia could turn to them for guidance. This
changed, however, when the Twelfth Imam disappeared. The Shia
4 ISLAM
now faced a troubling question. If the imams were the only true
guides of the community, then what was to happen when the last
of the imams was no longer present? If no imam was present,
then what was to prevent the Shia from losing faith in the imams
and in their religious beliefs? And who was to speak for the com-
munity in times of trouble?
Answers to these questions came from the scholars of the
Twelver community: the ulama. They argued that they would
carry out the functions of the Hidden Imam until such time as A small mosque on the
God decides that the Hidden Imam should return. This did not banks of the Tigris River
mean the scholars were claiming themselves as equal to the in Baghdad, Iraq. The tall
tower of the minaret can be
imams. Rather they were acting as caretakers and would repre- seen on the skyline and is
sent the imam until his return, when they would hand over these used by the muezzin to call
responsibilities to him. Muslims to prayer.

thE sChoLArs oF thE twELvEr shIA
These ideas were developed over a long period, from roughly
the end of the 11th century into the 19th century and up to the
present day. The Twelver ulama, especially the leading members,
became very influential. These men at the top of a hierarchy of
scholars wielded a great deal of power—especially in Iran, where
a large proportion of the populace eventually converted to the
Twelver Shia sect.
For a time the political power of the Twelver scholars was lim-
ited, mainly because Iran was under the rule of Sunni leaders who
wanted to keep power out of the hands of the Shia. This changed
in the 16th century with the rise of the Shii Safavid dynasty,
which gave the ulama the opportunity to influence political deci-
sions. However the ulama disagreed among themselves over how
involved in politics they should become. Moreover despite their
acceptance of Twelver doctrines the leaders of the new dynasty
were concerned that the ulama would gain too much power; they
determined not to let that happen.
In the meantime the ulama continued to debate the question
of their involvement in politics. Some said that politics should
be avoided and that the ulama should concentrate on religious
activities. Others argued that by increasing their political involve-
ment the ulama could work toward limiting the corrupt activities
of the state. Still others maintained that political activity was fine
but not if it meant serving the government. The role of the ulama
in their view should be to support the state when it ruled justly
but to attack it when it became tyrannical. Above all, they said,
the religious leadership should maintain its independence from
the government.
THE QAJAR dynAsTy

While this debate among the ulama continued, Iran’s political
landscape changed. The Safavids were overthrown in the mid-
dle of the 18th century. The new rulers, the Qajars, were also
Shiis; like the Safavids, however, they were wary of the ulama
becoming too powerful and therefore sought to keep the schol-
6 ISLAM
arly community at bay. To do so they placed a number of ulama
in government positions. Although on the surface this move
seemed contrary to the rulers’ purpose, it actually served them
quite well. Through these appointed officials they were able to
keep a close eye on the ulama and their activities. The appoint-
ments also enabled Iran’s rulers to claim they had the support
of the scholarly community. The tensions between the state and
Iran’s religious leaders remained, however.
THE PAHlAvi dynAsTy

At the start of the 20th century the Qajars were replaced by a new
power: the Pahlavi dynasty. The founder of the dynasty was a vio-
lent-tempered officer named Reza Khan (1878–1944), who set
out to create a centralized state in Iran. To control the religious
community Reza Khan instituted policies that strictly limited the
activities of the ulama.
For a time Reza Khan was successful in controlling Iran’s reli-
gious leaders. His policies, however, angered many Iranians. As
Reza Khan, and then his son Muhammad, continued to pursue
these policies hostility to the dynasty grew. By the 1960s these
tensions would reach the point of explosion.
thE AsCEtICs oF IsLAM

The division of the early Islamic community into different groups
had come out of conflicts over matters of religion and politics. At
the same time the early community was facing another kind of
conflict—not of sword and fire but of spiritual beliefs.
The successes of the early Islamic community had been star-
tling. In a relatively short time the once small and vulnerable
community had spread beyond Arabia into the regions of the
Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa. With the conquest
of these large territories had also come new levels of wealth. This
was especially true of the Muslim military and political elite, who
gained control of large cities, most of which were important com-
mercial centers. Thus they were able to expand and benefit from
trade. They also accumulated wealth by imposing heavy taxes on
The Variety of Religious Life in Islam

the people of these conquered cities. As they prospered the elites
of Islamic society, including the caliphs, lived in great luxury.
REJECTing RiCHEs foR siMPliCiTy

However not all Muslims shared this taste for the good life. As
the empire grew some Muslims began to ask difficult questions:
How should Muslims live? What kind of society were Muslims
going to build out of their new empire?
EArLy AsCEtIC voICEs Was success in this world a proper con-
cern for Muslims? What of the teachings
O ne of the earliest voices of asceti-
cism in Islam was that of al-Hasan
al-Basri (d. 728). Theologian and teacher,
of Muhammad and the Quran? For these
Muslims material possessions and politi-
al-Basri was famous for his powerful ser- cal power meant little if the deeper truths
mons. He is said to have warned his listen- of the Quran and the teachings of Muham-
ers that the world was a wretched place mad were ignored. Increasingly they
in which too many people had forgotten turned away from the riches enjoyed by
God. Stories circulated after his death of others around them to lead simple lives.
how he would spend long hours weeping, They wore plain clothing and shunned the
not only because of the state of the world
pursuit of money. Many saw poverty as a
but also out of fear of God’s wrath on the
necessity. They dedicated themselves to
day of judgment.
Not all the early ascetics were as gloomy; the worship of God through meditation
others thought of God with a profound and prayer. In pursuing this way of life
sense of love. Rabia al-Adawiyya (d. 801) they became the first ascetics of Islam.
was one such individual. Like al-Basri she
lived a simple life, shunning fine clothes dEEP ATTACHMEnT To god
and property. However her approach to The models for these early ascetics were
the worship of God was very different. She
Muhammad and the first leaders of the
described God in joyful language. It was
community, men like Abu Bakr. Muham-
as if she were describing the emotions of
a human being in love, although for al-
mad, they believed, had led a simple life
Adawiyya this was a far greater love. It is of devotion to God. He had not permitted
believed that she received during her life- himself to be tempted by the luxuries of
time many marriage proposals from men this world. After him Abu Bakr had also
of her community and that she said no to shunned wealth, preferring to live in a
each of them, claiming that her love was state of poverty and deep religious devo-
reserved for God. tion. This was how the ascetics sought to
lead their lives.
8 ISLAM
For these devout early Muslims the greatest concern was God,
whom they believed to be not only the creator of the universe but
also the object of profound devotion and love. In different ways
the ascetics expressed this deep attachment to God.
thE rIsE oF suFIsM

Al-Basri, al-Adawiyya, and others like them attracted followers
who shared their ideas and came to learn from them. These indi-
viduals in turn attracted students of their own, and in this way the
ideas of asceticism and absolute devotion to God spread through
the Islamic community.
These ideas and practices gave birth to Islamic mysticism,
which is known as Sufism. The mystics, or Sufis, followed in the
footsteps of the early ascetics but they may also have absorbed
the teachings of Christian and Jewish mystics living in areas of the
Middle East. For several generations they developed their ideas
into more formal practices. It is important to note that Sufism is
not a sect of Islam; it has been and still is practiced by both the
Sunnis and Shia.
For the Sufis nothing was more important than the presence of
God in the world. The Sufis saw life as a kind of journey in which
one was constantly seeking a direct experience of God. Many of
them believed that the way to seek that experience was to study
the Quran and the hadith and to pray regularly—in short, to live
the simple and disciplined life of a devout Muslim. Other Sufis
disagreed, however. They felt that although prayer, the study of
the Quran, and other duties of Muslims were necessary to a reli-
gious life, these practices were not enough. They sought a more
direct and emotional experience of God through detachment
from worldly affairs and through practices such as chanting or
whirling which bring about a trance like state drawing the Sufi
closer to being one with God.
At first the number of Sufis was very small. Usually they were
scholars who spent their days in private discussing the nature of
the spiritual life and the various ritual practices that could bring
one closer to God. Their ideas were beyond the understanding of

the average person and thus in the begin-
The Sufi Center ning had little popular appeal. Gradually,
In Persian the Sufi center is called the however, as the Sufis began to attract stu-
khanqa; in Turkish, the tekke. In Arabic dents and followers these mystics and holy
two terms are commonly used, the men and holy women began to be seen as
ribat and the zawiya. people with unusual spiritual powers.
As the ideas and ritual practices devel-
oped by the Sufis spread, informal study
groups gathered in mosques or homes. By the start of the 10th
century Sufi centers were established in which a Sufi master
would serve as teacher and leader to followers. Some of these fol-
lowers would go on to become teachers themselves, and many of
their students would do the same in their turn. Thus Sufism was
passed on from generation to generation.
By the 12th century Sufi centers could be found in cities,
towns, and many rural areas throughout the Middle East and
North Africa. These centers often included schools, mosques,
and hostels where students could find a meal and a place to sleep.
The heart of these centers was the house of the Sufi master, or
shaykh. There the shaykh would conduct classes and lead follow-
ers through ritual practices.
suFIsM thE suFI orDErs

By the 12th century the casual gather-
T he term Sufism probably comes from
the Arabic word for wool, suf. It is
thought that the early Muslim ascetics
ings of the earlier period had evolved into
formal organizations called Sufi orders.
wore garments made from rough wool. Each Sufi order, or tariqa, was built on the
These plain, unfinished garments were teachings of an early master and the stu-
meant to symbolize the rejection of the dents of that person. Their ideas and the
luxuries and concerns of this world. The rituals they used became formalized into
Muslim ascetics—those who are self- specific forms of worship. Often the Sufi
denying and live a very simple life for order would bear the name of its found-
religious reasons—may have copied this
er—usually the original master or an early
practice from Christian monks living in the
student.
Middle East when Islam spread through
the region. One of the earliest of the Sufi orders was
the Qadiriya, named after Abd ai-Qadir
80 ISLAM
The Mausoleum of Mevlana
Celaleddin Rumi in Konya,
Turkey. Mevlana was a
teacher and philosopher in
the Sufi tradition. Born in
1207 he taught a doctrine
of tolerance, charity, and
awareness through love.
After he died in 1273 a
shrine was erected over his
burial place. The mausoleum
and its surrounding halls
and living quarters have
continued to attract large
numbers of pilgrims over
the centuries who feel that
the spiritual power
of this saint is still present.
al-Jilani (d. 1166). Of Iranian descent, Abd al-Qadir had been a

legal scholar in Baghdad for many years. Only late in life did he
begin to teach his Sufi ideas in public. His following quickly grew
and a center was opened for him. Following his death his closest
students continued to teach his ideas and open Qadiriya centers
throughout the Middle East.
Other orders were established during the 12th and 13th cen-
turies. The Suhrawardiya order, for example, took its name from

Umar ibn Abd Allah al-Suhrawardi (d. 1234), a religious scholar
from the small Iranian town of Suhraward. Centers of this order
were set up throughout Iran, Central Asia, and India.
Another example of Sufi orders, the Shadhiliya, was founded
in North Africa by Ahmad ibn Abd Allah al-Shadhili (d. 1258).
Born in Morocco and educated in Egypt, he attracted a large fol-
lowing in Egypt and later in Tunis, where he died. Centers of his
Graves of relatives of Salim

Chishti at his mausoleum
at Fatehpur Sikri, India.
Salim Chishti was a highly
respected Sufi who taught
generosity to others through
sharing of food and wealth,
tolerance, respect for
religious difference, and
renunciation of material
goods. He said the highest
form of devotion was human
service through helping
those in misery or distress.
In Islam saintly individuals
are considered to have
God-given spiritual power
and visits to their tombs
enable ordinary people to
be touched by the saint’s
power.
82 ISLAM
order were soon present from Syria and Arabia across North
Africa to Morocco.
By the 14th and 15th centuries Sufi orders were so widespread
that they had considerable political power. Frequently govern-
ments in different regions of the Islamic world worked to win the
support of the Sufi orders. The Safavid dynasty—which com-
bined Sufism and radical Shii ideas and ruled Iran from the late-
15th to the early-18th century—began as a Sufi movement.
Sufi orders played an important part in spreading Islam to new
regions of the world. In India and areas of Central Asia, Malaysia,
and Indonesia, plus large parts of sub-Saharan Africa, Sufi mis-
sionaries converted numerous people to Islam. Sufis accompa-
nied merchants as they plied their trade across the Indian Ocean
to various regions of Asia and across the trade routes of the
African continent. They even marched with armies of various
Islamic dynasties that widened the area of their control through
conquest. In each region Sufi orders would set up centers where
they would spread the message of Islam.

CHAPTER 6
MUSLIM RITUAL
LIFE
R itual is the means by which believers express in an orderly

and regular way the deep beliefs that shape their lives. The
most important of the ritual practices performed by Muslims are
often called the Five Pillars of Islam. The first of these is salat, or
daily prayer. Muslims carry out the salat five times daily. Each ses-
sion of prayer begins with the call or summons to worship.
PrAyEr AnD shAhADA

For many non-Muslims who travel to the Islamic world the call
to prayer is one of the first clues that the daily lives of Muslims are
different from their own. In Christian communities on Sunday
mornings and on holidays the faithful are called to worship by
the ringing of church bells. In the Islamic world it is the human
voice that summons the believers every day.
AdHAn And MuEzzin

The call to prayer, or adhan, is made from the tall towerlike struc-
ture that is part of most mosques, called a madhana, or, in English,
minaret. The individuals who call Muslims to prayer are known
Muslims at prayer in the courtyard of a mosque

in Cairo, Egypt. Muslims say prayers, salat, five
times daily in the direction of Mecca.
84 ISLAM
Muslim Ritual Life 85
thE CALL to PrAyEr as muadhdhins. Traditionally the muadh-
dhins, or muezzins, made the call from
T he call to prayer is rather short. In its

opening phrase, Allahu akbar (God
is most great), it proclaims the important
the minaret itself using only their voices.
Today it is common for these men to use
microphones along with loudspeakers
Islamic belief: God is the supreme being
over all things. The call continues: “I bear
attached to the upper part of the minaret.
witness that there is no deity except God,” The muezzins deliver the call five times
affirming the oneness of God, a central daily in a slow chant. In large towns and
Islamic tenet. The phrase that follows cities these voices form a long wave of
names Muhammad as the prophet of Islam: sound. For the person visiting the Islamic
“I bear witness that Muhammad is the world for the first time hearing the call can
messenger of God.” Finally, in two phrases be a surprising and moving experience.
Muslims are told to “come to prayer” and
“come to salvation.” The idea behind these REAdy foR PRAyER
is that through prayer Muslims will wor-
After the wudu or ritual cleansing is com-
ship God and in return be shown God’s
favor. The call to prayer ends as it began, plete the Muslim is ready for prayer.
with the phrase “Allahu akbar.” Although it is considered best to pray
with other Muslims, it is perfectly accept-
able to pray alone—at home, for example.
When Muslims pray together they do so in
a row, side by side. If men and women are
together the women must pray behind or
separately from the men. In many parts of
the Islamic world women commonly pray
at home, and it is the men who use the
mosques regularly.
Standing in front of the rows of faithful
is a single individual who leads the prayer.
In the mosques the prayer is usually led by
a person known as the imam, or prayer
Muslims prepare for each of the daily sessions of

prayer with a short ritual of cleansing called the wudu.
They wash with plain water at designated areas in
the mosques. There are usually washbasins located in
mosques for this purpose. At home or at the workplace
Muslims simply use the facilities available.
86 ISLAM
leader. Outside the mosques when Muslims pray together they
simply choose someone to lead; often this person is an older man
chosen for his piety. The imam and the rows of persons behind
him all face in the same direction, toward the holy city of Mecca
and the sacred Kaaba.
PRAyER PHRAsEs And PosiTions

The salat consists of spoken phrases and a set of four postures:
standing, bowing, prostrating, and sitting. These postures are
carried out in a regular cycle that every Muslim learns as a child.
There is a slightly different cycle of phrases and postures for each
of the five daily prayers. It is considered a pious act for Muslims
to repeat part or all of a cycle of prayer. The spoken phrases are
short, voluntary prayers to God.
The prayer ends each time in the same way. Turning to the left
and to the right each individual wishes the persons beside them
peace and the blessings of God. This is one
obvious way in which Muslims affirm that thE FIvE PILLArs oF IsLAM
they are all members of the same commu-
1. salat—prayer, carried out five
nity and that they share a common belief
times daily.
in the one God. 2. shahada—literally, “bearing witness”;
a short statement affirming the greatness
ShahaDa—bEARing wiTnEss and oneness of Allah.
The second of the pillars of Islam is a short 3. sawm—ritual fast that takes place
statement known as the shahada, or bear- each year during Ramadan, the ninth
ing witness. The content of the shahada is month of the Islamic calendar.
similar to that of the call to prayer in that 4. zakat—almsgiving; a religious tax set
it proclaims the oneness of God: There is no aside for the poor, the sick, the insane,
and other less privileged groups of the
God but Allah and Muhammad is the messen-
Islamic community.
ger of Allah. Most Muslims learn this state-
5. hajj—pilgrimage to the holy city,
ment when they are children. It is also the Mecca. The opportunity to perform the
statement that all converts to Islam are hajj occurs every year during the 12th
required to make at the time of their con- Islamic month. Every Muslim is encour-
version. This short utterance expresses the aged to participate at least once in his or
most fundamental beliefs of the Islamic her lifetime.
faith, and learning and reciting it from the

heart constitutes one’s symbolic join-
Observing the Fast
ing of the Islamic community.
The fast can be very demanding. It
sometimes takes place in the summer FAstInG AnD thE ALMs
when, in much of the Islamic world, Sawm, or ritual fasting, is the third pil-
the days are longer and hot, making
lar of Islam. This fast takes place each
it dangerous to go without water. For
year during Ramadan, the ninth month
these reasons the sick, the elderly,
and the very young are not expected of the Islamic calendar. During the fast
to observe the fast. Travelers are also of Ramadan, which lasts for the entire
exempt but are expected to make up month, strict restraints are placed upon
for the lost days later in the year. the daily lives of Muslims. For example,
they are not to eat or drink during the
daylight hours. When the sun sets at
the end of each day Muslims break the fast, but even then they
are expected to eat and drink in moderation. The fast resumes
the next morning.
Traditionally the beginning of the fast each day takes place
when there is enough light in the sky to distinguish between a
white and dark thread. Smoking is also forbidden during Rama-
dan, as are sexual relations. Ramadan is meant to be a time of
physical abstinence and increased devotion to religious practice.
THE dEMAnds of fAsTing

The fast of Ramadan has been criticized by some Muslims
because of the demands it makes upon the individual and upon
society. Some Muslims argue that it is wasteful to have people
observe the fast so rigorously. They insist that people naturally
work more slowly and poorly when they are not eating. Some of
these critics say that people should be given the choice of wheth-
er to fast or that the fast should be shortened in some way.
Against these arguments other Muslims respond that on the
contrary the fast needs to be carefully observed because Rama-
dan is the only time when Muslims can fully concentrate on the
practice of their faith while spending less time on the concerns of
their everyday lives. It is a time of worship, contemplation, and
for Muslims to strengthen their ties to family and community.
88 ISLAM
As is true in every religious community, there are many Mus-
lims who do not closely observe the rituals of their faith. In pri-
vate, for example, there are Muslims who choose not to fast,
just as they often choose not to pray. What is interesting about
Ramadan, however, is that in public it is extremely rare to find a
Muslim eating or drinking during daylight hours. In many parts
of the Islamic world cafés and restaurants remain closed through
much of the day or only serve foreign tourists.
Muslims praying outside
PRAyER And CHARiTy Regents Park Mosque
For those who do observe the fast Ramadan is a spiritual time in London at the end of
during which the Muslim concentrates more than ever on reli- Ramadan, when the festival
of Id al-Fitr is celebrated.
gious activities such as reading the Quran. It is not uncommon A box to collect the money
for Muslim men to reserve several days of Ramadan for spiritual given for zakat is beside the
retreat, when they turn away from the world and dedicate them- congregation.
selves to religious matters.
Ramadan is also a time when Muslims
are expected to pay more attention to the
hungry, the poor, and the deprived. Shar-
ing food with less fortunate neighbors, for
example, and donating clothes are ways in
which this need is met. The Quran itself
speaks of the support that Muslims should
give to the needy in their communities.
Such acts are also a way to demonstrate
commitment to the faith.
The fourth pillar of Islam addresses the
needs of the poor and the destitute more
directly. The zakat, or almsgiving, is a kind
of religious tax that all Muslims who can
afford it are expected to pay at a specified
time each year. The money collected is set
aside for specific groups of people in the
Islamic community including the poor,
the sick, the mentally ill, and other groups
who are unable to fend for themselves.

For Muslims, the zakat is not considered
Sadaqa charity but rather a religious obligation. In
The zakat, or almsgiving, is often most of the Islamic world today the zakat
confused with another act, known is not enforced by the government. It is
as sadaqa. This is also the giving of expected that Muslims will pay voluntari-
alms, but unlike the zakat it is an act ly. Like the other four pillars zakat plays an
of charity, not an obligation. Also
important part in the religious life of Mus-
unlike the zakat it is not a set amount
lims. The Quran states that giving alms is
of money. Following noontime prayer
on Friday, the sacred day in Islam, a duty that God requires of Muslims.
Muslims often practice sadaqa by
giving small amounts of change or thE FIFth PILLAr: PILGrIMAGE
food to beggars outside the mosques. The fifth pillar of Islam is one that all Mus-
lims are strongly encouraged to perform
at least once in their lives: the pilgrimage
to the holy city of Mecca or, as it is called by Muslims, the hajj.
Each year during the 12th Islamic month, Dhu al-Hijja, Muslims
from all over the Islamic world perform the sacred journey. In
Mecca they participate in an elaborate set of rituals during a peri-
od of five days. Unlike the other four pillars of Islam the hajj is not
obligatory; only those who have reached maturity and who have
the financial resources to pay for the trip while still providing for
dependents at home are expected to perform the pilgrimage.
The first act of the pilgrimage is putting on a clean white gar-
ment known as an ihram. Wearing this garment is obligatory
for men, but women are encouraged to wear the clothing that
is native to their home countries. Women
are required to keep their heads covered
Mecca
for the entire period of the pilgrimage, but
Today Mecca is in the nation of Saudi men must keep their heads bare. From this
Arabia. The government of Saudi point until the end of the hajj the pilgrims
Arabia pays for the security, food,
are considered to be in a state of holiness.
housing, and health needs of the
pilgrims. Considering that more
PERfoRMing THE HAJJ RiTuAls
than two million pilgrims attend the
pilgrimage each year, this is a very After their arrival in Mecca pilgrims set
difficult task of administration. out to perform the rituals of the hajj. Mus-
lims from non-Arabic-speaking regions
90 ISLAM
A house in Egypt belonging
to a Muslim who has gone
on pilgrimage to Mecca.
The house is painted with
illustrations of Mecca and of
the journey to Saudi Arabia
to show neighbors that the
pilgrimage is being made.
of the world are often assisted by guides known as mutawwifs,

who are employees of the Saudi Arabian government. The guides
translate for the pilgrims who do not speak or understand Arabic
and assist them in carrying out the rituals.
Some of the rituals are performed at the choice of the individ-
ual. These include sessions of prayer and another ritual known as
the tawaf, which involves walking around the Kaaba at least seven
times. The pilgrims have less choice when it comes to the group
rituals, which are the main rituals of the hajj.
The group rituals are carried out in a set order during the five
days of the pilgrimage. One such ritual takes place in the small
town of Mina just outside of Mecca. There, on a wide plain known
as Arafat, pilgrims carry out the wukuf, or standing ceremony, in
which they are required to be present on the plain from noon to
sunset. It is the one occasion during the hajj when all the pilgrims
must be together. Tents are erected for the huge crowd, and for
this single day of the year the plain of Arafat resembles a very
busy town. During these hours pilgrims are expected to pray
quietly.
At the center of the plain is a small mountain known as the
Mount of Mercy. During this day pilgrims ascend the mountain,
where they ask God to forgive them for their sins. All pilgrims

must carry out the full set of rituals at Arafat; failure to do so
means the pilgrimage was incomplete and must be repeated in
another year.
“visiToRs” of god
Although the pilgrimage to Mecca may be a financial burden
for some and especially strenuous for the elderly, most devout
Muslims yearn to take part in it. For the individual Muslim the
importance of the hajj cannot be overemphasized. In a way the
pilgrimage is a greater version of the salat—the prayer for which
Muslims each day face in the direction of Mecca and the Kaaba.
During the pilgrimage, however, the Muslim is actually in Mec-
ca, which is sometimes referred to as the house of God. Thus in
Mecca the pilgrim is in a way one of God’s visitors. As the house
of God Mecca is the holiest site in the world for Muslims.
THE fAREwEll taWaF

When the five days of the hajj are over the pilgrims take off the
ihram. During the next few days pilgrims continue to pray and
perform at least two more of the tawafs around the Kaaba. With
the second of these, which is called the farewell tawaf, the pilgrim-
age is then considered complete. Many pilgrims add one last part
to their voyage—a visit to Muhammad’s
AFtEr hAJJ tomb in Medina—so that they may pay
T he pilgrims make their way back their respects to the prophet of Islam.
from Mecca to their home coun- The pilgrimage brings together Mus-
tries by plane, bus, ship, and train. Upon lims from all over the world. It is a time
their arrival they are usually greeted with when Muslims of many different back-
a joyous welcome by their families and grounds, speaking different languages,
neighbors. The accomplishment of the pil- and practicing different customs share
grimage is a time to celebrate. The pilgrim,
a common and intense experience. Ever
after all, has been through one of the most
since Muhammad set out on the first pil-
important events in the life of a Muslim.
Having made the holy journey to Mecca
grimage to Mecca many accounts of the
and the Kaaba, the pilgrim is now a hajji hajj have been written. These descriptions
or, if the pilgrim is a woman, a hajja. show how moving the experience of the
pilgrimage is for Muslims.
92 ISLAM
thE rItuALs oF thE shIA TAAZIYA—thE PAssIon PLAy
While all Muslims are expected to carry
out the hajj and the other four pillars of
Islam to the best of their abilities, the Shia
T he centerpiece of the rituals of Ashura
is the elaborate performance known
as taaziya, or passion play. Performed dur-
perform additional rituals as well. The ing the Islamic month of Muharram in
focus of the most important of these ritu- every Shii community, the passion play
als is the 10th day of the Islamic month of is a detailed and emotional reenactment
Muharram. On that day in 680 Husayn, of the death of Husayn. While it may be
the grandson of Muhammad, was killed thought of as theater by westerners, it is
in battle by Umayyad soldiers. The day is quite unlike the plays one might attend
in the West. One obvious difference is
known as Ashura.
that audience participation is not only
During Ashura, on stage, actors car-
expected but encouraged.
ry out the events of Husayn’s death in
remarkable detail. More than just his death
is portrayed, however. All of the events
involving the Shii community and its imams in their struggle
against the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs is described and acted
out. The climax of the performance is the attack on Husayn and
his infant son.
As the story builds to its inevitable climax emotions both on
and off the stage begin to grow. Throughout the performance
members of the audience offer advice to the actors, shout and
laugh when the imams are doing well, and fall sad when things
turn badly for the imams and their followers. These emotions
reach a peak with the attack on Husayn. As the Umayyad sol-
diers close in with their spears and swords, hacking away at the
imam and his horse, and when Husayn’s head is finally severed,
members of the audience weep and shout out curses against the
Umayyad soldiers. On occasion, with a particularly vivid perfor-
mance, audience members have been known to leap on stage and
rush at the actors playing the soldiers in order to protect Husayn
and his family.
AsHuRA PRoCEssions
Other ritual events surround the passion play. Frequently before
the play a procession is held in which models of the Kaaba and the

RAWZA KHAVANI tombs of the imams are carried. Members
of the community display ornate banners
H usayn, the grandson of Muham-
mad who was killed in battle by
Umayyad soldiers in 680, is remembered
drawn with scenes of the deaths of the
imams and on which are written verses of
during the day of Ashura. This is during the the Quran and sayings from the imams.
rawza khavani, or recital of the suffering of The processions of the taaziya include
the Imam Husayn. An individual or family another event that many non-Shiis have
will invite a group of friends to a private found disturbing. In the processions
gathering. There a professional reciter will march lines of men, many stripped to
tell the story of Husayn’s martyrdom, often the waist, striking themselves across the
in great detail. A skilled reciter will touch
shoulders or head with knives and chains
his listeners deeply, bringing tears to their
while chanting rhythmically the name
eyes and perhaps rousing them to their
feet crying out the name of Husayn. Like of Husayn. For the foreign visitor these
the passion play these can be extremely scenes can be shocking. For the Shia
emotional events. their meaning is clear: Ashura is a time to
express deep emotions of pain and anger.
In the year 680 the Shia had called on the
Imam Husayn to claim his place as leader of the Islamic commu-
nity. When he finally responded to their call and set out to meet
them, they failed to support him. Rather than march out to join
him in fighting the hated Umayyad rulers, the Shia stayed home
and left Husayn to be slaughtered. It is during Ashura that the
Shii community expresses guilt over its failure to act and anguish
over the death of the beloved Husayn.
ToMbs of THE iMAMs

The Shia honor the imams in other ways. In premodern times
local dynasties could not always guarantee the safety of pilgrims
traveling to Mecca. So for a long time visi-
The Names of God tations to the tombs of the imams were
seen as an acceptable substitute to the hajj.
Among the 99 names of God are
Today, even though the Shia of Iran, Iraq,
al-Rahman (“The Compassionate”),
al-Rahim (“The Merciful”), al-Aziz and other Shii areas take part in the pil-
(“The Mighty”), and al-Khaliq (“The grimage to Mecca, it is considered a pious
Creator”). act to visit these tombs and as well as those
of lesser members of the Alid family.
94 ISLAM
thE rItuALs oF thE suFIs
Throughout Islamic history Sunnis and Shiis alike have also car-
ried out the rituals of Sufism. By the 14th century Sufism was
so widespread in the Islamic world that it was commonplace for
ordinary Muslims to carry out Sufi rituals. The broad term used
for these rituals is dhikr.
In carrying out dhikr the Sufi repeats the names of God—Mus- Whirling dervishes in
lims believe that God has 99 known names—and his attributes. Turkey carrying out dhikr
Dhikrs may be carried out in private, where they are usually prac- by revolving very fast and
ticed to complement prayer, or they may be performed in groups repeating the praises of God.
These revolving movements
by the Sufi orders. Each of these orders has its own special dhikr create a spiritual state that
developed by the early masters of the order and their students brings the person involved
hundreds of years ago. closer to God.

DHIKRS Performing dhikr became a common
part of the religious lives of many, if not
T he broad term for Sufi rituals is dhikr.

These rituals can be carried out in
private or as a group. In the group dhikrs
most, Muslims in the 14th century. In
neighborhoods and villages throughout
the Islamic world Muslims met in mosques
some of the orders simply repeat Allah (the
and Sufi centers to perform dhikr with
Arabic word for God) over and over again,
the other members of their orders. Dhikr
sometimes in a soft whisper, sometimes in
a loud, clear chant. Some orders will do so would be performed on religious holidays
while sitting calmly. Most prefer to stand and on other special occasions such as the
and often the participants will sway from prophet Muhammad’s birthday.
side to side as they utter the dhikr. Other
Sufi orders have developed more elabo- PossEssing baRaKa
rate rituals where long phrases in praise of By this period another kind of ritual prac-
God and Muhammad are repeated. Such tice was also common. For the ordinary
rituals may include intense physical move-
Muslim the religious world was inhabited
ment such as dancing or a strong rocking
not only by God and the prophets but also
motion of the upper body. Regardless of
the form it takes the goal of the dhikr is
by deeply spiritual individuals we might
nearly always the same: to draw the per- refer to as saints. Among these saints were
son closer to God. Sufi masters, holy men and holy women
who were seen in many parts of the Islam-
ic world as possessing baraka—a spiritual
power given them by God. Baraka enabled them to carry out
miraculous acts such as healing the sick.
The baraka of the saintly individual was believed to live on
after the individual’s death. It was carried on by the members of
the saint’s family and more often it was believed to inhabit the
tomb in which the saint was buried. Consequently visits to the
tombs of saints became commonplace. For ordinary Muslims the
goal of such a visit was to be touched by the saint’s powers—by
the baraka.
A visit to the tomb of a saintly individual often involved cer-
tain rituals. Visitors would bring small offerings to the saint or
the saint’s family. Plates of food, small gifts, or sums of money
were common offerings. Visitors would also touch the tomb of
the saint, which would become worn in places where it had been
touched often over the years. Prayers might also be performed
96 ISLAM
or a portion of the Quran read aloud. For example in visits by
Muslims to the tomb of a local saint in the southern Moroccan
city of Marrakech, after reciting a brief Quranic verse or prayer
the visitors then leave small rags tied to the bars crisscrossing the
windows of the tomb. In this way the visitors seek to win the help
of the saint and a small touch of the baraka.
oPPosiTion To vEnERATion of sAinTs—

THE wAHHAbi MovEMEnT
Many in the community, especially religious leaders, scholars,
and better-educated Muslims, have objected strongly to the
veneration of the saints. In their view the teachings of Islam are
corrupted by such practices. Their opinions seem to have led a
number of Muslims to stop engaging in these activities, but even
today others continue to practice them.
One particularly angry attack on the practice of tomb visits,
and on Sufism as a whole, came from a radical movement that
appeared in Arabia in the 18th century. Known as the Wahhabi
movement, it was able to seize control of much of the Arabian
Peninsula in the early 20th century. The state it established bore
the name of a large tribal clan that supported the movement: the
Saud clan. This was the creation of what we know today as Saudi
Arabia. One of the first measures taken by the new state was the
destruction of the tombs of the Sufi masters and the other saints.
The veneration of the saints was denounced. As a result today
Saudi Arabia is one of the few areas of the Islamic world where
Sufism is completely absent.

CHAPTER 7
THE PATTERNS OF
ISLAMIC LIFE
A lthough many other customs and habits are common

throughout the Islamic world, it would be wrong to think
that all Muslims live in the same way. Muslim lives are shaped not
only by Islamic norms and activities but also by the customs and
habits that are native to each area of the Islamic world. For this
reason Muslims in Indonesia or Senegal do not live in exactly the
same way that Muslims in China, Afghanistan, or Morocco do.
Everywhere Muslims have adapted Islamic norms and values to
local customs and beliefs.
The variety of languages that Muslims speak is an example
of the important differences among Muslims. Arabic, as the lan-
guage of the Quran, has a special status among Muslims and is
almost always used when the Quran is recited. Scholars and stu-
dents of Islam throughout the world strive to learn to read and
write Arabic; many come to Egypt’s al-Azhar and other univer-
sities in Arab countries to do so. The vast majority of Muslims,
however, speak no Arabic other than a handful of verses from the
Quran. In Pakistan Urdu is the common language of Muslims; in
A Muslim congregation praying at al-Faisal mosque, Pakistan. Islamic

prayer, or salat, consists of a cycle of postures including prostration. At the
close of each session of prayer worshippers turn to the left and right to
wish peace and the blessings of God upon those worshipping beside them.
98 ISLAM
The Patterns of Islamic Life 99
Turkey and parts of Central Asia it is Turk-
ish; and in Iran Farsi is spoken on a daily
basis. Other languages are spoken in other
regions of the Islamic world. This does not
mean, however, that the Quran cannot be
understood by these Muslims. In each non-
Arabic-speaking region local languages
are used in religion classes and in sermons
to teach the Quran and hadith. The Quran
is also made available in translation or, as
they are known in Islam, interpretations,
as it is believed to be impossible to exactly
translate the Quran.
Although their way of life may vary
Muslims gathered for greatly from region to region and country to country, depending
Friday prayers in the streets on local customs and habits, most Muslims have some patterns
outside a mosque in Abu
of life in common.
Dhabi. Unlike Sunday in the
Christian world, Friday is
not considered an official thE FrIDAy PrAyEr
day of rest by Muslims. Still In Islam Friday is the one day of the week set aside for special
it has become traditional in religious observances. Every Friday Muslims attend a special ses-
many Islamic countries for
businesses to close around sion of worship that takes place at noon. In many areas of the
noon so that business Islamic world mosques are so crowded on Fridays that people
owners and employees may pray outside on long mats provided by the mosques. In Cairo, for
attend the Friday prayer. example, it is not unusual to find some side streets closed to traf-
fic on Friday mornings. Long straw mats are rolled out on these
streets to accommodate the faithful.
KhUtba—RECiTATion And sERMon

What makes the Friday prayer session special is the sermon given
by the imam or by another individual chosen for their knowledge
of the Quran. The sermon is known as the khutba and it is made up
of two parts: The preacher begins with a recitation of a portion of
the Quran and then proceeds to the sermon. Most often the sub-
ject of the sermon is the Quranic passage itself. The preacher will
explain the passage in simple language and discuss how that por-
100 ISLAM
tion of the sacred book relates to the lives of his listeners. During
the month of Ramadan, for example, the preacher will discuss
how fasting is an important duty required of the Muslim.
REligion, PoliTiCs, And soCiAl issuEs

While most often the preacher will address religious matters, he
may use the Friday sermon to talk of other subjects as well. For
example he may comment on social problems such as poverty,
crime, and drug abuse; in times of war he may urge his listeners
to support the government against its enemies, or he may call on
the government to find a peaceful solution. In many parts of the
Islamic world the Friday sermon given by a leading preacher will
be broadcast over the radio or be shown on television, reaching
millions of people.
thE MosquEs
Not all mosques are used for the Friday sermon. Most mosques
are fairly small and are generally used by residents of the immedi-
ate neighborhood. The small local mosque is known as a masjid,
or place of prostration. For the Friday prayer session a larger and
mihrab minbar zula riwaqs
niche indicating pulpit covered prayer area shaded arcades
direction of Mecca
minaret
fauwara
fountain
A cutaway view of a typical

mosque to highlight the key
features.
sahn
open prayer area

more centrally located mosque, or jami, is used. In small towns
and villages only one such mosque might exist, whereas in the
larger cities a small number of these larger mosques are present
in different areas of the city.
All mosques whether small or large have certain similar fea-
tures. Most if not all provide running water so that those coming
to pray can carry out the wudu, or ritual cleansing, that is expect-
ed of all Muslims before prayer. All have large, clear central areas
where those in prayer can line up in rows for the performance of
worship. And all have what is known as the mihrab. Muslims must
pray in the direction of Mecca and in order to indicate the direc-
tion of the holy city a niche is built into the appropriate wall. This
niche is the mihrab, while the direction of Mecca is known as the
qibla. The Quran itself calls on Muslims to “turn their faces” in the
direction of Mecca and the Kaaba in prayer.
Many mosques also have a minbar—the
AL-AZhAr unIvErsIty, CAIro pulpit from which the preacher gives the
Friday sermon. In some mosques the min-
O ver the course of Islamic history sev-

eral of these large Friday mosques
became important educational centers.
bar may only be a raised platform, whereas
in many others it has a set of stairs lead-
ing to a small stage closed in by a railing. It
Perhaps the most renowned of all is the
can be quite an elaborate structure. In the
university of al-Azhar in the historical cen-
ter of Cairo. For centuries it has attracted
mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, one of the
students and scholars from all parts of the oldest mosques in the world, the minbar is
Islamic world: Students from the Sudan built of dark brown wooden panels carved
or Nigeria interact with those from as far in wonderful and very intricate designs.
away as Malaysia and Pakistan. For much
of its history al-Azhar was strictly a reli- AnnuAL FEstIvALs
gious center where Muslims could study The larger mosques such as al-Azhar are
the Quran and hadith (the accounts of commonly located in busy commercial
Muhammad’s teachings) and delve into
areas. From Islam’s early history mer-
other areas of Islamic education. Today
chants have been drawn to the mosques
al-Azhar is a major university offering
courses in a range of fields in addition to because they are centers of so much activ-
the religious subjects it has traditionally ity, religious and otherwise. As a result
offered. one finds in Islamic cities large numbers of
shops, bookstores, and small restaurants
102 ISLAM
lining the streets and alleys that circle these CALLIGrAPhy
mosques. With mosque and marketplace
side by side these areas are usually among
the busiest and most congested parts of C hristian churches are usually deco-
rated with stained glass, paintings,
and statues, but mosques very rarely are.
town. They become especially crowded
Instead they are decorated with inscrip-
during religious holidays and other spe-
tions of the Quran. These can cover the
cial occasions such as the month-long fast walls and ceilings of the mosque, includ-
of Ramadan. ing the inside of the dome that sits atop
many mosques. These inscriptions are
RAMAdAn an example of the dominant art form in
Although Ramadan is considered a duty Islamic culture, calligraphy, and arise from
that Muslims are expected to take quite a ban on depicting any living creature,
seriously and the physical demands of Muhammad, or Allah.
the fast are taxing, Ramadan also has its
lighter side. In most parts of the Islamic world it brings a marked
change in the pace of life. Activity during the daylight hours slows
considerably; people become quieter, less active, and sometimes
more calm than they normally are. With the end of the day, how-
ever, the fast is broken, and it is expected that Muslims will break
the fast with prayer and a short meal known as the iftar. In some
parts of the Islamic world, such as Morocco, the meal may con-
sist of a thick soup with bread and fruit.
Following the breaking of the fast things grow festive. In the
towns and cities of the Middle East, as well as other areas of the
Islamic world, it is customary for Muslims to go out after the iftar.
They visit with family and friends or simply stroll. Shopping dis-
tricts often remain quite busy as shops and restaurants stay open.
In Cairo, near the al-Azhar mosque, a book fair is held during
Ramadan. And nearby, beneath large canvas tents, members of
Sufi groups recite the Quran and perform their dhikrs.
The high point of Ramadan comes toward the end of the
month. On the evening of the 27th day Muslims celebrate what
is known as the Night of Power. According to Islamic tradition it
was on this night in 610 that Muhammad first received the rev-
elation of the Quran. In many parts of the Muslim world the eve-
ning is a noisy one as young men let off fireworks in the streets.

id Al-fiTR
Another important occasion comes with the end of Ramadan.
On the first day of the next month, Shawwal, Muslims celebrate
a special and long-awaited holiday known as the Feast of Fast
Breaking, or Id al-Fitr. For three days Muslims gather with family
Muslims praying at a
and friends for long meals, the sharing of gifts, and often religious
mosque on the island of
Phuket in Thailand. Before devotion. In many Islamic countries, the Id is a national holiday.
entering the mosque Those who are abroad for work or study travel home to be with
Muslims remove their family. For many Muslims it is a time to celebrate the renewed
shoes, placing them in a commitment to their faith and to offer thanks to God for having
designated area near the
entrance. Mosques range seen them through the long fast.
greatly in size from the
enormous “communal” id Al-AdHA
mosques found in many Another important celebration of the year comes during the
urban centers to those
much smaller in size
month of pilgrimage, Dhu al-Hijja. One of the rituals carried out
found in villages and local toward the end of the pilgrimage in Mecca is the sacrifice of ani-
neighborhoods. mals, usually sheep, goats, or camels. In Mecca, while some of
104 ISLAM
the meat is eaten by the pilgrims, much of it is distributed to the
poor. In the rest of the Islamic world a similar sacrifice is made by
each household or neighborhood.
In the weeks leading up to this celebration, known as Id al-
Adha, or the Feast of Sacrifice, in city centers as well as in sub-
urbs it is quite common to see great numbers of sheep and goats,
sometimes in unexpected places. At times one sees adult sheep
being transported in the back seats of taxis, tied in bundles on
top of buses, and feeding on the terraces of apartment buildings
and in the back rooms of shops.
IsLAMIC DAys oF obsErvAnCE

Id al-Adha (known also as Id al-Kabir)—This is the festival of
sacrifice held throughout the Islamic world on the 10th day of the
month of Dhu al-Hijja. The sacrifice is an important element of the
pilgrimage to Mecca, the hajj.
Id al-Fitr (known also as Id al-Saghir)—Held on the first day of the

month of Shawwal, this is the feast celebrating the end of Rama-
dan. This is a particularly joyful event for Muslims.
Mawlid al-Nabi—The birthday of the prophet Muhammad, held on

the 12th day of the month of Rabia I. A particularly popular event.
Nabi, or “prophet,” is one of the titles given to Muhammad. The Shia
celebrate his birthday on the 17th day of that month, which is also
the birthday of Jafar al-Sadiq, the Sixth Imam.
Ashura—During the first 10 days of the month of Muharram the

Shii community commemorates the suffering and death of Imam
Husayn, the prophet’s grandson and the Third Imam. These events
reach their peak on the 10th day, which is known as Ashura.
The Shia also commemorate the birthdays of each of the imams. In

Iran, which has a Twelver Shii majority, each of these 12 birthdays is
considered a national holiday. For example the first of their imams,
Ali ibn Abi Talib, is believed to have been born on the 13th day of
the month of Rajab.

Muslim children in Lahore, Pakistan, dressed in new clothes
to celebrate Id al-Fitr, marking the end of the month of
Ramadan. This is often a national holiday in Muslim countries
as family meet to pray, share feasts, and exchange gifts.
106 ISLAM
MAWLIDS
Musims
For many Muslims, though certainly not
all, the mawlid is another occasion of cel- The calendar year is marked by
mawlids or celebrations, most often
ebration. It is a festival marking the birth-
held in honor of saints. These
day of a saint or some other revered person
celebrations, known in some areas
of the past. No mawlid is more widely as musims, can vary in size and
observed than that of Muhammad. Known importance. A saint may be venerated
as the Mawlid al-Nabi and held every year in only a particular town or even
during Rabia al-Awwal, the third Islamic a neighborhood, in which case
month, it signals the deep veneration felt the festival is attended by a limited
by Muslims for Muhammad. number of people. Other mawlids
The Mawlid al-Nabi is celebrated in a however can attract Muslims, not
variety of ways. Special prayers are said to mention tourists, from all over a
particular nation or even region of
in Muhammad’s honor, for example, and
the Islamic world.
often Sufi groups will hold public dhikrs
in which his name is praised. In large cit-
ies and towns centrally located areas are decorated with hanging
lights and banners, giving a festive atmosphere.
fEsTivAl of MulAy idRis, MoRoCCo

In Morocco the site of one annual celebration in honor of a saint
is the small town of Mulay Idris. Located near the northern city
of Meknes, the town features an elaborate shrine in which is
located the tomb of Mulay Idris, after whom the town is named.
Sometimes referred to as the national saint of Morocco, Mulay
Idris was the founder of the first Islamic dynasty in Morocco in
the late eighth century. Topped by a beautiful green dome, the
shrine was built in the latter part of the 15th century. Since that
time the festival in honor of Mulay Idris has drawn large numbers
of people from all over Morocco and remains a popular event to
the present day.
CElEbRATions foR Al-bAdAwi, EgyPT

In sheer numbers perhaps no mawlid is larger than that of Ahmad
al-Badawi, held each fall in the Egyptian town of Tanta. It is an
enormously popular event—one that many Egyptians are reluc-

tant to miss. The celebrations in Mulay Idris and for al-Badawi in
Tanta share a number of features. At both events people gather to
be touched by the baraka of the saint. Those who can try to touch
the tomb of the saint while murmuring prayers or repeating the
name of Mulay Idris or al-Badawi. In the baraka, it is believed, lies
the power to bring good luck, strength, good health, or even suc-
cess in school or in a business deal.
MusiCiAns, sToRyTEllERs, And PREACHERs

These celebrations are usually very festive. Sufi groups gather to
hold their dhikrs and attract new members. Processions take place
organized by Sufis and other groups as well. During these proces-
sions banners are displayed and often the leader of the Sufi order
is brought out on horseback for all to see. Attracted by the large
crowds musicians, storytellers, traveling merchants, and preach-
ers come to practice their skills and earn money. Tents in which
are sold everything from food to clothes to spices and charms
are erected in any clear area. Both events last for days and many
of those in attendance spend nights wherever they can—be it in
a mosque, on the floors of houses and shops, or in a quiet area on
the ground.
Feast days, mawlids, and other such occasions are celebrated
throughout the Islamic world. If one turns from these noisier,
more public events to the quieter world of Muslim family life, one
discovers patterns that are much more private but no less a part
of the lives of Muslims the world over.
MusLIM ChILDhooD
Several events mark the first years of a Muslim child’s life. Around
the time of birth the infant is given a Muslim name. It is common,
at least within devout Muslim families, to use the names of highly
revered figures of Islamic history.
Muhammad is, as one might expect, the most popular name
of all for male children. Others include Umar, after one of the
first caliphs, and Ali, after Ali ibn Abi Talib. The names Hasan
and Husayn are popular as well since these were the names of
108 ISLAM
Muhammad’s grandsons—both of whom it is believed he loved
dearly. Since they were also the first of the imams their names are
particularly popular among the Shia. Often males are also given
names that are formed from one of the names of God, such as
Abd Allah (servant of God) or Abd al-Rahman (servant of the
All-Merciful). A Muslim teacher
Female children similarly are named after Muhammad’s wives helps children in their
and other important and well-known women in early Islamic kindergarten class at the Al-
Ghazaly Muslim elementary
history. Khadija, the name of Muhammad’s first wife; Fatima, the school in Jersey City, New
name of one of his daughters; and Aisha, the name of another of Jersey, one of 10 such
Muhammad’s wives, are all popular names. schools in the state.

In thE nAME oF GoD, thE RECiTing QuRAniC vERsEs
MErCIFuL, thE CoMPAssIonAtE The Quran is where formal education
begins for many Muslim children. In the
A s soon as Muslim children begin to

speak they are taught common reli-
gious phrases. Then short passages from
first year of school or in a small center
known as a kuttab children learn to read
by reciting verses from the Quran. In this
the Quran are learned. One phrase taught
to youngsters is bismilla al-rahman al-
way they learn not only to read but also
rahim, which means “in the name of God, to recognize the central teachings of their
the Merciful, the Compassionate.” It is a faith. One of the first parts of the Quran
set of words used by Muslims through- learned by all Muslim children is the first
out their lives in a variety of situations— sura: the Surat al-Fatiha.
before meals, when stepping into a room
or onto a bus, when entering a mosque to MAlE CiRCuMCision
worship. The phrase gains its importance For Muslim boys an event that happens
from the fact that each chapter, or sura, of
early in their lives is circumcision, or cut-
the Quran begins with these words.
ting away of the male foreskin. In some
Muslim areas, this takes place around the
age of 10. In other areas it is not the age that matters, but when
the boy is able to recite the entire Quran aloud for the first time.
Although the operation itself is usually over in minutes, the occa-
sion is often celebrated in various ways. In parts of Morocco, for
example, it is customary for those families that can afford to rent
a horse to have the boy paraded around the neighborhood on
horseback.
fEMAlE CiRCuMCision
In some parts of the Muslim world, girls and young women may
undergo a ritual called female circumcision, or clitoridectomy.
This operation, which ranges in degree from a small incision to
the removal of the clitoris, is carried out in parts of Africa. Some
Muslims there consider this ritual necessary to preserve the girl’s
purity and to make her marriageable, believing it to be a religious
duty. The operation can have serious health consequences for the
young woman, which may include death either at the time of the
surgery or later in childbirth.
In recent years female circumcision has been banned in Egypt
and there is pressure from world health organizations on other
110 ISLAM
governments of the area to follow Egypt’s example. Many Islamic
scholars find that the practice has no basis in the Quran but has
come into Islam from pre-Islamic customs. However it remains
a deeply rooted practice that will take many years of education
to change.
MArrIAGE
Muslims are encouraged to marry and to bear children. In many
parts of the Islamic world, as in the non-Islamic world, it has been
customary for marriages to be arranged by parents or guardians.
This practice is changing; in urban areas, and among the educat-
ed classes, a young woman commonly has at least a say in whom
she marries. Young men and women may see each other in uni-
versity classes or at family gatherings but dating remains rare in
the Islamic world. In many regions for an unmarried couple to
be seen together in public alone is still considered behavior that
brings shame on both of their families.
uniTing Two fAMiliEs

Marriage between two people, according to Islamic law, is settled
with a contract in which the rights and duties of both the man
and woman are laid out and agreed on by both persons. In many
parts of the Islamic world marriage is seen as the uniting of two
families rather than just two individuals. Most often the ceremo-
ny itself is rather simple and quiet.
However for the celebrations that follow families often spend
large sums of money on food, clothes, and gifts. The lavishness of
the celebrations depends on the wealth of the families involved,
and even the poorest families will borrow money in order to
stage what they believe will be considered a proper wedding.
Usually these will be held in the home or just outside the home of
one of the two families. The celebrations can last throughout the
night or even longer. They are often community events in which
an entire village or neighborhood will be invited to join in the cel-
ebration. Very often men and women celebrate at the same time
but in separate buildings or areas.

MARRiAgE To MoRE THAn onE wifE
An issue that has been discussed a great deal within the Islamic
community is whether men should marry more than one wom-
an. (This practice is known as polygyny in which a man has more
than one wife.) Polygyny seems to have been present in pre-
Islamic Arabia, and it is known that Muhammad himself had a
number of wives by the end of his life. The Quran states that men
Male family members and may marry up to four wives but only if they can treat each of
friends gathered during
wedding celebrations to them equally and fairly (4.3).
sign a marriage contract in Since the rise of Islam polygyny has been a standard prac-
Tripoli, Libya. The marriage tice, but scholars are uncertain as to how widespread it has been.
contract is a legal document Today the practice is the subject of much argument. There are
that outlines the duties of
the husband and wife and
those who say that the practice should be banned because it is
it is often regarded as the impossible to treat more than one wife equally. Many Muslims—
uniting of two families. both men and women—argue that it is also a form of great dis-
112 ISLAM
crimination against women and so should be abolished. They
point to another verse in the Quran: “You will not be able to treat
your wives equally, no matter how hard you try.”
FooD AnD DrInk

In addition to a discussion of marriage the Quran provides guide-
lines for other aspects of the Muslim’s personal life, including
eating and drinking habits. Muslims are forbidden to consume
certain kinds of food and drink. Pork for example is forbidden,
as is the eating of any meat from an animal that has died of natu-
ral causes. Muslims may only eat from an animal that has been
slaughtered properly, which means that its blood has been drained
as much as possible after the slaughter. The drinking of alcohol
is also strictly forbidden. The Quran mentions wine specifically,
but it is believed that this really meant all substances containing
alcohol. This includes cooking wine and for many Muslims the
ban includes any medicines that have alcohol in them.
In many countries of the Islamic world, however, alcoholic
beverages are sold and consumed. Some of these countries, such
as Algeria, Morocco, and Egypt, have their own national beer and
wine companies. In bars and restaurants beer and wine are sold,
although usually only non-Muslim tourists order such drinks.
The presence and use of these substances has created a great deal
of debate in which devout Muslims and religious leaders have
called for the banning of the sale and manufacture of all alco-
holic beverages. On occasion bars and hotels have been raided
by Muslim activists who proceed to smash bottles of alcohol and
even burn bars to the ground. In some urban areas—Cairo and
Casablanca for example—alcoholism has been recognized as a
social problem.
DEAth
As in every faith death is marked in Islam with solemn rituals.
The last hours of a dying Muslim’s life are passed with a recita-
tion of the Quran. The 36th sura of the Quran, entitled Ya Sin,
is concerned with death and God’s judgment, so it is considered

the most appropriate part of the Quran to
rEMInDEr oF GoD’s PowEr
read. A family member or the local imam
T he last three verses of Ya Sin, the 36th recites this sura out loud both to comfort
sura of the Quran, remind the listener the dying person and to prepare that per-
of God’s power at the end of life: son for the coming judgment.
Is not He, who created the heavens and Following the person’s death a pre-
earth, able to create the like of them? Yes, scribed set of rituals is performed. The
surely, He is the Creator and the All-
body is first carefully washed and pre-
Knowing. His command, when He desires
pared for burial by being wrapped in a
a thing, is to say to it: “Be!,” and it is.
So glory to Him in whose hand is power clean white cloth. Then a funeral service is
over everything. Unto Him you shall be performed, sometimes in a mosque, often
returned. simply at home. The service is usually led
by the local imam. Following this service
—36.81–83
the body is then taken to the grave site. It
is not required for the corpse to be placed
Gravestones in a Muslim cemetery.
114 ISLAM
in a coffin. Muslims do not spend a great
FInAL rECItAtIon At thE GrAvEsIDE
deal of money on either the burial prepa-
L
rations or the burial itself. The deceased is ike the funeral service, a Muslim’s
buried quickly, usually the morning fol- burial site is very simple. When the
lowing the death. body is placed in the ground, care is taken
The body, either in a casket or simply to see that the head is facing in the direc-
tion of Mecca. If the body is in a coffin,
upon a funeral bier (a stand on which a
usually it is marked to indicate the place
corpse or coffin is placed), is then carried
of the head. Pious words are then said
in a procession of family and friends to over the grave and then there is a recita-
the burial site. The procession for a well- tion of the Surat al-Fatiha, the first sura,
known individual will draw large num- or chapter, of the Quran. The recitation of
bers of people, many of whom may join this sura symbolizes that the life that has
along the way to the graveyard. In 1970 just ended was that of a Muslim. Because
Cairo in Egypt was the scene of probably Muslims learn the sura early in life, often as
the largest single funeral procession in one of their first lessons in school, and use
history. Jamal Abd al-Nasir, perhaps the it frequently over the course of their lives
on all sorts of occasions, it is fitting that at
greatest and most respected Arab leader
the end of their lives the sura is recited for
of the 20th century, died of a heart attack
them this last time.
in September of that year. His funeral is
said to have attracted more than four mil-
lion people, not only from Egypt but also from across the Arabic-
speaking world and beyond.

CHAPTER 8
ISLAM AND THE
MODERN WORLD
B y the 18th century the Islamic community had changed

considerably from those first years in Medina, when a small
group of Muslims joined Muhammad in establishing the first
Islamic settlement. With the number of Muslims now in the mil-
lions the community stretched from the Atlantic coast of Moroc-
co to the many islands of Indonesia. Islam had truly become a
world religion.
For 200 years three empires—Mughal, Safavid, and Otto-
man—had controlled much of the Islamic world. With their cen-
tralized forms of government and strong armies they had brought
stability to the lands of Islam. With stability had also come trade,
which meant greater prosperity for all three empires. However
all of this came to an end as political and economic strength gave
way to decline. The Safavids fell from power in the 18th century
and then the Mughal dynasty crumbled in the 19th century.
The Turkish Ottoman empire seemed to survive but the decla-
ration of Serbia’s autonomy (self-rule) in 1829, Greece’s revolt in
1830, and Lebanon’s independence in 1861 were sure signs of its
declining power. Turkey, after the Crimean War in 1856, also lost
A Muslim family walking in a San Francisco park. The

highest concentrations of Muslims in the United States
are in California, New York, Michigan, and Illinois.
116 ISLAM
Islam and the Modern World 11
the Balkans. So even though the Ottoman Empire would survive
into the 20th century its strength was greatly diminished.
thE ChALLEnGE oF thE FuturE

As the Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman empires crumbled the
Islamic world faced an uncertain future. In the age of the strongly
unified empires the Islamic religion was viewed as the source of
the empires’ unity. In the newly autonomous Greece, Lebanon,
Serbia, and the weakened Turkey the concern for survival made
people ask why the Islamic world has suffered this collapse.
Many religious Muslims wanted to remove the additions that
in their view had divided the religion and split its followers into
disagreeing competitive groups. They wanted to rid Islam of such
Sufi practices as the worship of saints and the inclusion of music
and dancing in rituals. Many of these critics sensed that the Sufi
saints themselves had become competitors to Allah and they
called for the suppression or reform of the Sufi orders. Other
religious-minded people blamed religious scholars, or ulama, for
mechanically repeating earlier legal decisions in a way that dead-
ened Islamic life. They wanted their scholars to recapture the
original spirit of Islam and apply its basic beliefs to the challenges
of a new age. Only wide and deep religious reform, these people
believed, would bring fruitful guidance and support for building
modern Islamic nations.
A nEw IsLAM
The new reformers argued that the time had come to put Islam
and Islamic society back on the right path. This meant ridding
Islam of non-Islamic practices, following the duties and regula-
tions of the sharia more closely, and dealing with the new prob-
lems of society in creative ways.
For many of these Muslims the model of action was Muham-
mad, whom they felt had reformed the society of his day. They
sought to follow his example by bringing change to their own
societies so that Muslims could face the challenges of the modern
world with energy and creativity.
118 ISLAM
THE EMERgEnCE of sAudi ARAbiA
Reform movements appeared in differ-
ent areas of the Islamic world during the
18th and 19th centuries. Perhaps the ear-
liest was the Wahhabi movement begun
by Ibn al-Wahhab (d. 1792), a conserva-
tive preacher who had studied law and
theology in Mecca and Damascus in the
middle of the 18th century. He saw the
threat to Islam as coming from within, not
from the West. The chief internal causes
for the corruption of Islam he judged to
be Sufism and worship of the saints. He
argued fiercely that Muslims should seek
guidance only from the Quran and hadith.
He reminded people of the model given by
Muhammad for the true Islamic way of life
that modern Muslims had forgotten.
The Wahhabi movement gained the attention and support A Bedouin girl in the Sahara
of an Arabian tribal leader named Ibn Saud. With the help of Desert. Islam is the majority
religion throughout north
the tribe’s fighters the movement by 1803 dominated much of
Africa.
the Arabian Peninsula, including Mecca. In Mecca and Medina
the followers of Wahhab destroyed Sufi centers and the tombs
of saints. They even desecrated the tomb of Muhammad and
his closest followers to prevent anyone from visiting them in a
search for miracles. Although the Wahhabi state was destroyed
in the early 19th century, it was restored and eventually, at the
beginning of the 20th century, it became
the modern nation of Saudi Arabia. Islah
Islah and Tajdid
wEsT AfRiCA—uTHMAn don fodio Two terms that were used a great deal
by the reformers of the 18th and 19th
Another 18th-century reformer was Uth-
centuries were islah (“reform”) and
man Don Fodio (d. 1817), a scholar from
tajdid (“renewal”). In their view reform
the area of present-day Nigeria. Trained in and renewal were required if Islam
Islamic law and theology, he criticized the was to be a vital force in the world.
rulers of his region. He accused them of

wAGInG JIhAD being unjust and tyrannical but also of allowing the
local population to carry out rites involving magic
T he 18th-century reformers Wali Allah,

Don Fodio, and al-Sanusi proposed a
commitment to revitalize Muslim religion:
and to mix the rituals and beliefs of Islam with the
practices of other, local religions. He too called for
a return to a pure Islamic faith.
to wage jihad, or striving on behalf of Islam.
Jihad meant an individual struggle on the
indiA—sHAH wAli AllAH
part of each Muslim to remain true to the
principles of Islam. However it also meant
Anger over the use of non-Islamic rituals by Mus-
an armed struggle in defense of Islam lims was shared by Shah Wali Allah (d. 1762), an
when this became necessary. When local Indian scholar. A member of the Naqshbandi order
rulers passed laws restricting the religious of the Sufis, he, unlike Ibn al-Wahhab, did not call
practices of the Muslim population Don for a ban on Sufism. Sufism was acceptable, even
Fodio declared jihad and with his follow- necessary, as long as the Sufis stayed true to Islam.
ers he conquered a large region of West He was particularly concerned with those who
Africa. He established the state of Sokoto,
mixed Islamic and Hindu practices. He called for
run according to Islamic law, which sur-
a renewed dedication of all Muslims to the Quran
vived until 1905. In Cyrenaica, part of what
is today Libya, al-Sanusi also declared the
and hadith and the rejection of all foreign beliefs.
need for jihad to establish a unified and
strong faith among strongly independent libyA—MuHAMMAd ibn Al-sAnusi
Bedouin tribes (nomadic Arabs). This spirit of reform carried outside cities and
towns. In Cyrenaica, part of what is today Libya,
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi (d. 1859) called for
the purification of Sufism and Islam among Muslim Bedouins
(nomadic Arabs). He established the Sanusi order of Sufism,
pledged to asceticism and austerity in worship, in the Libyan des-
ert oases, forming a strong coalition of Bedouin tribes dedicated
to the true principles of Islam.
All these reform movements were centered on Islam and its
need to reform and grow strong from within. Yet as successful
as these measures were, Muslim society faced a growing threat
from outside its territories: the increasing military and political
power of Europe.
thE thrEAt oF EuroPE

As the countries of Europe grew richer they began to cast a
greedy eye on the regions of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa.
120 ISLAM
By the start of the 19th century wide regions of the Islamic world
had fallen into the hands of European states. To many Muslims
Islam itself was under attack.
In the 19th century Russia seized a vast area of Central Asia
where the population was primarily Muslim, as it is today. The
Dutch had seized Indonesia and parts of Malaysia. By 1911 they
controlled both areas. It was the British and the French, however,
who would rule over the largest parts of the Islamic world. By
the early 19th century Britain controlled most of the Indian Pen-
insula and areas farther east in Southeast Asia. By the end of the
century they had added Egypt and the Sudan to their empire. In
the 1820s the French began sending troops against the regions of
North Africa. Algeria fell first, around 1830, followed by Tunisia
in 1881 and Morocco in 1912. Italy invaded the remaining area of
North Africa (what is today Libya) in 1911.
The Ottomans were defeated and driven out of the Arab
regions of the Middle East by Great Britain and by a widespread
Arab revolt in northern Arabia and Syria during World War I
(1914–18). Britain had promised to help the Arab regions achieve
independence, but instead Britain and France decided in 1916 to
carve up the Middle East between themselves. Britain seized a
wide band of territory that included Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq,
while the French took over the area that would later become Syr-
ia and Lebanon.
As a result, by the early 20th century the vast majority of the
lands of Islam were European colonial states. In these regions
Muslims now had very limited control over their political and
economic lives. As the presence of the Europeans became greater
it became clear that Muslims would have to accept drastic chang-
es in their societies.
thE PEnEtrAtIon oF thE wEst

Colonial powers brought enormous changes to the lands they
dominated. First they established European-style schools
throughout the Islamic world. Students there learned European
political and economic ideas as well as European approaches to

science and technology. As students graduated and entered the
labor market they carried these ideas into society at large. Second
the colonial powers changed economic and business practices in
Muslim regions. Commerce and production now benefited the
Europeans rather than the local regions. Traditional merchants
were forced out of business while a new generation of traders
with strong ties to European trade arose.
THE islAMiC woRld in CRisis

Over time, as those schooled in European ways gained wealth and
Young Muslim boys among power, they spread their practices to wider groups. Many Mus-
the crowd gathered to lims were ready to accept the new ideas; others were suspicious
hear speakers at the start of the changes being introduced into Islamic society. However
of a London protest march
against cartoons of the regardless of what values they held most Muslims agreed that the
prophet Muhammad that Islamic world was in crisis. They faced disturbing questions of
were printed in a Danish how Muslims were to react to the presence of the Europeans and
newspaper. Anger over what values and ideas Muslims would carry into the future. At
the cartoons created
widespread outrage in
stake was the future of Islam and Islamic society.
Muslim communities The conservative ulama and their supporters called for a rejec-
internationally. tion of European values and institutions. They called on Mus-
lims to commit themselves more fully to
the principles of Islam. Only then, they
argued, would the Islamic community
regain its unity and be able to compete
with European states.
AdAPTATion And REviTAlizATion

Other Muslims felt this attitude was too
conservative. They agreed that it was
important to defend Islam. However they
argued that for the Islamic world to com-
pete with the European states, it would
have to adapt. They accused the ulama
of living in the past and of not recogniz-
ing that Islamic law and education had to
be reshaped if Muslims were to meet the
122 ISLAM
challenges of the modern world. These critics felt that rather
than reject everything European, Muslims should use those ideas
and institutions from Europe that could help revitalize Islamic
society.
rEForMErs oF IsLAM
Many of the reform-minded Muslims took a strong interest in
Western scientific ideas. They proposed that such ideas be incor-
porated into Islamic education. Science would thus open the way
in the Islamic world to new military and scientific technologies,
which would benefit the society as a whole.
CREATing A ModERn CodE of RulEs And lAws

Such reformers as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (d. 1897), Muham-
mad Abduh (d. 1905), and Rashid Rida (d. 1935) looked for ways
to adapt Islam to modern times. In Islam, they argued, lay all of
the principles necessary to create a modern Islamic world. They
agreed that the rituals of Islam and the guidance of the sharia
were essential to Muslim life, but they believed that if the sharia
was to deal with the problems of modem Islamic society it would
have to be updated. This meant using the main principles of the
sharia to create a modern code of rules and laws. Only a new and
revitalized sharia, they declared, could put Islamic society back
on its feet.
Many of these ideas were shared by two other leading Muslim
thinkers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries: Sayyid Ahmad
Khan (d. 1898) and later Muhammad Iqbal (d. 1938). Iqbal, a law-
yer, admired European democracy and parliamentary govern-
ment. He did not believe however that Muslims needed to borrow
these ideas from Europe. Like al-Afghani he felt that these ideas
were contained in the principles of the sharia and that Muslims
needed only to reinterpret the sharia to reveal them.
RisE of nATionAlisM
Although their writings would influence generations after them,
Abduh, Iqbal, and the others never became politically power-

ful. For one thing their thinking attracted mostly students and
intellectuals—not the broad population of Muslims. In addition
they faced opposition from other Muslim thinkers. On one side
the conservative ulama rejected the use of all European ideas
and institutions, believing that such ideas were outside Islam.
On the other side a new generation of Muslims felt comfortable
with European political and economic ideas. This second group
included those who embraced the idea of nationalism—the
notion that a people should govern themselves and determine
their own future without influence from foreign powers. It was
an idea that would change the face of the Islamic world over the
course of the 20th century.
turkEy thE IDEA oF nAtIonALIsM

Nationalist ideas were spread by Mus-
A s the 20th century progressed Euro-
pean rule over the Islamic world
gave way to independent states. In 1923
lim students who had been educated in
European schools. These included both
Turkey—which was one of the few areas schools that had been established in Mus-
in the Islamic world never to have fallen lim regions and the universities in Europe
under European rule—was declared an itself at which Muslim youths studied. As
independent republic. The leader of the new generations of Muslim students grad-
Turkish nationalist movement, Mustafa uated the idea of nationalism caught on
Kemal Ataturk (d. 1938), immediately
throughout the Islamic world.
set out to make Turkey a fully secular-
ized (non-religious) state. The sharia was
PARliAMEnTARy sysTEMs And
replaced by a European-style code of law;
Muslim dress and customs were banned.
sECulAR univERsiTiEs
Today Turkey remains the most secular- The concept of nationalism gave rise to a
ized country of the Islamic world. In 1993 number of political movements, all aimed
Tansu Ciller, leader of the True Path Party, at ending European colonialism. Their
became Turkey’s prime minister, making leaders usually included young West-
her the third Muslim woman to be elected ern-educated lawyers, journalists, and
head of state, after Benazir Bhutto (d. engineers. Earlier reformers had been
2007) in Pakistan and Khaleda Zia in Ban-
committed to reforming Islamic law and
gladesh. Today Turkey continues to strive
education, but these young nationalists
for a balance between the political forces
of secularism and Islam. were less interested in religion. They did
not hesitate to use ideas from Europe.
124 ISLAM
They campaigned for the creation of European-style political,
legal, and educational institutions. Among the institutions they
hoped to create in the Islamic world were parliamentary systems
and secular (non-religious) universities.
Devout Muslims, and especially the ulama, received these ideas
with skepticism. They were angry that the nationalists seemed to
have set aside their commitment to Islam. Most of the national-
ists felt that religion should be left out of politics. They were not
against religious practices and beliefs but they felt that these had
no place in the fight for independence.
gRowTH of indEPEndEnT sTATEs

Soon after Turkey declared itself an independent republic, inde-
pendence followed for other regions in the Islamic world: Iraq in
1932; Syria in 1947; Indonesia in 1950; Egypt in 1952; Morocco,
Tunisia, and the Sudan in 1956; Malaysia in 1957; Nigeria in 1960;
and, following a long and costly revolution, Algeria in 1962.
Pakistan came into being in 1947 in the midst of India’s fight
for independence from England. An Islamic nationalist move-
ment, the Muslim League, had won support among the Muslims
of India for a separate Muslim state. The League was finally able
to create the state of Pakistan, but only after a civil war with India
in which hundreds of thousands of Muslims and Hindus lost
their lives. In 1971 the eastern half of Pakistan broke away after
another bloody civil war to become Bangladesh.
thE struGGLE For PowEr

In the majority of the newly independent Muslim states political
power was held by secular governments. Many were controlled
by military officers with no interest in combining religion and
politics. This set the stage for conflict between the secular nation-
alists and the various groups within their states that supported
Islamic forms of government. For these groups it was time to
return to Islamic principles and the rule of the sharia.
Two such groups were the Society of Muslim Brothers, found-
ed in Egypt in 1929 by Hasan al-Banna, and the Jamaat-i Islami,

founded in India in 1941 by Mawlana Mawdudi. For both al-Ban-
na and Mawdudi Islamic society was under attack not only by
the European colonial powers but also by the secular nationalist
movements. They savagely criticized these movements for adopt-
ing Western ideas and for abandoning Islam.
REligious And PoliTiCAl AggiTATion

For both leaders the separation of religion and politics was a
violation of Islamic principles. They argued that Islam brought
together all aspects of life, including politics and religion.
Mawdudi, al-Banna, and others like them won the support of
large numbers of Muslims. Unlike many of the ulama, they were
dedicated to political activity. Their commitment to the faith
struck a chord in the hearts of many Muslims over the first half
of the 20th century.
The support these groups enjoyed did not escape the atten-
tion of the political leaders of the Islamic nations. Often their first
reaction was to clamp down on these Islamic movements, send-
Sultana Ali, originally from ing their leaders to prison. Eventually however some leaders of
Bangladesh, being sworn Muslim states began to take a different approach. They tried to
in as a U.S. citizen during
Naturalization Ceremonies
use religion to win the support of the broad population. In Egypt,
at the Onondaga Courthouse the government of Jamal Abd al-Nasir (d. 1970) sponsored a reli-
in Syracuse, New York. gious newspaper and called for the support of the ulama of the
Al-Azhar mosque. Al-Nasir’s successor,
Anwar Sadat (d. 1980), went even further
in associating his government with reli-
gious symbols, events, and institutions
such as al-Azhar. In Syria Hafiz al-Assad
(d. 2000), who seized power in Egypt in
1970, repeatedly used Islam in this way in
the 1970s and 1980s.
gRowing soCiAl And

EConoMiC PRoblEMs
These gestures toward Islam, however,
did little to change the unpopularity of
126 ISLAM
the governments. Although these govern- thE MoDErn woMAn
ments called themselves democratic, they
ruled with little popular support and were
also responsible for poor economic poli- T he issue of the role of women is very
complex in modern-day Islam. In
areas that have undergone a fundamen-
cies and rampant corruption. There were
talist movement or return to traditional
growing social problems, among them
ways, such as Afghanistan or Iran, the
high rates of poverty and crime. To many role of women has been curtailed in com-
devout Muslims the obvious reason for parison with a few decades ago. In some
these problems was the decline of Islamic places women are no longer allowed to
values and practices. study or to work. Their status is very dif-
ficult and oppression and brutality are
A nEw CoMMItMEnt to IsLAM a mark of these societies. In other areas
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as politi- such as Saudi Arabia, where women have
cal, social, and economic problems con- been strictly constrained, small signs of
change are seen, for example in allowing
tinued to grow, Muslims throughout the
women to drive. However in most Muslim
Islamic world began to renew their com-
societies, women are encouraged to play
mitment to Islam. There was a growing a significant role in society but are also
sense that Muslims should look to their expected to dress modestly and behave
own traditions and use them to revitalize appropriately. Overall, the last 30 years or
their societies. Some now began to share so has seen a shift in how women dress and
the opinion that Islam—and particularly in their expectations. It is true to say that
the sharia—contained all the guidance conforming to traditional dress and role
needed by individuals and society. codes has increased significantly, though
whether that has seriously restricted the
The new dedication to Islam took differ-
role women play within Muslim societies
ent forms. Many ordinary Muslims made
is an open discussion. To outsiders it looks
a greater commitment to the beliefs and more conservative but to those inside it is
practices of Islam, and many began to lead a return to traditional dress but with some
what was seen as a more Islamic lifestyle. modern ideas.
This included studying the Quran; carry-
ing out daily prayer practices and the fast
of Ramadan faithfully; supporting institutions such as clinics,
schools, and youth centers run by religious organizations; and
adopting modest styles of dress and public behavior. In cities and
towns throughout the Islamic world it became more common to
see young women wearing plain, long dresses and scarves over
their hair.

However for many Muslims the commitment to Islam was
more than a return to Islamic ways. It was a call to political
action. Across the Islamic world young Muslim men and women
joined or formed political movements. Their message was that
the time had come to put an end to secularized, Western-style
governments and to make the sharia the foundation of Islamic
society.
thE IsLAMIC rEvoLutIon

Probably no single event in the mid-20th century had as much
impact on the minds of Muslims as the 1979 Islamic Revolution
in Iran. The revolution was carried out by a broad coalition made
up of ulama, student groups, leftist organizations, and others—
and was supported by many ordinary Iranians. Its goal was the
overthrow of Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi (d. 1980).
The voice of the revolutionary movement was Ayatollah Kho-
meini (d. 1989), a religious scholar. Khomeini had harshly criti-
cized the shah’s policies as contrary to the teachings of Islam.
Many Iranians were drawn to Khomeini’s powerful religious
message. He attacked the shah for undermining Islam with sec-
ularism and for his assault on the powers of the ulama. For his
criticism Khomeini was arrested and sent into exile.
ovERTHRow of THE sHAH

From exile Khomeini called for the overthrow of the shah and the
creation of an Islamic-style government headed by the ulama. He
argued that because the ulama were trained in Islamic law and
theology, they were the only ones who could properly lead an
Islamic government and society. In the fall of 1978 revolution
broke out, and in early 1979 the shah fled the country. Khomeini
returned in that year to Tehran and became the spiritual head of
the Islamic Republic.
The effect of the revolution on the rest of the Islamic world
was electric. For the first time an Islamic movement had success-
fully opposed a modern secular government. For many Mus-
lims—particularly the new activists—the Islamic Revolution
128 ISLAM
was enormously encouraging. It was a sign that a return to the
ideals of Islam and the duties of the sharia could bring success. It
also confirmed what Muslims could accomplish through politi-
cal action.
The initial burst of enthusiasm for Khomeini and the Islamic
Revolution gradually died away. The majority of the Sunni world
did not fully accept Khomeini, a Shii leader, so relations with
other Muslim countries suffered. Moreover the new Islamic gov-
ernment of Iran soon became as undemocratic as the shah’s gov-
ernment had been. People who had grown accustomed to secular
freedoms chafed under strict Islamic rule. Music was banned,
women were forced to wear the burqa (a garment covering the
face and body), and other freedoms were strictly curtailed.
ElECTion of A ModERATE govERnMEnT

By the mid-1990s Iran was suffering under economic hardships.
People began to call for more progressive economic policies. In
1998 Iranians elected a moderate president, Muhammad Khata-
mi. The outcome was a victory for the many women and young
people who had voted for reform, rejecting conservative policies
such as the dress code and other restrictive regulations.
In the spirit of reform Iran appointed its first female senior
judge, and freedom of speech improved. Muslim authorities
lifted the ban on women leading congregational prayers for oth-
er women, which had been a problem in all-girl schools. Iran’s
more moderate government took steps toward improving rela-
tions with Europe and the United States and saw its relationships
with other Muslim countries improve as well.
Although some heartening political adjustments have been
made since the Islamic Revolution was waged more than 25 years
ago, recent tensions over Iran’s alleged efforts to develop nuclear
weapons have reduced any visible advances to a trivial level. Wor-
ries grow among many Muslim and non-Muslim countries that
Iran might become the first nuclear theocracy (a form of govern-
ment in which a god or deity is recognized as the supreme civil
ruler).

thE bALkAn CrIsIs
At about the same time as the Islamic revolution in Iran, in East-
ern Europe a rise in Serb nationalism proved disastrous for Mus-
lims in the former Yugoslavia. After the death of the Communist
leader Josip Broz Tito in 1980 the ethnic groups that had made
up Yugoslavia began to break apart along nationalist lines: Serb,
Croat, and Muslim. The strongest of these were the Serbs, with
dreams of a “Greater Serbia” that would reunite all of the lands
that had historically been Serbian. Although they were concen-
trated in Bosnia, Muslims were not a majority there although
they were in the majority in Kosovo, an autonomous federal unit
in Yugoslavia which was stripped of its autonomy in 1989. Mus-
lims had always tried to live peacefully beside their neighbors but
now found themselves caught in the midst of a war not of their
making.
The bridge at Mostar in the In March 1994 Muslims and Croats in Bosnia signed an agree-
Republic of Montenegro. ment that created Bosnia and Herzegovina as an independent
This famous bridge was built
by an Ottoman architect in state. This did not ensure their safety, however. In spite of United
1566 and destroyed in 1993 Nations (UN) peacekeeping efforts, in July 1995 the Serb army
after being bombarded attacked Srebrenica, a Muslim “safe area.” They took the Muslim
by tank fire during the men to a field outside the town and shot them. Srebrenica thus
Bosnian conflict. After the
war ended, the bridge was
became the site of the worst massacre of civilians in Europe since
rebuilt and opened again World War II (1939–45). Exactly how many Muslim men died
in 2004. may never be known but the numbers were horrific. The event
brought a new phrase into the English lan-
guage: “ethnic cleansing.”
The Dayton Peace Accords of 1995 end-
ed the war but not the hatred. Thousands
of Muslims were left homeless, unable to
return to towns where hostility still runs
high. In addition many Muslim homes
were seized by Serbs or burned to prevent
their owners from reclaiming them. The
massacre also left thousands of widows
and fatherless children whose only offense
was to be Muslim.
130 ISLAM
Bosnia is not the only region in which Muslims suffered tre-
mendous losses. When Yugoslavia was breaking up, Kosovo, a
region of Serbia that was originally part of Albania, wanted its
independence. People in Kosovo were more than 80 percent Mus-
lim. Serbia sent troops into Kosovo to put down revolutionary
activity. Waves of refugees fled to neighboring countries. In 1998
Serbian troops killed many of the civilian inhabitants of Drenica,
a hilly region in central Kosovo, mostly Muslim women and chil-
dren. Following the conflict, Kosova technically remained part of
Serbia although it was under UN jurisdiction. Kosova unilaterally
declared its indepdenence from Serbia in February 2008 which
has been followed by recognition from many UN states.
thE MIDDLE EAst

The establishment of Israel as a nation in 1948 left many Pales-
tinian Arabs without a homeland. Muslim and Christian Arabs
were displaced from a land they had inhabited for centuries.
Their plight was largely unnoticed by the Western nations until
the 1967 war between Israel and the Arab states of Egypt, Syria,
and Jordan. In a few short days the three Arab armies met defeat.
In the process Jerusalem—sacred to Jews, Christians, and Mus-
lims—was completely taken over by the Israelies.
Over the next 20 years relations among countries in the Middle
East stabilized somewhat. The Palestinians however still suffered
under Israeli rule, watching Israeli settlers claim lands that had
been theirs. Beginning in 1987 the Palestinians began to assert
themselves politically, and at times with arms, in what was called
the “uprising,” or intifada, under Yasir Arafat until his death in
November 2004. Continued acts of resistance have drawn atten-
tion to the Palestinian cause and eventually brought the Israelis
and the Palestinians to the bargaining table.
Many issues remain unresolved between Israel and the Pales-
tinians. One is Jerusalem, the location of the Dome of the Rock
and al-Aqsa Mosque, from which the prophet ascended to heav-
en. Devout Muslims call for its liberation from Israel as well as for
a separate Palestinian state.

In 2005 Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip after 38 years of
occupation and dismantled all of its settlements, providing hope
that a Palestinian state may be a possibility for the future. Yet the
early 2006 parliamentary elections won by the radical Hamas
party in Palestine have raised tensions and tempered hope, as has
A Muslim woman wearing the building by Israel of a wall dividing Israel from Palestine and
a burqa in northern creating an economic embargo on many areas of Palestine.
Afghanistan. The burqa is
usually made of lightweight
material that has two AFGhAnIstAn: thE tALIbAn
layers. This gives Muslim After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1992 former Soviet coun-
women the opportunity tries such as Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,
to reveal or completely
and Tajikistan, previously secular and Communist, have emerged
cover their eyes. In some
Muslim societies it is normal with growing Islamic identities. Only in Afghanistan, however,
practice for women to be has there been a move toward a purely Islamic state.
fully covered and religious The Soviet Union had tried to impose Communist rule from
or cultural tradition may
1979 until 1989; this was disastrous for Afghanistan. In many
govern dress codes. In other
societies, dress codes may ways the Western powers, especially the United States, played a
vary and some women dress game of proxy war with the Soviet forces by funding and arming
modestly, usually covering Islamic resistance fighters. As a result the Russians were driven
their heads, arms, and legs out of Afghanistan but this left a massive power vacuum into
while others may choose
to wear garments or cloaks
which poured Western-armed and -funded warlords. Afghani-
that cover the body stan descended into anarchy and many longed for a strong lead-
more fully. ership to emerge to curb the warlords.
THE TAlibAn
In 1994 a new group made up mostly of
Afghani religious students burst onto
the world scene. They called themselves
the Taliban. They announced that their
mission was to free Afghanistan from its
corrupt leadership and to create a society
in accord with Islam. A strong and well-
trained fighting force, they lost no time in
taking control.
By 1998 the Taliban had come close to
its goal of unifying Afghanistan under its
132 ISLAM
rule. However its fundamentalist interpretation of Islamic law
created new problems. A ban on women’s employment fell with
unequal force on widows and their children—barred from work-
ing, female heads of households faced starvation. The UN criti-
cized the Taliban’s restrictions not only on women’s employment
but also on education and health care, and it suspended aid.
osAMA bin lAdEn

The Taliban also harbored Osama bin Laden the leader of the
terrorist organization al-Qaeda, which attacked New York and
Washington on September 11, 2001. The United States and its
allies invaded Afghanistan and ousted the Taliban. Three years
later in December 2004 Hamid Karzai was sworn in as Afghani-
stan’s first popularly elected president. The new constitution and
parliamentary elections also showed the changes in relation to
Islam. President Karzai used this election result as an example to
underscore his claim that democracy and Islam are compatible.
However the continued power of the Taliban and the return of
warlords have left much of Afghanistan in a state of war.
IsLAM In EuroPE
Approximately 14 million Muslims are found in western Europe,
with the vast majority in France (5.5 million), Germany (3.5 mil-
lion), England (1.8 million), the Netherlands (500,000), and Bel-
gium (300,000). Many came as workers to make up for the short
supply of manpower in these countries in the 1950s and 1960s.
Muslims who have lived in Europe for generations may still
find life there a difficult fit. One reason is that many Muslims
have been denied settled immigrant status; those born in Ger-
many, for example, are not automatically granted citizenship.
Many still suffer marginalization, unemployment, and poverty,
and many have complained about police harassment and other
forms of abuse. European countries, which have traditionally
identified with Christianity, have viewed with suspicion attempts
by the young Muslim generation to assert their own religious and
cultural identity. A problem for many European Muslims, then,

is to find a form of Islam that fits their new identities as Euro-
peans who are Muslims—entering into European society while
preserving their Islamic way of life.
IsLAM In thE unItED stAtEs

In the mid-1970s 800,000 people, or 0.4 percent of the American
population, identified themselves as Muslims. In the mid-1990s
the number had swelled to 3,560,000, and by 2008 it was esti-
mated that there were between 7 and 8 million Muslims. Num-
bers vary according to different sets of data and the figure may
be even higher. These numbers include people born into the
religion, immigrants to America who have brought their Islamic
beliefs with them, and converts who may be Caucasian, African
American, Hispanic, or even Native American.
The Islamic community exercises increasing influence in Amer-
ican life. One area in which Muslim influence may be seen is in
education. American Muslims have long emphasized the impor-
tance of educating young people in the ethics and beliefs of Islam
so as to equip them to lead morally responsible lives. To Muslims
this emphasis on moral responsibility is
nAtIon oF IsLAM important for two reasons: first to offer a
clear alternative to Muslim young people in
A growing group among the Muslims
of America is the Nation of Islam. An
American movement now under the lead-
American society, and second to demon-
strate to Americans at large the stress Mus-
ership of Louis Farrakhan, it has more than lims place on living morally and ethically.
1.6 million followers. Mainstream Muslims Thanks to a greater awareness of Mus-
generally say that the Nation is not part of lims as a presence in America Muslim stu-
the Islamic community. They find many of dents enrolled at American colleges and
the Nation’s teachings, particularly those universities gradually experienced greater
about other races and religions, to be acceptance. This experience underwent
out of step with traditional Islam, which
a serious jolt, however, on September 11,
recognizes all people and all races to be
2001, with the deadly destruction of the ter-
equal before God. In recent years however
the Nation has shown signs of change in rorists’ attacks on the World Trade Center
ways that may bring it more into line with in New York and the Pentagon in Washing-
orthodox Islam. ton. In the following months, many for-
eign Muslim students in the United States
134 ISLAM
returned to their homelands out of fear of reprisals against them.
Many American Muslims keenly felt the suspicions against them
that these events raised in the minds of their fellow citizens.
thE wAr In IrAq

The two most significant historical events of recent years that
have focused attention on the Muslim world have been the ter-
rorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, and
the war in Iraq. The United States justified its invasion of Iraq on
March 16, 2003, primarily by a focus on Saddam Hussein, a brutal
dictator, and the possibility that he might have weapons of mass
destruction that could be used in further terrorist attacks on the
United States and throughout the world. The war has brought a
heightened awareness of the religious complexity of that Muslim
country and Islam in general.
The majority of the Iraqi population are Shiis who felt perse-
cuted under the Sunni-dominated rule of Saddam Hussein. For the An American soldier patrols
Kurds, who are mostly Sunnis, their goal for an autonomous Kurd- the streets on the outskirts
ish region takes priority over any alliance with their fellow non- of Sadr City in Iraq. The
Kurdish Sunnis. As a minority the Sunnis fear that democracy events that have unfolded
in the country highlight
will not be in their favor, so they have joined the political process the religious and political
only reluctantly. Attempts to reconfigure post-Hussein Iraq could complexity that exists in
lead to political dominance of the Shii majority; a religiously neu- Iraq.
tral society respecting all forms of Islamic
belief; a Shii theocracy; a coalition govern-
ment; or a civil war.
No matter what the results in the near
future, the situation will be tense for many
years to come and will affect the religious
and civil life of other Muslim nations,
especially Iran, Syria, Turkey, Afghani-
stan, Bahrain, and Lebanon. Combined
with the unstable situation in Afghani-
stan and the earlier failures in the Balkans,
this war, considered by many to be illegal,
has given rise to the perception by many

Muslims and Westerners alike that the West wishes to destroy
the power of Islam.
IsLAM FACInG thE 21st CEntury

As the Islamic world has moved into the 21st century, it has looked
back on three centuries of struggle. Beginning in the 18th cen-
tury Muslim culture lost much of its vitality as its political and
economic power gave way to Europe’s greater technological and
military might. Europe’s march through the Islamic world contin-
ued through the 19th and early 20th centuries. During that time
Islamic thinkers tried to understand the reasons for Europe’s dom-
inance and to find ways for Islam to adapt to the new ideas that
were entering the culture from the West. Their soul-searching gave
rise to a nationalism that blended the religious and legal culture of
Islam with notions of independence and enabled them to throw
off European dominance. Today the Islamic world holds a stronger
position in the world than at any time since the 18th century.
EMERgEnCE of PAn-islAM
Increasingly identity within Muslim countries is as strongly defined
by religion as it is by the nation. The emergence of Pan-Islam (a polit-
ical movement promoting the unity of Muslims under one Islamic
state) is becoming a major factor in world affairs. One example is
the massive growth in Islamic banking that started in 1975 and
now manages more than $300 billion in assets. This movement
sought to challenge the norms of conventional banking and to
find ways in which Muslims could trade, bank, and invest in accor-
dance with Islamic teachings. Its success indicates not only the rise
of a Muslim middle class worldwide, but also a desire to be rooted
in tradition. The Pan-Islam trend is also reflected in other spheres
such as the growth of media in Muslim countries—for example
the Al Jazeera TV network, which rivals the BBC and CNN in inter-
national coverage but from an avowedly Muslim perspective. Pan-
Islam is also reflected in the multinational makeup of some of the
extreme groups that draw fighters from many countries, united by
their support of violence as a means to Islamic victory.
136 ISLAM
bRidging A Rising dividE
Many in both the West and Muslim lands emphasize a divide
between Western values and Islamic values. However, others say
that this divide is one largely of ignorance and fear and can be
bridged by seeking common ground and building friendships.
One effort in this direction was a letter written by nearly 140
Muslim leaders in 2007 to Christian leaders seeking to explore
areas of common concern such as the environment, internation-
al relationships, and mutual understanding; such a letter would
have been unimaginable only a few years earlier.
Despite these major developments, for most Muslims Islam
continues to be what it has always been: a stable rock of certain-
ty; a moral code; and a place of friendship, mutual support, and
relationship with God in the midst of the tempests of the world.
Many Muslims today have grown up in a secular world. As
they look around them they see a society full of problems—
including unemployment, crime, and declining moral values.
Like generations of young people before them they are looking
for new approaches, new ways to order their lives in a difficult
world. Islam for them is one such way. Always renewing itself, it
offers them a real alternative for change. The force of the Islamic
revival sweeping the world today is the force of youth, with its
belief that the world can become a better place.
An ETERnAl QuEsT
Islam is by its very nature an endless revolution, an eternal quest
to reach out to God. Muslims are committed to challenge what
they see as wrong. They may not be passive. Whatever happens
the future of Islam will include a great deal of debate and perhaps
even conflict. Although activism seems on the rise, most in the
Muslim world oppose militancy and extremism or feel that the
sharia should not be the basis of government. It seems most like-
ly that Islam will remain a religion and civilization that encom-
passes a variety of points of view. This was true of Islam early in
its history and it remains true today.

FACT FILE
worldwide numbers holy writings
The Islamic faith has more than 1.4 billion followers. The main holy writing in the Islamic faith is the Quran.
Many Muslims believe that the Quran was written by God
holy symbol before time began and was then revealed to the prophet
The star and crescent; some Muslims say that the Islamic Muhammad. The Quran is written and recited in Arabic.
faith guides a person, in the same way that the moon
and stars guide a traveler. Some Islamic states have this holy Places
symbol on their flag. The most important holy place for Muslims is Mecca in
Saudia Arabia because it is the birthplace of the prophet
Muhammad. It is also special because the mosque in
Mecca contains the Kaaba, worshipped as the first house
of God on earth. All Muslims try at least once in their lives
to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. The cities of Medina
and Jerusalem are also regarded as holy.
Festivals
Ramadan, a month-long festival, is the most important. Founders
It marks the time when the Quran was revealed to It is believed that the Islamic faith has been slowly
Muhammad and the gates of hell were closed and the revealed to humanity through a number of different
gates of heaven were opened to him. Ramadan is the prophets. However the final revelation was given to the
ninth month of the Muslim calendar. Id al-Fitr marks prophet Muhammad in the seventh century c.e. Many
the end of Ramadan, when thanks is given to Allah have a great amount of respect for Muhammad and
for helping with the fasting. It is also seen as a time of will usually add the words “peace be upon him” after
renewed commitment to the faith. Another festival, Id speaking or writing his name, but it is only God that is
al-Adha, marks the time when prophet Abraham was worshipped.
willing to sacrifice his son at God’s command.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
An-Naìm Abdullahi Ahmed. Islam and the Secular Nigosian, Solomon Alexander. Islam: Its History,
State: Negotiating the Future of Shari’a. Mass.: Teaching, and Practices. Bloomington: Indiana
Harvard University Press, 2008. University Press, 2004.
Newsweek magazine. Available online. URL: http://www. Richardson, Joel. Antichrist: Islam’s Awaited Messiah.
newsweek.com/. News and statistics on Muslims in Enumclaw, Wash.: Pleasant Word-A Division of
the United States and worldwide. WinePress Publishing, 2006.
138 ISLAM
FURTHER READING
Ahmed, Akbar S. Journey into Islam: The Crisis of Esposito, John L., and Mogahed, Dalia. Who Speaks
Globalization. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution For Islam?: What a Billion Muslims Really Think.
Press, 2007. Washingtion D.C.: Gallup Press, 2008.
Ayoub, Mahmoud. Islam: Faith and History. Oxford: Irwin, Robert. Islamic Art in Context. New York: Harry N.
Oneworld, 2004. Abrams, Inc., 1997.
Breuilly, Elizabeth, and O’Brien Joanne, and Palmer, Marshall, Paul A. Islam at the Crossroads. Grand Rapids,
Martin. Religions of the World. New York: Checkmark Mich.: Baker Books, 2002.
Books, 2005.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. A Young Muslim’s Guide to the
Brown, Daniel W. A New Introduction to Islam. Malden, Modern World. Chicago: Kazi Publications, Inc., 1994.
Mass.: Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
Ruthven, Malise. Islam: A Very Short Introduction. New
Campo, Juan E. Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts On York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
File, 2009.
Swisher, Clarice, ed. The Spread of Islam. San Diego,
DeLong-Bas, Natana. Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Calif.: Greenhaven Press, 1998.
Reform to Global Jihad. Oxford and New York: Oxford
University Press, 2004. Weiss, Walter M. Islam: An Illustrated Historical
Overview. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Barron’s, 2000.
Dunn, John. The Spread of Islam. San Diego, Calif.: Lucent
Books, 1996. Wormser, Richard. American Islam: Growing Up Muslim
in America. New York: Walter and Company, 2002.
WEB SITES
Further facts and figures, history, and current status www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam
of the religion can be found on the following Web A guide to Islam, including history, beliefs, holy days
sites: around the world, and message boards.
www.islamworld.net www.religioustolerance.org/islam.htm
A site looking at the Muslim way of life. This site contains balanced, clear, objective, and
inclusive articles about religion, morality and ethics.
www.religionfacts.com/islam/ It deals with Islam alongside other major faiths.
A comprehensive summary of the faith from a site
dealing with all major religions of the world.
ISLAM 139
GLOSSARY
adhan—The call to prayer made five times daily Islam—An Arabic word meaning to submit or
from the minarets of mosques. surrender, specifically to the will of God.
Allah—The Islamic term, derived from Arabic, jami—The congregational mosque used particu-
meaning God. larly though not only on Fridays for the week-
aya—A verse of the Quran. Each chapter (see sura) ly sermon and noon prayer.
contains one or more of these verses. jihad—“Striving” for one’s religion. Often trans-
baraka—Spiritual blessing. Used to refer to the lated as “holy war.”
powers of particularly religious individuals, khutba—The sermon, usually by a prominent
such as “saints.” religious figure, given in the congregational
burqa—A garment covering the face and body. mosque at the Friday noon prayer session.
caliph—Term deriving from the Arabic word kuttab—Quranic school usually attended before
khalifa. It was the title used by the rulers of the the start of regular schooling.
Islamic Empire. It can also mean “representa- Mahdi—The messianic figure who it is believed
tive” or “deputy.” will arrive at the end of time to bring justice
dhikr—“Remembrance” of God. Used by the Sufis and order to the world.
to refer to their ritual practices. masjid—A local or neighborhood mosque. see
ghazwa—Raid in the pre-Islamic period and in jami.
early Islam. mawlid—The festival commemorating the birth-
hadith—The collection of reports or a single day of a religious figure, usually a “saint.”
report relating the words and deeds of the Another term used is musim.
prophet Muhammad. The words and deeds muadhdhin—Or muezzin. The individual who
themselves are known as the Sunna, or “way makes the call to prayer (see adhan) five times
of acting.” daily from the minaret of a mosque.
hajj—Pilgrimage, specifically to Mecca. The annu- Muslim—A believer of Islam; anything pertaining
al pilgrimage is held in the month of Dhu al- to the religion, law, or culture of Islam.
Hijja and is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. qadi—Judge in a sharia court, usually appointed
Hijra—“Emigration.” The term used to refer to the by the state.
journey by the prophet Muhammad and his qibla—The direction of Mecca in which all Mus-
companions from Mecca to Medina in 622. lims must pray. In mosques it is indicated by
Id al-Adha—The annual feast day of sacrifice held the mihrab, or prayer niche, found in every
on the 10th day of the Islamic month Dhu al- mosque.
Hijja, the month of pilgrimage. sadaqa—Voluntary almsgiving.
Id al-Fitr—The annual festival in which the end of salat—Prayer. One of the Five Pillars of Islam.
the month of fasting, Ramadan, is celebrated. sawm—Fasting, particularly the annual fast of
ihram—The white garments worn by pilgrims in Ramadan. One of the Five Pillars of Islam.
Mecca during the annual pilgrimage (see hajj). shahada—Bearing witness to the oneness of God
These garments are also indicative of ritual and to the prophethood of Muhammad. Also
purity. one of the Five Pillars of Islam.
imam—Used by Muslims to refer to the leader sharia—The system of law in Islam based on the
of a session of prayer or a religious teacher. Quran and Muhammad’s sunna. Often trans-
The Shia use the term for special individuals lated as “holy law.”
viewed as the religious and political leaders of shaykh—Elderly man, teacher, or tribal leader.
the community. Also the head of a Sufi organization or center.
140 ISLAM
shirk—Associating any object or being with God. ulama—Religious and legal experts.
The one unforgivable sin of Islam. umma—Community, specifically a religious com-
sura—A chapter of the Quran. munity. Most often used in Islam to refer to
taaziya—Passion play held each year in Shii the Islamic community.
communities to commemorate the death of wudu—Ritual cleansing performed before each
Husayn ibn Ali. session of prayer.
tafsir—Interpretation, usually of the Quran. zakat—Legal almsgiving considered obligatory
tariqa—A Sufi order. for Muslims and calculated on the basis of
tawaf—Ritual circling of the Kaaba in Mecca that income. One of the Five Pillars of Islam.
is part of the annual pilgrimage for Muslims.
ISLAM 141
INDEX
A D I
Abbasids 42–43, 44, 46, 65, Day of Judgment 56–57, 74–75 Iblis (Satan) 57–58
73 Dayton Peace Accords (1995) imams 68, 71–74, 86–87, 94, 105
Abd ai-Qadir al-Jilani 82–83 130 Iqbal, Muhammad 123
Abu Bakr 26–27, 34–36, 79 death 52, 114–115 Iran, Islamic revolution in
Abu Sufyan 32 dhikr rituals 95–96, 108 128–129
adhan (call to prayer) 84–86 Druze sect 69 Iraq, war in 135–136
al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din 123 Islamic calendar 26
Afghanistan 132–133 E Islamic law (sharia) 15, 58–59,
Ahmad Khan, Sayyid 123 Europe, Islam in 133–134 62–65
Alawi sect 69 Ismaili sect 69
Ali ibn Abi Talib 37–38, 39–40, F Ithna Ashariyya 69–77
71 Farewell Pilgrimage 32–33
Allah 13, 20, 24–25, 25–26, 30, fasting ritual (sawm) 87, 88–89, J
33, 55–58 103 Jafar al-Sadiq 65
Arabic language 54, 98 Fatima 71 Jafiri school 65
architecture 49 Fatimid dynasty 44, 45 Jamaat-i Islami 125–126
arts 44, 49 festivals 88–89, 93–94, Jesus Christ 13, 25, 55
ascetics of Islam 77–79, 80 102–108 jinn (spirits) 20, 57
Ashura 93–94, 105 Five Pillars of Islam 84–92, 87 Judaism 20, 22, 28–29, 55
Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal food and drink 113
124 Friday prayer 100–101, 102 K
funerals 52, 115 Kaaba 20, 21, 32–33
B Kharijites, the 38, 39, 41
al-Badawi, Ahmad 107–108 G Khomeini, Ayatollah 70,
Balkan crisis, the 130–131 Gabriel 24, 25–26, 57 128–129
baraka 96–97 khutba 100–101
bin Laden, Osama 133 H Kufans 68
Buwayhids, the 44 hadith 60–61, 63
Byzantine Empire 22, 36–38 Hafiz al-Assad 126 M
hajj (pilgrimage) 20, 32–33, 87, madhana (minarets) 84
C 90–92 Maliki school 64
calligraphy 103 Hanafi school 63–64 marriage 111–113
call to prayer (adhan) 84–86 Hanbali school 65 Martel, Charles 12, 41
children 108–110; and the Hasan al-Askari 72 mawlids 105, 107–108
Quran 52, 54 Hasan al-Basri, al- 78 Mecca 13, 18, 20–21, 22–23,
Christianity 20, 22, 23, 44–46, heaven and hell 57–58 29–31, 32–33, 90–92, 119
55 Hidden Imam 72–74 Medina 13, 26–29, 30–31, 119
circumcision 110–111 Hijra 26 Middle East, the 131–132
community (umma) 15, 58–60 Husayn 40–41, 65, 71, 93, missionaries 50–51, 83
Crusades, the 12, 44–46 94 Moses 13, 25, 55
culture 42, 44, 49, 103 Hussein, Saddam 135 mosques 28, 86–87, 101–102;
in Cairo 45; Dome of the
142 ISLAM
Rock, Jerusalem 27, 46, 131; children and 109; and the sharia (Islamic law) 15, 58–59,
Samarra 73 community 58–60; on death 62–65
muadhdins 86 114, 115; on God, human- shrines 20, 21, 32–33
Muawiyah 37–38 kind, heaven and hell 56–58; Society of Muslim Brothers
Muhammad Abduh 123 language 98–100; the mes- 125–126
Muhammad ibn Abd Allah 16, sage of 55–56; on polygyny Sufism 79–83, 95–97, 107–108,
20–33, 71, 72; conflicts with 112–113; recitation of 54; 118, 119–120
Meccans 29–31, 32; the and the sharia 62–65 Suhrawardiya order 81, 82
Farewell Pilgrimage 32–33;
God’s revelations to 13, R T
24–26, 30, 33, 55; and hadith Rabia al-Adawiyya 78 taaziya (passion play) 93, 94
60–61; opposition to 25–27; Ramadan 88–89, 103 al-Tabari, Abu Jafar Muhammad
politics 27–28; teachings of Rashid Rida 123 ibn Jarir 59, 60
59–60 Reza Khan 77 tafsir 59
Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya 68 rituals 40, 84–97; Ashura Taliban 132–133
Mulay Idris 107, 108 processions 93–94, 105; cir- terrorism 12, 133, 134
music 49, 108, 129 cumcision 109–110; death Twelver Shia 69–77
mutawwifs (guides) 91 52, 114–115; dhikrs 95–96,
108; festivals 102–108; hajj U
N (pilgrimage) 20, 32–33, 87, ulama (“learned ones”) 50,
al-Nasir, Jamal Abd 115, 126 90–92; marriage 111–113; 74–77, 118, 122
nationalism 124–125 possessing baraka 96–97; Umar ibn al-Khattab 36
Nusayri community 69 sawm (fasting ritual) 87, Umayyads 38–42, 64, 68, 93
88–89, 103; the tombs of umma (community) 15, 58–60
O the imams 94; wudu (ritual United States, Islam in 134–135
Osama bin Laden 133 cleansing) 86, 102; zakat Uthman Don Fodio 119–120
Ottoman Empire 47, 49, 51, (almsgiving) 87, 89–90
116–118 W
S Wahhabi movement 97, 119
P sacrifices 104–105 Wali Allah, Shah 120
Pahlavi dynasty 77 Sadat, Anwar 126 weddings 111–113
Pan-Islam 136 Safavids 49, 51, 76, 83 women in Islam 127, 129,
pilgrimage (hajj) 20, 32–33, 87, saints, veneration of 96–97 136; female circumcision
90–92 Saladin 44, 46 110–111
poetry 19–20, 49 salat 84, 87 wudu (ritual cleansing) 86, 102
polygyny 112–113 salvation 74–75
prayers 40, 58, 84–88, 100–101 Sassanian Empire 36–37 Z
Satan (Iblis) 57–58 zakat (almsgiving) 87
Q sawm (fasting ritual) 87, 88–89 Zaydi sect 68–69
Qadiriya order 82–83 schools of law 63–65 Zayn al-Abidin 66–68
Qaeda, al- 133 Shadhiliya order 83
Qajar dynasty 77 Shafii school 64–65
Quran, the 10, 13, 14, 52–60, 62; shahada 87–88
ISLAM 143
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Matthew S. Gordon is associate professor of history at Miami University of
Ohio. He obtained a Ph.D. from Columbia University and is the author of The
Breaking of a Thousand Swords: A History of the Turkish Military of Samarra and coeditor
of Franco-Arab Encounters.
ABOUT THE SERIES EDITORS
Martin Palmer is the founder of ICOREC (International Consultancy on Reli-
gion, Education, and Culture) in 1983 and is the secretary-general of the Alliance
of Religions and Conservation (ARC). He is the author of many books on world
religions.
Joanne O’Brien has an M.A. degree in theology and has written a range of edu-
cational and general reference books on religion and contemporary culture. She is
co-author, with Martin Palmer and Elizabeth Breuilly, of Religions of the World and
Festivals of the World published by Facts On File Inc.
PICTURE CREDITS
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Khan; 116–117: © iStockphoto.com/ Elena Koulik-Vargas; 119: © iStockphoto.com/Drazen Vukelic; 111: © iStockphoto.com/Chris Schmidt; 126: © The
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144 ISLAM

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WORLD RELIGIONS

Copyright © 2009, 2006, 2001, 1991 by Infobase Publishing

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

I slam, one of the most widespread religions in the world, is

The mosque in Mecca with the black stone of the

two MIsConCEPtIons About IsLAM

Introduction: The Modern Islamic World 11

god’s REvElATion To MuHAMMAd

Introduction: The Modern Islamic World 13

Allah, there is no god but He, the Living, the Self-subsistent.

A page from a handwritten Quran.

sHARiA—lAw And guidE

Introduction: The Modern Islamic World 15

ArAbIA PrIor to IsLAM

REvEngE And fEuds

THE influEnCE of THE PoET

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 19

THE kAAbA—A sACREd sHRinE

influEnCE And ConTRol in MECCA

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 21

MuhAMMAD’s EArLy LIFE

ExPERiEnCing THE ouTsidE woRld

MARRiAgE inTo THE MERCHAnT ClAss

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 23

thE CoMInG oF rEvELAtIon

thE oPPosItIon to MuhAMMAD

THE JouRnEy To HEAvEn The Prophet of God

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 25

T he Islamic Calendar is a lunar calen-

tion of the moon, consists of 12 lunar An ouTsidER To REsToRE PEACE

According to legend the mouth of the cave was covered by the

MuhAMMAD: PoLItICs AnD ProPhEthooD

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 2

CHAllEngEs foR THE MusliM CoMMuniTy

ConfliCT wiTH THE JEwisH TRibEs

fARMing And RAiding

thE CLAsh oF ArMs

dEfEAT And A TEsT of fAiTH

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 29

viCToRy ovER oPPosing TRibEs And

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 31

E ntering the town of Mecca after its

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 33

M uhammad had not left instructions on how to choose a

thE FIrst thrEE CALIPhs AnD thE EArLy ConquEsts

A close-up of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Muslims believe that

byzAnTinEs And sAssAniAns

S killed in both politics and military

MusliM ConfliCT: Ali And MuAwiyAH

The Spread of Islam 3

dEATH of Ali—THE fouRTH CAliPH

thE uMAyyADs AnD thE shIA

sHiA And THE fAMily of MuHAMMAd

The Spread of Islam 39

HusAyn’s dEfEAT And dEATH

thE uMAyyADs AnD nEw ConquEsts

The Spread of Islam 41

Muhammad and the Founding of Islam 2

The Spread of Islam 3

The Spread of Islam 4

Quran, Hadith, and the Law 5

The Variety of Religious Life in Islam 1

The Variety of Religious Life in Islam 3

The Variety of Religious Life in Islam 5

The Variety of Religious Life in Islam

The Variety of Religious Life in Islam 9

Muslim Ritual Life 8