Troubadour

For other uses, see Troubadour (disambiguation).

troubadours, the trobairitz.
Trovatore redirects here. For the opera, see Il trovatore.
A troubadour (English /trubdr/, French:

1 Etymology of name
The oldest mention of the word troubadour as trobadors
is found in a 12th-century Occitan text by Cercamon.[1]

The English word troubadour is an exact rendition from a

French word rst recorded in 1575 in an historical context
to mean langue d'oc poet at the court in the 12th and 13th
century (Jean de Nostredame, Vies des anciens Potes
provenaux, p. 14 in Gdf. Compl.).[2]
The French word is borrowed itself from the Occitan
word trobador. It is the oblique case of the nominative
trobaire composer, related to trobar to compose, to
discuss, to invent (Wace, Brut, editions I. Arnold, 3342)
It may come from the hypothetical Late Latin *tropre to
compose, to invent a poem by regular phonetic change.
This recreated form is deduced from the Latin root tropus, meaning a trope and the various meanings of the Old
Occitan related words. In turn, the Latin word derives
ultimately from Greek (tropos), meaning turn,
manner.[3] B Intervocal Latin [p] shifted regularly to [b]
in Occitan (cf. Latin sapere > Occitan saber to know)
(cf. Latin sapere > savoir). The Latin sux -tor, -atris
explains the Occitan sux, according to its declension
and accentuation : Gallo-Romance *TROPTOR[4] > Occitan trobaire (subject case) and *TROPATRE[5] > Occitan trobador troubadour (oblique case).

The troubadour Perdigon playing his ddle.

[tubadu]; Occitan: trobador, IPA: [tuau]) was a

composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry
during the High Middle Ages (11001350). Since the
word troubadour is etymologically masculine, a female
troubadour is usually called a trobairitz.
The troubadour school or tradition began in the late
11th century in Occitania, but it subsequently spread into
Italy and Spain. Under the inuence of the troubadours,
related movements sprang up throughout Europe: the
Minnesang in Germany, trovadorismo in Galicia and
Portugal, and that of the trouvres in northern France.
Dante Alighieri in his De vulgari eloquentia dened
the troubadour lyric as ctio rethorica musicaque poita:
rhetorical, musical, and poetical ction. After the classical period around the turn of the 13th century and a
mid-century resurgence, the art of the troubadours declined in the 14th century and eventually died out around
the time of the Black Death (1348).

There is an alternative theory to explain the meaning of

trobar as to compose, to discuss, to invent. It has
the support of some historians, specialists of literature
and musicologists to justify of the troubadours origins in
Arabic Andalusian musical practices. According to them,
the Arabic word araba song (from the triliteral root
-R-B provoke emotion, excitement, agitation; make
music, entertain by singing) could partly be the etymon
of the verb trobar.[6][7] Another Arabic root had already
been proposed before : -R-B strike, by extension
play a musical instrument.[8] They entertain the possiThe texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes bility that the nearly homophonous -R-B root may have
of chivalry and courtly love. Most were metaphysical, in- contributed to the sense of the newly coined Romance
tellectual, and formulaic. Many were humorous or vulgar verb trobar.
satires. Works can be grouped into three styles: the trobar Some proponents of this theory argue, only on cultural
leu (light), trobar ric (rich), and trobar clus (closed). Like- grounds, that both etymologies may well be correct, and
wise there were many genres, the most popular being the that there may have been a conscious poetic exploitacanso, but sirventes and tensos were especially popular in tion of the phonological coincidence between trobar and
the post-classical period, in Italy and among the female the triliteral Arabic root TRB when Su Islamic musi1

cal forms with a love theme rst spread from Al-Andalus

to southern France. It has also been pointed out that the
concepts of nding, music, love, and ardourthe
precise semantic eld attached to the word troubadour
are allied in Arabic under a single root (WJD) that plays
a major role in Suc discussions of music, and that the
word troubadour may in part reect this.[9] Nevertheless,
the linguistic facts do not support an hypothetical theory
: the word trover is mentioned in French as soon as the
10th century before trobar in Occitan (see above) and the
word trovere > trouvre appears almost simultaneously in
French as trobador in Occitan (see above).
In archaic and classical troubadour poetry, the word is
only used in a mocking sense, having more or less the
meaning of somebody who makes things up. Cercamon
writes:
Ist trobador, entre ver e mentir,
Afollon drutz e molhers et espos,
E van dizen qu'Amors vay en biays
(These troubadours, between truth
and lies/corrupt lovers, women and
husbands,/ and keep saying that
Love proceeds obliquely).[10]
Peire d'Alvernha also begins his famous mockery of
contemporary authors cantarai d'aquest trobadors,[11] after which he proceeds to explain why none of them is
worth anything.[12] When referring to themselves seriously, troubadours almost invariably use the word chantaire (singer).

Origins

The early study of the troubadours focused intensely on

their origins. No academic consensus was ever achieved
in the area. Today, one can distinguish at least eleven
competing theories (the adjectives used below are a blend
from the Grove Dictionary of Music and Roger Boases
The Origins and Meaning of Courtly Love):
1. Arabic (also Arabist or Hispano-Arabic)
Referring to the songs of the troubadours, Ezra
Pound wrote in his Canto VIII that William of
Aquitaine had brought the song up out of Spain
/ with the singers and viels. In his study, LviProvenal is said to have found four Arabo-Hispanic
verses nearly or completely recopied in Williams
manuscript.[13] According to historical sources,
William VIII, the father of William, brought to
Poitiers hundreds of Muslim prisoners,[14] and may
have imported singers, male and female, from the
luxurious Muslim-ruled kingdoms over the Pyrenees in Iberia, who would naturally have been
trained in the genre of love songs popular in the

ORIGINS

courts of in al-Andalus in that era. Trend admitted that the troubadours derived their sense of
form and even the subject matter of their poetry
from the Andalusian Muslims.[15] The hypothesis
that the troubadour tradition was created, more or
less, by William after his experience of Moorish
arts while ghting with the Reconquista in Spain was
also championed by Ramn Menndez Pidal in the
early 20th century, but its origins go back to the
Cinquecento and Giammaria Barbieri (died 1575)
and Juan Andrs (died 1822). Meg Bogin, American translator of the trobairitz, held this hypothesis.
Certainly a body of song of comparable intensity,
profanity and eroticism [existed] in Arabic from the
second half of the 9th century onwards,[16] and a
body of song and poetry on themes of secular love
ourished intensely in the 10th and 11th centuries
in the multi-lingual societies of al-Andalus not far
from the southern border of Occitan. About 1022,
the Muslim Cordoban Ibn Hazm published The Ring
of the Dove, a literary work in Arabic devoted to narrating anecdotes of love aairs drawn mainly from
his own contemporary society of Spain/al-Andalus;
the plight of unrequited love, secret love, and love
against many obstacles are recurring themes; while
ancient Platonic views of love are cited and rejected,
Ibn Hazm adds a long didactic exhortation to observing restraint and moral-religious boundaries at
the end of the work. To such a strong and multifaceted tradition of love literature and song nearby
must be added the presence of the Toledo School
of Translators starting in 1126. The presence of
such a developed tradition of love poetry and song
nearby and of many avenues of cultural exchange in
such proximity to the birthplace of troubadour poetry has lent some degree of likelihood, though not
certainty, to this theory, perhaps as plausible at least
together with rather than to the exclusion of, some
of the other theories of troubadour poetrys origins.
2. Bernardine-Marianist or Christian
According to this theory, it was the theology espoused by Bernard of Clairvaux and the increasingly important Mariology that most strongly inuenced the development of the troubadour genre.
Specically, the emphasis on religious and spiritual
love, disinterestedness, mysticism, and devotion to
Mary would explain courtly love. The emphasis
of the reforming Robert of Arbrissel on matronage to achieve his ends can explain the troubadour
attitude towards women.[17] Chronologically, however, this hypothesis is hard to sustain (the forces
believed to have given rise to the phenomenon arrived later than it). But the inuence of Bernardine
and Marian theology can be retained without the
origins theory. This theory was advanced early by
Eduard Wechssler and further by Dmitri Scheludko
(who emphasises the Cluniac Reform) and Guido
Errante. Mario Casella and Leo Spitzer have added

3
"Augustinian" inuence to it.
3. Celtic or Chivalric-Matriarchal
The survival of pre-Christian sexual mores and warrior codes from matriarchal societies, be they Celtic,
Germanic, or Pictish, among the aristocracy of Europe can account for the idea (fusion) of courtly
love. The existence of pre-Christian matriarchy
has usually been treated with scepticism as has the
persistence of underlying paganism in high medieval
Europe.
4. Classical Latin
The classical Latin theory emphasises parallels between Ovid, especially his Amores and Ars amatoria, and the lyric of courtly love. The aetas ovidiana that predominated in the 11th century in and
around Orlans, the quasi-Ciceronian ideology that
held sway in the Imperial court, and the scraps of
Plato then available to scholars have all been cited
as classical inuences on troubadour poetry.[18]
5. (Crypto-)Cathar
According to this thesis, troubadour poetry is a reection of Cathar religious doctrine. While the theory is supported by the traditional and near-universal
account of the decline of the troubadours coinciding with the suppression of Catharism during the
Albigensian Crusade (rst half of the 13th century),
support for it has come in waves. The explicitly
Catholic meaning of many early troubadour works
also works against the theory.
6. Liturgical
The troubadour lyric may be a development of the
Christian liturgy and hymnody. The inuence of the
Song of Songs has even been suggested. There is
no preceding Latin poetry resembling that of the
troubadours. On those grounds, no theory of the
latters origins in classical or post-classical Latin
can be constructed, but that has not deterred some,
who believe that a pre-existing Latin corpus must
merely be lost to us.[19] That many troubadours received their grammatical training in Latin through
the Church (from clerici, clerics) and that many were
trained musically by the Church is well-attested.
The musical school of Saint Martials at Limoges has
been singled out in this regard.[20] Para-liturgical
tropes were in use there in the era preceding the
troubadours appearance.
7. Feudal-social or -sociological
This theory or set of related theories has gained
ground in the 20th century. It is more a methodological approach to the question than a theory; it
asks not from where the content or form of the lyric
came but rather in what situation/circumstances did
it arise.[21] Under Marxist inuence, Erich Khler,
Marc Bloch, and Georges Duby have suggested that
the essential hegemony in the castle of the lords

wife during his absence was a driving force. The

use of feudal terminology in troubadour poems is
seen as evidence. This theory has been developed
away from sociological towards psychological explanation.
8. Folklore or Spring Folk Ritual
According to Mara Rosa Menocal, Alfred Jeanroy
rst suggested that folklore and oral tradition gave
rise to troubadour poetry in 1883. According to F.
M. Warren, it was Gaston Paris, Jeanroys reviewer,
in 1891 who rst located troubadour origins in the
festive dances of women hearkening the spring in the
Loire Valley. This theory has since been widely discredited, but the discovery of the jarchas raises the
question of the extent of literature (oral or written)
in the 11th century and earlier.[21]
9. Medieval Latin or Mediolatin (Goliardic)
Hans Spanke analysed the intertextual connexion
between vernacular and medieval Latin (such as
Goliardic) songs. This theory is supported by Reto
Bezzola, Peter Dronke, and musicologist J. Chailley. According to them, trobar means inventing
a trope, the trope being a poem where the words
are used with a meaning dierent from their common signication, i.e. metaphor and metonymy.
This poem was originally inserted in a serial of
modulations ending a liturgic song. Then the trope
became an autonomous piece organized in stanza
form.[22] The inuence of late 11th-century poets of
the "Loire school", such as Marbod of Rennes and
Hildebert of Lavardin, is stressed in this connexion
by Brinkmann.[23]
10. Neoplatonic
This theory is one of the more intellectualising. The
ennobling eects of love in specic have been
identied as Neoplatonic.[24] It is viewed either as a
strength or weakness that this theory requires a second theory about how the Neoplatonism was transmitted to the troubadours; perhaps it can be coupled
with one of the other origins stories or perhaps it
is just peripheral. Kte Axhausen has exploited
this theory and A. J. Denomy has linked it with the
Arabist (through Avicenna) and the Cathar (through
John Scotus Eriugena).[25]

3 History
3.1 Early period
The earliest troubadour whose work survives is Guilhm de Peitieus, better known as Duke William IX of
Aquitaine (10711126). Peter Dronke, author of The
Medieval Lyric, however, believes that "[his] songs represent not the beginnings of a tradition but summits of

HISTORY

William IX of Aquitaine portrayed as a knight, who rst composed poetry on returning from the Crusade of 1101
Trobadours, 14th century

achievement in that tradition.[26] His name has been preserved because he was the Duke of Aquitaine, but his
work plays with already established structures; Eble II
of Ventadorn is often credited as a predecessor, though and to Portugal. This development has been called the
none of his work survives. Orderic Vitalis referred to rayonnement des troubadours (pronounced: [jnm d
William composing songs about his experiences on his tubadu]).[29]
return from the Crusade of 1101 (c. 1102). This may be
the earliest reference to troubadour lyrics. Orderic also
provides us (1135) with what may be the rst description
of a troubadour performance: an eyewitness account of
William of Aquitaine.

3.3 Classical period

Picauensis uero dux ... miserias captiuitatis suae ... coram regibus et magnatis atque
Christianis coetibus multotiens retulit rythmicis
uersibus cum facetis modulationibus. (X.21)
Then the Poitevin duke ... the miseries of his
captivity ... before kings, magnates, and Christian assemblies many times related with rhythmic verses and witty measures.[27]

The classical period of troubadour activity lasted from

about 1170 until about 1213. The most famous names
among the ranks of troubadours belong to this period.
During this period the lyric art of the troubadours reached
the height of its popularity and the number of surviving poems is greatest from this period. During this period the canso, or love song, became distinguishable as a
genre. The master of the canso and the troubadour who
epitomises the classical period is Bernart de Ventadorn.
He was highly regarded by his contemporaries, as were
3.2 Spread
Giraut de Bornelh, reputed by his biographer to be the
The rst half of the 12th century saw relatively few greatest composer of melodies to ever live, and Bertran de
recorded troubadours. Only in the last decades of the Born, the master of the sirventes, or political song, which
century did troubadour activity explode. Almost half became increasingly popular in this period.
of all troubadour works that survive are from the period The classical period came to be seen by later generations,
11801220.[28] In total, moreover, there are over 2,500 especially in the 14th and 15th centuries and outside of
troubadour lyrics available to be studied as lingusitic ar- Occitania, as representing the high point of lyric poetry
tifacts (Akehurst, 23). The troubadour tradition seems to and models to be emulated. The language of the clashave begun in western Aquitaine (Poitou and Saintonge) sic poets, its grammar and vocabulary, their style and
and Gascony, from there spreading over into eastern themes, were the ideal to which poets of the troubadour
Aquitaine (Limousin and Auvergne) and Provence. At revival in Toulouse and their Catalan and Castilian conits height it had become popular in Languedoc and the temporaries aspired. During the classical period the
regions of Rouergue, Toulouse, and Quercy (c. 1200). rules of poetic composition had rst become standardFinally, in the early 13th century it began to spread into ised and written down, rst by Raimon Vidal and then by
rst Italy and then Catalonia, whence to the rest of Spain Uc Faidit.

4.2

Trobadors and joglars

Lives

4.2

Trobadors and joglars

See also: List of troubadours and trobairitz, Minstrel,

Vida (Occitan literary form), Razo, Consistori del Gay
Saber, and Consistori de Barcelona
The 450 or so troubadours known to historians came from
a variety of backgrounds. They made their living in a variety of ways, lived and travelled in many dierent places,
and were actors in many types of social context. The
troubadours were not wandering entertainers. Typically,
they stayed in one place for a lengthy period of time under
the patronage of a wealthy nobleman or woman. Many
did travel extensively, however, sojourning at one court
and then another.

4.1

Status

The Occitan words trobador and trobaire are relatively

rare compared with the verb trobar (compose, invent),
which was usually applied to the writing of poetry. It signied that a poem was original to an author (trobador)
and was not merely sung or played by one. The term was
used mostly for poetry only and in more careful works,
like the vidas, is not generally applied to the composition
of music or to singing, though the troubadours poetry itself is not so careful. Sometime in the middle of the 12th
century, however, a distinction was denitely being made
between an inventor of original verse and the performers
of others. These last were called joglars, from the Latin
ioculatores, giving rise also to the French jongleur, Castilian juglar, and English juggler, which has come to refer
to a more specic breed of performer. The medieval jongleur/joglar is really a minstrel.
At the height of troubadour poetry (the classical period), troubadours are often found attacking jongleurs
and at least two small genres arose around the theme: the
ensenhamen joglaresc and the sirventes joglaresc. These
terms are debated, however, since the adjective joglaresc
would seem to imply in the manner of the jongleurs". Inevitably, however, pieces of said genres are verbal attacks
at jongleurs, in general and in specic, with named individuals being called out. It is clear, for example from the
poetry of Bertran de Born, that jongleurs were performers
who did not usually compose.They often performed the
troubadours songs: singing, playing instruments, dancing, and even doing acrobatics.[30]

The earliest troubadour, the Duke of Aquitaine, came

from the high nobility. He was followed immediately by
two poets of unknown origins, known only by their sobriquets, Cercamon and Marcabru, and by a member of
the princely class, Jaufre Rudel. Many troubadours are
described in their vidas as poor knights. It was one of the
most common descriptors of status: Berenguier de Palazol, Gausbert Amiel, Guilhem Ademar, Guiraudo lo Ros,
Marcabru, Peire de Maensac, Peirol, Raimon de Miraval,
Rigaut de Berbezilh, and Uc de Pena. Albertet de Sestaro
is described as the son of a noble jongleur, presumably a
petty noble lineage.
In the late 13th century Guiraut Riquier bemoaned the
Later troubadours especially could belong to lower inexactness of his contemporaries and wrote a letter to
classes, ranging from the middle class of merchants and Alfonso X of Castile, a noted patron of literature and
burgers (persons of urban standing) to tradesmen and learning of all kinds, for clarication on the proper refothers who worked with their hands. Salh d'Escola and erence of the terms trobador and joglar. According to
Elias de Barjols were described as the sons of merchants Riquier, every vocation deserved a name of its own and
and Elias Fonsalada was the son of a burger and jongleur. the sloppy usage of joglar assured that it covered a mulPerdigon was the son of a poor sherman and Elias titude of activities, some, no doubt, with which Riquier
Cairel of a blacksmith. Arnaut de Mareuil is specied did not wish to be associated. In the end Riquier argued
in his vida as coming from a poor family, but whether and Alfonso X seems to agree, though his response was
this family was poor by noble standards or more global probably penned by Riquierthat a joglar was a courtly
ones is not apparent.
entertainer (as opposed to popular or low-class one) and
Many troubadours also possessed a clerical education. a troubadour was a poet and composer.
For some this was their springboard to composition, since
their clerical education equipped them with an understanding of musical and poetic forms as well as vocal
training. The vidas of the following troubadours note
their clerical status: Aimeric de Belenoi, Folquet de
Marselha (who became a bishop), Gui d'Ussel, Guillem
Ramon de Gironella, Jofre de Foix (who became an abbot), Peire de Bussignac, Peire Rogier, Raimon de Cornet, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ.

Despite the distinctions noted, many troubadours were

also known as jongleurs, either before they began composing or alongside. Aimeric de Belenoi, Aimeric de
Sarlat, Albertet Cailla, Arnaut de Mareuil, Elias de Barjols, Elias Fonsalada, Falquet de Romans, Guillem Magret, Guiraut de Calanso, Nicoletto da Torino, Peire Raimon de Tolosa, Peire Rogier, Peire de Valeira, Peirol,
Pistoleta, Perdigon, Salh d'Escola, Uc de la Bacalaria, Uc
Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ were jongleur-troubadours.

4.3

4 LIVES

Vidas and razos

A vida is a brief prose biography, written in Occitan, of

a troubadour. The word vida means life in Occitan. In
the chansonniers, the manuscript collections of medieval
troubadour poetry, the works of a particular author are
often accompanied by a short prose biography. The vidas
are important early works of vernacular prose nonction.
Nevertheless, it appears that many of them derive their
facts from literal readings of their objects poems, which
leaves their historical reliability in doubt. Most of the vidas were composed in Italy in the 1220s, many by Uc de
Saint Circ.

4.4

Podest-troubadours

A phenomenon arose in Italy, recognised around the turn

of the 20th century by Giulio Bertoni, of men serving in
several cities as podests on behalf of either the Guelph
or Ghibelline party and writing political verse in Occitan
rhyme. These gures generally came from the urban middle class. They aspired to high culture and though, unlike
the nobility, they were not patrons of literature, they were
its disseminators and its readers.
The rst podest-troubadour was Rambertino Buvalelli,
possibly the rst native Italian troubadour, who was
podest of Genoa between 1218 and 1221. Rambertino,
a Guelph, served at one time or another as podest of
Brescia, Milan, Parma, Mantua, and Verona. It was probably during his three-year tenure there that he introduced
Occitan lyric poetry to the city, which was later to develop
a ourishing Occitan literary culture.

A razo (from Occitan for reason) was a similar short

piece of Occitan prose detailing the circumstances of a
particular composition. A razo normally introduced the
poem it explained; it might, however, share some of the
characteristics of a vida. The razos suer from the same
problems as the vidas in terms of reliability. Many are Among the podest-troubadours to follow Rambertino,
four were from Genoa: the Guelphs Luca Grimaldi, who
likewise the work of Uc de Saint Circ.
also served in Florence, Milan, and Ventimiglia, and
Luchetto Gattilusio, who served in Milan, Cremona, and
Bologna, and the Ghibellines Perceval Doria, who served
in Arles, Avignon, Asti, and Parma, and Simon Doria,
sometime podest of Savona and Albenga. Among the
non-Genoese podest-troubadours was Alberico da Romano, a nobleman of high rank who governed Vicenza
and Treviso as variously a Ghibelline and a Guelph. He
was a patron as well as a composer of Occitan lyric.
Mention should be made of the Provenal troubadour
Isnart d'Entrevenas, who was podest of Arles in 1220,
though he does not t the phenomenon Giulio Bertoni rst
identied in Italy.

4.5 Trobairitz
Main article: Trobairitz

Late 16th-century Italian cursive on paper, recording a song of

Perceval Doria

The trobairitz were the female troubadours, the rst female composers of secular music in the Western tradition. The word trobairitz was rst used in the 13thcentury Romance of Flamenca and its derivation is the
same as that of trobaire but in feminine form. There were
also female counterparts to the joglars: the joglaresas.
The number of trobairitz varies between sources: there
were twenty or twenty-one named trobairitz, plus an additional poet known only as Domna H. There are several
anonymous texts ascribed to women; the total number of
trobairitz texts varies from twenty-three (Schultz-Gora),
twenty-ve (Bec), thirty-six (Bruckner, White, and Shepard), and forty-six (Rieger). Only one melody composed
by a trobairitz (the Comtessa de Dia) survives. Out of
a total of about 450 troubadours and 2,500 troubadour
works, the trobairitz and their corpus form a minor but
interesting and informative portion. They are, therefore,
quite well studied.

7
who died in 1242, though her period of poetic patronage
and composition probably occurred a quarter century earlier, or Guilleuma de Rosers, who composed a tenso with
Lanfranc Cigala, known between 1235 and 1257. There
exist brief prose biographiesvidasfor eight trobairitz:
Almucs de Castelnau (actually a razo), Azalais de Porcairagues, the Comtessa de Dia, Castelloza, Iseut de Capio (also a razo), Lombarda, Maria de Ventadorn, and
Tibors de Sarenom.

5 Works
5.1 Schools and styles

Castelloza

The trobairitz were in most respects as varied a lot as their

male counterparts, with the general exceptions of their
poetic style and their provenance. They wrote predominantly cansos and tensos; only one sirventes by a named
woman, Gormonda de Monpeslier, survives (though two
anonymous ones are attributed to women). One salut
d'amor, by a woman (Azalais d'Altier) to a woman (Clara
d'Anduza) is also extant and one anonymous planh is usually assigned a female authorship. They wrote almost entirely within the trobar leu style; only two poems, one
by Lombarda and another Alais, Yselda, and Carenza,
are usually considered to belong to the more demanding
trobar clus. None of the trobairitz were prolic, or if they
were their work has not survived. Only two have left us
more than one piece: the Comtessa de Dia, with four,
and Castelloza, with three or four. One of the known
trobairitz, Gaudairena, wrote a song entitled Coblas e
dansas, which has not survived; no other piece of hers
has either.
The trobairitz came almost to a woman from Occitania.
There are representatives from the Auvergne, Provence,
Languedoc, the Dauphin, Toulousain, and the Limousin.
One trobairitz, Ysabella, may have been born in Prigord,
Northern Italy, Greece, or Palestine. All the trobairitz
whose families we know were high-born ladies; only one,
Lombarda, was probably of the merchant class. All the
trobairitz known by name lived around the same time: the
late 12th and the early 13th century (c. 1170 c. 1260).
The earliest was probably Tibors de Sarenom, who was
active in the 1150s (the date of her known composition is
uncertain). The latest was either Garsenda of Forcalquier,

Three main styles of Occitan lyric poetry have been identied: the trobar leu (light), trobar ric (rich), and trobar
clus (closed, hermetic). The rst was by far the most
common: the wording is straightforward and relatively
simple compared to the ric and literary devices are less
common than in the clus. This style was the most accessible and it was immensely popular. The most famous
poet of the trobar leu was Bernart de Ventadorn. The
trobar clus regularly escapes modern scholarly interpretation. Words are commonly used metaphorically and
symbolically and what a poem appears to be about on
its surface is rarely what is intended by the poet or understood by audiences in the know. The clus style was
invented early by Marcabru but only favoured by a few
masters thereafter. The trobar ric style is not as opaque as
the clus, rather it employs a rich vocabulary, using many
words, rare words, invented words, and unusual, colourful
wordings.
Modern scholars recognise several schools in the
troubadour tradition. Among the earliest is a school
of followers of Marcabru, sometimes called the Marcabrunian school": Bernart Marti, Bernart de Venzac,
Gavaudan, and Peire d'Alvernhe. These poets favoured
the trobar clus or ric or a hybrid of the two. They were
often moralising in tone and critical of contemporary
courtly society. Another early school, whose style seems
to have fallen out of favour, was the Gascon school
of Cercamon, Peire de Valeira, and Guiraut de Calanso.
Cercamon was said by his biographer to have composed
in the old style (la uzansa antiga) and Guirauts songs
were d'aquella saison (of that time). This style of
poetry seems to be attached to early troubadours from
Gascony and was characterised by references to nature:
leaves, owers, birds, and their songs. This Gascon literary fad was unpopular in Provence in the early 13th
century, harming the reputation of the poets associated
with it.
In the late 13th century a school arose at Bziers, once
the centre of pre-Albigensian Languedoc and of the Trencavel lordships, in the 1260s80s. Three poets epitomise
this school": Bernart d'Auriac, Joan Esteve, Joan Miralhas, and Raimon Gaucelm. All three were natives of

5 WORKS

Bziers and lived there. All three were members of the

urban middle class and no courtesans: Miralhas was possibly a potter and Bernart was a mayestre (teacher). All
three were supporters of the French king Louis IX and
the French aristocracy against the native Occitan nobility. They have been described as Gallicised. Raimon
Gaucelm supported the Eighth Crusade and even wrote
a planh, the only known one of its kind, to a burgher of
Bziers. Joan Esteve and Bernart both composed in support of the French in the Aragonese Crusade. The Bziers
are a shining example of the transformation of Occitania
in the aftermath of the Albigensian Crusade, but also of
the ability of troubadours to survive it.

Enuig a poem expressing indignation or feelings

of insult

5.2

Pastorela the tale of the love request of a knight

to a shepherdess

Genres

Troubadours, at least after their style became established,

usually followed some set of rules, like those of the
Leys d'amors (compiled between 1328 and 1337). Initially all troubadour verses were called simply vers, yet
this soon came to be reserved for only love songs and
was later replaced by canso, though the term lived on
as an antique expression for the troubadours early works
and was even employed with a more technically meaning
by the last generation of troubadours (mid-14th century),
when it was thought to derive from the Latin word verus
(truth) and was thus used to describe moralising or didactic pieces. The early troubadours developed many genres
and these only proliferated as rules of composition came
to be put in writing. The known genres are:
Alba (morning song) the song of a lover as dawn
approaches, often with a watchman warning of the
approach of a ladys jealous husband
Arlabecca a song dened by poetic metre, but perhaps once related to the rebec
Canso, originally vers, also chanso or cano the
love song, usually consisting of ve or six stanzas
with an envoi

Escondig a lovers apology

Estampida a dance-like song
Gap a boasting song, often presented as a challenge, often similar to modern sports chants
Maldit a song complaining about a ladys behaviour and character
Partimen a poetical exchange between two or
more poets in which one is presented with a dilemma
by another and responds

Planh a lament, especially on the death of some

important gure
Plazer a poem expressing pleasure
Salut d'amor a love letter addressed to another,
not always ones lover
Serena the song of a lover waiting impatiently for
the evening (to consummate his love)
Sestina highly structured verse form
Sirventes a political poem or satire, originally put
in the mouth of a paid soldier (sirvens)
Sonnet (sonet) an Italian genre imported into Occitan verse in the 13th century
Tenso a poetical debate which was usually an exchange between two poets, but could be ctional
Torneyamen a poetical debate between three or
more persons, often with a judge (like a tournament)
Viadeira a travellers complaint

Cobla esparsa a stand-alone stanza

All these genres were highly uid. A cross between a sirventes and a canso was a meg-sirventes (half-sirventes).[31]
Comiat a song renouncing a lover
A tenso could be invented by a single poet; an alba or
Crusade song (canso de crozada) a song about the canso could be written with religious signicance, addressed to God or the Virgin; and a sirventes may be nothCrusades, usually encouraging them
ing more than a political attack. The maldit and the coDansa or balada a lively dance song with a refrain miat were often connected as a maldit-comiat and they
could be used to attack and renounce a gure other than
Descort a song heavily discordant in verse form
a lady or a lover, like a commanding ocer (when comand/or feeling
bined, in a way, with the sirventes).
Desdansa a dance designed for sad occasions
Peire Bremon Ricas Novas uses the term mieja chanso

(half song) and Cerver de Girona uses a similar phrase,

miga cano, both to refer to a short canso and not a mix Ensenhamen a long didactic poem, usually not di- ture of genres as sometimes supposed. Cerver's mig (or
vided into stanzas, teaching a moral or practical les- meig) vers e miga cano was a vers in the new sense (a
son
moralising song) that was also highly critical and thus
Devinalh a riddle or cryptogram

5.4

Music

combined the canso and the sirventes. Among the more

than one hundred works of Cerver de Girona are many
songs with unique labels, which may correspond more
to titles than genres, but that is debatable: peguesca
(nonsense), espingadura (ageolet song), libel (legal petition), esdemessa (leap), somni (dream), acuyndamen
(challenge), desirana (nostalgia), aniversari (anniversary), serena (serene).[32]

messenger was commonplace in troubadour poetry; many

songs reference a messenger who will bring it to its intended ear. A troubadour often stayed with a noble patron of his own and entertained his court with his songs.
Court songs could be used not only as entertainment but
also as propaganda, praising the patron, mocking his enemies, encouraging his wars, teaching ethics and etiquette,
and maintaining religious unity.

Most Crusading songs are classied either as cansos or

sirventes but sometimes separately. Some styles became
popular in other languages and in other literary or musical traditions. In French, the alba became the aubade,
the pastorela the pastourelle, and the partimen the jeu
parti. The sestina became popular in Italian literature.
The troubadours were not averse to borrowing either. The
planh developed out of the Latin planctus and the sonnet was stolen from the Sicilian School. Interestingly,
the basse danse (bassa dansa) was rst mentioned in the
troubadour tradition (c. 1324), but only as being performed by jongleurs.

The court was not the only venue for troubadour performance. Competitions were held from an early date.
According to the vida of the Monge de Montaudon, he
received a sparrow hawk, a prized hunting bird, for his
poetry from the cour du Puy, some sort of poetry society associated with the court of Alfonso II of Aragon.
The most famous contests were held in the twilight of the
troubadours in the 14th and 15th centuries. The jocs orals held by the Consistori del Gay Saber at Toulouse, by
Peter IV of Aragon at Lleida, and the Consistori de la
Gaya Scincia at Barcelona awarded oral prizes to the
best poetry in various categories, judging it by its accordance with a code called the Leys d'amors.
Troubadour songs are still performed and recorded today,
albeit rarely.

5.4 Music
Troubadour songs were usually monophonic. Fewer than
300 melodies out of an estimated 2500 survive.[33] Most
were composed by the troubadours themselves. Some
were set to pre-existing pieces of music. Raimbaut de
Vaqueyras wrote his Kalenda maya (The Calends of
May) to music composed by jongleurs at Montferrat.

5.5 Grammars and dictionaries

The Monge de Montaudon receiving a sparrow hawk as a prize

for his performance in a contest

Beginning in the early 13th century, the spread of Occitan verse demanded grammars and dictionaries, especially for those whose native tongue was not Occitan, such
as the Catalan and Italian troubadours, and their imitators. The production of such works only increased with
the academisation of the troubadour lyric in the 14th century.

5.3

6 Legacy

Performance

Troubadours performed their own songs. Jongleurs

(performers) and cantaires (singers) also performed
troubadours songs. They could work from chansonniers,
many of which have survived, or possibly from more rudimentary (and temporary) songbooks, none of which have
survived, if they even existed. Some troubadours, like
Arnaut de Maruelh, had their own jongleurs who were
dedicated to singing their patrons work. Arnauts joglar
et cantaire, probably both a singer and a messenger, who
carried his love songs to his lady, was Pistoleta. The

Main article: Occitan literature

6.1 Transmission
Some 2,600 poems or fragments of poems have survived from around 450 identiable troubadours. They are
largely preserved in songbooks called chansonniers made
for wealthy patrons.

10

8 NOTES

Troubadour songs are generally referred to by their

incipits, that is, their opening lines. If this is long, or after it has already been mentioned, an abbreviation of the
incipit may be used for convenience. A few troubadour
songs are known by nicknames, thus D'un sirventes far
by Guilhem Figueira is commonly called the Sirventes
contra Roma. When a writer seeks to avoid using unglossed Occitan, the incipit of the song may be given in
translation instead or a title may even be invented to reect the theme of the work. Especially in translations
designed for a popular audience, such as Ezra Pounds,
English titles are commonly invented by the translator/editor. There are examples, however, of troubadour
songs given Occitan titles in the manuscripts, such as an
anonymous pastorela that begins Mentre per una ribeira,
which is entitled Porquieira.

6.2

Table of chansonniers

The number of Occitan parchment chansonniers given

as extant varies between authors, depending on how they
treat fragmentary and multilingual manuscripts. Conventionally, fragments are classied as fragments of the surviving chansonnier they most closely resemble and not as
chansonniers in their own right. Some chansonniers have
received both Occitan and French letters: troubadour D
is trouvre H, W is M and X is U. The lettering (siglas)
was introduced by Karl Bartsch, who placed sources he
considered more reliable higher in the alphabet. This system is imperfect, however, since many of the chansonniers produced for an Italian audience are heavily edited
and do not necessarily more closely resemble the original
compositions. While parchment chansonniers are more
durable, paper ones also exist and have received lowercase siglas.[38][39]

References

Gaunt, Simon, and Kay, Sarah, edd. (1999) The

Troubadours: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57473-0.
Jones, W. Powell (1931).
The Jongleur
Troubadours of Provence. PMLA, 46:2 (June), pp.
307311.
Menocal, Mara Rosa (1981). Close Encounters in Medieval Provence: Spains Role in the
Birth of Troubadour Poetry. Hispanic Review, 49:1
(Williams Memorial Issue, Winter), pp. 4364.
Paden, William D. (2005) Troubadours and History (pp. 157182). The world of Eleanor of
Aquitaine : literature and society in southern France
between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, edd.
Marcus Bull and Catherine Lglu. Woodbridge:
Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-114-7.
Riquer, Martn de. Los trovadores: historia literaria
y textos. 3 vol. Barcelona: Planeta, 1975.
Silverstein, Theodore (1949). Andreas, Plato, and
the Arabs: Remarks on Some Recent Accounts of
Courtly Love. Modern Philology, 47:2 (November),
pp. 117126.
Smythe, Barbara (1966). Trobador Poets: Selections
from the Poems of Eight Trobadors, Translated from
the Provenal with Introduction & Notes. New York:
Cooper Square Publishers.
Warren, F. M. (1912). The Troubadour Canso and
Latin Lyric Poetry. Modern Philology, 9:4 (April),
pp. 469487.

8 Notes
[1] Wolf, George (1983). The Poetry of Cercamon and Jaufre
Rudel. London: Garland Publishing.

Abraham, Mary C. (2012) The Rhetoric of the

Troubadours Musical Oerings: Vol. 1: No. 1,
Article 1.

[2] TROUBADOUR : Etymologie de TROUBADOUR.

Akehurst, F. R. P., and Davis, Judith M., edd.

(1995). A Handbook of the Troubadours. Berkeley:
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07976-0.

[4] Jacques Allires, La formation de la langue franaise,

coll. Que sais-je ?, ditions PUF, 1982, p. 49. 2) Imparisyllabiques ) Mots en -OR -RE.

Aubrey, Elizabeth (1989). References to Music

in Old Occitan Literature. Acta Musicologica, 61:2
(MayAugust), pp. 110149.
Boase, Roger (1977). The Origin and Meaning of
Courtly Love: A Critical Study of European Scholarship. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
ISBN 0-87471-950-X.

Chaytor, Henry John (1912). The Troubadours.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[3] Chaytor, Part 1.

[5] ALLIRES 49.

[6] Maria Rosa Menocal (1985), Pride and Prejudice in Medieval Studies: European and Oriental, Hispanic Review,
53:1, 6178.
[7] Roger Boase (1977). The origin and meaning of courtly
love: a critical study of European scholarship. Manchester
University Press. p. 131.
[8] Richard Lemay, propos de l'origine arabe de l'art des
troubadours , Annales. conomies, socits, civilisations,
vol. 21, n5, 1966, p. 991 (French)

11

[9] See Idries Shah, The Sus.

[10] Puois nostre temps comensa brunezir; read the whole text
here

[37] Fully Compendi de la conexena dels vicis que.s podon esdevenir en las dictats del Gay Saber: Compendium of the
knowledge of the vices that can be expressed in the Gay
Science.

[11] read the whole text here

[38] Gaunt and Kay, Appendix 4, 30304.

[12] Del Monte, A. (1955). Peire d'Alvernha, Liriche. Turin.

[39] Paden, Manuscripts, in Akehurst and Davis, 329.

[13] Bell, Joseph Norment (1979). Love theory in later Hanbalite Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press.
p. 221. ISBN 978-0-87395-244-6.

9 External links

[14] M. Guettat (1980), La Musique classique du Maghreb

(Paris: Sindbad).

Literary Encyclopedia: Troubadour.

[15] J. B. Trend (1965), Music of Spanish History to 1600 (New

York: Krause Reprint Corp.)

The University of Naples troubadours text collection

[16] Grove, Troubadour.

Complete works of the major troubadours

[17] Gerald A. Bond, Origins, in Akehurst and Davis, p. 246.

Said I. Abdelwahed. Troubadour Poetry: An Intercultural Experience.

[18] Gerald A. Bond, Origins, in Akehurst and Davis, p. 243.

[19] Warren, 4.
[20] Warren, 7.
[21] Menocal, 47.
[22] Troubadour, Observatoire de terminologie littraire,
University of Limoges, France.
[23] Gerald A. Bond, Origins, in Akehurst and Davis, 244.
[24] Menocal, 46.
[25] Silverstein, 118.
[26] Peter Dronke, The Medieval Lyric, Perennial Library,
1968. p. 111.
[27] Translation based on Marjorie Chibnall, in Bond, p. 240.
[28] Paden, 161.
[29] Paden, 163.
[30] The earliest reference to the basse danse comes from
Raimon de Cornet, who attributes it to the jongleurs of
the mid-14th century.
[31] Sometimes canso-sirventes or sirventes-canso was used.
Bertran de Born uses the term miei sirventes.
[32] Frank M. Chambers (1985), An Introduction to Old
Provenal Versication, (Darby, PA: Diane Publishing,
ISBN 0-87169-167-1.), pp. 19596.
[33] The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music edited by Stanley
Sadie. Macmillan Press Ltd., London.
[34] Sometimes Doctrina de cort: Doctrinal of court.
[35] Sometimes Vers e regles de trobar: Verses and rules of
composition.
[36] Fully Las ors del Gay Saber, estiers dichas las leys
d'amors: The owers of the Gay Science, which are
called the laws of love.

Courtly Site - site on courtly love, literature,

troubadours

12

10

10

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1

Text

Troubadour Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troubadour?oldid=732870026 Contributors: -- April, Camembert, Olivier, Patrick,

Tim Starling, Delirium, Skysmith, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Kingturtle, Rlandmann, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Hyacinth, Topbanana, Bearcat, Robbot, Gnu thomas~enwiki, Romanm, Chris Roy, FredR, Hippietrail, Timrollpickering, Conrad Leviston~enwiki, Wile E. Heresiarch, Tom harrison, Michael Devore, Mboverload, Antandrus, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Harry R, Klemen Kocjancic, Moverton, NeilTarrant, Aranel, Kwamikagami, Dmanister, Madler, Bobo192, Filiocht, Troels Nybo~enwiki, Grovel, Gary, Deacon
of Pndapetzim, Gpvos, RainbowOfLight,
, Woohookitty, Brunnock, Mark K. Jensen, Qaddosh, Chochopk, Varco, Plrk, SeventyThree,
, Princeling51, Stoni, Graham87, Cuchullain, Dimitrii, Amire80, Eleazar~enwiki, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, VKokielov,
Margosbot~enwiki, Bubbleboys, Cdmarcus, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, RobotE, RussBot, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Complainer, Dolsson5, Ad Nauseam, Zwobot, Syrthiss, Gadget850, Bhumiya, TheMadBaron, Ladypine, NYArtsnWords, RenamedUser jaskldjslak904,
Sassisch, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Srnec, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, A. B., Onceler, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
Makemi, AnPrionsaBeag, Dreadstar, DelDav, Andrew Dalby, SoeElisBexter, G-Bot~enwiki, Nishkid64, R1pp3r, Jefe619, Springald,
BeatrixBelibaste, Stoa, Jimmy Pitt, Dodo bird, Peyre, Trialsanderrors, Tawkerbot2, Wolfdog, CWY2190, Ashkan h, Cydebot, Montag451,
Jayen466, Kazubon~enwiki, Julian Mendez, Epbr123, Mactographer, Itsmejudith, JustAGal, S710, Esbullin, Dzubint, Julia Rossi, Bakabaka, VandalHunter, StrawberryClock, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Frankie816, Cynwolfe, Meeples, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Faizhaider, Tedickey, DerHexer, JaGa, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Keith D, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, AlienZen, M-le-mot-dit, Warut, Cometstyles,
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Gennarous, ChrisHodgesUK, Versus22, Stitchill, Nil Blau~enwiki, Addbot, Brumski, Some jerk on the Internet, Toyokuni3, Annielogue,
Download, Glane23, Jackolatern, Ancalagon, Luckyz, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Victoriaearle, Gadzooks100, Gongshow, Brougham96,
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JakeXC17, Rigaudon, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Adlerbot, Kibi78704, Jauhienij, Pdebee, Vrenator, Ashot Gabrielyan, Patrica Douglas, EmausBot, , Savh, ZroBot, John Cline, , Unreal7, Uppsalatanger, ClueBot NG, Bobhoodman, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Argiegeo, Wikitonykline, BG19bot, Garec111, Pinkyminstrel1, Laurenleonieella, CitationCleanerBot, Rjollerer, Trailspark, BlueBirdo,
ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Dexbot, Makecat-bot, Lugia2453, Jamesx12345, Phamnhatkhanh, Aqua817, Dcmo, Alec Smithson, SamWilson989, KasparBot, PRafael66, Hankgreenknowsalot and Anonymous: 224

10.2

Images

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