Ch5-6 2014

1
Computer Programming
5. Basic Object Oriented Programming
What is an Object?
The real world is composed of different kinds of
objects: buildings, men, women, dogs, cars, etc.
Each object has its own states and behaviors.
Behaviors
Color = Red
Brand = Ferrari
Speed = 200 mph
Gear = 4
Changing
Gear
Steering
States
Variables and functions
Accelerating
Braking
What is a Software Object?

Software designers use the same idea to ease
programmers to develop their software
Software is also composed of different kind of
software objects
Each software object also has its own states and
behaviors.
Method
(Behavior)
Press( )
Button
Variables (States)
Color = Grey
Size = 2cm x 2cm
Shape = Rectangular
(protruded)
Encapsulation
Hiding information within an objects nucleus

Provide a public interface for interacting with it
Advantages to software developers
Modularity: An object can be easily passed around in the
system (Otherwise, you need to think about how many
files you need to bundle together to pass to your
friends)
Library
Reusability
Information hiding: Users need not go into details of the
object before using the object (E.g., you dont need to
know the circuit of a TV set if you want to watch TV)
Safety: Users of the object may not directly access the
internal state of the object. This reduces the possibility
of erroneous situations.
What is a Class?
A Class is a blueprint or prototype that defines
the variables and methods common to all objects
of a certain kind
Every object of a Class is an instance of that class
Benefit - Reusability
This arrangement saves effort in developing a number of
objects of the same kind.
Usually objects of a class
are used many times in
an application
Objects of class button
The Button Class

Variables
Color (e.g. Grey)
Size (e.g. 2cm x 2cm)
Press( ) Shape (e.g. Rectangular)
(protruded)
Method
Instantiation
Instance of
Button Class
Instantiation
Instance of
Button Class
Many Different Objects

bill
from a Single Class
Attributes:
Age = 47
Height = 177 cm
Weight = 68 kg
Methods:
Move
Person
Class
Attributes:
Age
Height
Weight
Methods:
Move
scott
Instances
Attributes:
Age = 52
Height = 182 cm
Weight = 75kg
Methods:
Move
steve
Attributes:
Age = 50
Height = 180 cm
Weight = 71 kg
Methods:
Move
larry
Attributes:
Age = 54
Height = 179 cm
Weight = 67 kg
Methods:
Move
Classes are implementations of Data Types

z
A class is a programmer-defined data type and objects

are variables of that type
z
z
z
Just like in int x;, x is a variable of type int
Class: in some sense, a data type that defines both data

and functions
When a data type has been created, programmers can
use it without knowing how it is implemented internally
Example: a date object might include operations for various
display formats, comparing two dates, extracting the month,
day, and year numbers, etc.
A class generally contains private data and public operations
(called member functions)
Declaring Classes in C++
To declare a class, use the class keyword as follows

class Cat
{
unsigned int
itsAge;
// Member variable
unsigned int
itsWeight;// Member variable
void Meow();
// Member function
}; Definition of Meow() should follow somewhere
Declaring this class does NOT allocate memory for a Cat

Only tell the compiler what a Cat is, how big a Cat is (by
member variables, e.g. itsAge, itsWeight), what a Cat
would do (by member functions, e.g. Meow() )
Declaration of classes should be placed in the header file
and included into your program. #include
Declaring an Object of a Class

When a class is defined, we can further define the objects of
that class:
Cat Frisky;
// define one of the Cats call Frisky
It states that we are going to handle a Cat called Frisky

It is similar to declaring a number of the type integer
int xyz;
// define one of the integers call xyz
Obviously, if one declares two cats as follows

Cat Frisky, Felix;
// define two Cats
Frisky is never the same as Felix, although they both

belong to the class Cat, i.e. they are cats.
10
Variable and
methods
When an object is defined, we can access the members of
that object based on its class definition
Accessing Class Members
For example, if we want to know the weight of Frisky:

unsigned int weight = Frisky.itsWeight;
// Get the weight of Frisky
The operator . allows us to access the members of the

object
Similarly, if we want to know the age of Frisky:
unsigned int age = Frisky.itsAge;
// Get the age of Frisky
If we want to ask Frisky to meow:

Frisky.Meow();
// Ask Frisky to execute meow()
11
Accessing Class Members

Never access directly to class
Cat.itsAge = 5;
// Dont do that! Cat is class
It is because Cat is only a template of all cats. A different

cat may have a different age
If we want to assign the age of Frisky, we write:
Frisky.itsAge = 5;
// Set the age of Frisky to 5
Also, if the class doesnt define a member, you cant use it

Frisky.bark();
// Frisky has no bark() defined
Frisky.itsColor = 5;
// Also error, because the class

//
Cat does not have itsColor
12
Private Versus Public

Members can be divided into public members or private
members
Private members of a class are those members that can
only be accessed by methods of that class
By default, all members are private
Public members of a class are those members that can be
accessed by other class objects and functions
This mechanism provides the privacy or security to the
information of a class that requires protection.
Typically, access private members by public methods.
13

#include <iostream> // for cout
using namespace std;
class Cat
// declare the class
{
int itsAge;
An
Anerror
errorisisgenerated
generatedsince
sinceby
by
int itsWeight;
default
};
defaultitsWeight
itsWeightand
anditsAge
itsAge
are
areprivate.
private.They
Theycannot
cannotbe
be
int main()
accessed
accessedeven
evenby
bymain()
main()
{
Cat Frisky;
Frisky.itsAge = 5; // assign to the member variable
cout << "Frisky is a cat who is ";
cout << Frisky.itsAge << " years old.\n";
return 0;
}
14

class Cat
{
public:
int itsAge;
Now
NowitsWeight
itsWeightand
anditsAge
itsAge
int itsWeight;
are
};
arepublic
publicmembers.
members.They
Theycan
can
be
beaccessed
accessedby
bymain()
main()
int main()
{
Cat Frisky;
Frisky.itsAge = 5; // assign to the member variable
cout << Frisky.itsAge << " years old.\n";
return 0;
}
15
How Private Variables are used?

class Cat
// declare the class Cat
{
public: void SetAge (int age);
Public
PublicRead/write
int GetAge();
Accessor
Accessor
void SetWeight (int weight);
Methods
int GetWeight();
Methods
private: int itsAge;
Private
Privatemember
member
int itsWeight;
variables
};
variables
int Cat::GetAge()
{
return itsAge;
Accessor
}
Accessormethods
methodsprovide
provide
void Cat::SetAge(int age)
access
accessto
toprivate
privatemembers
members
{
itsAge = age;
since
they
are
in
the
since they are in thesame
sameclass
class
}
16
Scope Resolution Operator ( :: )

z
C++ programs typically use several class types
different classes can have member functions with the same

identifier, like Write( )
member selection operator is used to determine the class whose

member function Write( ) is invoked
currentTime .Write( ) ;
numberZ .Write( ) ;
// class TimeType
// class ComplexNumberType
in the implementation file, the scope resolution operator is used in

the heading before the function members name to specify its
class
void TimeType :: Write ( )
{
}
. . .
17
Implementing Class Methods

Member functions declared in a class are only prototypes
of these functions
Actual implementation (the operations performed by the
function) should be separately described.
class Cat
// declare the class Cat
{
public:
To
Toindicate
indicateGetAge()
GetAge()isis
int GetAge();
aafunction
functionof
ofclass
classCat
Cat
};
int Cat::GetAge()
{
return itsAge;
}
Thats
Thatsthe
the
implementation
implementation
18
Two Separate Files used

// SPECIFICATION FILE
( timetype .h )
// Specifies the data and function members.
class TimeType
{
public:
. . .
private:
. . .
};
// IMPLEMENTATION FILE
( timetype.cpp )
// Implements the TimeType member functions.
. . .
Publicly known
Only the developer
knows
19
Exercise 5.2a
Based on the program in page 15, write a program that will
first print the age and weight of a cat called Felix, and then
it asks the user to input the age and weight of that cat.
To do that, you need to do the following things:
a. Complete the implementation of the member functions
GetWeight() and SetWeight().
Age and weight
b. Add the main() function that prints the current status of
a cat Felix, then ask for users input to modify the status.
c. Build the result program and note the result.
d. Before you ask the user to input the age and weight, what
are their initial values? Are they the ones you expect?
20
Constructors and Destructors

How do we initialize an object?
By means of the constructor of the class
Every class should have a constructor
User can define its own constructor for the class
Otherwise, the compiler will make one for the user
although it does nothing
Constructor is a function of which the compiler will call if
an object of this class is constructed (created) In memory
Besides constructor, every class has also a destructor that
will be called when the object of that class is destructed
(removed).
21
Class Constructors
z
a class constructor is a member function whose purpose

is to initialize the private data members of a class object
the name of a constructor is always the name of the

class, and there is no return type for the constructor
a class may have several constructors with different

parameter lists. A constructor with no parameters is the
default constructor
a constructor is implicitly invoked when a class object is

declared--if there are parameters, their values are listed
in parentheses in the declaration
22
class Cat
AAtypical
typicalClass
Classdefinition
definitionwith
withuseruser{
defined
definedconstructor
constructorand
anddestructor
destructor
public:
Cat(int initialAge);
// Constructor of Cat
~Cat();
// Destructor of Cat
int GetAge();
Implementation
Implementationof
of
void SetAge(int Age);
constructor
void Meow(); //public function
constructor
When
any
private:
When anyobject
objectof
ofthe
theclass
class
Cat
is
constructed,
int itsAge;
Cat is constructed,this
this
function
};
functionisiscalled
calledand
andin
in
effect
it
will
set
itsAge
Cat::Cat (int initialAge)
effect it will set itsAgeto
to
{ itsAge = initialAge;
the
parameter
passed
the parameter passed
}
Implementation
Cat::~Cat()
Implementationof
ofdestructor
destructor
When
any
object
of
the
{
When any object of theclass
classCat
Catisis
}
destructed,
destructed,this
thisfunction
functionisiscalled
calledwhich
whichin
in
void Cat::Meow() {}
effect
does
nothing
effect does nothing
23
Constructors and Destructors

A possible main() function for the class Cat above is as
follows:
AACat
CatFrisky
Friskyisisconstructed
constructedhere
here
// some lines of p.22

The
Theconstructor
constructorisiscalled
calledand
andthe
theparameter
parameter55
//
isispassed
passedto
tothe
theconstructor
constructorand
andin
inturn
turn
int main()
initializes
the
private
member
variable
initializes the private member variable
{
Cat Frisky(5);
itsAge
itsAgeto
to55
Frisky.Meow();
cout << Frisky.GetAge() << " years old.\n";
Frisky.Meow(); //Meow() does nothing here
Frisky.SetAge(7);
cout << "Now Frisky is ";
cout << Frisky.GetAge() << " years old.\n";
Frisky.Meow();
return 0;
}
24
Destructor
z
z
z
z
Member function automatically called when object

goes out of scope
Name of destructor function required to be class
name preceded by tilde (~)
Cannot return a value or contain arguments
General destructor declaration:
~Class ( );
Class :: ~Class ( )
Declaration in class definition

Declaration in function definition
25
const Member Functions

It is possible that some functions will never change the
value of any member
It is desirable to declare them as const member
function
Then, the compiler will automatically check if there is
any inconsistency in the program
It helps to debug the program
Read only
In the example above, obviously GetAge() and

GetWeight() will not change any member
Hence they can be declared as const as follows:
int GetAge() const;
// add the keyword const when
int GetWeight() const; //
you declare the functions
26
Exercise 5.2b
From the program you wrote in exercise 5.2a
a. Add the constructor and destructor such that the
initial age and weight of Felix is 5 and 10
respectively.
b. Use the const keyword to define the class methods
that will not modify the member variables.
27
Exercise 5.2c
Identify the errors in the following program. The program
is divided into 3 parts: class declaration, member functions
implementation and the main(). Fix the errors and verify
your results by building the program.
#include <iostream>
// for cout
class Cat
// begin declaration of the class
{
public:
// begin public section
Cat(int initialAge);
// constructor
~Cat();
// destructor
int GetAge() const;
// accessor function
void SetAge(int Age);
// accessor function
void Meow();
// general function
private:
int itsAge;
// member variable
};
28
Cat::Cat(int initialAge)
{ itsAge = initialAge;
cout << "Cat Constructor\n";
}
Cat::~Cat()
{ cout << "Cat Destructor\n";
}
int Cat::GetAge()
{ return (itsAge++);
}
{ itsAge = age;
}
void Cat::Meow()
{ cout << "Meow.\n";
}
int main()
{
Cat Frisky;
Frisky.Meow();
Frisky.Bark();
Frisky.itsAge = 7;
return 0;
}
29
Doing Business by Selling Classes

The development of Object Oriented Programming has
enabled a new business in software development
People develop different classes and sell to other
people
These classes often provide functions that are popularly
used in applications
For example, the java calculator used in some Web
pages
People post the advertisement of their classes on the Web.
Those who are interested in their classes can directly
download it and perhaps pay by credit card.
30
Assume that you have designed the following class CAT and
would like to sell it to a customer
class Cat
// declare the class object
{
int GetAge();
void SetWeight (int weight);
int GetWeight();
You
Youdo
donot
notwant
wantto
togive
givehim
him
int itsWeight;
the
};
thesource
sourcecodes
codesof
ofthe
themember
member
int Cat::GetAge()
{
return itsAge;
}
{
itsAge = age;
}
functions
functionssince
sinceyour
yourcustomer
customer
may
maycopy
copyyour
yourcodes
codes
They
Theymay
maymodify
modifyititand
andre-sell
re-sell
ititto
somebody
else
to somebody else
31
If the customer has the source code, he may try to modify

it by himself
It may introduce a lot of hidden errors as he knows very
little about your program
The resulting program can be very difficult to debug.
Conclusion:
Conclusion: ItItisisbetter
betterto
togive
giveyour
yourcustomer
customerexecutable
executable
codes
such
that
they
cannot
read
or
codes such that they cannot read ormodify
modifyitit
Problem
Problem1:
1: AAprogram
programwithout
withoutmain()
main()cannot
cannotbe
bebuilt.
built. No
No
executable
codes
can
be
generated
without
main()
executable codes can be generated without main()
Problem
Problem2:
2: IfIfyour
yourcustomer
customeronly
onlyhas
hasthe
theexecutable
executablecodes,
codes,how
how
can
he
know
the
way
to
use
your
class?
can he know the way to use your class?
32
Static Library
Header
library
Rather than giving your customer the

executable codes, you can give him a
(static) library
Inside a library, it does not contain the
executable codes, but the object codes
machine code waiting for linking
Since object codes cannot be read
directly, your customer cannot modify
your codes
To enable your customer know how to
use your class, give also your customer
a header file that contains the
definition of your class.
33
CatClass.h
main() of the Customer

class CAT
Main Program
MainProject.cpp
#include "CatClass.h"
public:
int GetAge();
void main()
{
};
CAT Frisky;
Age = Frisky.GetAge();
}
Explain why
public and private
Show that the
class CAT has a
public function
called GetAge()
It will return an
integer
Library
10 20 2d 35 5f 43 23
43 23
:
When the customer build the main(), it
links with CatClass.h and the library
22 6f
21 44 dd 23
Contain the
implementation
of GetAge(),
however, the
source code
cannot be seen by
the customer
34
Modular Program Design

Besides doing business with classes, the use of static
library also facilitates modular program design
The system analyst analyses the requirement of a
program and divides it into a number of modules
The specifications of each module, such as its functions,
the calling methods, the parameters returned, are well
defined
Based on the specifications, the development of each
module will be done by different programmers.
Very useful for teamwork
35
Example
step 1: obtain the requirements
The system analyst talks with the customer and obtains
the following program requirements:
A program is to be designed to show a zoo that
contains different kinds of animals, including dog,
cat, sheep, and horse
At the beginning of the program, all animals are
drawn on the screen
When user clicks on an animal, the sound of it is
played.
36
Example
step 2: design the program flow
Based on the
requirements,
the system
analyst designs
the program flow
using, for
example, a flow
chart.
Start
Draw animal
No
All animal drawn?
Yes
No
User click on animal?
Yes
37
Click Dog?
Yes
Play dog sound
No
Click Cat?
Yes
Play cat sound
No
Click Sheep?
Yes
Play sheep sound
No
Click Horse?
Yes
Play horse sound
No
Click End?
Yes
End
No
38
Example
step 3: divide into modules
From the flow chart, identify the classes required and
their functions
CatClass.h
HorseClass.h
DogClass.h
class CAT
SheepClass.h class HORSE

{
public:
{
class SHEEP
int DrawShape();
public:
int PlaySound(); {
int DrawShape();
public:
int PlaySound();
int DrawShape();
public:
int PlaySound(); };
int DrawShape();
};
int PlaySound();
};
class DOG
};
39
Example
step 4: ask programmers to
develop the modules
For each module, the system analyst will ask a programmer
to develop the codes required (to implement the class)
To speed up the process, the system analyst may ask 4
programmers to develop the modules simultaneously
The codes developed by the 4 programmers may be
different
If the specifications are correct, all modules are correct
irrespective to the difference in the codes
Hence facilitate teamwork.
40
Example
step 5: integrate the modules
DogClass.h
Integrating all modules by the system analyst
CatClass.h
class CAT
Main Program
MainProject.cpp
#include DogClass.h"
#include CatClass.h"
void main()
{
class CAT {
{
DOG Bobby;
CAT Frisky;
Bobby.DrawShape();
Frisky.DrawShape();
Frisky.PlaySound();
}
Library
10
20 2dfor
35};DOG
5f 43 23
43 23
10 20 2d 35 5f 43 23
43 23
:
:
Skeleton
public:
int DrawShape();
public:
int PlaySound();
int DrawShape();
int PlaySound();
Library for CAT};
22 6f
21 44 dd 23
22 6f
21 44 dd 23
41
Interface versus Implementation

The declaration of a class stored in the header file is in fact
a contract between the System Analyst and Programmer,
and between the developer and customer
System Analyst who wants to use the object of this class
should follow the rules defined in the declaration
Class should be implemented exactly the same way it is
declared; otherwise the customer using it will have error
C++ is strongly typed, i.e., the compiler will enforce the
contracts and set the error flag if someone violates them
In the language of OO programming, this contract is
named as interface.
42
Create a static library with Visual C++
Suppose you are one of the programmers and is asked to

develop the class CAT
Now, the system analyst sets out two specifications on

the class CAT:
1. It should have a function that allows the setting of
CATs age. The function is
void SetAge(int age);
2. It should have another function that allows the
reading of CATs age. The function is
int GetAge();
43
Step 1: Create the class required

class CAT
{
int GetAge();
Based
Basedon
onthe
the
};
specifications,
specifications,
you
youmay
may
design
designthe
the
above
class
above class
CAT
CAT
44
Step 2: Implement the class

class CAT
{
int GetAge();
};
To be put to header file
int CAT::GetAge()
{
return itsAge;
}
void CAT::SetAge(int age)
{
itsAge = age;
}
For
Foreach
eachmember
member
function,
develop
function, developthe
the
required
requiredcodes
codesfor
for
building
the
library
building the library
Keep
Keepthis
thisrestricted
restricted
45
Step 3: Test the class

Create
Createthe
theheader
headerfile
fileand
andaamain()
main()for
fortesting
testingthe
the
functionality
functionalityof
ofthe
theclass
class
This
Thismain()
main()isisonly
onlyfor
fortesting
testingpurpose,
purpose,not
notsupposed
supposedto
to
be
beused
usedin
inreal
realapplication
application
MainTest.cpp
CatClass.h
class CAT
{
int GetAge();
};
#include <iostream>
#include "CatClass.h"
// --- put implementation here
int main()
{
CAT Frisky;
Frisky.SetAge(7);
int Age = Frisky.GetAge();
cout << Age << endl;
return 0;
}
46
Step 4: Create library with Visual C++

Assume your class is fully tested. You can create your
library using Visual C++
Start your Visual C++ 2010
In Visual C++ 2010, start a new project as usual
Set the location to store your library project to, e.g.
e:\VS_Proj\ENG236\Ch5
Set the project name, e.g. LibCat
However, when choosing the Application type in
the Application Settings window, choose
Static library and uncheck the option
Precompiled header
47
48
In Visual C++ 2010 Solution Explorer, under Header

Files, right-click Add New Item ... and
choose Header File (.h)
Set the Header File name to, e.g. CatClass
Click Add and the header file CatClass.h will be
added to the project LibCat
Type the class declaration
49
Type
Typeyour
yourclass
classdeclaration
declarationhere
here
Remember
to
comment
your
Remember to comment yourcodes
codes
50
In Visual C++, click Project/Add New Item... and

choose C++ File (.cpp)
Set the C++ source file name, e.g. CatCodes
Click OK and the C++ source file CatCodes.cpp will be
added to the project LibCat
You may verify it by checking the Solution Explorer
Type the codes for the implementation of the member
functions
Remember to include your header file and be careful of its
location
Build the library by clicking Build Solution.
Give LibCat.lib
51
5. BasicObject
You Oriented
need toProgramming
enter the correct
You need to enter the correctpath

pathof
ofthe
theheader
headerfile
file
ItItshows
that
the
CatClass.h
is
in
the
current
shows that the CatClass.h is in the current
folder
folderof
ofCatCodes.cpp
CatCodes.cpp
Solution
Explorer
window
After
Afterbuilding
buildingthe
thelibrary,
library,the
theresult
resultisisshown
shown
52
Step 5: Send the library and header

file to the System Analyst
Locate the files CatClass.h and LibCat.lib and
send to the System Analyst
CatClass.h shows the class definition
From its contents, the System Analyst knows how to
use the class
LibCat.lib contains the codes for the
implementation of the member functions
It is in object code form such that even the System
Analyst cannot interpret or modify the codes.
53
e:\Vs_Proj\ENG236
e:\Vs_Proj\ENG236
\Ch5\LibCat\debug
\Ch5\LibCat\debug
e:\Vs_Proj\ENG236\Ch
e:\Vs_Proj\ENG236\Ch
5\LibCat\LibCat
5\LibCat\LibCat
54
Step 6: Integrating into the application

Open a Win32 Console project, e.g. MainProject in the
folder e.g. e:\VS_Proj\ENG236\Ch5\
Enter the codes for the main() and other functions if
necessary to implement the application
Prog.cpp
Copy CatClass.h and LibCat.lib sent from the
programmer to current folder
e:\VS_Proj\ENG236\Ch5\MainProject\MainProject
In Visual C++, click Project/Add Existing Item...
under MainProject. Select All Files to show all the files
in the folder
Add CatClass.h and LibCat.lib to the project
Build Solution and run the application.
55
After
Afterbuilding
buildingthe
the
application,
the
application, theresult
resultisis
shown
shown
56
You
Youmay
maydouble-click
double-click
LibCat.lib.
LibCat.lib.You
Youcan
can
only
see
some
hex
codes.
only see some hex codes.No
No
source
sourcecodes
codescan
canbe
befound
found
See
Seethe
theadded
added
CatClass.h
CatClass.hand
and
LibCat.lib
LibCat.libhere
here
57
To
Tosee
seehow
howto
touse
usethe
theclass
classCAT,
CAT,
double-click
double-clickCatClass.h
CatClass.h
58
Avoiding Multiple Inclusion of Header Files

z
often several program files use the same header file containing
typedef statements, constants, or class type declarations--but, it is a
compile-time error to define the same identifier twice
this preprocessor directive syntax is used to avoid the compilation

error that would otherwise occur from multiple uses of #include for
the same header file
#ifndef Preprocessor_Identifier
#define Preprocessor_Identifier
.
.
.
#endif
59
Using Preprocessor Directive #ifndef

// timetype .h
// SPECIFICATION FILE
#ifndef TIME_H
#define TIME_H
class TimeType
{
public:
FOR COMPILATION THE CLASS DECLARATION IN

FILE timetype.h WILL BE INCLUDED ONLY ONCE
// timetype .cpp
// IMPLEMENTATION FILE
// client.cpp
// Appointment program
#include timetype.h
#include timetype.h
. . .
. . .
int main ( void )

{
private:
. . .
. . .
};
#endif
60
Exercise 5.3 - Requirements
Write a program using Visual C++ to do the following:
A class CAT must be created and your program will repeatedly

ask user to choose one of the following
a. Set the weight of a cat
b. Get the weight of a cat
c. Ask the cat to Meow!
d. Quit
If the user chooses (a), the user will be asked to input the weight
of the cat and the program will store it up
If the user chooses (b), the weight of the cat will be shown on the
screen
If the user chooses (c), show the following message on the screen
Meow, Meow ... Meow
If the user chooses (d), quit the program.
61
Exercise 5.3 (cont.) - Activity

1.
Two students in a group. One plays the role of a System Analyst.

One plays the role of a Programmer
2.
The System Analyst should design the program structure using

flow chart and define the specifications of the class required
3.
The Programmer should develop the class and build a library

(with the header file required). You may email your library file
and header file to the System Analyst
4.
After receiving the files from the Programmer, the System

Analyst should integrate them into the application
5.
Show the result to your tutor.
62
Exercise 5.3b - Requirements
Write a program using Visual C++ to do the following:
A class PHONE must be created and your program will

repeatedly ask user to choose one of the following
a. Set the serial no. of a phone
b. Get the serial no. of a phone
c. Ask the phone to ring!
d. Quit
If the user chooses (a), the user will be asked to input a 6-digit
serial no. of the phone and the program will store it up
If the user chooses (b), the 6-digit serial no. of the phone will be
shown on the screen
If user chooses (c), show the following message on the screen

Ring ... Ring, Ring ... Ring
If user chooses (d), quit the program.
63
Exercise 5.3b (cont) - Activity

1. For the same group, interchange the role of group
members. The Programmer will play the role of System
Analyst now; and the System Analyst will play the role of
Programmer now
2. The System Analyst should design the program structure
using flow chart and define the specifications of the class
required
3. The Programmer should develop the class and build a
library (with the header file required). You may email your
library file and header file to the System Analyst
4. After receiving the files from the Programmer, the System
Analyst should integrate them into the application
64
6. Pointers and Arrays
How memory is used in C++?

The whole big piece of memory is divided into 4
areas:
Code Space - for the storage of program code
Stack - for the storage of local variables, passed
parameters.
Global Name Space - for the storage of global
variables
Free store - for the storage of dynamically
created data
65
How memory is used in C++?

main()
{ Statements;
funcA();
Statements;
funcB();
Statements;
}
Free Store
or
the heap
funcA()
{ int a;
return;
}
The Stack
Code Space
Global Name Space
funcB()
{ Cat Frisky;
return;
}
66
What is the Address of a Variable?

A variable is a storage space in memory Each byte has an address
Every variable has a memory address
Variables char a
Memory
Address
int b
30 0A 21 3A
Each variable has the

starting-byte address
short int c
bool d
51
00
44 20
0100 0101 0102 0103 0104 0105 0106 0107 0108 0109
The character '0'
a = 30
Address of a = 0100
b = 0A 21 3A 51 Address of b = 0101
c = 44 20
Address of c = 0105
All values written in

hexadecimal but
binary in reality
67

In C++, the symbol & is used to indicate the address of a
#include <iostream>
variable
The
Theaddresses
addressesof
of
shortVar,
shortVar,
longVar
longVarand
and
sVar
sVar

int main()
{
unsigned short shortVar = 5;
unsigned long longVar = 65535;
long sVar = -65535;
cout << "shortVar:\t" << shortVar;
cout << "\tAddress of shortVar:\t";
cout << &shortVar << "\n";
cout << "longVar:\t" << longVar;
cout << "\tAddress of longVar:\t";
cout << &longVar << "\n";
cout << "sVar:\t\t" << sVar;
cout << "\tAddress of sVar:\t";
cout << &sVar << "\n";
return 0;
}
68

Variable and address of a variable are different
69
What is a Pointer?
In many situations, we want to store the address of a
variable into a particular memory location
Variables char a
Memory
Address
int b
10 0A 21 3A
(address of a) pa
51
00
00 01
00
0100 0101 0102 0103 0104 0105 0106 0107 0108 0109
pa is the pointer of a
pa is a variable that can store the address of a

In C++, every address has 4 bytes. So we need to reserve 4
bytes of memory to store the address of a .
70
What is a Pointer?
In C++, every variable needs to have its type declared
int abc; // means abc belongs to the type of integer
CAT Felix; // means Felix belongs to the class CAT
If we want to declare the type of pa, which stores the
address of a variable a, how should we do it?
How about
address pa;
Not
Notgood
goodenough,
enough,since
sinceititdoes
doesnot
nottell
tellthe
thenature
natureof
ofaa
How about
(address of a character) pa;
Better,
Better,but
butlook
looktoo
tooclumsy
clumsy
71
What is a Pointer?
C++ uses an elegant way to solve the problem (but need
some time to understand!)
pa's content is an address, the memory
It introduces a symbol *
content of that address is a character
means the content of an address
Variables char a
Memory
Address
int b
10 0A 21 3A
char *pa
51
00
00 01
00
0100 0101 0102 0103 0104 0105 0106 0107 0108 0109
char *pa indicates that the memory content of the

address stored in pa is a character. pa is indirectly
declared to be an address of character.
72
What is a Pointer?
We can modify the content of a memory location using

pointer
Variables char a int b
char *pa
Memory
Address
30 0A 21 3A
51
00
00 01
00
0100 0101 0102 0103 0104 0105 0106 0107 0108 0109
char *pa, a=0x30; // 48

cout << a;
// a = '0'
pa = &a;
// pa = 0100
cout << *pa; // *pa = '0'
*pa = 49;
// a = '1'
cout << a;
We
Wemodify
modifyaaindirectly
indirectlyby
by
using
usingits
itsaddress
address
73
Pointers
z
z
z
Special variables that only hold memory addresses

Hold the location (address) of information, not the
information itself
Pointers are declared using a * after the type
int a = 10;
int * p;
//
A POINTER VARIABLE!!!!
p = &a;
You have to specify the pointer type!
74
Dont get confused

z
z
z
pointer p does not hold the value of a

it points to the memory location of a
pointer p is a variable
and it has its own memory location

a
1048572
1048573
1048575
1048574
1048571
000002
000001
000000
Pointer Constants
1048570
75
Examples
76
Pointer
Indirection
(Pointer to Pointer)
What is the result?

58 58 58
int x=7; int *p, *q;

p = &x; q = &x;
77
6. Pointers
and Arrays
#include
<iostream>
typedef unsigned short int USHORT;
int main()
{
USHORT myAge;
// a variable
USHORT * pAge = 0;// a null pointer, pAge=0, not *pAge=0
// Dont let it become wild pointer (point to unknown)
myAge = 5;
cout << "myAge: " << myAge << "\n";
pAge = &myAge; // assign address of myAge to pAge
cout << "*pAge: " << *pAge << "\n\n";
cout << "*pAge = 7\n";
*pAge = 7;
// *pAge=7, not pAge=7, sets myAge to 7
cout << "*pAge: " << *pAge << "\n";
cout << "myAge: " << myAge << "\n\n";
cout << "myAge = 9\n";
myAge = 9;
cout << "myAge: " << myAge << "\n";
cout << "*pAge: " << *pAge << "\n";
return 0;
}
78
79
80
Why Pointer? - Using Free Store

Pointer allows us to handle the memory in Free Store
The memory Free Store is opened to all functions
Pointer helps us to identify the part of memory in Free
Store that is being used by a particular function or object
To use the memory in Free Store:
1. Claim to the system how much memory is required
2. System allocates a memory space with size big enough
3. System returns a pointer value which is the starting
address of that memory space
4. When the memory space is not required, release it back
to the system for other functions.
81
new operator
z
General form:
new type [num_elements]
type is data type of array elements

num_elements is number of array elements
Reserves memory but does NOT fill with values
new returns address of memory it reserves

Value assigned to pointer variable of same type
int* array_address;
array_address = new int [10];
array_address[0], array_address[9]
*array_address, *(array_address+9)
82
new and delete

The keywords new and delete help us claim and release
memory in Free Store
Claim a piece of memory in
Claim a piece of memory in

unsigned short int * pPointer;
Free
FreeStore
Storewith
withsize
sizethat
thatisis
pPointer = new unsigned short int;
equal
equalto
toan
anunsigned
unsignedshort
short
:
integer
// after using the memory space
integer
:
delete pPointer; // return it to system
We
Weclaim
claimmemory
memorywith
withsize
size
equals
to
2
integers.
equals to 2 integers.
pPointer2
pPointer2now
nowpoints
pointsto
tothe
the
starting
address
of
this
starting address of this
memory
memoryspace
space
int * pPointer2;
pPointer2 = new int[2];
:
// after using the memory space
:
delete [] pPointer2; // return it to system
Results
Resultsunpredictable
unpredictableififno
no[]
[]
83
delete operator
z
General form:
delete [ ] array_address;
z
z
z
array_address is pointer variable
Releases memory stored at address indicated

Knows size of memory reserved by new and
releases memory for all the array
delete address;
deletes memory for single element
84
int * pPointer;
unsigned short int * pPointer2;
pPointer
pPointer==8004
8004
pPointer = new int;
:
pPointer2 = new unsigned short int [2]; pPointer2
pPointer2==8008
8008
:
delete pPointer; // return it to system
delete [] pPointer2; // return it to system
Free Store
Memory
Address
8003 8004 8005 8006 8007 8008 8009 800A 800B 800C
85
Null Address
z
0 is a constant pointer that represents the empty

or null address
Its value indicates that pointer is not pointing to any

valid object
Cannot dereference a pointer whose value is null

int *ptr = 0;
cout << *ptr << endl; // invalid, ptr
// does not point to
// a valid int
86
Dangling Pointers and Memory Leaks

z
A pointer is dangling if it contains the address of

memory that has been freed by a call to
delete.
Solution: set such pointers to 0 as soon as memory

is freed.
A memory leak occurs if no-longer-needed

dynamic memory is not freed. The memory is
unavailable for reuse within the program.
Solution: free up dynamic memory after use

10-86
Dangling Pointer
int *A = new int[5]; //int *A; A=new int[5];
for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) A[i] = i;
int *B = A;
//int *B; B=A;
A
0
delete [] A;
Locations do not belong to program
A
?
B
Memory Leak
int *A = new int [5];
for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) A[i] = i;
A
A = new int [5];

These locations cannot be
accessed by program
A
89
Stray (Wild or Dangling) Pointers
When one deletes a pointer, the associated memory will

be given back to system delete a pointer remove a pointer, it still exists
If one tries to use that pointer again without reassigning

it, the result is unpredictable
NULL points to ROM
To ensure one will not use the deleted pointer again,
always assign the pointer with the value 0 after delete
A stray (or wild, dangling) pointer is the pointer that has
been deleted but without assigning to null
int *pNum = new int(5);
// Initialize *pNum to 5
delete pNum;
pNum = 0;
// To ensure the program will crash rather

// than unpredictable if one reuses it
90
Exercise 6.1
The program on the next page will introduce the problem of
memory leaks (the system cannot get back the memory
allocated to the program) and execution error. Build the
program and step over each line of code using the Run-time
Debugger. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the address of localVariable?
2. What is the value of pHeap after executing line 6?
3. What is the value of pHeap after executing line 11?
4. Assume that you can finish executing the program. Do
you think you can free the memory claimed by the new
statement in line 6? If no, why not?
Modify the program such that we can free the memories
claimed by both new statements in line 6 and line 11.
91
#include <iostream>
int main()
{
int localVariable = 5;
int * pLocal = &localVariable;
int * pHeap = new int; //line 6
*pHeap = 7;
cout << "localVariable: " << localVariable << "\n";
cout << "*pLocal: " << *pLocal << "\n";
cout << "*pHeap: " << *pHeap << "\n";
pHeap = new int; //line 11
*pHeap = 9;
cout << "*pHeap: " << *pHeap << "\n";
delete pHeap;
delete pHeap;
return 0;
}
92
Creating Objects in the Free Store

Similar to integer, we
can create objects in
the Free Store
Size enough for a Cat
Cat *pCat = new Cat;
pCat stores the

beginning address of
the memory allocated
When the object is
created, its
constructor is called
Object identified by a pointer.
Free Store
or
the heap
pCat
The Stack
Code Space
Global Name Space
93
Deleting Objects
Objects in the Free Store can also be deleted
Cat *pCat = new Cat;
delete pCat;
pCat becomes an identifier of the object created

When an object is deleted, its destructor will be called
Hence the destructor of Cat will be called when the
keyword delete is used in the above
(The destructor will also be called if the function that
creates the object finishes.)
94
6. Pointers References and Arrays
#include <iostream>
class SimpleCat
{
public:
SimpleCat();
~SimpleCat();
int GetAge() const {return itsAge;}
void SetAge(int age) {itsAge = age;}
private:
int itsAge;
};
SimpleCat::SimpleCat()
{ cout << "Constructor called.\n";
itsAge = 1;
}
SimpleCat::~SimpleCat()
{ cout << "Destructor called.\n";
}
Example
The class
SimpleCat
Constructor
Destructor
95
int main()
{
cout << "SimpleCat Frisky...\n";
SimpleCat Frisky;
cout << "SimpleCat *pRags = new SimpleCat...\n";
SimpleCat * pRags = new SimpleCat;
pRags in
cout << "delete pRags...\n";
the stack,
delete pRags;
cout << "Exiting, watch Frisky go...\n"; *pRags in
return 0;
the heap
}
Output of the
program
96
Accessing Members of Objects

To access members of an object, the operator (.) is used
The
The
Same
Same
SimpleCat *pCat = new SimpleCat;

(*pCat).SetAge(2);
The object
The member
pointed by pCat function of the
object
Input parameter
of the member
function
In C++, a shorthand is provided for such member access

SimpleCat *pCat = new SimpleCat;
pCat->SetAge(2);
// The same as before
97
Pointers to Objects
z
Special arrow operator
z
z
z
->
Negative and greater than symbol with no space between

Used to access members with object's address
Declaring pointer Class_name* ptr_name;

Initializing pointer ptr_name = &object_name;
Calling member function (2 argument example)
ptr_name -> member_fun(arg1, arg2);
(*ptr_name).member_fun(arg1, arg2);
ptr_name[0].member_fun(arg1,arg2);
98
6. Pointers
and Arrays
#include
<iostream>
class Object
{
public:
Object();
~Object();
int GetCnt()
const {return *count;}
private:
int *count;
};
Object::Object()
{ count = new int(1);
} // initialize *count to 1
Object::~Object()
{ delete count;}
int main()
{ Object Obj;
return 0;
}
Question
If I declare an object in
the stack that has
member variables in the
heap, what is in the
stack and what is in the
heap?
99
Answer
4 bytes: *count
Free Store
or
the heap
4 bytes on the stack to

hold Obj which
contains a pointer
count
4 bytes on the heap that
is pointed by count of
Obj
Obj
Obj
4 bytes: count The Stack
Code Space
Global Name Space
100
Using the this Pointer

Can be used to access members that may be
hidden by parameters with the same name:
class SomeClass
{
private:
int num;
public:
void setNum(int num)
{ this->num = num; }
};
101
Pointers Arithmetic
Pointers can be added or subtracted from one another
if they are of the same type
Variables short int *a, *b
Memory
Address
10 0A 21 3A 51 44 20
0000 0001 0002 0003 0004 0005 0006 0007 0008 0009
cout << "a = " << a << endl;
// Assume a = 0000
b = a + 1;
cout << "b = " << b << endl;
// b = 0002
cout << "b - a = " << b-a << endl;
// b - a = 1
102
Pointer Variables and Arithmetic

z
Declare variable as pointer

double* b;
Holds address
Can perform addition and subtraction
Purpose of add is to advance to subsequent cell

b + 1 (double is 8 bytes, so adds 8 bytes)
Subtraction goes back to previous memory cell
b 1 (goes back 8 bytes)
103
Pointers Arithmetic
The same applies to objects
You should not DIRECTLY assign a

value to a pointer, e.g.
int *p=0x00110110;
Variables Cat *a = new Cat; //Assume Cat takes 6 bytes
Memory
Address
0000 0001 0002 0003 0004 0005 0006 0007 0008 0009
Cat *a = new Cat;

Cat *b;
cout << "a = " << a << endl;
// Assume a = 0000
b = a + 1; // Don't touch *b as the memory is not from new
cout << "b = " << b << endl;
// b = 0006
cout << "b - a = " << b-a << endl;
// b - a = 1
104
Exercise 6.1b
Find out the errors in the following programs. Note the
error messages when you build these program. Fix the
errors and rebuild it to verify your corrections.
#include <iostream>
int main()
{
int *pInt;
*pInt = 9;
cout <<
"The value at pInt: "
<< *pInt << endl;
return 0;
}
#include <iostream>
int main()
{
int SomeVariable = 5;
cout << "SomeVariable: "
<< SomeVariable << "\n";
int *pVar = & SomeVariable;
pVar = 9;
cout << "SomeVariable: " <<
*pVar << "\n";
return 0;
}
105
Exercise 6.1c
Modify the program you wrote in exercises 5.2 a and b such that
a. The program will ask the user if he wants to create the object Felix. If
yes, the object is created in the heap. If no, just quit.
b. As before, initialize the age and weight of Felix to 5 and 10 using the
constructor. Display the age and weight of Felix.
c. Ask the user to enter the age and weight of Felix and display them
again.
d. After printing the age and weight of Felix, the program will
repeatedly ask the user whether he wants to (i) enter the age and weight
again; (ii) destroy Felix and create again; or (iii) quit the program.
Your program should be able to perform the task the user selected.
e. Whenever Felix is destroyed, print the current age and weight of
Felix using the destructor
f. Comment your program appropriately.
106
What Is an Array?
In consecutive memory
An array consists of a collection of data storage

locations, each holds the same type of data
An array can be easily declared as follows:
short shortArray[25];
Variables short
Memory
shortArray[25]; //declaration
10 0A 21 3A
shortArray[0]
ItItstates
statesthat
thatthere
thereisisaasequence
sequenceof
of25
25
short
integer
data.
The
whole
short integer data. The whole
sequence
sequenceisisnamed
namedas
asshortArray
shortArray
...
... 20 2A 4B 40
000B
000C ...
... 0037 0038 0039
003A
shortArray[1]
shortArray[24]
107
Array Element
In an array, an array element is referred to by indicating
its index
The first element has index 0, and then 1,
Hence
shortArray[0] is the first element

shortArray[1] is the second element 25 short
25 short
integers
integers
:
shortArray[24] is the last element
No shortArray[25] !!!
Do not try to use shortArray[25], result
unpredictable.
108
short shortArray[25];
Variables short
Declaration
shortArray[25];
Memory
10 0A 21 3A ... ... 20 2A 4B 40
Address
0009 000A 000B 000C ...
... 0037 0038 0039 003A
(Hex)
So shortArray[0] = 0x100A;// 4106 in deciaml
shortArray[1] = 0x213A;// 8506 in decimal
:
shortArray[23] = 0x202A;
shortArray[24] = 0x4B40;
Assignment
statements
109
Assigning Values to Individual Array Elements

float temps[ 5 ] ;
int m = 4 ;
temps[ 2 ] = 98.6 ;
temps[ 3 ] = 101.2 ;
temps[ 0 ] = 99.4 ;
temps[ m ] = temps[ 3 ] / 2.0 ;
7000
99.4
temps[0]
7004
// allocates memory for array
7008
98.6
temps[1]
temps[2]
7012
101.2
temps[3]
7016
50.6
temps[4]
110
No
NomyArray[5]
myArray[5]!!!
!!!
Do
Donot
nottry
tryto
touse
usemyArray[5],
myArray[5],
result
resultunpredictable
unpredictable
#include <iostream>
int main()
{
int myArray[5],i;
for (i=0; i<=5; i++)
The
Thekind
kindof
ofmistake
mistake
myArray[i] = 20;
people
often
people oftenmake
make
for (i=0; i<5; i++)
cout << myArray[i] << endl;
return 0;
}
111
Example more definitions

Suppose
const
const
const
const
int
int
int
int
N = 20;
M = 40;
MaxStringSize = 80;
MaxListSize = 1000;
Then the following are all correct array definitions

int A[10];
// array of
char B[MaxStringSize];
// array of
double C[M*N];
// array of
int Values[MaxListSize]; // array of
10 ints
80 chars
800 floats
1000 ints
112
Initializing Arrays
An array can be initialized during declaration
int IntegerArray[5] = {10,20,30,40,50};
int AnotherArray[] = {50,40,30,20,10};
int BiggerArray[5] = {10,20};
IntegerArray
IntegerArraydeclares
declares
itself
to
have
5
integers
itself to have 5 integers
AnotherArray
AnotherArrayrequests
requeststhe
thememory
memory
space
in
stack
just
enough
to
hold
space in stack just enough to holdthe
the
data
defined
in
the
list
data defined in the list
BiggerArray
BiggerArraydeclares
declaresitself
itselfto
tohave
have
55integers
int a[5]; NOT the same
integersbut
butonly
onlythe
thefirst
first22of
ofthem
them
are
as int a[5]={};
areinitialized.
initialized.The
Theothers
othersare
are0.
0.
ItItisisdifferent
differentfrom
from:: int BiggerArray[] = {10,20};
int IncorrectArray[2] = {10,20,30};
113
Copying One Array to Another

z
Cannot copy with an assignment statement:

tests2 = tests;
//wont work
Must instead use a loop to copy element-byelement:

for (int i=0; i < SIZE; i++)
tests2[i] = tests[i];
8-113
114
Passing Arrays to Functions

To pass an array argument to a function, specify the name of the array
without any brackets
int myArray[ 24 ];
...
myFunction( myArray, 24 );
...
Pass array name

Size is also often sent as an argument
Array size usually passed to function
Arrays passed call-by-reference

The called functions can modify the element values in the callers original
array
Name of array is the address of first element of the array
Function knows where the array is stored. Therefore, when the called
function modifies array elements in its function body, it is modifying the
actual elements of array in the original memory locations
main()
myFunction()
myArray
115
Use of const
z
because the identifier of an array holds the base

address of the array, an & is never needed for an
array in the parameter list
arrays are always passed by reference
to prevent elements of an array used as an

argument from being unintentionally changed by the
function, you place const in the function heading
and prototype
116
Passing An Array
Notice brackets are empty
int Minimum(const int A[], int size)

{
int SmallestValueSoFar = A[0];
First element
for (int i = 1; i < size; ++i)
if (A[i] < SmallestValueSoFar )
SmallestValueSoFar = A[i];
return SmallestValueSoFar ;
}
int Number[6] ={3, 88, -7, 9, 1, 24};
cout << Minimum(Number, 6) << endl;
int List[3];
List[0] = 9;
List[1] = 12;
List[2] = 45;
cout << Minimum(List, 3) << endl;
117
Example with Array Parameters

#include <iostream>
void Obtain ( int [ ], int ) ; // prototypes here
void Print ( const int [ ], int ) ;
using namespace std ;
int main( )
{
int
int
temp[31] ;
numDays;
// array to hold up to 31 temperatures
cout << How many daily temperatures? ;

cin >> numDays ;
Obtain( temp, numDays ) ;
// call passes value of numDays and

// address of array temp to function
cout << numDays << temperatures << endl ;

Print ( temp, numDays ) ;
return 0 ;
}
118
Array of Objects
Any object can be stored in an array
Accessing member data in an array of objects is a twostep process
Identify the member of array by []
Access the member by .
CAT Litter[5]; //Litter[0] - Litter[4] are 5 objects

int i;
for (i=0; i<5; i++)
cout << Litter[i].GetAge() << endl;
To
Tofind
findout
outwhich
whichCAT
CAT
Call
CallGetAge()
GetAge()of
ofthat
thatCAT
CAT
119
Multi-dimensional Array
It is possible to have an array of more than 1 dimension
7
6
5
4
A 2-dimensional array
can be declared as
int Board[8][8]; 64 integers
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Two-dimensional
Two-dimensionalarray
array
AAChess
Board
Chess Board
Each element can be

written or read as
Board[5][3] = 0;
int number = Board[5][3];
// number = 0
120
Processing Two-Dimensional Arrays

z
Two-dimensional arrays can be initialized in

the declaration by listing values within braces,
separated by commas
Braces can be used to distinguish rows, but are not

required
int val[ ][4] = { 8, 16, 9, 52, 3, 15, 27, 6, 14, 25, 2, 10 }
121
Initialize Multidimensional Arrays

Multidimensional Arrays can also be initialized during
declaration
int SomeArray[5][2] = { {0,0},{1,2},{4,6},{7,2},{4,4}};
int AnotherArray[5][2] = {0,0,1,2,4,6,7,2,4,4};
7
4
2
6
2
1
0
1 2
0 0
0 1
SomeArray[0]{0, 0}
SomeArray[1]{1, 2}
SomeArray[2]{4, 6}
SomeArray[3]{7, 2}
SomeArray[4]{4, 4}
SomeArray[2][1] = *(SomeArray[2]+1)
= *( *(SomeArray+2) + 1) = 6
122
const int NUM_STATES = 50 ;
const int NUM_MONTHS = 12 ;
int stateHighs [ NUM_STATES ] [ NUM_MONTHS ] ;
STORAGE
z
rows
columns
In memory, C++ stores arrays in row order. The first

row is followed by the second row, etc.
Base Address
8000
8048
8096
..
12 highs for state 0
12 highs for state 1
first row
second row
etc.
123
Viewed another way . . .

stateHighs[ 0 ] [ 0 ]
stateHighs[ 0 ] [10 ]
stateHighs[ 0 ] [11 ]
.
.
.
Base Address 8000
To locate an element such as

stateHighs [ 2 ] [ 7]
the compiler needs to know
that there are 12 columns
in this two-dimensional array.
At what address will

stateHighs [ 2 ] [ 7 ] be found?
Assume 4 bytes for type int.
124
void FindAverages( /* in */ const int stateHighs [ ] [ NUM_MONTHS] ,

/* out */
int stateAverages [ ] )
{
int
int
int
for
}
}
state;
month;
total;
( state = 0 ; state < NUM_STATES; state++ ) {
total = 0 ;
for ( month = 0 ; month < NUM_MONTHS ; month++ )
total += stateHighs [ state ] [ month ] ;
stateAverages [ state ] = int ( total / 12.0 + 0.5 ) ;
125
Matrix Addition Solution

Notice only first
brackets are empty
void MatrixAdd(const float A[][MaxCols],

const float B[][MaxCols], float C[][MaxCols],
int m, int n)
{
for (int i = 0; i < m; ++i)
for (int j = 0; j < n; ++j)
C[i][j] = A[i][j] + B[i][j];
}
126
const NUM_DEPTS
= 5;
const NUM_MONTHS = 12 ;
const NUM_STORES = 3 ;
// mens, womens, childrens, electronics, furniture

// White Marsh, Owings Mills, Towson
int monthlySales [ NUM_STORES ] [ NUM_DEPTS ] [ NUM_MONTHS ] ;

monthlySales[0][3][7]
sales
for
electronics in August at White Marsh
S
5 DEPTS
rows
RE
O
ST eets
3 sh
12 MONTHS columns
127
Array and Pointer

C++ allows the flexibility for user to use Array and
Pointer interchangeably
The name of an array is a constant pointer
pointing to the first element of the array
int
int
a =
b =
a,b;
SomeArray[5] = {10,20,30,40,50};
*SomeArray;
// a = 10
*(SomeArray+1); // b = 20, pointer arithmetic
Compiler does all the calculation

SomeArray+1 does not add 1 to SomeArray but add 4
(1 integer needs 4 bytes for storage) and point to the
next element in the array
128
SomeArray[5]
The Stack
Address
10 20
30
40
50
0100 0104 0108 010c 0110 0114 0118 011c 0120 0124
There is NOT a memory location to store the pointer

SomeArray. Everything is done by an internal conversion
xx == *SomeArray;
*SomeArray;
will
willbe
beinternally
internallyconverted
convertedto
to
xx == SomeArray[0];
//
x
=
SomeArray[0];
// x = 10
10
px
px == SomeArray;
SomeArray;
will
willbe
beinternally
internallyconverted
convertedto
to
px
=
&(SomeArray[0]);
//
px = &(SomeArray[0]);
// px
px == 0104
0104
129
A variable declared as a pointer can also be used as an array

int SomeArray[5] = {10,11,12,13,14};
int *pSomePointer = SomeArray; // It is a pointer but will
// later be used as array
cout << pSomePointer[0] << endl; // number 10 will be shown
SomeArray[1] and
pSomePointer[1]
are exactly the same.
SomeArray[]
pSomePointer
0104
The stack
10 11 12 13 14
Address 0100 0104 0108 010c 0110 0114 0118 011c 0120 0124
pSomePointer = 0104
130
De-referencing An Array Name

z
Using pointers can be faster than using array subscripts
Use a for loop to step through the array:

for(int i=0; i<SIZE; i++) {
cout << *(a + i) << endl;
}
131
Relationship Between Pointers and Arrays

Arrays and pointers are closely related
Array name like a constant pointer
Pointers can do array subscripting operations
Example: Declare an array b[ 5 ] and a pointer bPtr
int b[5], *bPtr;

bPtr = b;
// To set them equal to one another
// The array name (b) is actually the address of first element of the array
bPtr = &b[ 0 ];
// Explicitly assigns bPtr to address of first element of b
To access element b[
3 ]:
x=*( bPtr + 3 )
x=bptr[ 3 ]
// Where n is the offset. Called pointer/offset notation
x=*( b + 3 )
// Performing pointer arithmetic on the array itself
// Called pointer/subscript notation

// bPtr[ 3 ] same as b[ 3 ]
132
Relationship Between Pointers and Arrays
Pointers and arrays can be used interchangeably.

The array name is equivalent to the address of the first
element in the array
Example:
int a[10];
int *pa;
pa = &a[0]; /* is equivalent to pa = a */
So,
a[1]
*(pa+1)
pa[1] *(a+1)
&a[1]
pa+1
a+1
a[i]
*(pa+i)
pa[i] *(a+i)
&a[i]
pa+i
a+i
a[i]+=5 *(pa+i)+=5
pa[i]+=5
Example:
f(int s[])
f(int *s)
{
{
}
}
133
Array of Pointers
So far the arrays are declared to store data in stack
Usually the memory space of stack is very small
If a large array is required, it is better to store the
elements of arrays in Free Store
In this case, for every element in an array, a pointer is
assigned to indicate its location in Free Store
This becomes an array of pointers.
The array itself is still in the stack.
134
#include <iostream>
class CAT
{public:
CAT() {itsAge = 1;}
~CAT() {}
Creating
Creating500
500CAT
CAT
objects
may
use
up
objects may use upall
all
memory
in
the
stack
private:
memory in the stack
int itsAge;
Hence
};
Henceonly
onlyan
anarray
arrayof
of500
500pointers
pointersof
of
CAT
objects
are
created
in
the
stack
int main()
CAT objects are created in the stack
{
CAT *Family[500];
Each
int i;
EachCAT
CATobject
objectisislocated
locatedin
inthe
the
Free
Store
by
the
keyword
new
for (i=0; i<500; i++)
Free Store by the keyword new
{
Family[i] = new CAT;}
To
Family[255]->SetAge(1);
Toaccess
accessmember
memberof
ofaaparticular
particular
CAT
for (i=0; i<500; i++)
CATobject,
object,use
usethe
thecorresponding
corresponding
{
delete Family[i];
}
pointer
pointerin
inthe
thearray
array
return 0;
}
135
Array of Pointers
CAT 2
(*Family[0])
CAT 0 CAT 1
Free Store
or
the heap
An
Anarray
arrayof
ofpointers
pointers
called
Family
called Familyisis
kept
keptto
topoint
pointto
to
different
elements
different elementsin
in
Free
Store
Free Store
CAT 499
...
The Stack
Code Space
Global Name Space
136
Pointer of Array
If one feels that 500 pointers in the previous example are
still too many, we can put the whole array into Free Store
Hence one pointer is enough to point to the Array itself
but not an individual element
This becomes a pointer of array.
Family
Familyisisthe
thepointer
pointerof
of
array
and
points
to
array and points to
Family[0]
Family[0]in
inFree
FreeStore
Store
CAT *Family = new CAT[500];

int a = 0, b=0;
(Family+255)->SetAge(10);
a = (Family+255)->GetAge();// a = 10
b = Family[255].GetAge(); // b = 10
delete [] Family;
Individual
Individualelement
elementof
ofthe
the
array
of
the
CAT
objects
array of the CAT objects
can
canbe
beaccessed
accessedby
by
pointer
arithmetic
pointer arithmetic
137
Pointer of Array
Family[0]
Family[499]
CAT 0 CAT 1
AApointer
pointerFamily
Familyisis
kept
keptto
topoint
pointto
tothe
the
beginning
memory
beginning memory
location
locationof
ofan
anarray
array
of
CAT
objects
of CAT objectsin
in
Free
Store
Free Store
...
CAT 499
Free Store
or
the heap
The Stack
Code Space
Global Name Space
138
#include <iostream>
class CAT
{public:
Arrays
Arrayscreated
createdin
inFree
Free
CAT() {itsAge = 1;}
Store
can
also
be
deleted
Store can also be deleted
~CAT(){;}
private:
int itsAge;
};
int main()
{
CAT *Family = new CAT[10];
for (int i=0; i<10; i++)
{
Family[i].SetAge(2*i+1);
cout <<' '<< Family[i].GetAge();
}
The
The[]
[]symbol
symbolafter
afterdelete
delete
delete [] Family;
lets
the
system
know
the
return 0;
lets the system know the
whole
}
wholearray
arrayisisto
tobe
bedeleted
deleted
139
Exercise 6.2
Based on the program in the last page, add a
destructor to CAT such that when it is called, the age
of the cat will be shown on the screen.
How many times the destructor will be called when
the delete [] Family; statement is executed?
Why?
What will happen if we use the statement delete
Family instead? Can it be executed in Visual C++?
140
Exercise 6.2b
Modify the program in Ex.6.2 such that the Array
of Pointers approach is used to define the 10 objects
of CAT in the heap. Make sure your program will
not introduce memory leak.
141
The
The null
null
character
character
String - char Arrays
represents
represents the
the
end
A string is an array of characters
end of
of string;
string; itit
must be
be added.
added.
A string can be simply initialized as follows: must
char Greeting[] =
Size of
{'H','e','l','l','o',' ','W','o','r','l','d','\0'}; array is 12
However, this method can easily introduce error

C++ provides a shorthand that makes use of the double
quote " ".
Totally
Totally12
12bytes
bytesare
are
allocated
for
Greeting.
allocated for Greeting.
Null
Nullcharacter
characterisis
automatically
automaticallygenerated.
generated.
char Greeting[] = {"Hello World"};
The braces can be removed
142
C strings char arrays

z
char array will contain an extra null character

at the end of the string
Example:
char codes[] = sample;
115
97
109
112
108
101
608_01
144
Character and C String

Characters and ASCII codes:
char x;
x = a; /* x = 97*/
Notes:
a and a are different; why?
a is the 97
a is an array of characters, { a, \0} or {97, 0}
a + b +c is invalid but a+b+c = ? (hint: a = 97 in ASCII)
a + b + c = 97 + 98 + 99 = 294 = 256 + 38 -> 38
in the memory
38
145
Copying String
We often need to copy string from one character array to
another character array
char Greeting[12] = "Hello World";
char Greeting2[12];
Common errors:
Greeting2 = Greeting;
Wrong.
Wrong.Greeting2
Greeting2isisaaconstant
constantpointer;
pointer;we
wecannot
cannot
assign
assignanything
anythingto
toitit--See
Seeexplanation
explanationin
inthe
thenext
nextpage.
page.
146
Greeting[12]
The Stack
'H' 'e' 'l'
Address
0100 0101 0102 0103
'l' 'd' '\0'

010a 010b 010c 010d
Greeting2[12]
The Stack
Address
0200 0201 0202 0203
Greeting2 = Greeting;
020a 020b 020c 010d
Wrong.
Wrong.We
Wetry
tryto
tomake
make
Greeting2
=
0101.
Greeting2 = 0101.However,
However,
Greeting2
Greeting2must
must==0201
0201as
asititisis
assigned
assignedby
bythe
theOS,
OS,and
andisisconstant
constant
147
Greeting2[12] = Greeting[12];
th
Very
Verywrong.
wrong.Greeting2[12]
Greeting2[12]means
meansonly
onlythe
the13
13th
element
elementof
ofGreeting2,
Greeting2,not
notthe
thewhole
wholestring.
string.Besides,
Besides,
th
th
there
is
no
13
element
in
Greeting
or
Greeting2
there is no 13 element in Greeting or Greeting2
Note: Greeting2[11] = Greeting[11]; is valid, which

means assigning the 12th element of Greeting2 with the
value of the 12th element of Greeting.
148
strcpy() and strncpy()
Warning: unsafe
C++ inherits from C a library of functions for tackling

strings
Two most common ones are strcpy() and strncpy()
#include <iostream>
State
Statethe
thedefinition
definitionof
ofstrcpy()
strcpy()
#include <cstring>
You
Youmay
mayomit
omitthis
thisline
linebecause
becauseitit
isisalready
alreadyincluded
includedby
byiostream
iostream
int main()
{ char String1[] = {"Copy String1 to String2"};
char String2[80];
Copy
CopyString1
String1to
toString2
String2
strcpy(String2,String1);
cout << "String1: " << String1 << endl;
return 0;
Result
Result
}
149
Warning: unsafe
strcpy() will overwrite past the end of the destination if the
source were larger than the destination, damaging other data
To solve the problem, strncpy() can be used

#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
State
Statethe
thedefinition
definitionof
ofstrncpy()
strncpy()
int main()
{ const int MaxLength = 80; //MaxLength > strlen(String1) = 23
char String1[] = "Copy String1 to String2";
char String2[MaxLength+1]; //Initialize String2 if MaxLength<=23
strncpy(String2,String1,MaxLength);//String2 big enough
return 0;
Strncpy()
Strncpy()needs
needsanother
anotherparameter
parameter
}
MaxLength
MaxLengthwhich
whichspecifies
specifiesthe
themaximum
maximum
number
numberof
ofdata
data(not
(notincluding
includingnull)
null)to
tobe
becopied
copied
150
Exercise 6.2c
a. Write a program that
creates an array of 3
objects of the class
ACCOUNT in the free
store. Pointer of array
b. Ask the user to input
three names and save
to each element of the
array
c. Read the content of
each element in the
array and display on
the screen.
class ACCOUNT
{
public:
void writename(char nm[]);
char * readname();
private:
char name[80];
};
void ACCOUNT::writename(char nm[])
{
strncpy(name,nm,79);
}
char * ACCOUNT::readname()
{
return name;
}
151
String Conversion Functions

z
Conversion functions
In <cstdlib> (general utilities library)
Convert strings of digits to integer and floating-point

values
Prototype
double atof( const char *nPtr )
Description
Converts the string nPtr to double.
int atoi( const char *nPtr )
Converts the string nPtr to int.
long atol( const char *nPtr )
Converts the string nPtr to long int.
double strtod( const char *nPtr,

char **endPtr )
long strtol( const char *nPtr,
char **endPtr, int base )
unsigned long strtoul( const char
*nPtr, char **endPtr, int base )
Converts the string nPtr to double.

Converts the string nPtr to long.
Converts the string nPtr to unsigned
long.
152
atoi and atol

atoi converts alphanumeric to int
z atol converts alphanumeric to long
int atoi(char *numericStr)
long atol(char *numericStr)
z Examples:
int number; long lnumber;
number = atoi("57");
lnumber = atol("50000");
z
153
String Conversion Functions

atof
z
atof converts a numeric string to a

floating point number, actually a double
double atof(char *numericStr)

z Example:
double dnumber;
dnumber = atof("3.14159");
154
A few more library functions

To measure the
length of a
string, the
function
Return
an int strlen() is
useful
To combine two
strings into one,
Append we can use the
a string function
strcat().
#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
Convert
Convertan
an
integer
integerinto
intoaa
int main()
string
{ char String1[100];
string
cout << "Please enter a word: ";
cin >> String1;
char String2[] = " has ";
Decimal radix
char String3[5];
char String4[] = " characters.";
itoa(strlen(String1),String3,10);
strcat(String1,String2);//ret String1
strcat(String1,String3);
strcat(String1,String4);
cout << String1 << endl;
return 0;
5 warnings
}
155

itoa
z
z
z
itoa converts an int to an alphanumeric string

Allows user to specify the base of conversion
itoa(int num, char *numStr, int base)
Example: To convert the number 1200 to a hexadecimal
string
char numStr[10];
itoa(1200, numStr, 16);
The function performs no bounds-checking on the array
numStr
156

strcat
strcat(char *dest, char *source)
z Takes two C-strings as input. It adds the contents of the
second string to the end of the first string:
char str1[15] = "Good ";
char str2[30] = "Morning!";
strcat(str1, str2);
cout << str1; // prints: Good Morning!
z No automatic bounds checking: programmer must ensure
that str1 has enough room for result
157
Get one line of text (including

the spaces in between)
We can compare
if two strings are
the same using
the function
strcmp().
Syntax:
Syntax:
int
int strcmp(string1,
strcmp(string1,
string2)
string2)
Return
Return00ififstring1
string1isisthe
the
same
as
string2;
same as string2;otherwise
otherwise
returns
returnsaa+ve
+veor
orve
venumber.
number.
#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
No warning
int main()
{ char String1[100];
cout << "Please enter your name: ";
cin.getline(String1,100);
char String2[] = "Dr F Leung";
if (strcmp(String1, String2)==0)
cout << "Welcome Dr Leung.\n";
else
cout << "Login incorrect.\n";
return 0;
}
158

strcmp
int strcmp(char *str1, char*str2)
z
z
Compares strings stored at two addresses to determine

their relative alphabetic order:
Returns a value:
less than 0 if str1 precedes str2
equal to 0 if str1 equals str2
greater than 0 if str1 succeeds str2
if(strcmp(str1, str2) == 0)
cout << "equal";
else
cout << "not equal";
159
Character Pointers
String constant acts like a character pointer
char *pc = ABCDE;
// declare a character pointer variable
Variable
Address
Value
constant
constant
constant
constant
constant
constant
pc
731
732
733
734
735
736
800
A
B
C
D
E
\0
731
731 A
732 B
800 731
733 C
734 D
735 E
736 \0
char s1[] = abc;

Variable
Address
Value
s1[0]
s1[1]
s1[2]
s1[3]
900
901
902
903
a
b
c
\0
160
Arrays of Pointers
z Arrays
can contain pointers

z For example: an array of strings
char *suit[4] = {"Hearts", "Diamonds",
"Clubs", "Spades"};
Strings are pointers to the first character

char * each element of suit is a pointer to a char
The strings are not actually stored in the array suit, only pointers to
the strings are stored
suit[0]
\0
suit[1]
suit[2]
\0
suit[3]
\0
\0
suit array has a fixed size, but strings can be of any size
161
Pointer Arrays
Syntax:
int *pi[3];
/* pi[0], pi[1], pi[2] */
float *pf[3];
/* pf[0], pf[1], pf[2] */
Example 2:
Example 1:
int i=1, j=2, k=3;

char *pc[3]={ABC, DEF, GH};
int *pi[3] = {&i, &j, &k};
Variable
Variable
Address
Value
80
82
84
pi[0]
100
80
pi[1]
101
82
pi[2]
102
84
constant
constant
constant
constant
constant
constant
constant
constant
constant
constant
Constant
pc[0]
pc[1]
pc[2]
Address
90
91
92
93
Const
94
can not 95
96
be
97
changed 98
99
100
200
202
204
Value
A
B
C
\0
D
E
F
\0
G
H
\0
90
94
98
162
Dangers in using Functions from

<cstring>
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
There is a very real danger associated with the functions strcpy and
strcat.
Both these functions copy characters until a null character is found in
the source string, without regard to whether space is available in the
target.
If there is no space in the target, strcpy and strcat will happily
overwrite any variables in memory beyond the target array.
This may be some of your variables, or it could be something that your
system depends on to run correctly.
There could be a segmentation violation or illegal operation error, with
your program crashing, and no further problems.
The operating system could crash and burn.
Nothing apparent may happen. But the next application started could
crash and burn on loading. Be careful.
163
The C++ Standard string class

z
z
z
z
z
z
The Standard Library supplied class string provides far more utility
than the cstrings C++ gets by way of its C heritage.
Class strings behave very much like built-in data types and are far
safer than cstrings.
Let s1, s2, and s3 be objects of class string, and suppose s1 and s2
have string values. Then + may be used for concatenation:
s3 = s1 + s2;
Additional space needed is allocated for s3 automatically.
The default constructor generates an empty string
There is a constructor that takes a cstring argument:
string phrase, word1(Hello ), word2(World);
phrase = word1 + word2;
cout << phrase << endl;
The output will be
Hello World
164
The C++ Standard string class

z
Characteristic use of the getline function follow:
#include <iostream>
#include <string>
//. . .
string str1;
getline(cin, str1);
//insert into str12 all input up to \n
//getline discards the \n
z
z
NOTE THAT class string objects do not range check index values.
If you want range checked indexing into strings, use the string member
function at(int_index).
str1.at(9); //Checks index value 9 for legality in str1.

//If legal,returns the character at index value 9.
165
Command-Line Arguments
z
argc and argv
// int main( int argc, char* argv[ ])
In environments those support C++, there is a way to pass command-line

arguments or parameters to a program when it begin executing.
When main is called to begin execution, it is called with two arguments
argc and argv
z
z
argc : The first (conventionally called argc) is the number of command-line

arguments the program was invoked with
argv : The second (conventionally called argv) is a pointer to an array of
character strings that contain the arguments, one per string.
Example:
if echo is a program and executed on command prompt, such as

C:\> echo hello world
argv
pointer array
e c h o \0
argc
3
h e l l o \0
null
w o r l d \0
166
Command-Line Processing
In many operating systems, command-line options are
allowed to input parameters to the program
SomeProgram Param1 Param2 Param3
e.g. ipconfig /all
To achieve this, main() allows two input parameters to

hold the command-line options.
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
return 0;
}
You can also write *argv[]

as **argv
The values of
argc
argcstores
storesthe
thenumber
number
of
parameters
of parameters
argv
argvisisan
anarray.
array.Each
Each argc and
element
elementof
ofthe
thearray
arrayisisaa argv[]are
provided indirectly
character
characterpointer
pointer
167
Example
SomeProgram Param1 Param2 Param3
{
// function statements here
return 0;
}
main() is
inside the project
SomeProgram
argc
argc==44
argv[0]
argv[0]=="SomeProgram"
"SomeProgram"
argv[1]
argv[1] == "Param1"
"Param1"
argv[2]
=
"Param2"
argv[2] = "Param2"
argv[3]
argv[3] == "Param3"
"Param3"
i.e. argv[0][0] is 'S'
168
Command-Line Processing
The program can

flow according to
the command line
options.
#include <iostream>
{
cout << "Received " << argc << " arguments." << endl;
for (int i = 0; i<argc; i++)
cout << "argument " << i << ": " << argv[i] << endl;
return 0;
}
Every
Everycommand
commandline
lineoptions
optionswill
willbe
beprinted
printedout
out
To add command-line options, this program must be run in

command-line, not Start Without Debugging.
169
Exercise 6.2d
Build the program in the last page with the project name
Ex6p2d. Try to locate the executable file of the built
program using the Windows Explorer. Open a
Command Prompt to execute this program with the
following command line:
Ex6p2d aa bb param3 param4
What are shown on the screen?
Try to input different number of command-line options
to see the result.
170
Exercise 6.2e
For the program in Ex6.2d, modify it such that a
warning message will be given if any two command-line
options are the same.
171
Pass Parameters Pass by Value
To pass
parameters to
functions, we
may pass
parameters by
value, i.e. pass
copies of the
parameter
values to
functions.
#include <iostream>
void swap(int x, int y)
{
int temp;
xxand
andyyare
areswapped
swapped
temp = x;
x=y;
only
onlyin
inswap()
swap()but
butnot
not
y=temp;
in
inmain()
main()
}
int main()
{
int x = 5, y = 10;
cout << "Main. Before swap, x: "
<< x << "y: " << y << "\n";
swap(x,y);
cout << "Main. After swap, x: "
<< x << " y: " << y << "\n";
return 0;
}
172
x and y of main()
Variables
The stack
Address
x and y of swap()
x
pass-by-value
10
5 10
10
5
0100 0104 0108 010c 0110 0114 0118 011c 0120 0124
1.
4.
main()
returns
2.
swap()
is
called
3.
When
x
4.
When
swap()
returns
1.
At
main()
2.At
isswapped
called
3.
xand
andyyisis
swapped
temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
173
Pass by Pointers
pointer
allows pass
parameters
by
reference.
#include <iostream>
void swap(int *px, int *py)
{
int temp;
The
temp = *px;
Theaddresses
addressesof
ofxxand
and
*px=*py;
yyin
inmain()
main()are
arepassed
passed
*py=temp;
to
to swap()
swap()
}
int main()
{
int x = 5, y = 10;
cout << "Main. Before swap, x: "
<< x << " y: " << y << "\n";
swap(&x,&y);
cout << "Main. After swap, x: "
<< x << " y: " << y << "\n";
return 0;
}
174
x and y of main()
px and py of swap()
Variables
px py
The stack
Address
5
10
510
5
0100 0104
0100 0104 0108 010c 0110 0114 0118 011c 0120 0124
pass-by-ref
1.
main()
3.
When
*px
and
*py
isis
2.
is
called
4.
1.
When
At
main()
swap()
3.
When
*px
andreturns
*py
2.At
is
called
4.
When
swap()
returns
swapped
swapped
temp = *px; //5

*px = *py; //10
*py = temp; //5
175
Return Multiple Values

Normal function
can only return 1
value
If more than 1
values are to be
returned, it can
be done by
passing two or
more parameters
to a function by
reference.
sqr
sqrand
andcub
cubof
ofmain()
main()
are
arechanged
changedby
byopt()
opt()
#include <iostream>
void opt(int, int *, int *); //prototype
int main()
{
int num, sqr, cub;
cout << "Input a number: ";
cin >> num;
opt(num, &sqr, &cub);
cout << "Square = " << sqr
<< endl;
cout << "Cube = " << cub << endl;
return 0;
}
void opt(int n, int *pS, int *pC)
{
*pS = n*n;
*pC = n*n*n;
}
176
num, sqr and cub of main()

Variables num sqr cub
The stack
??
9 27
??
27
n, pS and pC of opt()
n
pS pC
3 0104 0108
Address 0100 0104 0108 010c 0110 0114 0118 011c 0120 0124
pass-by-value
pass-by-ref
4.
3.
*pS
opt()
and
returns
are
2.
1.
At
isreturns
called
4.
opt()
3.
When
*pS
and
*pC
are
2.
1.When
Atmain()
main()
is*pC
called
computed
computedin
inopt()
opt()
*pS = n*n;
*pC = n*n*n;
177
Passing an array of parameters to a

name is a
function array
#include <iostream>
constant pointer
To save effort
from separately
passing a number
of parameters to a
function, they may
be passed as an
array.
string[]
string[]isisaacharacter
character
array,
so
string
array, so stringisisaa
character
characterpointer
pointer
#include <cstring>
void opt(char * str);
int main()
{ char string[] =
{"This is a string"};
cout << string << endl;
opt(string);
cout << string << endl;
return 0;
function input
}
and output
void opt(char * str)

{ strcpy(str,"New String");
}
178
Note that in the previous example, string is modified

inside the function opt()
It is because passing the name of an array is pass-byreference
When copying the string "New String" to str in
opt(), it is just the same as copying to the original
string.
string
and str are
the same
Result
Resultof
ofexecuting
executingthe
thelast
lastprogram
program
179
Exercise 6.3
The following program defines a class CAT that contains a
private variable name[80]. A function is also defined. The
function will swap the name of two cats by using pointers.
Design the nameswap() function and the main() that will
(i) create & initialize the name of two cats as Frisky &
Felix in the stack.
(ii) show the initial name of the two cats created
(iii) swap the name of the two cats using the pointer
approach
(iv) show the name again.
Only swap the name, not the object
180
Exercise 6.3 (Cont)

#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
class CAT
{public:
CAT(char * firstname) {strncpy(name,firstname,79);}
~CAT() {;}
char * GetName() {return name;}
void SetName(char *nameinput) {strncpy(name,nameinput,79);}
private:
char name[80];
};
void nameswap(CAT *CatA, CAT *CatB);

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1

What is a Software Object?

Hiding information within an objects nucleus

The Button Class

Many Different Objects

Classes are implementations of Data Types

A class is a programmer-defined data type and objects

Just like in int x;, x is a variable of type int

Class: in some sense, a data type that defines both data

Declaring Classes in C++

To declare a class, use the class keyword as follows

Declaring this class does NOT allocate memory for a Cat

Declaring an Object of a Class

// define one of the Cats call Frisky

It states that we are going to handle a Cat called Frisky

// define one of the integers call xyz

Obviously, if one declares two cats as follows

// define two Cats

Frisky is never the same as Felix, although they both

Accessing Class Members

For example, if we want to know the weight of Frisky:

The operator . allows us to access the members of the

If we want to ask Frisky to meow:

// Ask Frisky to execute meow()

Accessing Class Members

// Dont do that! Cat is class

It is because Cat is only a template of all cats. A different

// Set the age of Frisky to 5

Also, if the class doesnt define a member, you cant use it

// Frisky has no bark() defined

// Also error, because the class

Cat does not have itsColor

Private Versus Public

Private Versus Public

Private Versus Public

How Private Variables are used?

Scope Resolution Operator ( :: )

C++ programs typically use several class types

different classes can have member functions with the same

member selection operator is used to determine the class whose

in the implementation file, the scope resolution operator is used in

Implementing Class Methods

Two Separate Files used

Constructors and Destructors

a class constructor is a member function whose purpose

the name of a constructor is always the name of the

a class may have several constructors with different

a constructor is implicitly invoked when a class object is

Constructors and Destructors

// some lines of p.22

Member function automatically called when object

Declaration in class definition

const Member Functions

In the example above, obviously GetAge() and

// add the keyword const when

int GetWeight() const; //

you declare the functions

Doing Business by Selling Classes

int x=7; int p, q;