P--, effects and Analysis

Kesireddy Rakesh Reddy

rkesire@ncsu.edu

Research paper for CE 525

Structural analysis ||
Fall 2012

Abstract

The paper describes the limitations of the first order analysis, emphasizing on the existence of
second order effects in any structure. The importance of these second order effects and the
methods to resolve them have been discussed further. The main discussion of the paper ia
about, second order forces, P delta forces and their effects. A major portion of the study deals
with the implementation of geometrical stiffness matrix of a member in to the structural
analysis equations to accommodate the effects of P-delta and how can they be used in general
analysis of structure without many iterations to arrive at a solution. Paper further discuss about
the methods used by many structural analysis software to include these P-delta effects.

Keywords: Linear analysis, second order effects, P-, P-, Different methods of p-delta analysis,
two cycle iterative method, Geometric stiffness.

Introduction
Typically we use linear elastic static (or commonly known as first order) analysis to determine
design forces and moments resulting from loads acting on a structure. This First order analysis
assumes only a small deflection behavior and the resulting forces and moments take no
account of the additional effects which are formed due to the deformation of the structure
under load. In this first order analysis the equilibrium equations are formulated only for the undeformed shape of the structure irrespective of its deformation due to the various loads

(1).

When such a structure undergoes deformation due to horizontal forces, it carries all the applied
loads into a deformed state along with it. These changes in position of the applied forces are
cumulative in nature and cause additional second order forces, moments, and displacements
which are not included in a general first order analysis

(1).

One of the most important second

order effects that are caused in a structure is the P-delta effect (1). In this paper I tried to define
the p-delta effect, P-Big delta, P-small delta and how do they differ from each other. How to
include these p-delta effects in the analysis of a structure? , and where can we consider or
ignore even if such effects exist? And how do they affect our basic equilibrium equations. In the
later sections I introduced some of the methods available currently to include these second
order effects into the analysis of structure. However, the major part of the paper deals with the
formulation and inclusion of a geometric matrix, which is the basis for majority of structural
software analysis programs to include, estimate and analyze the second order effects in a
structure.

Second order forces and effects

Although ignoring second order effects does not likely to result in overall stability failure of
typical structures, when subjected to earthquake ground motion, these effects can frequently
give rise to a series of premature material failures at the level of forces that would seem safe by
a first-order analysis(1). The effects by these second order forces, are commonly called secondorder effects, can be sufficient enough to reduce the resistance of the frame. These second
order effects are mostly geometrical effects (3). In some cases, stability or second-order effects
are small and can be neglected. However, in many other cases such as tall buildings, systems
under significant gravity loads, soft-story buildings, or systems with significant torsional
response, the second-order effects may be quite significant and hence, should be considered in
the structural analysis

(1).The

strength checks for any structure are correct only if the global

analysis gives a good representation of the behavior of the actual structure. When any frame is
loaded, it deflects so that the shape under load is different from the un-deformed shape, which
is the shape in the analysis. The deflection causes the axial loads in the members to act along
different lines Fig. 1(b) from those assumed in the first order analysis, as shown in Fig. 1(a).The
Effects, commonly called as second-order effects or P-delta effects, can be sufficient enough to
reduce the resistance of the frame.

Figure 1: (a) load acting on un-deformed state of structure, (b) load acting through deformed
state of structure

Figure 2: influence lines of members under the action of lateral loads.

P-Delta Effects
The single most important second order effect is the P-delta effect (1). P-Delta is a non-linear
effect that occurs in every structure where elements are subject to axial load. It is a genuine
affect that is associated with the magnitude of the applied axial load (P) and a displacement
(delta)

(2).

In structural engineering, the P- or P-Delta effect refers to the abrupt changes in

ground shear, overturning moment, and/or the axial force distribution at the base of a
sufficiently tall structure or structural component when it is subject to a critical
lateral displacement. The P-Delta effect is a destabilizing moment equal to the force of gravity
multiplied by the horizontal displacement a structure undergoes as a result of a lateral
displacement

(4).

In some sense, the P-Delta effect is similar to the buckling load of an elastic,

small-scale solid column given the boundary conditions of a free end on top and a completely
restrained end at the bottom, with the exception that there may exist an invariant vertical load
at the top of the column. A rod planted firmly into the ground, given a constant cross-section,
can only extend so far up before it buckles under its own weight; in this case the lateral
displacement for the solid is an infinitesimal quantity governed by Euler buckling (3).
P-Delta effect, also known as geometric nonlinearity, involves the equilibrium and compatibility
relationships of a structural system loaded about its deflected configuration one such particular
concern is the application of gravity load on laterally displaced multi-story building structures.
This condition magnifies story drift and certain mechanical behaviors while reducing
deformation capacity.
P-Delta effect typically involves large external forces upon relatively small displacements. If the
deformations in the structure, becomes sufficiently large to break it from linear compatibility

relationships, then Large-Displacement and Large-Deformation analyses become necessary

(6).

This P-Delta effect can be subdivided in to two different categories namely P- (P - little delta)
and P- (P - big delta) effects.
P-(P-little-delta): It is a member effect, associated with deflections within the length of
members. It is mainly associated with local deformation relative to the element chord between
end nodes. Typically, P- only becomes significant at unreasonably large displacement values,
or in especially slender columns. So long as a structure adheres to the slenderness
requirements pertinent to earthquake engineering, it is not advisable to model P-, since it may
significantly increase computational time in any structural analysis software without providing
the benefit of useful information. An easier way to capture this behavior is to subdivide critical
elements into multiple segments, transferring behavior into P- effect (6).

Figure.3. P-little delta: a member effect.

P- (P-big-delta): It is a structure effect, associated with displacements relative to member

ends. Unlike P-, this type of P-Delta effect is critical to nonlinear modeling and analysis. Gravity
loading will influence structural response under significant lateral displacement. P- may
contribute to loss of lateral resistance, ratcheting of residual deformations, and dynamic
instability. It reduces the effective lateral stiffness, reducing strength capacity in all phases of
the force-deformation relationship. To consider P- effect directly, gravity load should be
present during nonlinear analysis. Application will cause minimal increase to computational
time, and will remain accurate for drift levels up to 10% (6)

Figure.4. P-Big delta: a structure effect.

P-delta effects due To Dead Load, Can Be Considered without Iteration for Both Static and
Dynamic Analysis as stiffness is a function of load and length of a member which can be either
Positive or negative depending on tension (+) or compressive (-) force. The practical
consequence of P- and P- effects is to reduce the stiffness of the frames below that

calculated by first-order analysis. Single-storey portals are sensitive to these effects due to the
axial compression forces in the rafters. These forces are commonly of the order of 10% of the
elastic critical buckling load (or Euler load) of the rafters, around which level the reduction in
effective stiffness becomes important. Tied portals are especially sensitive to the effects
because the axial compression forces in the rafters are commonly many times higher than in
ordinary portals (4).

Figure.5: showing effects of P-Big-Small-delta effects.

Analysis of second order- P-Delta effects

Second-order analysis when accounting for P-Delta combines two effects to reach a solution.
1. Large displacement theory, which states that the resulting forces and moments take full
account of the effects due to the deformed shape of both the structure and its members.
2. Stress stiffening, which is primarily the effect of element axial loads on structure stiffness.
Tensile loads straighten the geometry of an element thereby stiffening it while, Compressive
loads accentuate deformation thereby reducing the stiffness of the element (6).
There are several methods available used for the analysis of these p-delta effects.
1. Amplified sway - the most commonly used method, applicable when 10 < crit < 4.
2. Extended effective lengths it is an approximate method.
3. Second-order analysis - can be used in all situations but must be used if crit < 4. It is
worth noting that if the effects are negligible, a P-Delta analysis will return very similar
results to those of a linear elastic analysis (6).
4. Pseudo load approach this analysis allows the Pseudo horizontal loads at each
floor to be determined. The pseudo loads are applied to the structure to mimic PDelta behavior .The structure is re-analyzed with the pseudo loads applied. This
process can be repeated (further iteration) with additional adjustment to the pseudo
loads. It only deals with P-, hence it is only relevant to structures that are
predominantly gravity loaded, and which have clearly defined floors or diaphragm
levels.

5. Pseudo displacement approach An initial elastic analysis is run to establish nodal

deflections. The structural model is then re-configured using the deflected geometry
and is re-analyzed elastically. Both the pseudo methods do not take stress stiffening into
account and only considers P-Big delta only.
6. The two cycle iterative method proposed by Chen and Lui in 1991, accounts for
geometric stress stiffness. This analysis procedure deals which nodal displacements and
are used to determine stress stiffening in structural elements. The resulting element
geometric (stress) stiffness matrix accommodates both the P- and P- effects as well as
accounting for stress stiffness. Since the geometric (stress) stiffness is used in the
method, there are no significant limitations on its use or applicability unless gross
deformation. Most of the current structural analysis software uses this method of
creating geometric stiffness matrix of structural members to include p-delta effects and
analyze the second order effects.
7. Non-linear static analysis - full Newton Raphson - A full non-linear iterative solution
allows for all sorts of non-linear conditions to be accounted for simultaneously,
including stress stiffening and both the P- and P- effects. The non-linear solution is
carried out in an incremental step-by-step analysis with the total applied loads divided
into a number of load steps. The most popular method of solution for non-linear
equations is the Newton Raphson method.

Geometric (stress) stiffness matrix

When a general geometric (stress) stiffness matrix is used in the method, there are no
significant limitations on its use or applicability

(6), (7).

The use of geometric stiffness matrix

accommodates both the P- and P- effects as well as accounting for stress stiffness.
When a member is subjected to large compressive forces its lateral stiffness is significantly
reduced and a small load can cause it to buckle. This is caused by is caused by a change in the
geometric stiffness of the member which is a function of the load acting and length of the
structural member and can be either positive or negative. The geometric stiffness exists in all
structures; however, it only becomes important if it is large compared to the mechanical
stiffness of the structural system. If the large axial force in the member remains constant, it is
only necessary to form the total stiffness matrix, KT in order to account for this stress stiffening
or softening effect.
Consider a Cantilevered column, when observing a P- effect on a cantilevered column fig.6 (a),
response is shown in fig.6 (b), P- applied to a cantilevered column (single curvature). However,
columns seldom displace with single curvature. More commonly, columns deform according to
a third-order (cubic) displacement pattern under double curvature. As shown in fig.6 (c) and
fig.6 (d), P- effect is much less pronounced because an inflection point intersects the element
chord near mid span, previously where displacement from chord was greatest. fig.6 (e) Papplied to a cantilevered column (double curvature).

The P-Delta problem can be linearized and the solution obtained accurately when the mass is
assumed constant during the simulation and the overall structural displacements are assumed
to be small (8).
Therefore, the accumulated weight can be distributed as compressive-axial forces acting on the
corresponding column. Thus, geometric stiffness matrices can be constructed and assembled
into the global stiffness matrix to account for the overall P-Delta effect. For building structures,
the mass, which causes the P-Delta effect, is constant irrespective of the lateral loads and
displacements. This information is used to linearize the P-Delta effect for buildings and solve
the problem exactly, satisfying equilibrium in the deformed position without iterations. In
many structural software available now, an algorithm is developed that incorporates P-Delta
effects into the basic formulation of the structural stiffness matrix as a geometric stiffness
correction. This procedure can be used for static and dynamic analysis and will account for the
lengthening of the periods and changes in mode shapes due to P-Delta effects.

Conclusion
The purpose of the P-delta analysis is mainly to determine the displacements and stresses due
to time-independent loading conditions under the following assumptions:
1. The effect of axial loads (membrane forces) on the stiffness of the structure is
considered (5).
2. Stiffness effects and applied loads do not depend on time (6).
3. Inertial and damping effects are ignored (9).
4. Static acceleration fields, such as gravity, may be included (that is dead loads) (3).
5. Time independent loads, displacements, pressures and temperature effects may be
applied (8) (7).
Analysis description:
The bending moments of beams can be of two types:
1. Primary bending moments - caused by moments applied at the ends of the beam or by
transverse loading along the span of the beam.
2. Secondary bending moments - caused by the axial force acting through the lateral
displacement of the beam.
The so-called P- moments are moments caused by the axial force acting through the lateral
displacement of the beam relative to its chord (figure.7). Whereas, the P- moments are
caused by the axial force acting through the relative lateral displacement of the two ends of the
beam (figure.7). The effect of axial force on the primary bending moments of slender beams
and shells may be significant. The procedure in which these secondary effects are accounted for
in a static analysis in referred to as a P-delta analysis.

Figure: 7 moments due to P- and P-

The P-delta, in most structural analysis software uses a general geometric (stress) stiffness
matrix as there are no significant limitations on its use or applicability

(6), (7).

The use of

geometric stiffness matrix accommodates both the P- and P- effects as well as accounting for
stress stiffness of any structure (10).

References
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Drift and Lateral Stability.
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Nov/Dec 2002
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No.21, Nov 2002.
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