Physics - I PDF
Physics - I PDF
Physics - I PDF
PHYSICS I (3 1 0)
Oscillatory system:1. The system in which the object exhibit to & fro
motion about the equilibrium position with a
restoring force is called oscillatory system.
2. Oscillatory system is of two types such as
mechanical and non- mechanical system.
3. Mechanical oscillatory system: In this type of system body itself changes
its position.
For mechanical oscillation two things are
specially responsible i.e Inertia &
Restoring force.
E.g oscillation of mass spring system,
oscillation of fluid-column in a U-tube,
oscillation of simple pendulum, rotation
of earth around the sun, oscillation of
body dropped in a tunnel along earth
diameter, oscillation of floating cylinder,
oscillation of a circular ring suspended on
a nail, oscillation of atoms and ions of
solids, vibration of swingsetc.
4.Non-mechanical oscillatory system:In this type of system, body itself doesnt change its
position but its physical property varies periodically.
e.g:-The electric current in an oscillatory circuit, the lamp of a body
which is heated and cooled periodically, the pressure in a gas through
=-kx
kx=0
+ x=0
2x=0 (2)
Where 2=
Here = is the angular frequency of the oscillation.
Equation (2) is called general differential equation of SHM.
By solving these differential equation
x=
(3)
Where ,
are two constants which can be determined from the
initial condition of a physical system.
Appling de-Moivers theorem
x=
cos
x=
+ ) cos
x= Ccos
+isin
)+
+
+Dsin
cos
-isin
) sin
(4)
Where C =
& D=
Let assume,
C=A
D=Acos
Putting these value in equation (4)
x=A
x=A (
cos
+Acos sin
cos
)
) .. (5)
x=A sin
Where A=
+D2) &
x=Acos
=A cos
v=A cos
)
) (7)
sin
) . (8)
. The
(9)
(10)
Potential energy in SHM:The potential energy of oscillator at any instant of time is,
U=-
=-
=
sin2
) (11)
K=
=
K=
v2
A22 cos2
) . (12)
cos2
Total energy =
Total energy =
A22 cos2
)+
)+
2
sin2
sin2
A 2 2
COMPOUND PENDULUM (Physical pendulum):Compound /physical pendulum is a rigid body of any arbitrary shape
capable of rotating in a vertical plane about an axis passing through
the pendulum but not through the pendulum but not through centre of
gravity of pendulum.
The distance between the point of suspension the centre of gravity is
called the length of length of the pendulum &denoted by
When the pendulum is displaced through a angle from the mean
position,a restoring torque come to play which tries to bring the
pendulum back to the mean position .But the oscillation continues due
to the inertia of restoring force.
Here the restoring force is -mgsin. So the restoring torque about the
point of suspension O is
=-mg sin .
If the moment of inertia of the body about OA is I, the angular
acceleration becomes,
=/I
=
.(1)
=-mgl/I.
Also
Now we can write
d2/dt2+ ( mg /I) =0..(3)
d2/dt2+2=0..(4)
Where,
2=
harmonic.
T=2(I/mg )1/2
T=2( M(k2 +L2)/Mg )1/2.
T=2( (K2/l+l)/g)1/2(5).
Here
=-L .(2)
=0
+ =0..(3).
2=
T=2
Damped oscillation:For a free oscillation the energy remains constant.
Hence oscillation continues indefinitely. However in real fact, the
amplitude of the oscillatory system gradually decreases due to
experiences of damping force like friction and resistance of the media.
The oscillators whose amplitude, in successive
oscillations goes on decreasing due to the presence of resistive forces
are called damped oscillators, and oscillation called damping
oscillation.
The damping force always acts in a opposite
directions to that of motion of oscillatory body and velocity
dependent.
Fdam v
Fdam=-bv
b= damping constant which is a positive quantity defined as
damping force/velocity,
Fnet = Fres+ Fdam
Fnet= -kx bv
Fnet= -kx b
M
+kx+ b
+
=0
+ x=0
+2 +02x = 0 . (2)
Where =
= x
= A2
= 2x
= -
quadratic equation.
As we know,
x(t) =A1
x(t) = A1
x(t) =
+ A2
(
(A1
+ A2
+ A2
) (4)
underdamping (oscillatory)
Case-2:- if 02
overdamping (non-oscillatory)
Case-3:- if 02
2-02=-21
=i 1
Mean life time:The time interval in which the oscillation falls to 1/e
of its initial value is called mean life time of the oscillator. ()
1/e a= a e-m
-
= ,
=loge1/e
=
X(t)=r
Potential Enegy:
P.E= kx2
= kr2
cos2 (1t+ )
Total Energy:
T.E=K.E+P.E
=
=
=
Decrement
The decrement measures the rate at which amplitude dies
away.
The ratio between amplitude of two successive maxima, is the
decrement of the oscillator.
re-t/ re-(t+T) = re+t
The logarithmic decrement of oscillator is
loga
/ 02- 2
logaa0/a1=loga1/a2=..........=et=
Rate of two amplitudes of oscillation whichare separated by one period
Relaxation time( :
It is the time taken by damped oscillation by
decaying of its energy 1/e of its initial energy.
0=0
=
Loge-1=log
-1=
=1/2 =m/b
Critical damping:
2 = 02
The general solution of equation (ii) in this case,
X(t) = (Ct+D) e-t (ix)
Here the displacement approaches to zero asymptotically for given
value of initial position and velocity
a critically damped oscillator
approaches equilibrium position faster than other two cases.
Example: The springs of automobiles or the springs of dead beat
galvanometer.
Forced Oscillation
The oscillation of a oscillator is said to be forced oscillator or driven
oscillation if the oscillator is subjected to external periodic force.
If an external periodic sinusoidal force Fcost acts on a damped
oscillator, its equation of motion is written as,
+Fcost
Fnet= -kx- b
m
+ = -kx b
++
+ 2
+Fcost
x = cost
+ 02x = f0cost
-----------------------------------------------------
Where =
02=
(i)
2
0
x= f0cost
A1
+A2
) (ii)
(vi)
(
=
xp =
) ..(vii)
cos(t-)
A1
+ A2
)+
cos(t(
)
Steady state behavior:
Frequency:-The Oscillator oscillates with the same frequency as that
of the periodic force.
0and are very close to each other then beats will be produced and
these beats are transient as it lasts as long as the steady state lasts. The
duration between transient beats is determined by the damping
coefficient .
Phase: The phase difference between the oscillator and the driving
force or between the displacement and driving is
=
This shows that there is a delay between the action of the driving
force and response of the oscillator.
-0=
=
)
A=
A=
( 0),
i.e.
02 - 2
A=
02
A=
A=
of
driving
force=natural
=f0/2
A=f/b=f/b0
RESONANCE:The amplitude of vibration becomes large for small damping( is less)
and the maximum amplitude is inversely proportional to resistive term
(b) hence called as resonance. It is the phenomenon of a body setting
a body into vibrations with its natural frequency by the application of
a periodic force of same frequency.
If the amplitude of oscillation is maximum when the driving
frequency is same as natural frequency of oscillator. (I.e. =0).
A will be the max. Only the denominator of the expression
is minimum i.e.
[
=0
=>-402+43+82=0
=>-02+2+22=0
=>=
=0
A=f0/
=f0/
=f0/
=f0/
Amax=f0
=f/2m
fr=/2
= 20-22)/2
Damping is small,
fr=0/2
Here, fr is called resonant frequency.
Phase at resonance:=/2
Velocity of oscillator is in same phase with the driving force
.Therefore, the driving force always acts in the direction of motion
of oscillator. So energy transfers from driving force to oscillation
are maxim.
Sharpness of resonance:The amplitude is maximum at resonance frequency which
decreases rapidly as the frequency increases or decreases from the
resonant frequency.
The rate at which the amplitude decreases with the driving frequency
on either side of resonant frequency is termed as sharpness of
resonance.
Different condition:(i) For =0 , the amp. Becomes A=Amax/2.The width of resonance
curve i.e. the range of frequency over which the amplitude remains
more than Amax/ .
= (0+)-(0-)=2
Thus if is small, is small.
(ii) For =0, A at =0.
(iii)If there is small , amp. Resonance occurs lesser value amp is max at
=r.
(iv)If is high, A is max but the peak moves towards left &max. amp
decreases.
(v)So resonance is sharp for low & flat for high .
Velocity:X=xp=f0/
V=-f0/
V=f0/
Vmax=f0/
*here also vis max. When 0=.
(Vmax.amp)=f/b
Calculation of energy:x=
cos(
)
Where
=A
(
V=
cos(pt-+/2)
= k
(
= kA2cos2(t-)
<P.E>= kA2
= m02A2
(average of cos2=1/2)
Average kinetic energy:K.E= mv2
= m
cos2(t-+/2)
= m2A2cos2(pt-+/2)
<K.E>= m2A2
Total average energy:=
= m
+ m
= m
POWER:i).
Power absorption:
= F Cos (
= A F Cos (
=
=
= m A2
ii).
absorbed when
=
Power dissipation:
Or
= + b.
=+b
= 2m
(
(
= 2m
Thus in the steady state of forced vibration, the average rate of power
supplied by the forcing system is equal to the average of work done
by the forced system against the damping force.
QUALITY FACTOR:Quality factor is a measure of sharpness of resonance.
Q- Factor is defined as,
Q=2
=2
(
=2
=
At
Q=
=>
Q=
Again,
Q
Q value
Earthquake
250
1400
Violin string
103
Microwave
105
resonator
Crystalosill
106
Excetetation
108
Amplitude Resonance
Velocity Resonance
of oscillator is maximumfor
forced
maximum
applied force.
oscillator
at
is
particular
at
3. At applied frequency
the amp. of the freq.
oscillator is F/k
4. The phase of the forced
oscillator with respect to that
3. Applied frequency
Mechanical Impedance
The force required to produce unit velocity is called the mechanical
impedance of the oscillator.
=>
=
)
the
of applied force is
((
the
=2
(
| |
| |
For a particular
| |
INTERFERENCE
Coherent Superposition:
The superposition is said to be coherent if two waves having constant
phase or zero phase difference.
In this case, the resultant intensity differs from the sum of intensities
of individual waves due to interfering factor.
i.e. I I1 I 2
Incoherent Superposition:
The superposition is said to be incoherent if phase changes frequently
or randomly.
In this case, the resultant intensity is equal to the sum of the
intensities of the individual waves.
i.e. I I1 I 2
Two Beam Superposition:
When two beam having same frequency, wavelength and different in
amplitude and phase propagates in a medium, they undergo principle
of superposition which is known as two beam superposition.
(3)
Let
(4)
and
(5)
(6)
Squaring and adding equation (4) and (5)
(7)
We know,
(8)
Dividing equation (5) by (4), we get,
Coherent Superposition:
In coherent superposition, the phase difference remains constant
between two beams.
and
Again, if
Incoherent Superposition:
In incoherent superposition the phase difference between the waves
changes frequently or randomly, so the time average of the interfering
term
to 1.
Here,
:
:
:
where
resultant amplitude of the ith component.
Phase of the ith component.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Coherent Superposition:
In this case the phase difference between the waves remains constant
i.e.
Now,
I coherent N 2 I1
Incoherent Superposition
In incoherent superposition, the phase difference between the beams
changes frequently or randomly due to which the time average of
factor
vanishes as cos value varies from1 to +1
Now
I incoherent KA 2
I incoherent NI 1
I coherent
I icoherent
Interference:
The phenomenon of modification in distribution of energy due
to superposition of two or more number of waves is known as
interference.
To explain the interference, let us consider a monochromatic source
of light having wavelength
and emitting light in all possible
directions.
According to Huygenss principle, as each point of a given wavefront
will act as centre of disturbance they will emit secondary wave front
on reaching slit S1 and S2.
As a result of which, the secondary wave front emitted from slit S1
and S2 undergo the Principle of superposition.
During the propagation, the crest or trough of one wave falls upon the
crest and trough of other wave forming constructive interference,
while the crest of one wave of trough of other wave producing
destructive interference.
Thus, the interfering slit consisting of alternate dark and bright
fringes, which explain the phenomenon of interference.
Mathematical treatment:
Let us consider two harmonic waves of same frequency and
wavelength and different amplitude and phase are propagating in a
medium given as
Let
As, I
, n=0, 1, 2...
multiple of .
Now, [
]
Condition for minima
The intensity will be minimum destructive interference takes place
i.e.
Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3...
Now, [
[
Sustained Interference
The interference phenomenon in which position of the maxima and
minima dont changes with time is called sustained interference.
Condition for Interference
1) The two waves must have same frequency and wavelength.
2) The two source of light should be coherent.
3) The amplitude of wave may be equal or nearly equal.
Condition for good Contrast
I.
II.
III.
IV.
The distribution between the slit and the screen should be large.
V.
The two waves may have equal or nearly equal amplitude (for
sharp superposition).
Coherent Sources
The two sources are said to be coherent if they have same phase
difference, zero phase difference or their relative phase is constant
with respect to time.
Practical resolution of Coherent
Coherent sources from a single source of light can be realised as
follows
A narrow beam of light can be split into its number of component
waves and multiple reflections.
Examples
1. YDSE
2.Lylords single mirror method
3.Fresnels bi-prism
4.Bilet splitting lens method
DIVISION OF AMPLITUDE
The process of obtaining a coherent source by splitting the amplitude
of light waves is called division of amplitude which can be done by
multiple reflections.
In this case, extended source of light is used.
Slit separation
Wavelength of light
distance
x Path
In figure,
Similarly,
Where n = 0, 1, 2
Condition for dark fringe
It will be obtained when the path difference is an odd multiple of /2
i.e.
Where n = 0, 1, 2
Fringe Width
The separation between two consecutive dark fringes and bright
fringes is known as fringe width.
If
and
Similarly, is
and
II.
III.
So
[
So, it decreases 1/ times.
Newtons Ring
The alternate dark and bright fringe obtained at the point of contact of
a Plano convex lens with its convex side placed over a plane glass
plate are known as Newtons ring as it was first obtained by Newton.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
(b)
ring;
(c)Newtons rings are more
intense.
In transmitted light
(a)Condition for bright ring;
(b)
Condition
for
dark
ring;
LOL is the section of lens placed on glass plate AB. C is the centre
of curvature of curved surface LOL. R is its radius of curvature and r
is the radius of Newtons ring corresponding to film if thickness t.
( t
, n = 1, 2, 3.
and
From the graph the wavelength of light can be calculated the slope of
the slope of the graph.
Slope of the graph = wavelength of light
and
4n p R
and
Dn'2
4nR
Now ,
Dn'2 p - Dn'2 =
4n p R 4nR
= 4 pR
(1)
(2)
2
n p
'2
n p
Dn2
air
'2
n liquid
DIFFRACTION
Fundamental Idea about diffraction:
The phenomenon of bending of light around the corner of an
aperture or at the edge of an obstacle is known as diffraction
The diffraction is possible for all types of waves
The diffraction verifies the wave nature of light
Diffraction takes place is due to superposition of light waves
coming from two different points of a single wave front
Diffraction takes place when the dimension of the obstacle is
comparable with the wavelength of the incident light.
Explanation of diffraction:
To explain diffraction, let us consider an obstacle AB is placed
on the path of an monochromatic beam of light coming from a source
S which produces the geometrical shadow CD on the screen. This
proves the rectilinear propagation of light.
Fresnels Diffraction
(1)
The type of diffraction
in which the distance of
either source or screen or
both from the obstacle is
finite, such diffraction is
known
as
Fresnels
diffraction.
(2)
No lenses are used to
make the rays converge or
parallel.
(3)
The incident wave
front is either cylindrical or
spherical.
Ex:The diffraction at the
straight edge.
Fraunhoffer Diffraction
(1)
The type of diffraction
in which the distance of
either source or screen or
both from the obstacle is
infinite, such diffraction is
known
as
Fraunhoffer
diffraction.
(2)
Lenses are used to
make the rays converge or
parallel.
(3)
The incident wave
front is plane.
Ex:. The diffraction at the
narrow.
e sin
Let us divide the single slit into n no. of equal holes and a be
the amplitude of the light coming from each equal holes.
Then Avg. phase difference=
1 2
e sin
n
n 1 2
nd
e sin a sin e sin
a sin a sin
2 =
2 n
=
R
d
1
1 2
sin
sin
e sin
e sin
2
n
sin n
Since
a sin
sin
is also very
small.
Therefore,
sin
Thus, R = a sin
na sin
A sin
whereA an
= I0
sin 2
where
I 0 KA
e sin 0 sin 0
sin 0 sin(m )
e sin m
e sin m
m
where
m 1,2,3,4,.......
,2 ,3 ,4 ,........
e
e
e
e
d sin 2
0
I 0
d
2
2I 0
cos sin
2
=0
cos sin 0
tan
3
5
7
,
,
.........
2
2
2
A
3 5 7
.............
3!
5!
7!
= A x 1
3!
................ =
5!
A, since 1
= 3
2
, I1 =I0
Sin 2
= I0
3
)
2 = I0
2
22
3
2
Sin 2 (
5
)
2 = I0
2
62
5
2
Sin 2 (
and so on
Construction: It
can
be
constructed by drawing a large no. of rulings over a plane
transparent material or glass plate with a fine diamond point.
Thus the space between the two lines act as slit and the opaque
space will acts as obstacle.
N.B.Though the plane transmission grating and a plane glass
piece looks like alike but a plane transmission grating executes
rainbow colour when it exposed to sun light where as a plane
glass piece does not executes so.
Grating element:
The space occurring between the midpoints of two
consecutive slit in a plane transmission grating is known as
Grating element. It can be measured by counting the
no. of rulings present in a given length of grating.
Let us consider a diffraction grating having
e = width of the slit
d = width of the opacity
If N be the no. of rulings present in a given length of grating
x each having width (e+d), then
N (e+d) = x
(e d )
x
Grating
N
element
1
=0.00016933
15000
cm
placed at its focal length. The rays of light which are allowed to
incident normally on the lens are converged to a point P o
forming central principal maxima having high intensity and the
rays of light which are diffracted through an angle are are
converge to a point P1 forming a minima having less intensity
as compared to central principal maxima. Again those rays of
light which are diffracted through an angle are undergoes a
path difference and hence a phase difference producing
diffraction.
(e d )Sin
(e d ) Sin
Sin SinN
Sin
and
intensity
IR 2 I KR 2 KA 2
where
and
I0
Sin 2
Sin 2 N
Sin 2
is
given
as
Sin 2 Sin 2 N
Sin 2 Sin 2 N
I
0
2 Sin 2
2 Sin 2
parallel slit
Position for central principal maxima /condition for central
principal maxima:
The principal maxima will be obtained when
Sin o Sin ( m )
m
(e d ) Sin m
(e d ) Sin m
SinN o Sin ( n )
N n
(e d ) Sin n
N (e d ) Sin n
N
n 0, N ,2 N ,3N ,..........
d
d
Sin 2 Sin 2 N
0
I 0
2 Sin 2
=0
=0
N tan N tan N
3
5
7
,
,
.........
2
2
2
e sin n
(e d ) Sin m m
e sin
n
n
Special case:
1. If d = e, m 2 m 2n where
n
n 1,2,3,.....
e
, m 3 m 1.5n 1
n 2
2
d
, m 3 m 3n
2
n
d 1 2
d
d
d
(e d )Sin m d m
d
d
(e d )
d
Sin m d
d
d
(e d ) cos
d
d
d
d
d
m
d
m
(e d ) cos
1
(e d )
1
cos
(e d ) Sin
m
T
2
or a time
.
2
(n 1)
2
(OMn-1) = ( PM OP ) = b
b
2
2
1
2 (n 1) 2 2
(n 1)
2b
b2
= b
4
2
= (n 1)
Since 1 so
and An =
b(n 1) =
(n 1) 2
4
(n-1)b
n
(OMn) = ( PM OP ) = b b 2
2
2
n
n2 2
=
bn =
4
Since 1 so
n 2
4
= b 2 n
2b
n
b2
2
nb
A(1 cos )
d
R1 R2 R3 ........ .Rn1
Since
R 1 R2 , R 2 R3
(If n is odd)
(If n is even)
so we have
R1 R3
R R
and R4 3 5 and so on
2
2
R R
R
R
R
R 1 R2 3 1 R4 5 ......... n
2 2
2
2
2
R2
R R
R
R
R
1 R2 3 1 R4 5 ......... n1
2 2
2
2
2
R1 Rn
2
2
=
As
if n is odd
if n is odd
R1 Rn 1
2
2
if n is even
if n is even
and
Rn1 Rn
or
1
2
2
so,
R1
2
Thus the net amplitude due to entire half period zone is equal to
half of the amplitude due to first half period zone.
Zone plate:
A special diffracting screen which obstructs the light from
alternate half period zone is known as zone plate.
Construction:
It can be constructed by drawing a series of concentric
circles on a white sheet of paper with radii proportional to
square root of natural number. The alternate half period zones
are painted black. A reduced photograph of this drawing is taken
on a plane glass plate. The negative thus obtained act as zone
plate.
Depending on the initial blackening the zone plate is of
two types
1. Positive zone plate:
zone plate: the
the center is bright
2.
Negative
center is dark
Working:
When a beam of monochromatic light is allowed to fall on
a zone plate, the light is obstructed from the alternate half period
OM1 I OPI
OM 2 I OPI
2
2
OM 3 I OPI
3
2
..
..
n
2
OM n I OPI
OM n I PM n I
n
2
(1)
OM n OP 2 PM 2 n
u2 r
1
2 2
n
1
2
r 2n
r 2n 2
u 1 2 = u 1 2 .....
2u
r 2n
r 2n
u 1 2 u
2u
2u
M n I M n I 2 PM 2 n
1
2
(2)
as
rn u
in
v r
2
1
n 2
r 2n
r 2n 2
v 1 2 = v 1 2 .....
v
2v
r 2n
r 2n
v 1 2 v
2v
2v
as
rn v
(3)
r 2n
r 2n
n
v
(u v)
2u
2v
2
r 2 n 1 1
n
(u v)
(u v)
2
2 u v
r 2n
2
1 1
u v
n
2
1 1
r 2 n n
u v
(4)
u v
= n
r 2n
uv
uv
n
uv
rn
rn cons. n
rn
1 1
r 2 n n
u v
1
r 2 n n
f
rn2
n
(5)
fx
= constant
n-1
n 1
uv
uv
uv
1
1 rn2
v3 f 3 = f 1
3
3 n
2
5 n
Dissimilarities
Convex Lens
a) Image
is
formed
by
refraction
b) It has a single focus.
c) The focal length increases
with increase of wave length.
d) Image is more intense
e) The optical path is constant
for all the rays of light.
Zone Plate
a) Image is formed by
diffraction
b) It has multiple foci
c) The
focal
length
decreases with increase of
wavelength
d) Image is less intense
e) The optical path is
different for different rays
of light
Taking a, b, c, d, e as centre and radii equal to ct (cvelocity of light &t time), we can construct a large number
of spheres which represents a centre of disturbance for the
new wave. The length A1B1 represents the direction of new
wave front.
propagation of light but its vibration are confined only to a single line
in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, such light is
called as polarised light.
Example:
during its rotation then the tip of the vector traces an ellipse such
light is called elliptically polarised light.
Plane of polarisation:
The plane passing through the direction of propagation and
containing no vibration is called as plane of polarisation.
Since a vibration has no component of right angle, to its own
direction, so the plane of polarisation is always perpendicular to
the plane of vibrations.
Angle between plane of vibration and plane of polarisation is
90.
Light waves are transverse in nature:
If the light waves are longitudinal in nature, they will show no
variation of intensity during the rotation of the crystal. Since
during the rotation of the crystal, the variation in intensity takes
place, this suggests that light waves are transverse in nature
rather longitudinal.
Production of polarised light:
The polarised light can be produced in four different ways such as
1. Polarisation by Reflection
2. Polarisation by Refraction
3. Polarisation by Scattering
4. Polarisation by Double refraction
1. Polarisation by reflection:
The production of the polarised light by the method of reflection from
reflecting interface is called polarisation by reflection.
When the unpolarised light incident on a surface, the reflected
light may be completely polarised, partially polarised or unpolarised
depending upon the angle of incidence. If the angle of incidence is 0
or 90 the light is not polarised. If the angle of incidence lies in
between 0 and 90, the light is completely plane polarised.
The angle of incidence for which the reflected component of
light is completely plane polarised, such angle of incidence is called
polarising angle or angle of polarisation or Brewsters angle .It is
denoted by ip.
At ip the angle between reflected ray and refracted or transmitted
ray is /2.
Explanation:
To explain the polarisation by reflection, let us
consider an interface XY on which a ray AB which is unpolarised is
incident at an angle equal to polarising angle and get reflected along
BC which is completely plane polarised and the ray BD which is
refracted or transmitted is continues to be unpolarised. The incident
ulpolarised light contain both perpendicular and parallel component
of light.
CBY+ DBY=90
90 r 90 r 90
90 i 90 r 90
0
'
i p r 90 0
r ' 90 0 r
sin i p
sin r
sin i p
sin(90 0 i p )
sin i p
cos i p
= tan i p
tan i p
sin i p
cos i p
sin i p
sin r
CBY+ DBY=90
CB BD CBD 90 0
Explanation:
sin r
sin r
sin r g
a
0
cos r sin(90 r ) sin i p
tan r g a
net result is that the refracted beams are poorer and poorer in the
perpendicular component and less partially polarised component.
Malus law:
It states that when a beam of completely plane polarized light
incident on the plane of analyser, the intensity of the transmitted light
varies directly proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle
between the planes of the polariser and plane of the analyser.
Mathematically,
I cos 2
Proof:
Let us consider a beam of plane polarised light coming from the plane
of the polariser is incident at an angle on the plane of the analyser.
The amplitude of the light vector E is now resolved into two mutual
perpendicular component i.e. E1 E0 cos which is parallel to the plane
of transmission and E2 E0 sin which is perpendicular to the plane of
transmission. As we are able to see only the parallel component so the
intensity of the transmitted light coming from the plane of the
analyser is proportional to the parallel component only.
Thus,
IE1
, where
I 0 kE02
When the light passing through the crystal along the optic axis
then at the optic axis the ray splits up into two rays called as
ordinary and extraordinary ray which get emerge parallel from
the opposite face of the crystal through which are relatively
displaced by a distance proportional to the thickness of the
crystal. This phenomenon is called as double refraction.
Difference between the Ordinary (O-ray)and Extra ordinary
ray(E-ray)
Ordinary ray
Extraordinary ray
When the 2nd crystal is rotated at an angle 135 w.r.t the 1st , four
images once again appear with equally intense.
When the 2nd crystal is rotated at an angle 180 w.r.t 1 st, the O2
and E2 vanishes and O1 and E1have come together in the centre.
Action:
Hence the ray will behave as a ray inside the 2nd and will lost by total
reflection at the balsam surface.
If the second nicol is further rotated to hold its principal section again
parallel to that of 1st the intensity will be again maximum then the 1st
prism acts as apolariser and the 2nd prism acts as an analyser.
Limitations:
1. The nicol prism works only when the incident beam is
slightly convergent or slightly divergent.
2. The angle of incidence must be confined with 14.
Quarter wave plate: A double refracting crystal plate having a
thickness such as to produce a path difference of
or a phase
plate .
Working:
4( O E )
4( E O )
Uses:
1. It is used for producing circularly and elliptically polarised
light.
Working:
When a beam of monochromatic light incident on the plate it
will be broken up into O-ray and E-ray which will perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation and vibrating in the direction of
incidence respectively.
2( O E )
2( E O )
/4 plate
/2 plate
Let
Let
x a sin( wt
between them.
) a cos wt
2
and
y a sin wt
) a cos wt
2
A sin 300 =
and
y b sin wt
1
a2 b2
Case: 1
Case: 2
Case:
POLARISATION IN SUMMARY
VECTOR CALCULUS
The electric field ( E ) , magnetic induction ( B) , magnetic intensity ( H ) ,
electric displacement ( D) , electrical current density ( J ) , magnetic
vector potential ( A) etc. are, in general, functions of position and time.
These are vector fields.
Scalar quantities such as electric potential, electric charge density,
electromagnetic energy density etc. are also function of position and
time. They are known of as fields.
Time Derivative of a Vector Field
If
A(t ) time
(t )
x (t ) jAy (t ) kA
A(t ) iA
z
dA Ax (t ) Ay (t ) Az (t )
i
j
k
dt
t
t
t
Notes:
d
dB dA
( A B) A
( ) B
dt
dt
dt
Where
V is
i j k
x
y
z
V V V
j
k
x
y
z
A is
given by
Ax Ay Az
k
)
. A (i j k ).(iA
x jAy kAz ) = (
x
y
z
x
y
z
Notes:
.( A B) . A . B
.(V A) (V ). A V ( . A)
where V is a scalar field
If the divergence of a vector field vanishes everywhere, it is
called a solenoidal field.
Divergence of a vector field is defined as the net outward flux of
that field per unit volume at that point.
Curl of a Vector Field
The curl of a vector field is given by
Curl A= A
Ax
Ay
Az
i(
Ay Ax
A A
Az Ay
) j ( x z ) k(
)
y
z
z
x
x
y
If V is a scalar field,
A and B are
( A B) A B
(V A) (V ) A V ( A)
operator
(i)
Laplacian
2
2
2
(i j k ).(i j k ) 2 2 2
x
y
z
x
y
z
x y z
2
2
2
2 2 2
x y z
2
(ii)
V V V
j
k
x
y
z
(V )
V
V
V
V
V
V
)( ) ( )( )] j[( )( ) ( )( )] k[( )( ) ( )( )]
y z
z y
z x
x z
x y
y x
x
V
x
x
V
x
x
V
x
2V 2V
2V 2V
2V 2V
(V ) i(
) j (
) k(
)0
yz zy
zx xz
xy yx
If A 0 , then
(iii)
A can
field i.e. A V
Conversely if a vector field is gradient of a scalar then
its curl vanishes.
Divergence of Curl of a Vector Field
A A
A A
A A
A i( z y ) j ( x z ) k( y x )
y
z
z
x
x y
. A (i
A A
A A
A A
j k ).[(i( z y ) j ( x z ) k( y x )]
x
y
z
y
z
z
x
x y
. A
Az Ay
A A
A A
(
) ( x z ) ( y x)
x y
z
y z
x
z x y
2
2
2 Az Ay 2 Ax 2 Az Ay 2 Ax
. A
xy xz yz yx zx zy
. A 0
(iv)
A ( . A) 2 A
(v)
.( A B) B.( A) A.( B)
I L A. dl
a
dl
).(idx
) ( A dx A dy A dz )
x jAy kA
jdy kdz
I L (iA
z
y
z
x
Notes:
If the integral is independent of path of integration between a
and b, then the vector field is conservative field.
A,
I s A. ds
S
Where
ds elemental
area of surface S
An ds
So I s A. ds A.nds
S
A over
a given volume V is
IV AdV
V
i.e. lim
V 0
ds
. A lim
V 0
A . ds
The curl of a vector field is the limiting value of its line integral
along a closed path per unit area bounded by the path, as the area
tends to zero,
A lim
S 0
A. dl
S
.AdV A.dS
V
( A).dS A.dl
S
( f g g
2
f )dV ( f g gf )dS
S
Electric Polarization ( P )
p
V
Unit is 1 coul/m2
The dipole moment is proportional to the applied electric field.
So p E ,
proportionality cons tan t , known as polarizability
p)
P N E
D P 0 E -------------------- (1)
D E 0 r E ---------------(2)
0 r E P 0 E
P 0 ( r 1) E
E E. dS
S
Unit of flux-1 N m
Coul
E E. dS
S
qnet
E E. dS
S
qnet
E D. dS qnet
S
Notes:
The charges enclosed by the surface may be point charges or
continuous charge distribution.
The net electric flux may be outward or inward depending upon
the sign of charges.
Electric flux is independent of shape & size of Gaussian
surface.
The Gaussian surface can be chosen to have a suitable
geometrical shape for evaluation of flux.
Limitation of Gauss Law
(a)Since flux is a scalar quantity Gauss law enables us to find
the magnitude of electric field only.
(b) The applicability of the law is limited to situations with
simple geometrical symmetry.
Gauss Law in Differential form
Gauss law is given by
E. dS
S
qnet
E. dS . E dV
S
So
dV . E dV
0 V
( . E
Or
) dV 0
0
0
. E
. E
( H ) is
( B ) by
(H )
( B)
( B ) in
tesla.
(m ) B. dS B dS cos
S
Unit of flux:
1 weber in SI
1 maxwell in cgs(emu)
So 1T= 1 weber/m2
1 gauss= 1maxwell/cm2
Gauss Law in magnetism
Since isolated magnetic pole does not exist, by analogy with Gauss
law of electrostatics, Gauss law of magnetism is given by
B. dS 0
S
B. dS . B dV 0
S
. B 0
B. dl 0 I
Where
C closed
H . dl I
B. dl 0 I ----------------------------------(i)
B. dl ( B). ds --------------------------(ii)
( B). ds o J . ds (o J ). ds
S
B o J
m
t
--------------(i)
The induced emf is the line integral of electric field along the loop.
E . dl
m B . ds
S
E . dl
B . ds
t S
E . dl ( E ). ds
But
E . dl
m
B . ds
t
t S
B
(
E
).
ds
B
.
ds
S
S t . ds
t S
E and
B
(
). ds 0
S
t
Or
B
E
0
t
J . ds
S
J . ds . J dV ----------------
(i)
q
t
dV dV
t V
t
V
----------------------(ii)
. J dV
(. J
. J
dV
t
)dV 0
t
0
t
E between
varies.
q
0 A
dE
1 dq
dt 0 A dt
0 A
dE dq
dt dt
Id 0 A
dE
dt
where I d displacement
Id exists till
In general, whenever there is a time-varying electric field, a
displacement current exists,
Id 0
E.ds 0 E
t S
t
B.dl I I
o
E
B o J o
Or
D
H J
By using
0 E D ,
Here
E
J d displacement current density
t
J d max 0 E0 0
1019
Maxwells Equations
The Maxwells electromagnetic equations are
. D
--------------(1)
. B 0
-----------------(2)
B
E
t
D
H
J
t
------------------(3)
-------------------(4)
Notes:
Equation (1) is the differential form of Gauss law of
electrostatics.
Equation (2) is the differential form of Gauss law of
magnetism.
Equation (3) is the differential form of Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction.
. E
--------------(1)
. B 0
-----------------(2)
B
E
t
------------------(3)
E
B
J
t
-------------------(4)
In absence of charges
. E 0
--------------(1)
. B 0
-----------------(2)
B
E
0
t
E
B 0 0
0
t
------------------(3)
-------------------(4)
E . dS
S
0 V
dV
--------------(1)
B . dS 0
--------------(2)
E . dl
B . dS
--------------(3)
E
C B . dl 0 S ( J 0 t ). dS
--------------(4)
. E 0
. B 0
--------------(1)
-----------------(2)
B
E
t
------------------(3)
E
B 0 0
t
-------------------(4)
B
E
( B)
t
t
E
2 E
E ( 0 0
) 0 0 2
t
t
t
2 E
( . E ) E 0 0 2
t
Since ( . E ) 0,
2 E
E 0 0 2
t
Taking
0 0
We have
1
, where c velocity of light
c2
1 2 E
2 E 2 2
c t
B 0 0
( E )
t
B
2 B
B 0 0 (
) 0 0 2
t
t
t
2 B
( . B) 2 B 0 0 2
t
Since ( . B) 0,
2 B
2 B 0 0 2
t
Taking
0 0
1
, where c velocity of light
c2
1 2 B
B 2 2
c t
We have
1 2
2 2
c t 2
Where
E or B
1 2
2
v t 2
2
1
, where v velocity of light in medium s
v2
. B 0
(Maxwell equation)
B
E
t
We have
(Maxwells equation 3)
( A)
t
A
E
0
t
A
where is a scalar functioncalled the scalar potential .
t
So
A
t
A
0 ; so
t
Writing
E
t
(2)
A
; A vector potential
t
We have
A
.E . 0
t
or 2
. A 0
t
1 2
0
c 2 2t
We have 2
1 2
0
c 2 2t
A
t
B A in equation (2) we get
A 0 0
t
t
2 A
. A A 0 0 0 0 2
t
t
2
A
2
. A 0 0
A 0 0 2
t
t
2 A
0
t 2
B r , t bB e
E r , t eE0ei ( k .r t )
(1)
i ( k .r t )
(2)
angular frequency
Using
.E 0 in
. eE0ei ( k .r t ) 0
e. E0ei ( k .r t ) .e E0ei ( k .r t ) 0
as .V A V .A V .A
Since
constant,
.e 0
e. E0ei ( k .r t ) 0
or e.ikE0ei ( k .r t ) 0
Since E0 0, ei ( k .r t ) 0,
e.k 0 (3)
We have
. bB0ei ( k .r t ) 0
b. B0ei ( k .r t ) .b B0ei ( k .r t ) 0
Since
constant,
.b 0
b. B0ei ( k .r t ) 0
or b.ikB0ei ( k .r t ) 0
Since B0 0, ei ( k .r t ) 0,
b.k 0 (4)
[eE0ei ( k .r t ) ]
Using
[bB0ei ( k .r t ) ]
t
-----------(5)
( AV ) V ( A) (V ) A ,
we have
Since
( E0ei ( k .r t ) ) E0ikei ( k .r t ) we
( e) 0 and
get
Now
So
B0
b
E0
Relative magnitudes of
E and B
B0
b
E0
B0
E0
E0
c, where c velocity of light
B0 k
0 0
Now using
E0
0 c 0
H0
B0 0 H 0
1
0 0
0
Z0
0
1 1 2
E.D E
2
2
(1)
1 1
B. H H 2
2
2
(2)
Poynting Vector
The rate of energy transport per unit area in electromagnetic wave is
E B
S E H
S 1
watt
in SI .
m2
Poynting Theorem
We have the Maxwell equations
B
E
t
(i )
D
H
J (ii )
t
H with
(i) and
E with
B D
H . E E. H H .
E.
E . J (iii)
t
t
LHS .( E H )
B ( H ) H 2
H.
H.
(
)
t
t
t 2
Similarly
D ( E ) E 2
E.
E.
(
)
t
t
t 2
) E.J
t 2
2
.S
uEM
E.J
t
as E H S
and
uEM
E2
2
H 2
2
. S dV
uEM
dV E . J dV
t
V
S.d A
A
uEM
dV E . J dV
t
V
then . S
uEM
0
t
S EH
EB
c
H H0
E2
c
If E E0 sin t , then average value of Poynting vector is
or
E02 sin 2 t
c
S
E02
2 c
c E02
2
c Erms
2
as sin 2 t
as Erms
1
2
E0
2
QUANTUM PHYSICS
Need for quantum physics: Historical overview
About the end of 19th century, classical physics had attained
near perfection and successfully explains most of the observed
physical phenomenon like motion of particles, rigid bodies, fluid
dynamics etc under the influence of appropriate forces and leads
to conclusion that there is no more development at conceptual
level.
(1)
(2)
In low frequency,
Lim(
i.e
Therefore,
()d=
which is called Rayleigh-Jeans law.
In high frequency lim(
i.e
Therefore,
which
is
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The phenomenon of emission of electron from surface of certain
substance when a light of suitable frequency or wavelength incident
on it is called Photoelectric effect.
Experimental Arrangement
The experimental arrangement consists of the following parts.
A part of this energy is used to the free electron from the atom
and away from the metal surface n overcoming the work
function(W0).
ii.
).
(1)
of the frequency of the incident light
electron, then
(2)
using eqn (2) in eqn(1), we get
(3)
Calculation of stopping Potential
To neutralize the K.E of the emitted electron, we have
(4)
Using eqn (4) in eqn(1), we get
implies that
(5)
We have
(6)
Substituting eqn(2) in eqn(6) we get.
y int ercept in 0
h
if we
i.e
Calculation of Planck Constant (h)
If we multiply the slope of plot of stopping potential
with e
we get h
i.e
Compton effect
The phenomena in which a beam of high frequency radiation like xray &-ray is incident on a metallic block and undergoes scattering is
called Compton effect.
The component whose wavelength is same as that of incident
radiation is called unmodified line (Thomson component)
The component whose wavelength is greater than the incident
wavelength is called modified line (Compton component)
The increase of wavelength in the Compton component is called
Compton Shift ().
It depends on the angle of scattering (angle between the
scattered & incident x-ray).
It is independent of the wavelength of the incident x-ray.
(2)
(4)
From equation (3)
mvc
(5)
(6)
Squaring and adding equation (5) and (6) we get
(7)
From eqn(1), we get
m02c 2
c 2 v 2 2h 2 '(1 cos ) 2h ' m0c 2 m02c 4
2
v
1
c2
(8)
'
'
h
1 cos
m0 c
h
1 cos
m0 c
c 1 cos
Where '
=Compton shift
c
h
=Compton
m0 c
wavelength
6.62 1034 JS
9.1110
31
kg 3 108 m
2.426 1012 m
c 0.0242 A0
c has
dimension of length
0, 0 There
h
mc
shift)
Pair Production:
The phenomenon in which some -rays are converted into electronpositron pair on passing near an atomic nucleus is called Pair
production.
h 2mec 2 .
h 0 2mec 2 and
the
or,
h
P
h
mv
P2
2m
P 2mE
h
2mE
If q=charge of a particle
m=mass of the particle
V=potential difference
Then, P
2m
qv P 2mqv
h
2mqv
h
3mkT
E P 2 c 2 m02 c 4
P
E 2 m02 c 4
c
hc
E 2 m02 c 4
then,
, z pz
(1)
Let us assume that in the ground state, the linear momentum P and
position x of the oscillator are of the order of their uncertainties.
P and x
i.e P
According to principle
x.px
x.px
p.x
p
(2)
1
m 2 x 2
2mx 2
(3)
x x x0
2
E
0
3 m 2 x0
x x x0 mx0
x02
Where
x0 corresponds
(4)
1
m 2
m
2
2m
(5)
2
p
6.62 1034 Js
kg.m
5.3 1021
14
2 2 3.14 10 m
s
2x
9.11031 kg
3 10
2
3 108 m
s
2
p2
e2
2m 4 0 r
(1)
2
r.p
r. p
(2)
2mr 2
e2
4 0 r
(3)
0
r r o
2
e2
3
0
4 0 r 2 r r
mr
0
4 0
r0
me 2
me4
32 2 02
Examples:
1) Heisenbergs gamma-rays Microscope:
If x be the uncertainty in position of the electron decided by
Resolving power of the microscope, then
x R.P
1.22
2sin
2h
sin
According to principle,
x.px
1.22 2h
sin 1.22h
2sin
x.px h
Let
p be
(2)
2 p 2 p.
y.p y
h
2h
p
2
are continuous at
Probability density
The probability per unit volume of a system being in the state
called probability density.
is
i.e. 2
As the probability density is proportional to square of the wave
function, so the wavefunction is called probability amplitude.
The total probability is,
dv
v
dv 1
L3 2 .
be
A
Operator
Energy-E
Momentum- p
Potential Energy(V)
Kinetic
2
Energy( p
2m
2 2
2m
Eigen States:
The number of definite allowed states for the system are called
eigen states.
Eigen Values:
A having
eigen values
i corresponding
states i
equation is
to the eigen
the eigen value
A i i i
Expectation Values:
The expectation values of a variable is the weighted average of the
eigen values with their
relative
probabilities.
If
q1 , q2 , q3 ,...... are
p1 , p2 , p3 ,.... for
p1q1 p2 q2 .... pn qn
p1 p2 ....
pn
p1 p2 p3 ..... 1
Q p1q1 p2 q2 .... pn qn
dv
A A dV
r, t
dV 1
i
dV
t
ik ,
i
x
t
2 k 2
(1)
We have
p2
2m
k2
2m
(2)
2 2
t
2m x 2
(3)
p2
V
2m
2 2
V
t
2m x 2
(4)
2 2
V
t
2m y 2
2 2
V
t
2m z 2
2 2
2
2
V
t
2m x 2 y 2 z 2
2 2
V
t
2m
constant
i
t
i E
2 2
V
2m
[fromeqn (5)]
(5)
2m
2
E V 0
V0 , x 0
Let us consider the particle incident on the potential step from left to
right. According to the classical physics if the particle has energy less
than the potential step, the particle cannot move beyond x=0 and will
rebound into region-1. If the energy of the particle is greater than the
height of the potential step the particle will go to the region-2.
Case-1:(E>V0)
Let 1 and 2 be the wave function in region-1 and region-2 then time
dependent Schrodinger equation is given as
d 2 1 2m
2 1 0
dx 2
x<0,
(region-1)
(1)
d 2 2 2m
2 E V0 2 0 ,x>0,(region-2)
dx 2
(2)
And
d 2 1
k12 1 0
2
dx
(3)
d 2 2
k22 2 0
dx 2
(4)
k1
Where
k2
2m
2
2mE
(5)
(E V )
(6)
Where
Aeikx -incident
Beikx -reflected
wave= inc
wave= ref
Ceik2 x -transmitted
Deik2 x -wave
wave= tran
zero.
Thuseqn (8) becomes
2 ( x) Ceik x
2
(9)
x 0
2
x
We have
x 0
A+B=C and
B
ik1 ( A B) ik2e
k1 k2
A
k1 k2
(10)
Thus it is observed that
1. R+T=1, which follows from the conservation of flux.
2. It explains wave nature of particles by the fact that the
probability of particle is not zero in the region-2 which
iscontradictory to classical physics.
3. If barrier height V0<E(incident energy) then incident particle do
not see the potential step and are almost transmitted as per the
classical physics.
4. If V0
, then the quantum effect become prominent and the
reflection is appreciable.
Case-2: (E<V0)
Now the Schrodinger equation in region-2 is given as
d 2 2 2m
2 V0 E 2 0
dx 2
Where
2m
2
d 2 2
2 2 0
2
dx
V0 E
And
2k1
A
k1 k2
(1)
Reflection Coefficient
It is defined as the ratio of reflected flux to incident flux of the particle.
i.e R
V1 ref
V1 inc
, V1
k1
m
ref
ref
B
k k
2 1 2 2
inc inc
A
k1 k2
2
E V
E E V0
Transmission Coefficient:It is defined as the ratio between transmitted flux to incident flux.
i.e
V2 tran
V1 inc
2
2
, V2
k2
m
2
k tran k2 C
2 tran
k1 inc
inc
k1 A
T
4k1k2
k1 k2
4 E E V0
E E V0
2 x Ce x
(2)
d 2 1 2mE
2 1 0
dx 2
d 2 1
k 2 1 0
2
dx
where k
(1)
2mE
2
d 2 2
2 2 0
dx 2
Where
2m
2
(2)
V0 E
In region-3,
d 2 3 2m
2 3 0
dx 2
d 2 3
k 2 3 0
2
dx
(3)
(4)
2 x Ce x De x
(5)
3 x Feikx Geikx
(6)
Geikx wave
=0
3 Feikx
(7)
Case-2(E>V0)
E
E a
1 e
V0 V0
2m E V0 n ,
As h
p
So,
2 a
an
n=1,2,3,
h
2m E V0
in the region-2.
d 2
k 2 0
2
dx
(1)
(2)
B0
0 x a
at x=a
(3)
ka n
an
n=1,2,3.
Thus allowed bound states are possible for those energies for which the
width of the potential well is equal to integral multiple of half wave
length.
Since
k2
k 2a2
En
2mE
2
2mEa 2
2
n 2 2
2ma
n2
E1
2ma 2
Eigen Functions
dx 1
0 x a
A sin 2 kxdx 1
2
1 cos 2kx
dx 1
2
0
2
a
sin 2kx
2 x 0
a
A
2k 0
A2
2
a
2
a
n x
2
n
sin
x
a
a
Thus the eigen function for each quantum state are obtained by
1 x
sin x
a
a
2 x
2
2
sin
x
a
a
3 x
2
3
sin
x etc.
a
a