Golden Ratio
Golden Ratio
Golden Ratio
1+ 5
2
= 1.6180339887 . . . .
A001622
is to as is to
Line segments in the golden ratio
1 Calculation
Two quantities a and b are said to be in the golden ratio
if
a+b
a
= = .
a
b
A golden rectangle (in pink) with longer side a and shorter side
b, when placed adjacent to a square with sides of length a, will
produce a similar golden rectangle with longer side a + b and
shorter side a. This illustrates the relationship a+b
= ab .
a
b
1
a+b
=1+ =1+ .
a
a
Therefore,
a def
a+b
= = ,
a
b
1+
1
= .
HISTORY
+ 1 = 2
which can be rearranged to
2 1 = 0.
Using the quadratic formula, two solutions are obtained:
1+ 5
=
= 1.61803 39887 . . .
2
and
1 5
=
= 0.6180 339887 . . .
2
Because is the ratio between positive quantities is
necessarily positive:
1+ 5
= 1.61803 39887 . . .
2
History
3
ratio, i.e., the golden ratio.[14] Throughout the Elements,
several propositions (theorems in modern terminology)
and their proofs employ the golden ratio.[15]
The golden ratio is explored in Luca Pacioli's book De
divina proportione of 1509.
The rst known approximation of the (inverse) golden ratio by a decimal fraction, stated as about 0.6180340,
was written in 1597 by Michael Maestlin of the University
of Tbingen in a letter to his former student Johannes Kepler.[16]
Since the 20th century, the golden ratio has been represented by the Greek letter (phi, after Phidias, a sculptor who is said to have employed it) or less commonly by
(tau, the rst letter of the ancient Greek root
meaning cut).[1][17]
2.1
Timeline
3.2 Architecture
Charles Bonnet (17201793) points out that in the Many of the proportions of the Parthenon are alleged to exhibit
spiral phyllotaxis of plants going clockwise and the golden ratio.
4
Further information: Mathematics and architecture
The Parthenon's faade as well as elements of its faade
and elsewhere are said by some to be circumscribed by
golden rectangles.[25] Other scholars deny that the Greeks
had any aesthetic association with golden ratio. For example, Midhat J. Gazal says, It was not until Euclid,
however, that the golden ratios mathematical properties
were studied. In the Elements (308 BC) the Greek mathematician merely regarded that number as an interesting irrational number, in connection with the middle and
extreme ratios. Its occurrence in regular pentagons and
decagons was duly observed, as well as in the dodecahedron (a regular polyhedron whose twelve faces are regular pentagons). It is indeed exemplary that the great
Euclid, contrary to generations of mystics who followed,
would soberly treat that number for what it is, without
attaching to it other than its factual properties.[26] And
Keith Devlin says, Certainly, the oft repeated assertion
that the Parthenon in Athens is based on the golden ratio is not supported by actual measurements. In fact, the
entire story about the Greeks and golden ratio seems to
be without foundation. The one thing we know for sure
is that Euclid, in his famous textbook Elements, written
around 300 BC, showed how to calculate its value.[27]
Later sources like Vitruvius exclusively discuss proportions that can be expressed in whole numbers, i.e. commensurate as opposed to irrational proportions.
3.3 Painting
The drawing of a mans body in a pentagram suggests relationships to the golden ratio.[2]
3.5
Design
is often[35] shown in connection with the golden ratio, the 3.5 Design
proportions of the gure do not actually match it, and the
text only mentions whole number ratios.[36]
Some sources claim that the golden ratio is commonly
Salvador Dal, inuenced by the works of Matila used in everyday design, for example in the shapes of
televisions,
Ghyka,[37] explicitly used the golden ratio in his master- postcards, playing cards, posters, wide-screen
[44][45][46][47][48]
photographs,
light
switch
plates
and
cars.
piece, The Sacrament of the Last Supper. The dimensions
of the canvas are a golden rectangle. A huge dodecahedron, in perspective so that edges appear in golden ratio
3.6 Music
to one another, is suspended above and behind Jesus and
[1][38]
dominates the composition.
Ern Lendvai analyzes Bla Bartk's works as being
Mondrian has been said to have used the golden section based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio
extensively in his geometrical paintings,[39] though other and the acoustic scale,[49] though other music scholars reexperts (including critic Yve-Alain Bois) have disputed ject that analysis.[1] French composer Erik Satie used the
this claim.[1]
golden ratio in several of his pieces, including Sonneries
de
la Rose+Croix. The golden ratio is also apparent in
A statistical study on 565 works of art of dierent great
the
organization of the sections in the music of Debussy's
painters, performed in 1999, found that these artists had
Reets
dans l'eau (Reections in Water), from Images (1st
not used the golden ratio in the size of their canvases. The
series,
1905), in which the sequence of keys is marked
study concluded that the average ratio of the two sides of
out
by
the
intervals 34, 21, 13 and 8, and the main climax
the paintings studied is 1.34, with averages for individsits
at
the
phi
position.[50]
[40]
ual artists ranging from 1.04 (Goya) to 1.46 (Bellini).
On the other hand, Pablo Tosto listed over 350 works by
well-known artists, including more than 100 which have
canvasses with golden rectangle and root-5 proportions,
and others with proportions like root-2, 3, 4, and 6.[41]
3.4
Book design
The musicologist Roy Howat has observed that the formal boundaries of La Mer correspond exactly to the
golden section.[51] Trezise nds the intrinsic evidence
remarkable, but cautions that no written or reported
evidence suggests that Debussy consciously sought such
proportions.[52]
Pearl Drums positions the air vents on its Masters Premium models based on the golden ratio. The company
claims that this arrangement improves bass response and
has applied for a patent on this innovation.[53]
Though Heinz Bohlen proposed the non-octave-repeating
833 cents scale based on combination tones, the tuning
features relations based on the golden ratio. As a musical
interval the ratio 1.618... is 833.090... cents ( Play ).[54]
3.7 Nature
Main article: Patterns in nature
Adolf Zeising, whose main interests were mathematics
and philosophy, found the golden ratio expressed in the
Depiction of the proportions in a medieval manuscript. Accord- arrangement of parts such as leaves and branches along
ing to Jan Tschichold: Page proportion 2:3. Margin proportions the stems of plants and of veins in leaves. He extended
1:1:2:3. Text area proportioned in the Golden Section.[42]
his research to the skeletons of animals and the branchings of their veins and nerves, to the proportions of chemMain article: Canons of page construction
ical compounds and the geometry of crystals, even to the
use of proportion in artistic endeavors. In these patterns
in nature he saw the golden ratio operating as a univer[43]
According to Jan Tschichold,
sal law.[55][56] In connection with his scheme for goldenratio-based human body proportions, Zeising wrote in
There was a time when deviations from the
1854 of a universal law in which is contained the groundtruly beautiful page proportions 2:3, 1:3, and
principle of all formative striving for beauty and comthe Golden Section were rare. Many books
pleteness in the realms of both nature and art, and which
produced between 1550 and 1770 show these
permeates, as a paramount spiritual ideal, all structures,
forms and proportions, whether cosmic or individual,
proportions exactly, to within half a millimeter.
4 MATHEMATICS
4 Mathematics
4.1 Irrationality
The golden ratio is an irrational number. Below are two
short proofs of irrationality:
nm
m
n
If were rational, then it would be the ratio of sides of a rectangle with integer sides (the rectangle comprising the entire diagram). But it would also be a ratio of integer sides of the
smaller rectangle (the rightmost portion of the diagram) obtained
by deleting a square. The sequence of decreasing integer side
lengths formed by deleting squares cannot be continued indenitely because the integers have a lower bound, so cannot be
rational.
In 2010, the journal Science reported that the golden ratio Recall that:
is present at the atomic scale in the magnetic resonance
of spins in cobalt niobate crystals.[58]
the whole is the longer part plus the shorter
Since 1991, several researchers have proposed conpart;
nections between the golden ratio and human genome
the whole is to the longer part as the longer part
DNA.[59][60][61]
is to the shorter part.
However, some have argued that many apparent manifestations of the golden ratio in nature, especially in regard
If we call the whole n and the longer part m, then the
to animal dimensions, are ctitious.[62]
second statement above becomes
3.8
Optimization
n is to m as m is to n m,
or, algebraically
3.9
m
n
=
.
m
nm
Perceptual studies
()
4.4
4.1.2
Alternative forms
1+ 5
cation. If 2 is rational, then 2 1+2 5 1 = 5
is also rational, which is a contradiction if it is already
known that the square root of a non-square natural number is irrational.
4.2
Minimal polynomial
x2 x 1
Approximations to the reciprocal golden ratio by nite continued
Having degree 2, this polynomial actually has two roots, fractions, or ratios of Fibonacci numbers
the other being the golden ratio conjugate.
4.3
1
1 5
=1=
= 0.61803 39887 . . . .
= [1; 1, 1, 1, . . . ] = 1 +
1+
1+
1
.
1 + ..
1 = [0; 1, 1, 1, . . . ] = 0 +
1+
1
= = 1 = 0.61803 39887 . . . .
1+
1
.
1 + ..
1 + 1 + .
1
= 1,
or its inverse:
1
= + 1.
1+
1+
4 MATHEMATICS
Also:
= 1 + 2 sin(/10) = 1 + 2 sin 18
=
1
1
csc(/10) = csc 18
2
2
3.
= 2 cos(/5) = 2 cos 36
= 2 sin(3/10) = 2 sin 54 .
1.
2.
These correspond to the fact that the length of the diagonal of a regular pentagon is times the length of its side, Dividing a line segment by interior division according to the
and similar relations in a pentagram.
golden ratio
4.5
Geometry
1/
-1
1/ 2
1/3
The number turns up frequently in geometry, particularly in gures with pentagonal symmetry. The length of
a regular pentagon's diagonal is times its side. The vertices of a regular icosahedron are those of three mutually
orthogonal golden rectangles.
3.
1.
2.
4.5
Geometry
2 =1+
C
Golden triangle
|AC|
|AB|
Golden triangle The golden triangle can be characterized as an isosceles triangle ABC with the property that
bisecting the angle C produces a new triangle CXB which
two points, then these three points are in golden proporis a similar triangle to the original.
tion. This result is a straightforward consequence of the
If angle BCX = , then XCA = because of the bisection, intersecting chords theorem and can be used to construct
and CAB = because of the similar triangles; ABC = 2 a regular pentagon, a construction that attracted the atfrom the original isosceles symmetry, and BXC = 2 by tention of the noted Canadian geometer H. S. M. Coxsimilarity. The angles in a triangle add up to 180, so 5 eter who published it in Odoms name as a diagram in
= 180, giving = 36. So the angles of the golden triangle the American Mathematical Monthly accompanied by the
are thus 367272. The angles of the remaining ob- single word Behold!" [67]
tuse isosceles triangle AXC (sometimes called the golden
gnomon) are 3636108.
Suppose XB has length 1, and we call BC length . Because of the isosceles triangles XC=XA and BC=XC, so
these are also length . Length AC = AB, therefore
equals + 1. But triangle ABC is similar to triangle CXB,
so AC/BC = BC/BX, AC/ = /1, and so AC also equals
2 . Thus 2 = + 1, conrming that is indeed the
golden ratio.
Similarly, the ratio of the area of the larger triangle AXC
to the smaller CXB is equal to , while the inverse ratio
is 1.
Pentagon In a regular pentagon the ratio between a side
and a diagonal is (i.e. 1/), while intersecting diagonals
section each other in the golden ratio.[8]
Odoms construction George Odom has given a remarkably simple construction for involving an equilateral triangle: if an equilateral triangle is inscribed in
a circle and the line segment joining the midpoints of A pentagram colored to distinguish its line segments of dierent
two sides is produced to intersect the circle in either of lengths. The four lengths are in golden ratio to one another.
10
4 MATHEMATICS
a
a
b
b
1+ 5
b
=
.
a
2
4.5.4
Scalenity of triangles
4.7
Symmetries
11
4.6
(1 )
()
=
5
5
n
F (n) =
x2 = ax + b
for given coecients a, b such that x satises the equation. Even more generally, any rational function (with
A Fibonacci spiral which approximates the golden spiral, using rational coecients) of the root of an irreducible nthFibonacci sequence square sizes up to 34.
degree polynomial over the rationals can be reduced to
a polynomial of degree n 1. Phrased in terms of eld
terms of the Fibonacci sequence (or any Fibonacci-like theory, if is a root of an irreducible nth-degree polynomial, then Q() has degree n over Q , with basis
sequence), as originally shown by Kepler:[20]
{1, , . . . , n1 } .
lim
F (n + 1)
= .
F (n)
Therefore, if a Fibonacci number is divided by its immediate predecessor in the sequence, the quotient approximates ; e.g., 987/610 1.6180327868852. These approximations are alternately lower and higher than , and
converge on as the Fibonacci numbers increase, and:
|F (n) F (n + 1)| = .
n=1
More generally:
4.7 Symmetries
The
golden ratio and inverse golden ratio = (1
5)/2 have a set of symmetries that preserve and interrelate them. They are both preserved by the fractional linear transformations x, 1/(1 x), (x 1)/x, this fact
corresponds to the identity and the denition quadratic
equation. Further, they are interchanged by the three
maps 1/x, 1 x, x/(x 1) they are reciprocals, symmetric about 1/2 , and (projectively) symmetric about 2.
More deeply, these maps form a subgroup of the modular
group PSL(2, Z) isomorphic to the symmetric group on
3 letters, S3 , corresponding to the stabilizer of the set
12
4 MATHEMATICS
{0, 1, } of 3 standard points on the projective line, and 4.9 Decimal expansion
the symmetries correspond to the quotient map S3 S2
the subgroup C3 < S3 consisting of the 3-cycles and The golden ratios decimal expansion can be calculated
the identity ()(01)(01) xes the two numbers, while directly from the expression
the 2-cycles interchange these, thus realizing the map.
4.8
Other properties
1+ 5
2
(xn + 5/xn )
The dening quadratic polynomial and the conjugate re- xn+1 =
2
lationship lead to decimal values that have their fractional
part in common with :
for n = 1, 2, 3, ..., until the dierence between xn and xn
becomes zero, to the desired number of digits.
2 = + 1 = 2.618 . . .
1
= 1 = 0.618 . . . .
xn+1 =
x2n + 1
,
2xn 1
As a result, one can easily decompose any power of for an appropriate initial estimate x such as x = 1. A
into a multiple of and a constant. The multiple and slightly faster method is to rewrite the equation as x 1
the constant are always adjacent Fibonacci numbers. This 1/x = 0, in which case the Newton iteration becomes
leads to another property of the positive powers of :
If n/2 1 = m , then:
n = n1 + n3 + + n12m + n22m
n n1 = n2 .
xn+1 =
x2n + 2xn
.
x2n + 1
n 5
, An easily programmed alternative using only integer
ber.[72] In the eld Q( 5) we have n = Ln +F
2
arithmetic is to calculate two large consecutive Fibonacci
where Ln is the n -th Lucas number.
numbers and divide them. The ratio of Fibonacci numThe golden ratio also appears in hyperbolic geometry, as bers F
25001 and F 25000 , each over 5000 digits, yields
the maximum distance from a point on one side of an over 10,000 signicant digits of the golden ratio.
ideal triangle to the closer of the other two sides: this
distance, the side length of the equilateral triangle formed The decimal expansion of the golden ratio (
by the points of tangency of a circle inscribed within the A001622) has been calculated to an accuracy of two trillion (21012 = 2,000,000,000,000) digits.[74]
ideal triangle, is 4 log() .[73]
When the golden ratio is used as the base of a numeral
system (see Golden ratio base, sometimes dubbed phinary or -nary), every integer has a terminating representation, despite being irrational, but every fraction
has a non-terminating representation.
5.2
Egyptian pyramids
Pyramids
13
a h
b
A regular square pyramid is determined by its medial right triangle, whose edges are the pyramids apothem (a), semi-base (b),
and height (h); the face inclination angle is also marked. Math
ematical proportions b:h:a of 1 : : and 3 : 4 : 5 and
1 : 4/ : 1.61899 are of particular interest in relation to Egyptian pyramids.
corresponds to the angle that the side of the pyramid Michael Rice[82] asserts that principal authorities on the
makes with respect to the ground, 51.827... degrees (51 history of Egyptian architecture have argued that the
Egyptians were well acquainted with the golden ratio and
49' 38).[76]
mathematics of the Pyramids, citing
A nearly similar pyramid shape, but with rational pro- that it is part of
[83]
Historians of science have always deGiedon
(1957).
portions, is described in the Rhind Mathematical Pabated
whether
the
Egyptians
had any such knowledge or
pyrus (the source of a large part of modern knowledge
not,
contending
rather
that
its
appearance in an Egyptian
of ancient Egyptian mathematics), based on the 3:4:5
[84]
building
is
the
result
of
chance.
[77]
the face slope corresponding to the angle
triangle;
with tangent 4/3 is 53.13 degrees (53 degrees and 8 In 1859, the pyramidologist John Taylor claimed that, in
14
Disputed observations
7 See also
Golden angle
Section d'Or
List of works designed with the golden ratio
Plastic number
Sacred geometry
Silver ratio
W.
Golden
Ratio
Conjugate.
15
[14] Euclid,
[http:/.aleph0.clarku.edu/~{}djoyce/java/
elements/toc.html Elements], Book 6, Proposition 30.
[15] Euclid, Elements, Book 2, Proposition 11; Book 4, Propositions 1011; Book 13, Propositions 16, 811, 1618.
[16] The Golden Ratio. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
16
[45] Art Johnson (1999). Famous problems and their mathematicians. Libraries Unlimited. p. 45. ISBN 978-156308-446-1. The Golden Ratio is a standard feature of
many modern designs, from postcards and credit cards to
posters and light-switch plates.
[46] Alexey Stakhov; Scott Olsen; Scott Anthony Olsen
(2009). The mathematics of harmony: from Euclid to contemporary mathematics and computer science. World Scientic. p. 21. ISBN 978-981-277-582-5. A credit card
has a form of the golden rectangle.
[47] Simon Cox (2004). Cracking the Da Vinci code: the unauthorized guide to the facts behind Dan Browns bestselling
novel. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-7607-59318. The Golden Ratio also crops up in some very unlikely
places: widescreen televisions, postcards, credit cards and
photographs all commonly conform to its proportions.
[56] Padovan, Richard (2002). Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture. Nexus Network Journal. 4 (1): 113
122. doi:10.1007/s00004-001-0008-7.
[73] Horocycles exinscrits : une proprit hyperbolique remarquable, cabri.net, retrieved 2009-07-21.
Eu-
[75] Radio, Astraea Web (2006). The Best of Astraea: 17 Articles on Science, History and Philosophy. Astrea Web Radio. ISBN 1-4259-7040-0.
[76] Midhat Gazale, Gnomon: From Pharaohs to Fractals,
Princeton Univ. Press, 1999
[77] Eli Maor, Trigonometric Delights, Princeton Univ. Press,
2000
[78] The Great Pyramid, The Great Discovery, and The Great
Coincidence. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
17
9 Further reading
Doczi, Gyrgy (2005) [1981]. The Power of Limits: Proportional Harmonies in Nature, Art, and Architecture. Boston: Shambhala Publications. ISBN
1-59030-259-1.
Huntley, H. E. (1970). The Divine Proportion: A
Study in Mathematical Beauty. New York: Dover
Publications. ISBN 0-486-22254-3.
Joseph, George G. (2000) [1991]. The Crest of the
Peacock: The Non-European Roots of Mathematics (New ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press. ISBN 0-691-00659-8.
Livio, Mario (2002) [2002]. The Golden Ratio: The
Story of PHI, the Worlds Most Astonishing Number
(Hardback ed.). NYC: Broadway (Random House).
ISBN 0-7679-0815-5.
Sahlqvist, Leif (2008). Cardinal Alignments and the
Golden Section: Principles of Ancient Cosmography
and Design (3rd Rev. ed.). Charleston, SC: BookSurge. ISBN 1-4196-2157-2.
Schneider, Michael S. (1994). A Beginners Guide
to Constructing the Universe: The Mathematical
Archetypes of Nature, Art, and Science. New York:
HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-016939-7.
Scimone, Aldo (1997). La Sezione Aurea. Storia
culturale di un leitmotiv della Matematica. Palermo:
Sigma Edizioni. ISBN 978-88-7231-025-0.
Stakhov, A. P. (2009). The Mathematics of Harmony: From Euclid to Contemporary Mathematics
and Computer Science. Singapore: World Scientic
Publishing. ISBN 978-981-277-582-5.
Walser, Hans (2001) [Der Goldene Schnitt 1993].
The Golden Section. Peter Hilton trans. Washington, DC: The Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-534-8.
10 External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), Golden ratio,
Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 9781-55608-010-4
Golden Section by Michael Schreiber, Wolfram
Demonstrations Project, 2007.
Golden Section in Photography: Golden Ratio,
Golden Triangles, Golden Spiral
Weisstein, Eric W. Golden Ratio. MathWorld.
Researcher explains mystery of golden ratio.
PhysOrg. December 21, 2009..
18
Knott, Ron. The Golden section ratio: Phi. Information and activities by a mathematics professor.
The Pentagram & The Golden Ratio. Green,
Thomas M. Updated June 2005. Archived November 2007. Geometry instruction with problems to
solve.
Schneider, Robert P. (2011). A Golden Pair
of Identities in the Theory of Numbers.
arXiv:1109.3216
[math.HO]. Proves formulas that involve the golden mean and the Euler
totient and Mbius functions.
The Myth That Will Not Go Away, by Keith Devlin,
addressing multiple allegations about the use of the
golden ratio in culture.
10
EXTERNAL LINKS
19
11
11.1
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