18 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Analysis of Stress

plots f( a") for different values of

a as shown in Fig. 1.13, the curve
must cut the a axis at least once as
shown by the dotted curve and for
-~~---\--+-----+--~a
this value of a,J( a) will be equal to
zero. Therefore, there is at least one
real root.
Let a3 be this root and n the asFig. 1.13 Plot off(a) versus a
sociated plane. Since the state of
stress at the point can be
characterised by the six rectangular components referred to any orthogonal frame
of reference, let us choose a particular one, x'y'z', where the z' axis is along nand
the other two axes, x' andy', are arbitrary. With reference to this system, the stress
matrix has the form.

19

f(a)

(Yx'

rx'y'

r~,

(Yy'
0

.~ 1

(1.27)

(a-x' -a-)

rx'y'

rx'y'

(a-;. -a-)

(a-3-a-)

Fig. 1.14 Rectangular element

with faces normal
to x:
z' axes

y:

Expanding

(t.28)

(a3 - a) [az - (ax'+ ay.) a-+ a-x.a-y'- r;'y' ] = 0

This is a cubic in a. One of the solutions is a = a 3 . The two other solutions are
obtained by solving the quadratic inside the brakets. The two solutions are

_ (Yx' + (Yy' + ( (Yx' - (Yy' \ 2

z
a-1,2 2
2
) + r x'y'
[

The quantity under the square root

~~

0"3

Figure 1.14 shows these stress vectors

on a rectangular element. The shear stress
components -rx'z' and 'l'y'z' are zero since the
z' plane is chosen to be the principal plane.
With reference to this system, Eq. (1.19)
becomes

x'

(i) If a 1, Oz and a 3 are distinct, i.e. a 1, a 2 and a 3 have different values, then
the three associated principal axes n 1, n 2 and n3 are unique and mutually
perpendicular. This follows from Eq. (1.25) of Sec. 1.12. Since a 1, a2 and
a3 are distinct, we get three distinct axes n 1, nz and n 3 from Eqs (1.18), and
being mutually perpendicular they are unique.
(ii) If a 1 = a 2 and a 3 is distinct, the
axis of n 3 is unique and every
direction perpendicular to n 3 is
,~
a principal direction associated
with a 1 = Oz. This is shown in
Fig. 1.15.
To prove this, let us choose a
frame of reference Ox'y'z' such
Fig. 1.15 Case with a 1 = a2
that the z' axis is along n 3 and
and a3 distinct
the x' andy' axes are arbitrary.
From Eq. ( 1.29), if a 1 = d2, then the quantity under the radical must
be zero. Since this is the sum of two squared quantities, this can happen
only if

(power~)

(1.29)

is never negative and hence,

a 1 and Oz are also real. This means that the curve for f( a) in Fig. 1.13 will cut the
a axis at three points A, B and C in general. In the next section we shall study a
few particular cases.

ax'= ay'

and

-rx'y' = 0

But we have chosen x' andy' axes arbitrarily, and consequently the
above condition must be true for any frame of reference with the z' axis
along n 3 . Hence, the x' andy' planes are shearless planes, i.e. principal
planes. Therefore, every direction perpendicular to n 3 is a principal direction associated with a 1 = Oz .
(iii) If a 1 = a 2 = a 3, then every direction is a principal direction. This is
the hydrostatic or the isotropic state of stress and was discussed in
Sec. 1.7. For proof, we can repeat the argument given in (ii). Choose a
coordinate system Ox'y'z' with the z' axis along n 3 corresponding to a 3 .
Since a 1 = a2 every direction perpendicular to n 3 is a principal direction.
Next, choose the z' axis parallel to nz corresponding to Oz. Then every
direction perpendicular to n 2 is a principal direction since a 1 = a3
Similarly, if we choose the z' axis parallel to n 1 corresponding to a1,
every direction perpendicular to n 1 is also a principal direction. Consequently, every direction is a principal direction.
Another proof could be in the manner described in Sec. 1.7. Choosing Oxyz
coinciding with n 1, nz and n 3, the stress vector on any arbitrary plane n has value
a, the direction of a coinciding with n. Hence, every plane is a principal plane.
Such a state of stress is equivalent to a hydrostatic state of stress or an isotropic
state of stress.

1.15 RECAPITULATION
Tho ~otor;ot ,l;.,f'nccP..l in thP_ l~s:t

few sections is verv imoortant and it is worth-

26 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

r

Choose the coordinate frame of reference Pxyz such that the axes are nalong the
principal axes. On any plane with normal n, the resultant stress vector T and the
normal stress a are such that from Eqs (1.32) and (1.33)

IT

I0

c(

(J3

~
(J2

Io

~A
(J1

12

2
2
2 2
2
2 2
=a + -r = a-1 nx + ~ny + a-3 nz
2

Fig. 1.16 Mohr's stress plane

(i.J) The maximum shear stress is equal to ~ ( a 1 - a3) and the associated normal stress is ~ ( a 1 + a 3). This is indicated by point D on the outer circle.
(iii) Just as there are three extremum values cr 1, a 2 and a3 for the normal
stresses, there are three extremum values for the shear stresses, these
a-a
a 2 - ( 73
().-().
1
3
2 . The planes on which these shear
,
being
and 1
2
2
2
stresses act are called the principal shear planes. While the planes on
which the principal normal stresses act are free of shear stresses, the
principal shear planes are not free from normal stresses. The normal stresses
. d w1t
. h th e prmc1pa
. . l sh ears are respective
. ly a-, + 0"3 , 0"2 + 0"3
associate
2
2
and a-,+ a-2 . These are indicated by points D, E and Fin Fig. 1.16. It will be
2
shown in Sec. 1.19 that the principal shear planes are at 45 to the principal
normal planes. The principal shears are denoted by -r1, -r2 and -r3 where
2r1 = (a-2 - a-3)

(1.36)

* a3 or a 1* a 2 = a 3, the three circles reduce to only one

(iv) When a 1 = a 2

circle and the shear stress on any plane will not exceed -l ( cr 1
2
.!. (a 1 - a2) according as a 1 = a2 or a 2 = a 3.

(1.38)

1 = nx + n y + n z

(1.39)

The above three equations can be used to solve for

2r 2 = (a- 1 - a-3),

(1.37)

a= CTtnx + CT2/1y + CT3n z

)a

and also

2r3 = (a-1 - a-2),

27

Analysis of Stress

a 3) or

n; yielding
(1.40)

2 (a--a-3)(a--a-,)+r2
n = --'-,-----'--"-..:....,-,-----'----,-Y
( 0"2- 0"3)( 0"2- 0"1)

(1.41)

( CT -

CTI) (CT -

CT2) + r2

(1.42)

(a-3- a-I}(a-3- a-2)

nz =

Since n;, n~ and n; are all positive, the right-hand side expressions in the above
equations must all be positive. Recall that we have arranged the principal stresses
such that a 1:2: a 2 :2: a 3. There are three cases one can consider.
Case (i) a 1 > a 2 > a3
Case (ii) a 1 = a2 > a3
Case (iii) a 1

=a = a
2

We shall consider these cases individually.

Case (i) a 1 > a 2 > a 3
For this case, the denominator in Eq. (1.40) is positive and hence, the numerator
must also be positive. In Eq. (1.4 1), the denominator being negative, the numerator must also be negative. Simillirly, the numerator in Eq. (1.42) must be positive. Therefore.
(a- a2)( a - a3) + -r2 ; : : 0

(v) When cr 1 = a2 = cr 3, the three circles collapse to a single point on the a

axis and every plane is a shearless plane.

(a- a 3)(a- a 1) + -r 2 ~ 0
(a- a 1)(a - a 2) + -r 2 ;;::: 0

lhe above three inequalities-Can be rewritten as

It was stated in the previous section that when points with coordinates (a, -r) for

all possible planes passing through a point are marked on the a - -r plane, as in
Fig. 1.16, the points are bounded by the three Mohr's circles. In this, section we

and

2
2 (a--a-2)(a--a-3)+
n = --'----;--~~,.---::.-'---;x
(a-,- a-2)(a-,- a-3)

:J.18 . MOHR'S STRESS PLANE

n;, n~

CT

0"2

+ 0"3) > (0"2- 0"3)

30

Analysis of Stress

Advanced Mechanics of Solids

(Joct =
2

and

r oct =

~(()I+ ()2 +

((()I - ()2)

9r~t = 2(()1 +

or

or

oct =

= ~ 11

+ ( ()2

31

()3)

+ ( ()3

- ()If]

()2()3

+ (}3(}1)

- 1

- 3 ((jx +

9r~ 1 = ( 0:<-

()Y + (

(1.44b)

(1.45)

(Jz) 2 + ( ()z

()Y -

- ()x)

+ 6 ( r;Y + r~ + r;x)

(1.46)

The octahedral normal stress being equal to 1/3 11, it may be interpreted as the
mean normal stress at a given point in a body. If in a state of stress, the first
invariant ( ()1 + ()2 + ()3) is zero, then the normal stresses on the octahedral planes
will be zero and only the shear stresses will act. This is important from the point
of view of the strength and failure of some materials (see Chapter 4).

Example 1.8

The state ofstress at a point is characterised by the components

= 100 MPa, ()y = -40 MPa,
rxy = ryz = rzx = 0
()x

()z

= 80 MPa,

Determine the extremum values of the shear stresses, their associated normal
stresses, the octahedral shear stress and its associated normal stress.
Solution The given stress components are the principal stresses, since the
shears are zero. Arranging the terms such that ()1 ~ ()2 ~ ()3,
()1 = 100 MPa, ()2 = 80 MPa, ()3 = -40 MPa
Hence from Eq. (1 .36),
rl =

Tz

O"z-0"3

=80+40=60MPa

= - 70 MPa
- -40-100
2

=
_

0"1 -0"2

- -2-

100-80

10

MP

0"3

0"1

0"1 -

-40 + 100 = 30 MPa

- O"z )

1 ( 0"1 +
()oct -- 3

0"2

= 0"2 +0"3

+ ( 0"2

- 0"3 )

+ ( 0"3

- 0"1 )

2 ]1/~
. .=

61.8 MPa

+ 0"3 ) = -140
- = 46.7 MPa
3

1.21 .. THE STATE OF PURE SHEAR

r xy

[rij =rr:

rxz

rxz
l
ryz

ryz

For this coordinate system, / 1 = ()x + ()Y + ()z = 0. Since 11 is an invariant, this
tilust be true for any choice of coordinate system selected at P. Hence, the neceslry condition for a state of pure shear to exist is that / 1 = 0, It can be shown
(Appendix 2) that this is also a sufficient condition.
It was remarked in the previous section that when ! 1 = 0, an octahedral plane
1s subjected to pure shear with no normal stress. Hence, for a pure shear stress
lute, the octahedral plane (remember that this plane is defined with respect to
I he principal axes and not with respect to an arbitrary set of axes) is free from
normal stress.

'DECOMPOSITION INTO HYDROSTATIC

AND PURE SHEAR STATES

II will be shown in the present section that an arbitrary state of stress can be
t l'~o lved into a hydrostatic state and a state of pure shear. Let the given state
tl' !'erred to a coordinate system be

_ 80-40_'JOMP<>

l'he state of stress at a point can be characterised by the six rectangular stress
components referred to a coordinate frame of reference. The magnitudes of these
components depend on the choice of the coordinate system. If, for at least one
particular choice of the frame of reference, we find that 0:, = ()Y = ()z = 0, then a state
of pure shear is said to exist at point P. For such a state, with that particular choice
of coordinate system, the stress matrix will be

[rii] =

The associated normal stresses are

fT.

+ 0"2 - 100 + 80 = 90 MPa

2
2

- 1[
roct - 3 (0"1

.22

0"3 - 0"1 _

r3-

(}"3

(1.44c)

) 11 2

+ (jz)

()y

O"z

(1 .44a)

It is important to remember that the octahedral planes are defined with respect
to the principal axes and not with reference to an arbitrary frame of reference.
Since ()oct and roct have been expressed in terms of the stress invariants, one can
express these in terms of ()x, ()Y' ()z , rxy, ryz and rzx also. Using Eqs (1.22) and (1.23),
()oct

(1 .43)

+ ()3) 2 - 6((}1(}2 +

()2

J23 (12I -

()3)

31

l,l'l

P = 1/3( (jr +

(jv

r xy

u.

rxy

(}"y

'n
ryz

rxz

ryz

O"z

+ (),) = }/3/1

(1.47)

35

Analysis of Stress

34 Advanced Mecha nics of Solids

The principal stresses when arranged such that a 1 <=: a 2

~ - pd .

~ - pd .

vl - l t '

~ -

v2-4f

v3--

<=:

a3 are

We shall now show that the normal m to the surface S is parallel to T, the
resultant stress vector. Let Pxyz be the principal axes at P (Fig. 1.21 ). n is the
11ormal to a particular plane at P. The normal stress on this plane, as before, is

The maximum shear stress is therefore,

'max

=t(CYI

-CY3)=tp(;t +1)

1'-t Q (x, y, z)
2

X
X

CAUCHY'S STRESS QUADRIC

Fig. 1.21

Principal axes at P and

n to a plane

aJ~ + az i + a3J

1/._/a

~.T

<n

(a)

Fig. 1.20 (a) Cauchy's stress quadric

(b) Resultant stress vector and
nonnal stress component

+1

(1.53a)

alx 2 + a2y 2 + a 3r 2-- - 1

(1.53b)

IIlii

We know from calculus that for a surface with equation F(x, y, z) = 0, the
mal to the tangent plane at a point Q on the surface has direction cosines

Jll oportional to
It 1 the

a;,:

and

c:;:. From Fig. (1.20), m is the normal perpendicular

tangent plane to Sat Q. Hence, if mx, my, and m2 are the direction cosines of

,, , then

oF

mx =a o x'

oF

my = a o y '

m =a
2

(1.51)

R2
If m is a normal to the tangent
plane to the surface S at point Q,
then this normal m is parallel to the
n

mx = 2aalx,
my = 2aazy,
wli nc a is a constant of proportionality.
I

according to Eq. ( 1.31 ), are

n

" = CYlnx,
Tx

TY = CYlny,

Tz = CY3nz

uhsti tuting for nx, ny and nz from Eq. (1.52)

T can be easily _ _ ...__ __ _

(1.54)

mz= 2aa3z
n

is the resultant stress vector on plane n and its components T x , T y , and

Since the direction of the result-

a along the normal is known, the resultant stress vector

oz

11

resultant stress vector T at P.

ant vector T is known, and its com-

ponent

oF

l11u n Eq. (1.53a) or Eq. (1.53b)

CY=-l-

(b)

(1.52)

when a is compressive

(1.50)

As different planes n are chosen at P, we get different values for the normal
stress a and correspondingly different PQs. If such Qs are marked for every plane
passiug through P, then we get a surface S. This surface determines the normal
component of stress on every plane passing through P. This surface is known as
the stress surface of Cauchy. This
has a very interesting property. Let
m
Q be a point on the surface,
Fig. 1.20(a). By the previous definition, the length PQ = R is such that
\
the normal stress on the plane whose
/ R~
T
normal-is along PQ is given by

~n

= ~

when a is tensile

Along the normal n to the plane, choose a point Q such that

/~Q

nz

From Eq. (1.51), we have aR 2 = 1. The

plus sign is used when a is tensile and the
minus sign is used when a is compressive.
Hence, the surface S has the equations
(a surface of second degree)

a= CYI nx + CYz ny + CY3nz

PQ=R=

=R'

a R2 = alxz + a2i + a3J

We shall now describe a geometrical description of the state of stress at a point P.

Choose a frame of reference whose axes are along the principal axes. Let a 1, a 2
and a 3 be the principal stresses. Consider a plane with normal n. The normal
stress on this plane is from Eq. (1.33),

ny

Substituting these in the above equation for a

1.23

nx = R '

-9

100 1) = 35 700 JcP

2 1.8 +
'
a

= 1400 (1.8

If the coordinates of the point Q are

(x, y , z) and the length PQ = R, then

Substituting the values

'max

CY = CY1nx + CYzny + CY3nz

"'

ll

"'

:!..