ELE 110 Introduction To Electrical Engineering: Semiconductors

25/02/2015
ELE 110
Introduction to Electrical
Engineering
http://www.ee.hacettepe.edu.tr/~usezen/ele110/
Textbooks
Electrical Circuits (first 4 weeks):
J.W. Nilsson, S.A. Riedel, Electric Circuits, PearsonPrentice Hall, 2011 (it is also the text book of ELE203
Circuit Theory I and ELE220 Circuit Theory II
courses).
Semiconductors:
C. C. Hu, Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated
Circuits, 2010.
B. Streetman and S. Banerjee, Solid State Electronic
Devices, 6th ed, 2009.
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Contents
Ohms Law, Energy and Power
Circuit Analysis Techniques: Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
and Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL)
Thvenins, Nortons and Superposition Theorems
Mesh and Nodal Analysis
Introduction to Semiconductors (atoms, bonding, electrons and holes,
intrinsic semiconductors, doping, p-type and n-type semiconductors)
Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors (effective mass, energy

bands, Fermi distribution)
Motion and Recombination of Electrons and Holes (mobility,

conductivity, drift and diffusion current)
PN junctions (equilibrium, reverse bias, forward bias, diode equation, solar

cells, lasers, tunnel diode)
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
Part I
Electrical Circuits
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SI Units
Quantity
Capacitance
Charge
Current
Electromotive force
Frequency
Inductance (self)
Period
Potential difference
Power
Resistance
Temperature
Time
Quantity symbol
C
Q
I
E
f
L
T
V
P
R
T
t
Unit
Farad
Coulomb
Ampere
Volt
Hertz
Henry
Second
Volt
Watt
Ohm
Kelvin
Second
Unit symbol
F
C
A
V
Hz
H
s
V
W
K
s
Common Prefixes
Prefix
Name
Meaning (multiply by)
tera
1012
giga
109
mega
106
kilo
103
milli
10-3
micro
10-6
nano
10-9
pico
10-12
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Ohms Law, Energy and Power
Review of V, I, and R
Voltage is the amount of energy per charge available to
move electrons from one point to another in a circuit
and is measured in volts.
Current is the rate of charge flow and is measured in
amperes.
Resistance is the opposition to current and is measured

in ohms.
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Resistors
resistance of a given sample of material is determined
by its electrical characteristics and its construction
electrical characteristics described by its resistivity or
its conductivity (where = 1/ )
Conductance
Inverse of resistance is called conductance. The lower the
resistance means the higher the conductance.
Unit of conductance is called siemens (S).

Several different symbols are used interchangeably to denote
the unit of conductance:
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Ohms law
The most important fundamental law in electronics is
Ohms law, which relates voltage, current, and resistance.
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) formulated the equation
that bears his name:
Question:
What is the current in a circuit with a 12 V source if
the resistance is 10 ? 1.2 A
If you need to solve for voltage, Ohms law is:
Question:
What is the voltage across a 680 resistor if the
current is 26.5 mA? 18 V
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If you need to solve for resistance, Ohms law is:
Question:
What is the (hot)
resistance of the bulb? 132
115 V
Example:
A student takes data for a resistor and fits the
straight line shown to the data. What is the
conductance and the resistance of the resistor?
The slope represents the

conductance.
The reciprocal of the

conductance is the
resistance:
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Graph of Current versus Voltage
Notice that the plot of

current versus voltage for a
fixed resistor is a line with
a positive slope. What is
the resistance indicated by
the graph? 2.7 k
What is its
conductance? 0.37 mS
Graph of Current versus Resistance

If resistance is varied
for a constant voltage,
the current versus
resistance curve plots a
hyperbola.
Question:
What is the curve for
a 3 V source?
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Voltage Polarity and Current Direction

The direction of the current and polarity of the voltage across a resistor
are also related. If a voltage value is negative, it means that its
polarity is reverse.
Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential. If a current
value is negative, it means that it is actually flowing in the reverse
direction.
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Example: In the circuit below

A, B, C and D represents the connection points (i.e., nodes).
Vs is a voltage source whose value is 20 V.
R is a resistor whose value is 10
I is the current through the circuit
What is the value of the circuit current I?

What are the values of the voltages and
currents between all the nodes?
Solution:
10
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Energy and Power

When a constant force is applied to move an object over
a distance, the work is the force times the distance.
The force must be measured in the same direction as
the distance. The unit for work is the newton-meter
(N-m) or joule (J).
Distance
Force
One joule is the work done when a force of

one newton is applied through a distance of
one meter. A joule is a small amount of work
approximately equal to the work done in
raising an apple over a distance of 1 m.
The symbol for energy, W, represents work,

but should not be confused with the unit for
power, the watt, W.
1m
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Energy is closely related to work. Energy is the ability

to do work. As such, it is measured in the same units as
work, namely the newton-meter (N-m) or joule (J).
Example:
What amount of energy is consumed in sliding a
box along a floor for 5 meters if the force to move
it is 400 N?
W = Fd = (400 N)(5 m) = 2000 N-m = 2000 J
Power is the rate of doing work. Because it is a

rate, a time unit is required. The unit is the joule
per second (J/s), which defines a watt (W).
Example:
What power is developed if the box in the previous
example is moved in 10 s?
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The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a much larger unit of

energy than the joule. There are 3.6 x 106 J in a kWh.
The kWh is convenient for electrical appliances.
Question:
What is the energy used in operating a
1200 W heater for 20 minutes?
1200 W = 1.2 kW
20 min = 1/3 h
1.2 kW x 1/3 h = 0.4 kWh
In electrical work, the rate energy is dissipated

can be determined from any of three forms of
the power formula.
Together, the three forms are called Watts law.
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Example 1:
What power is dissipated in a 27 resistor if the
current is 0.135 A?
Solution:
Given that you know the resistance and current,
substitute the values into P =I 2R.
Example 2:
What power is dissipated by a heater that draws 12 A
of current from a 120 V supply?
Solution:
The most direct solution is to substitute into P = IV.
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Example 3:
What power is dissipated in a 100 resistor with 5 V
across it?
Solution:
The most direct solution is to substitute into P
V2
.
R
It is useful to keep in mind that

small resistors operating in low
voltage systems need to be sized
for the anticipated power.
Power Between Two Nodes of a Circuit

Power between two nodes A and B is equal to the voltage across the nodes
multiplied by the current from one node to the other
A positive value for the power indicates that it is a dissipated power.

Note: Power over a resistor is always positive.
A negative value for the power indicates that it is a generated power.
Total power in an electrical circuit is zero, i.e., generated power is equal to
the dissipated power. This is due to the conservation of energy law.
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Example 4: In the circuit below

A, B, C and D represents the connection points (i.e., nodes).
Calculate the power across all the nodes.
Solution:
Power is generated
Power is dissipated
Total Generated Power = 40 W
Total Dissipated Power = 40 W
16
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Resistor failures
Resistor failures are unusual except when they have
been subjected to excessive heat. Look for
discoloration (sometimes the color bands appear
burned). Test with an ohmmeter by disconnecting one
end from the circuit to isolate it and verify the
resistance. Correct the cause of the heating problem
(larger wattage resistor?, wrong value?).
Normal
Overheated
Ampere-hour Rating of Batteries

Expected battery life of batteries is given as the amperehours specification. Various factors affect this, so it is an
approximation (factors include rate of current withdrawal,
age of battery, temperature, etc.) .
Question:
How many hours can you expect to have a
battery deliver 0.5 A if it is rated at 10 Ah?
20 h
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Troubleshooting
Some questions to ask before starting any
troubleshooting are:
1. Has the circuit ever worked?
2. If the circuit once worked, under what
conditions did it fail?
3. What are the symptoms of the failure?
4. What are the possible causes of the failure?
Plan the troubleshooting by reviewing

pertinent information:
1. Schematics
2. Instruction manuals
3. Review when and how the failure occurred.
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You may decide to start at the

middle of a circuit and work in
toward the failure. This approach is
called half-splitting.
Based on the plan of attack, look over the circuit

carefully and make measurements as needed to localize
the problem. Modify the plan if necessary as you
proceed.
After solving the problem, it is useful to ask, How can I
prevent this failure in the future?
19

ELE 110 Introduction To Electrical Engineering: Semiconductors

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25/02/2015

Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors (effective mass, energy

Motion and Recombination of Electrons and Holes (mobility,

PN junctions (equilibrium, reverse bias, forward bias, diode equation, solar

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

Meaning (multiply by)

Ohms Law, Energy and Power

Resistance is the opposition to current and is measured

Unit of conductance is called siemens (S).

If you need to solve for voltage, Ohms law is:

If you need to solve for resistance, Ohms law is:

The slope represents the

The reciprocal of the

Graph of Current versus Voltage

Notice that the plot of

Graph of Current versus Resistance

Voltage Polarity and Current Direction

Example: In the circuit below

What is the value of the circuit current I?

Energy and Power

One joule is the work done when a force of

The symbol for energy, W, represents work,

Energy is closely related to work. Energy is the ability

Power is the rate of doing work. Because it is a

The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a much larger unit of

In electrical work, the rate energy is dissipated

Together, the three forms are called Watts law.

It is useful to keep in mind that

Power Between Two Nodes of a Circuit

A positive value for the power indicates that it is a dissipated power.

Example 4: In the circuit below

Calculate the power across all the nodes.

Total Generated Power = 40 W

Total Dissipated Power = 40 W

Ampere-hour Rating of Batteries

Plan the troubleshooting by reviewing

You may decide to start at the

Based on the plan of attack, look over the circuit

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