Structures II, MACE, University of Manchester

Topic 1

Beam Theory

Basic Theory of Beam Bending

Coordinate system and displacements: The coordinate system will be so chosen that the xaxis coincides with the axis of the beam and the cross-section of the beam lies in the y-z plane.
The load will be applied in the z-direction and displacement in the z-direction is called
deflection, denoted as w. A point on a cross-section may also displace in the x-axis as a result
of bending deformation and this placement is noted as u. It is assumed that there is no
displacement in the y-direction. This is always true if the load is applied in the x-z plane and
the cross-section of the beam is symmetric about the z-axis.
Neutral axis: An axis in the plane of the cross-section of the beam is called neutral axis if the
first moment of area of the cross-section of the beam about the y-axis vanishes, i.e.
S = zdA = 0 where A is the cross-section area. In future, axis y will always be chosen such
A
that it coincides with the neutral axis.
Plane section assumption:

du
is not a function of z;
dz
du
dw
Cross-section remains perpendicular to the axis:
=
dz
dx
2
du
dw
du
d w
=
= 2
u=z
= z
= z
dz
dx
dx
dx

Cross-section remains plane:

Thus

(1)

where is the curvature (approximate).

z
w=w(x)
z, w

q=q(x)

x, u

Figure 1

d 2w
Stress-strain relationship:
= E = Ez = Ez 2
dx
where E is the Youngs modulus of the material.
Stress resultants N :

(2)

N = dA

(3)

Bending moment:

M = zdA = zEdA = E z 2 dA = EI = EI
A

where I is the second moment of the cross-section area of the beam: I = z 2 dA

A

1-1

d 2w
dx 2

(4)
(5)

Structures II, MACE, University of Manchester

bh 3
12
M = EI
M
=z
I
dM
Q=
dx
dQ
+q =0
dx
d 4w
EI 4 = q
dx
I=

For a rectangular cross-section:

Generalised stress-strain relationship:
Stress-moment relationship:
Shear force and bending moment relationship:
Equilibrium of forces transverse to the beam:

Governing equation for deflection:

(6)
(7)

Q = EI

d 3w
dx 3

(8)

d 2M
+q =0
dx 2

(9)
(10)

[Note] Many of the above formulae are not applicable if the y axis does not coincide with the
neutral axis of the cross-section and, hence, it is essential to place the coordinate axis
properly first before you start to solve any problem.
Boundary conditions:
Built-in:

w = 0 and

dw
= 0;
dx

Simple-support:

w = 0 and

M =0

Free-end:

M = 0 and

Q = 0.

(11)
or

d 2w
= 0;
dx 2

(12)

(13)

Sign convention for beam (also illustrated in Fig. 2):

Positive deflection is in the same direction of positive z-coordinate;

Positive distributed load q is in the same direction of positive z-coordinate;
Positive bending moment produces positive (tensile) stress in the quadrants of positive zcoordinate;
Positive shear force produces shear stress in the positive z-direction on a positive crosssection or in the negative z-direction on a negative cross-section. A cross-section is
called positive if the outward normal to the section is in the positive direction of x and,
otherwise, it is negative.

+q

z
+w

Positive cross-section
z
x
+Q

+M
z

-q

w
Negative cross-section
Figure 2
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Shear stress
The shear force Q on the cross section produces shear stress in the beam. Consider a small
area A surrounding a point on the cross section, the shear force acting on this small area is
Q.
z

Q
A

y
x
Figure 3
The shear stress at this point on the cross section is defined as:

= lim
A 0

Q
A

(14)

Shear stress is parallel to the surface. The dimension and units for shear stress are same as
direct stress.

Complementary shear stress

Consider a rectangular block of unit thickness subjected to shear stresses only as shown in
Fig.4. Equilibrium considerations result in

X = 0 : 1 BC 3 AD = 0 1 = 3
Y = 0 : CD AB = 0
M = 0 ( for equilibrium)
M = BC AB CD AD = 0
2

A
A

=4

4
A

2
3

Figure 4

1 = 2

Thus an applied shear stress is automatically accompanied by a shear stress of equal intensity
on the plane at right angles (and causing an opposite turning moment) to the original shear
stress. The pair of shear stresses is called complementary shear stresses. In future, we shall
not distinguish between 1 and 2.

Sign Conventions
A plane is defined by its normal. A positive plane of an element means its outward normal
points to the positive direction of one of the coordinate axes.
Like direct stress, shear stress is a type of internal force. It requires a sign convention to

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define its sense. By conventions, positive and negative shear stresses are as shown in Fig. 5,
i.e., a shear stress is positive if it is in the positive direction of coordinate axis on a positive
plane or in the negative direction of coordinate axis on a negative plane. A negative shear
stress can be logically inferred as a shear stress in the positive direction of coordinate axis on
a negative plane or in the negative direction of coordinate axis on a positive plane. One may
find that the sense of direct stress can be stated in the same way.

Positive

Negative

Arrows showing
direction of normal
to face

Figure 5

Transverse Shear Stress

Shear force Q is the resultant of distributed shear stress over the cross-section. However, the
bending theory as outlined above does not provide any indication about the distribution of this
shear stress over the cross-section. Special considerations are required as follows before such
a distribution can be obtained.
A(z)

Q+dQ
z

F+dF

F
x

T
y

M Q

(neutral axis)

dx
M+dM
(a) segment of beam

b(z)
(b) cross section

(c) top part of the beam

Figure 6
Take an infinitesimal segment dx of the beam as shown in Fig. 6(a) above. The stress
resultants on both ends of it are as indicated. Relative to M on the left end, an increment dM
is expected on the right end
dM = Qdx .

(15)

Now take the top part of the beam segment as shaded in Fig. 6(a) and (b) as a free-body as
shown in Fig. 6(c). The resultant of normal stress on this part of the cross-section on the left
end is
F ( z ) = A( z ) dA =

M
I

A( z ) zdA =

M
S (z )
I

1-4

(16)

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where A(z) is the shaded part of the cross-section area (i.e. whole cross-section minus the
hatched part in Fig. 6(b)) and
S ( z ) = A( z ) zdA

(17)

is the first moment of area A(z) about y-axis, which is in general a function of z, the
coordinate of surface as indicated in the figure above. The resultant at the right end is F plus
an increment dF which is obtained as
dF =

dF
S ( z ) dM
S (z )
dx =
dx =
Qdx
dx
I dx
I

(18)

From the consideration of equilibrium in the x-direction, F on the left and that on the right
cancel each other, while the increment dF has to be balanced by the distributed shear force T
(force per length) on the bottom surface of this part of the beam segment (see Fig. 6(c)), i.e.
Tdx = dF
T = T (z ) =

Thus

(19)
dF S ( z )
=
Q.
dx
I

(20)

Assume that this shear force T is distributed evenly across the width at that location b(z). The
shear stress can be found

T
S (z )
=
Q
b( z ) Ib( z )

(21)

As shear stress is always paired, the same amount of shear stress is also found on the crosssection at the corresponding z as shown in Fig. 6(c). It is obvious that the shear stress
vanishes on the top (i.e. z=ztop) and bottom (i.e. z=zbottom) surfaces as expected, since
A(z) = 0 if z=ztop and therefore S ( z ) = 0 ;
A(z) = A if z=zbottom and therefore S ( z ) = zdA = 0 , because axis y is the neutral axis.
A

In the case of the rectangular cross-section, the width of the beam b(z)=b and z top = h 2 , h

being the height of cross-section, I = bh 3 12 , then

ztop

S (z ) =

zdA = 2 (z

2
top

z2

(z)

h 2 4z 2
=
Q
8I
3Q 3
max = z =0 =
=
2bh 2

y
quadratic function of z (Fig. 7).
at neutral axis.
Figure 7

where = Q bh is the average shear stress over the cross-section. Obviously, the maximum
shear stress is 50% higher than the average shear stress over the cross-section. A design
using would underestimate the stress level and, hence, overestimate the strength of the
structure. This would be on the risky side, which is usually bad.

[Note] Before using formula (21) for beam of other cross-sections, remember:
Shear stress is at a location where a border divides the cross-section into two parts
(shaded and hatched in Fig. 6(b))
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I is calculated for the whole cross-section

S(z) is calculated for only the shaded part of the cross-section, see Fig. 6(b)
b(z) is the breadth of the border which divides the cross-section into two parts, Fig. 6(b).

Example 1: Find the shear stress in the web and flange wing of an I-beam under three-point
bending, where the applied central load is 2P. The cross-section is as shown in the figure.

b
t

A(z)

2P

w
h

f
z =h

Q=+P

Q=P

y = bw / 2

z =0

bw

Figure 8

Figure 9

Solution:
h
h+t

b
b
2
3
I = z 2 dA = 2 b z 2 dz + bw z 2 dz = 2 (h + t ) h3 + w h3 = bt 3h 2 + 3ht + t 2 + bw h 3
3 3
3
A
0
h

S (z ) =

h+t

zdA = b zdz + bw zdz =

A( z )

[ (

b
b
b
(h + t )2 h 2 + w h 2 z 2 = bt (2h + t ) + w h 2 z 2
2
2
2
2

The shear forces on both sides of the centrally applied load 2P are of opposite sense, i.e.
Q = P .

w
w

S ( z)
3 bt (2h + t ) + bw h 2 z 2
Q=
P
Ib( z )
4 bw bt 3h 2 + 3ht + t 2 + bw h 3
3
bt (2h + t )
P
z =h =
2
4 bw bt 3h + 3ht + t 2 + bw h 3

w =

( (

( (

z =0

bt (2h + t ) + bw h 2
3
P
4 bw bt 3h 2 + 3ht + t 2 + bw h 3

( (

If the web is bonded on to the flange using an adhesive, the required minimum bonding
strength of the adhesive would be given by w z =h .
When bw is small enough (relative to b), h is large enough (relative to t) and bt>>bwh

P
2bw h

i.e. the shear force/stress is equally distributed over the cross-section of the web.

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The same considerations can be given to the wings of the flanges, see Fig. 9. The shear force
required is
h+t
b

y zdz
3
t (2h + t )
2
h
b

T=
Q=
P y
2
2
3
I
4 bt 3h + 3ht + t + bw h 2

Assuming a uniform distribution of the shear force over the thickness of the flange wing, the
shear stress as indicated in the figure as a function of y can be obtained as

f =

T 3
t (2h + t )
b

=
P y
2
2
3
t 4 t bt 3h + 3ht + t + bw h
2

( (

The maximum value is located at y=bw/2:

f max = f

y =b w 2

3
t (2h + t )
P(b bw )
2
8 t bt 3h + 3ht + t 2 + bw h 3

( (

Under the same extreme conditions as above, i.e. bw << b, h >> t and bt>>bwh

f max = f

y =0

P
4ht

From view point of bending, the thinner the flange is, the farther the flanges can be put apart
and therefore the better. According the equation above, as t decreases, the shear stress in the
flange increase dramatically and the flange may fail in shear. This is a possible failure
mechanism which needs to be considered when designing the flange.

Example 2: Carry on with the above example and assume that the flange is bolted on to the
web and the permissible shear force a bolt can take is R. How should be the bolts spaced?
dF
R
R

Bolt
s

R
Figure 10

The shear force between the web and flange is

Solution:
T=

S (z )
Q = bw w
I

z =h

3
bt (2h + t )
P
2
4 bt (3h + 3ht + t 2 ) + bw h 3

Denote the bolt space by l. Over a length of l, the resultant of this shear force is T l which
will be taken by a bolt. To ensure the safety of the bolt, Tl R, i.e.

l l max

R 4 R bt (3h 2 + 3ht + t 2 ) + bw h 3
= =
T
3Pbt (2h + t )

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The bolts can be spaced at most by a distance lmax as given above apart. Otherwise, the bolts
may not be able to transmit the shear safely.
When bw is small enough (relative to b), h is great enough (relative to t) and bt>>bwh
l max

2 Rh
P

Beams on Elastic Foundation

Assume the beam rests on an elastic foundation. The elastic constant of the foundation is
denoted as k (force per deflect per length in x-direction, i.e. force/length2)
w=w(x)

w=w(x)

z, w

q=q(x)

Elastic foundation

f=kw
Figure 11

dQ
+q f =0
or
dx
d 4w
Governing equation for deflection: EI 4 + kw = q
dx
Equilibrium in z-direction:

d 2M
kw + q = 0
dx 2

(22)
(23)

Bending of Axially Loaded Beams

Assume the axial load N. An infinitesimal segment (length is dx) of the deformed beam is
taken and the free body diagram is shown below. The governing equations will be derived
from the consideration of the equilibrium of the deformed segment.
q
M+dM
w=w(x)
M
N
z, w
V+dV
q=q(x)
dx
w+dw
w N V
x
N

N
Figure 12

Force equilibrium in x-direction:

NN =0

(automatically satisfied)

Force equilibrium in z-direction:

V + qdx + (V + dV ) = 0

Moment equilibrium about :

M qdx

dx
+ (M + dM ) (V + dV )dx + Ndw = 0
2

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(24)
(25)

Structures II, MACE, University of Manchester

dV
+q =0
dx

From equation (23) we have

(26)

Neglecting higher order terms of small parameters (0.5qdxdx, dVdx) in equation (25)
dM
dw
d 3w
dw
V =
+N
= EI 3 + N
dx
dx
dx
dx

(27)

V is called the resultant shear force (perpendicular to the axis of the beam before deformation).
Due to the presence of axial load N on the cross-section of the beam, shear force V is no
longer simply Q anymore, N makes a contribution as well.
Substituting equation (27) to (26) leads to the Governing equation for deflection:
d 4w
d 2w
EI 4 N 2 = q .
dx
dx

(28)

When one comes to prescribe boundary conditions, e.g., for a free-end where shear force is
involved, it is vitally important that the resultant shear force V is employed instead of Q. The
free-end boundary conditions will be
M = EI

d 2w
=0
dx 2

and

V = EI

d 3w
dw
+N
=0.
3
dx
dx

Example 3:
A simply-support beam is
subjected to a distributed load in a sinusoidal
form as shown in the figure.
Find the
maximum deflection. Introduce an elastic
foundation k and an axial load N, respectively,
find the maximum deflection of the beam again.
Compare the results obtained.

(29)

q = q0 sin

x
l

x
EI
l

Figure 13
. The simply
l
supported boundary conditions are obviously satisfied, as
0
d 2w
2
0
at x=0:
w = w0 sin
=0
and
=

w0 sin
=0
2
2
l
l
dx
l
l
d 2w
2
l
at x=l:
w = w0 sin = 0
and
= 2 w0 sin = 0
2
l
l
dx
l
Solution: Assume w = w0 sin

Substitute it into the governing equations (10), (23) and (28) respectively in each case. The
x
governing equations are satisfied if the w0 is expressed as follows and then w = w0 sin
l
would be the right solution to the problem.
Plain beam:

d 4w
4
x
x
EI 4 = EI 4 w0 sin
= q 0 sin
l
l
dx
l

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l 4 q0
w0 = 4
EI

Structures II, MACE, University of Manchester

d 4w
x
x
Beam on foundation: EI 4 + kw = EI 4 + k w0 sin
= q 0 sin
l
l
dx
l

l 4 q0
l 4 q0
1
w0 = 4
=
c
where
cf =
f
4
4
EI + l k
EI
l 4k
1+ 4
EI

d 4w
d 2w 4
2
x
x

w sin

N
=
EI
+
N
= q 0 sin
4
2
4
2 0

l
l
dx
dx
l
l

4
4
l q0
l q
1
w0 = 4
= cN 4 0
where
cN =
2 2
EI + l N
EI
l2N
1+ 2
EI

Axially loaded beam: EI

The foundation elastic coefficient k is a positive number and therefore the foundation always
reinforces the beam. It helps to reduce the maximum deflection by a factor of cf.
A tensile axial load reinforces the beam by a factor of cN, while a compressive axial load
reduces the stiffness of the beam. When the compressive axial load is sufficiently high, the
beam may lose its stiffness completely, i.e. cN=. This is described as buckling, which is the
subject of the next part of the course.

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Structures II, MACE, University of Manchester

Tutorial Questions (set 1)

1.1

Two identical bars of square cross-section (aa) are glued together, one on top of
another, and used as a simply supported beam. The length of the beam is l. The beam
is then subjected to a uniformly distributed load q. Find the required minimum shear
strength of the glue (force per area). Evaluate it when a=10mm, l=2m and q=1kN/m.
Answer:
7.5MPa
z

q
x
2a

1.2

Assembled I-beam as shown in the figure is under three-point bending (simply

supported beam subjected to a concentrated force 2P at middle). It consists of 4
identical L-section riveted onto a web of the same material. Assuming the maximum
shear force a rivet takes is R, determine the rivet spacing l. Evaluate l when a=50mm,
t=12mm, h=200mm, P=10kN and R=80kN. Should the L-sections be bonded onto the
web using glue, what is the required bonding strength?
Answer:
3.472m (at most)
0.4608MPa (at least)

a
P

2P

P
h

Rivets
Thickness of every
component is t

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1.3

Square box beam of uniform thickness is used as a cantilever loaded at the tip. Find
the distributions of direct stress and shear stresses along the external perimeter of
section and identify the locations where each of the stresses reaches it maximum value,
respectively. Determine the maximum stresses when P=20N and l=1.2m. Usually,
the magnitude of the shear stress is insignificant compared with the direct stress.
However, as l reduces, the situation will change. Find out to what length l should be
reduced before the shear stress starts to become significant.
Answer:
max=37.66MPa
max = 0.4036MPa
z
z

P
x
l

a=20mm

t=1.5mm

z
1.4

In order to reduce the maximum

deflection of a simply supported beam
subjected to a sinusoidal distributed load
by 10%, either elastic foundation or
axial tension can be applied. Find the
appropriate k or N in each case. Assume
the beam is of circular cross-section of
10mm diameter and its length is 1m.
The Youngs modulus is E=70GPa.
N = 37.68N
Answer: k=371.9 N/m2

1-12

q = q0 sin

EI

x
l