Golden ratio

In mathematics, two quantities are in thegolden ratio if their ratio is the same as the
ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities. The figure on the right
illustrates the geometric relationship. Expressed algebraically, for quantities a and b
with a > b > 0,

Line segments in the golden ratio

where the Greek letter phi ( or ) represents the golden ratio.[1] It is an irrational
number with a value of:

[2]

The golden ratio is also called the golden mean or golden section (Latin: sectio
aurea).[3][4][5] Other names include extreme and mean ratio,[6] medial section,
divine proportion, divine section (Latin: sectio divina), golden proportion, golden
cut,[7] and golden number.[8][9][10]

Mathematicians since Euclid have studied the properties of the golden ratio,
including its appearance in the dimensions of a regular pentagon and in a golden
A golden rectangle (in pink) with
rectangle, which may be cut into a square and a smaller rectangle with the same
longer side a and shorter side b,
aspect ratio. The golden ratio has also been used to analyze the proportions of
when placed adjacent to a square
natural objects as well as man-made systems such as financial markets, in some with sides of length a, will produce a
cases based on dubious fits to data.[11] The golden ratio appears in some patterns in similar golden rectangle with longer
nature, including the spiral arrangement of leavesand other plant parts. side a + b and shorter side a. This
illustrates the relationship
Some twentieth-centuryartists and architects, including Le Corbusier and Dalí, have
.
proportioned their works to approximate the golden ratio—especially in the form of
the golden rectangle, in which the ratio of the longer side to the shorter is the golden
ratio—believing this proportion to beaesthetically pleasing.

Contents
Calculation
History
Timeline
Applications and observations
Aesthetics
Architecture
Painting
Book design
Design
Music
Nature
Optimization
 Perceptual studies
Mathematics
Irrationality
Minimal polynomial
Golden ratio conjugate
Alternative forms
Geometry
Relationship to Fibonacci sequence
Symmetries
Other properties
Decimal expansion
Pyramids
Mathematical pyramids and triangles
Egyptian pyramids
Disputed observations
See also
References and footnotes
Further reading
External links

Calculation
Two quantities a and b are said to be in the golden ratio φ if
List of numbers · Irrational and suspected
irrational numbers
γ · ζ(3) · √2 · √3 · √5 · φ · ρ · δS · e · π · δ
Binary 1.1001111000110111011...
One method for finding the value of φ is to start with the left fraction.
Decimal 1.6180339887498948482...[2]
φ,
Through simplifying the fraction and substituting in b/a = 1/
Hexadecimal 1.9E3779B97F4A7C15F39...
Continued
fraction

Therefore,

Algebraic
Multiplying by φ gives form
Infinite
series
which can be rearranged to

Using the quadratic formula, two solutions are obtained:

and
Because φ is the ratio between positive quantitiesφ is necessarily positive:

History
The golden ratio has been claimed to have held a special fascination for at least 2,400
years, although without reliable evidence.[13] According to Mario Livio:

Some of the greatest mathematical minds of all ages, from Pythagoras

and Euclid in ancient Greece, through the medieval Italian
mathematician Leonardo of Pisa and the Renaissance astronomer
Johannes Kepler, to present-day scientific figures such as Oxford
physicist Roger Penrose, have spent endless hours over this simple ratio Mathematician Mark Barr
and its properties. But the fascination with the Golden Ratio is not proposed using the first letter in
confined just to mathematicians. Biologists, artists, musicians, the name of Greek sculptor
Phidias, phi, to symbolize the
historians, architects, psychologists, and even mystics have pondered
golden ratio. Usually, the
and debated the basis of its ubiquity and appeal. In fact, it is probably lowercase form (φ or φ) is used.
fair to say that the Golden Ratio has inspired thinkers of all disciplines Sometimes the uppercase form (
[14]
like no other number in the history of mathematics. ) is used for the reciprocal of the
golden ratio, 1/φ.[12]

Ancient Greek mathematicians first studied what we now call the golden ratio
because of its frequent appearance in geometry. The division of a line into "extreme
and mean ratio" (the golden section) is important in the geometry of regular
pentagrams and pentagons. Euclid's Elements (Greek: Στοιχεῖα) provides the first
known written definition of what is now called the golden ratio:

A straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio
when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to
the lesser.[15]

Euclid explains a construction for cutting (sectioning) a line "in extreme and mean
ratio" (i.e., the golden ratio).[16] Throughout the Elements, several propositions
[17]
(theorems in modern terminology) and their proofs employ the golden ratio.

The golden ratio is explored in Luca Pacioli's book De divina proportione

(1509).[10]

The first known approximation of the (inverse) golden ratio by a decimal fraction,
stated as "about 0.6180340", was written in 1597 by Michael Maestlin of the
University of Tübingenin a letter to his former studentJohannes Kepler.[18] Michael Maestlin, first to publish a
decimal approximation of the golden
Since the 20th century, the golden ratio has been represented by the Greek letter φ
ratio, in 1597.
(phi, after Phidias, a sculptor who is said to have employed it) or less commonly by
τ (tau, the first letter of the ancient Greek root τομή—meaning cut).[3][19]
Timeline
Timeline according to Priya Hemenway:[20]

Phidias (490–430 BC) made theParthenon statues that seem to embody the golden ratio.
Plato (427–347 BC), in his Timaeus, describes five possible regular solids (thePlatonic solids: the tetrahedron, cube,
octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron), some of which are related to the golden ratio. [21]

Euclid (c. 325–c. 265 BC), in hisElements, gave the first recorded definition of the golden ratio, which he called, as
translated into English, "extreme and mean ratio" (Greek:ἄκρος καὶ μέσος λόγος).[6]
Fibonacci (1170–1250) mentioned thenumerical series now named after him in hisLiber Abaci; the ratio of
sequential elements of theFibonacci sequence approaches the golden ratio asymptotically .
Luca Pacioli (1445–1517) defines the golden ratio as the "divine proportion" in hisDivina Proportione.
Michael Maestlin (1550–1631) publishes the first known approximation of the (inverse) golden ratio as decimal a
fraction.
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) proves that the golden ratio is the limit of the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci
numbers,[22] and describes the golden ratio as a "precious jewel": "Geometry has two great treasures: one is the
Theorem of Pythagoras, and the other the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio; the first we may compare to
a measure of gold, the second we may name a precious jewel." These two treasures are combined in the Kepler
triangle.
Charles Bonnet (1720–1793) points out that in the spiralphyllotaxis of plants going clockwise and counter-clockwise
were frequently two successive Fibonacci series.
Martin Ohm (1792–1872) is believed to be the first to use the termgoldener Schnitt (golden section) to describe this
ratio, in 1835.[23]
Édouard Lucas (1842–1891) gives the numerical sequence now known as the Fibonacci sequence its present name.
Mark Barr (20th century) suggests the Greek letter phiφ), ( the initial letter of Greek sculptor Phidias's name, as a
symbol for the golden ratio.[24]
Roger Penrose (b. 1931) discovered in 1974 thePenrose tiling, a pattern that is related to the golden ratio both in
[25] This in turn led to new
the ratio of areas of its two rhombic tiles and in their relative frequency within the pattern.
discoveries about quasicrystals. [26]

Applications and observations

Aesthetics
De Divina Proportione, a three-volume work by Luca Pacioli, was published in 1509. Pacioli, a Franciscan friar, was known mostly
as a mathematician, but he was also trained and keenly interested in art. De Divina Proportione explored the mathematics of the
golden ratio. Though it is often said that Pacioli advocated the golden ratio's application to yield pleasing, harmonious proportions,
Livio points out that the interpretation has been traced to an error in 1799, and that Pacioli actually advocated the Vitruvian system of
rational proportions.[3] Pacioli also saw Catholic religious significance in the ratio, which led to his work's title. De Divina
Proportione contains illustrations of regular solids by Leonardo da Vinci, Pacioli's longtime friend and collaborator; these are not
directly linked to the golden ratio.

Architecture
[27]
The Parthenon's façade as well as elements of its façade and elsewhere are said by some to be circumscribed by golden rectangles.
Other scholars deny that the Greeks had any aesthetic association with golden ratio. For example, Midhat J. Gazalé says, "It was not
until Euclid, however, that the golden ratio's mathematical properties were studied. In the Elements (308 BC) the Greek
mathematician merely regarded that number as an interesting irrational number, in connection with the middle and extreme ratios. Its
occurrence in regular pentagons anddecagons was duly observed, as well as in the dodecahedron (aregular polyhedron whose twelve
faces are regular pentagons). It is indeed exemplary that the great Euclid, contrary to generations of mystics who followed, would
soberly treat that number for what it is, without attaching to it other than its factual properties."[28] And Keith Devlin says,
"Certainly, the oft repeated assertion that the Parthenon in Athens is based on the golden ratio is not supported by actual
measurements. In fact, the entire story about the Greeks and golden ratio seems to be without foundation. The one thing we know for
sure is that Euclid, in his famous textbook Elements, written around 300 BC, showed how to calculate its value."[29] Later sources
like Vitruvius exclusively discuss proportions that can
be expressed in whole numbers, i.e. commensurate as
opposed to irrational proportions.

A 2004 geometrical analysis of earlier research into the

Great Mosque of Kairouan reveals a consistent
application of the golden ratio throughout the design,
according to Boussora and Mazouz.[30] They found
ratios close to the golden ratio in the overall proportion Many of the proportions of theParthenon are alleged to exhibit
of the plan and in the dimensioning of the prayer space, the golden ratio.
the court, and the minaret. The authors note, however,
that the areas where ratios close to the golden ratio
were found are not part of the original construction, and theorize that these elements were added in a reconstruction.

The Swiss architect Le Corbusier, famous for his contributions to the modern international style, centered his design philosophy on
systems of harmony and proportion. Le Corbusier's faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden
ratio and the Fibonacci series, which he described as "rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And
these rhythms are at the very root of human activities. They resound in man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability
[31][32]
which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages and the learned."

Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his Modulor system for the scale of architectural proportion. He saw this system as a
continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's "Vitruvian Man", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others
who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of architecture. In addition to the golden ratio,
Le Corbusier based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit. He took suggestion of the golden
ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden
ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor
system. Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplified the Modulor system's application. The villa's rectangular ground
[33]
plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles.

Another Swiss architect, Mario Botta, bases many of his designs on geometric figures. Several private houses he designed in
Switzerland are composed of squares and circles, cubes and cylinders. In a house he designed in Origlio, the golden ratio is the
[34]
proportion between the central section and the side sections of the house.

In a recent book, author Jason Elliot speculated that the golden ratio was used by the designers of the Naqsh-e Jahan Square and the
adjacent Lotfollah mosque.[35]

From measurements of 15 temples, 18 monumental tombs, 8 sarcophagi, and 58 grave stelae from the fifth century BC to the second
century AD, one researcher has concluded that the golden ratio was totally absent from Greek architecture of the classical fifth
[36]
century BC, and almost absent during the following six centuries.

Painting
Leonardo da Vinci's illustrations of polyhedra in De divina proportione (On the Divine Proportion) and his views that some bodily
proportions exhibit the golden ratio have led some scholars to speculate that he incorporated the golden ratio in his paintings.[37] But
the suggestion that his Mona Lisa, for example, employs golden ratio proportions, is not supported by anything in Leonardo's own
writings.[38] Similarly, although the Vitruvian Man is often[39] shown in connection with the golden ratio, the proportions of the
[40]
figure do not actually match it, and the text only mentions whole number ratios.

The 16th-century philosopher Heinrich Agrippa drew a man over a pentagram inside a circle, implying a relationship to the golden
ratio.[4]
Salvador Dalí, influenced by the works of Matila Ghyka,[41] explicitly used the
golden ratio in his masterpiece, The Sacrament of the Last Supper. The dimensions
of the canvas are a golden rectangle. A huge dodecahedron, in perspective so that
edges appear in golden ratio to one another, is suspended above and behind Jesus
and dominates the composition.[3][42]

Mondrian has been said to have used the golden section extensively in his
geometrical paintings,[43] though other experts (including critic Yve-Alain Bois)
have disputed this claim.[3]

A statistical study on 565 works of art of different great painters, performed in 1999,
found that these artists had not used the golden ratio in the size of their canvases.
The drawing of a man's body in a
The study concluded that the average ratio of the two sides of the paintings studied pentagram suggests relationships to
is 1.34, with averages for individual artists ranging from 1.04 (Goya) to 1.46 the golden ratio.[4]
(Bellini).[44] On the other hand, Pablo Tosto listed over 350 works by well-known
artists, including more than 100 which have canvasses with golden rectangle and
[45]
root-5 proportions, and others with proportions like root-2, 3, 4, and 6.

Book design
According to Jan Tschichold,[47]

There was a time when deviations from the truly beautiful page
proportions 2:3, 1:√3, and the Golden Section were rare. Many
books produced between 1550 and 1770 show these proportions
exactly, to within half a millimeter.

Design Depiction of the proportions in a

Some sources claim that the golden ratio is commonly used in everyday design, for medieval manuscript. According to
Jan Tschichold: "Page proportion 2:3.
example in the shapes of postcards, playing cards, posters, wide-screen televisions,
Margin proportions 1:1:2:3. Text area
photographs, light switch plates and cars.[48][49][50][51][52] proportioned in the Golden
Section."[46]

Music
Ernő Lendvai analyzes Béla Bartók's works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio and the acoustic
scale,[53] though other music scholars reject that analysis.[3] French composer Erik Satie used the golden ratio in several of his
pieces, including Sonneries de la Rose+Croix. The golden ratio is also apparent in the organization of the sections in the music of
Debussy's Reflets dans l'eau (Reflections in Water), from Images (1st series, 1905), in which "the sequence of keys is marked out by
[54]
the intervals 34, 21, 13 and 8, and the main climax sits at the phi position."

The musicologist Roy Howat has observed that the formal boundaries of Debussy's La Mer correspond exactly to the golden
section.[55] Trezise finds the intrinsic evidence "remarkable," but cautions that no written or reported evidence suggests that Debussy
consciously sought such proportions.[56]

Pearl Drums positions the air vents on its Masters Premium models based on the golden ratio. The company claims that this
arrangement improves bass response and has applied for apatent on this innovation.[57]

Though Heinz Bohlen proposed the non-octave-repeating 833 cents scale based on combination tones, the tuning features relations
based on the golden ratio. As a musical interval the ratio 1.618... is 833.090... cents ( Play ).[58]
Nature
Adolf Zeising, whose main interests were mathematics and philosophy, found the golden ratio
expressed in the arrangement of parts such as leaves and branches along the stems of plants
and of veins in leaves. He extended his research to the skeletons of animals and the
branchings of their veins and nerves, to the proportions of chemical compounds and the
geometry of crystals, even to the use of proportion in artistic endeavors. In these patterns in
nature he saw the golden ratio operating as a universal law.[59][60] In connection with his
scheme for golden-ratio-based human body proportions, Zeising wrote in 1854 of a universal
law "in which is contained the ground-principle of all formative striving for beauty and
completeness in the realms of both nature and art, and which permeates, as a paramount
spiritual ideal, all structures, forms and proportions, whether cosmic or individual, organic or
inorganic, acoustic or optical; which finds its fullest realization, however, in the human
form."[61]
Detail of Aeonium
In 2010, the journal Science reported that the golden ratio is present at the atomic scale in the
tabuliforme showing the
[62]
magnetic resonance of spins in cobalt niobate crystals. multiple spiral arrangement
(parastichy)
Since 1991, several researchers have proposed connections between the golden ratio and
human genome DNA.[63][64][65]

However, some have argued that many apparent manifestations of the golden ratio in nature, especially in regard to animal
dimensions, are fictitious.[66]

Optimization
The golden ratio is key to thegolden-section search.

Perceptual studies
Studies by psychologists, starting with Gustav Fechner, have been devised to test the idea that the golden ratio plays a role in human
perception of beauty. While Fechner found a preference for rectangle ratios centered on the golden ratio, later attempts to carefully
[3][67]
test such a hypothesis have been, at best, inconclusive.

Mathematics

Irrationality
The golden ratio is anirrational number. Below are two short proofs of irrationality:

Contradiction from an expression in lowest terms

Recall that:

the whole is the longer part plus the shorter part;

the whole is to the longer part as the longer part is to the shorter part.

If we call the whole n and the longer part m, then the second statement above becomes

n is to m as m is to n − m,

or, algebraically
To say that the golden ratio φ is rational means that φ is a fraction n/m where n and
m are integers. We may take n/m to be in lowest terms and n and m to be positive.
But if n/m is in lowest terms, then the identity labeled (*) above says m/(n − m) is in
still lower terms. That is a contradiction that follows from the assumption that φ is
rational.
If φ were rational, then it would be
the ratio of sides of a rectangle with
By irrationality of √5 integer sides (the rectangle
Another short proof—perhaps more commonly known—of the irrationality of the comprising the entire diagram). But it
would also be a ratio of integer sides
golden ratio makes use of the closure of rational numbers under addition and
of the smaller rectangle (the
multiplication. If is rational, then is also rational, rightmost portion of the diagram)
which is a contradiction if it is already known that the square root of a non-square obtained by deleting a square. The
sequence of decreasing integer side
natural number is irrational.
lengths formed by deleting squares
cannot be continued indefinitely
because the integers have a lower
Minimal polynomial
bound, so φ cannot be rational.
The golden ratio is also an algebraic number and even an algebraic integer. It has
minimal polynomial

Having degree 2, this polynomial actually has two roots, the other being the golden ratio conjugate.

Golden ratio conjugate

The conjugate root to the minimal polynomial x2 − x − 1 is

The absolute value of this quantity (≈ 0.618) corresponds to the length ratio taken in reverse order (shorter segment length over
longer segment length,b/a), and is sometimes referred to as thegolden ratio conjugate.[12] It is denoted here by the capital Phi ( ):

Alternatively, can be expressed as

This illustrates the unique property of the golden ratio among positive numbers, that

or its inverse:
This means 0.61803...:1 = 1:1.61803....

Alternative forms
The formula φ = 1 + 1/φ can be expanded recursively to obtain a continued fraction
for the golden ratio:[68]

and its reciprocal:

Approximations to the reciprocal

golden ratio by finite continued
fractions, or ratios of Fibonacci
numbers

The convergents of these continued fractions (1/1, 2/1, 3/2, 5/3, 8/5, 13/8, ..., or 1/1, 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 5/8, 8/13, ...) are ratios of
successive Fibonacci numbers.

The equation φ2 = 1 + φ likewise produces thecontinued square root, or infinite surd, form:

An infinite series can be derived to express phi:[69]

Also:

φ times the length of its side, and similar relations

These correspond to the fact that the length of the diagonal of a regular pentagon is
in a pentagram.

Geometry
The number φ turns up frequently in geometry, particularly in figures with pentagonal symmetry. The length of a regular pentagon's
diagonal is φ times its side. The vertices of a regularicosahedron are those of three mutually orthogonal golden rectangles.
There is no known general algorithm to arrange a given
number of nodes evenly on a sphere, for any of several
definitions of even distribution (see, for example, Thomson
problem). However, a useful approximation results from
dividing the sphere into parallel bands of equal surface area
and placing one node in each band at longitudes spaced by
a golden section of the circle, i.e. 360°/φ ≅ 222.5°. This
method was used to arrange the 1500 mirrors of the
student-participatory satellite Starshine-3.[70]

Approximate and true golden spirals. The green spiral is

made from quarter-circles tangent to the interior of each
square, while the red spiral is a Golden Spiral, a special
type of logarithmic spiral. Overlapping portions appear
yellow. The length of the side of one square divided by that
of the next smaller square is the golden ratio.

Dividing a line segment by interior division

1. Having a line segment AB, construct a perpendicular BC at point B,

with BC half the length of AB. Draw thehypotenuse AC.
2. Draw an arc with center C and radius BC. This arc intersects the
hypotenuse AC at point D.
3. Draw an arc with center A and radius AD. This arc intersects the
original line segment AB at point S. Point S divides the original line
segment AB into line segments AS and SB with lengths in the
golden ratio.

Dividing a line segment by interior division

according to the golden ratio

Dividing a line segment by exterior division

1. Draw a line segment AS and construct off the point S a segment

SC perpendicular to AS and with the same length as AS.
2. Do bisect the line segment AS with M.
3. A circular arc around M with radius MC intersects in point B the
straight line through points A and S (also known as the extension
of AS). The ratio of AS to the constructed segment SB is the
golden ratio.
Application examples you can see in the articles Pentagon with a given side
length, Decagon with given circumcircle and Decagon with a given side
length.

Both the above displayed different algorithms produce geometric constructions

Dividing a line segment by exterior division
that determine two aligned line segments where the ratio of the longer to the according to the golden ratio
shorter one is the golden ratio.
Golden triangle, pentagon and pentagram

Golden triangle
The golden triangle can be characterized as an isosceles triangle ABC with the
property that bisecting the angle C produces a new triangle CXB which is a similar
triangle to the original.

If angle BCX = α, then XCA = α because of the bisection, and CAB = α because of
the similar triangles; ABC = 2α from the original isosceles symmetry, and BXC = 2α
Golden triangle. The double-red-
by similarity. The angles in a triangle add up to 180°, so 5α = 180, giving α = 36°.
arched angle is 36 degrees, or
So the angles of the golden triangle are thus 36°-72°-72°. The angles of the
radians.
remaining obtuse isosceles triangle AXC (sometimes called the golden gnomon) are
36°-36°-108°.

Suppose XB has length 1, and we call BC length φ. Because of the isosceles triangles XC=XA and BC=XC, so these are also
length φ. Length AC = AB, therefore equals φ + 1. But triangle ABC is similar to triangle CXB, so AC/BC = BC/BX, AC/φ = φ/1,
and so AC also equalsφ2. Thus φ2 = φ + 1, confirming thatφ is indeed the golden ratio.

Similarly, the ratio of the area of the larger triangle AXC to the smaller CXB is equal toφ, while the inverse ratio is φ − 1.

Pentagon
In a regular pentagon the ratio of a diagonal to a side is the golden ratio, while intersecting diagonals section each other in the golden
ratio.[10]

Odom's construction
George Odom has given a remarkably simple construction for φ involving an
equilateral triangle: if an equilateral triangle is inscribed in a circle and the line
segment joining the midpoints of two sides is produced to intersect the circle in
either of two points, then these three points are in golden proportion. This result is a
straightforward consequence of the intersecting chords theorem and can be used to
construct a regular pentagon, a construction that attracted the attention of the noted
Canadian geometer H. S. M. Coxeter who published it in Odom's name as a diagram
in the American Mathematical Monthly accompanied by the single word "Behold!"
[71]

Pentagram
Let A and B be midpoints of the
The golden ratio plays an important role in the geometry of pentagrams. Each sides EF and ED of an equilateral
intersection of edges sections other edges in the golden ratio. Also, the ratio of the triangle DEF. Extend AB to meet the
length of the shorter segment to the segment bounded by the two intersecting edges circumcircle of DEF at C.
(a side of the pentagon in the pentagram's center) is φ, as the four-color illustration
shows.

The pentagram includes ten isosceles triangles: five acute and five obtuse isosceles triangles. In all of them, the ratio of the longer
side to the shorter side isφ. The acute triangles are golden triangles. The obtuse isosceles triangles are golden gnomons.

Ptolemy's theorem
The golden ratio properties of a regular pentagon can be confirmed by applying
Ptolemy's theorem to the quadrilateral formed by removing one of its vertices. If the
quadrilateral's long edge and diagonals are b, and short edges are a, then Ptolemy's
theorem gives b2 = a2 + ab which yields

Scalenity of triangles
Consider a triangle with sides of lengths a, b, and c in decreasing order. Define the
"scalenity" of the triangle to be the smaller of the two ratios a/b and b/c. The
scalenity is always less thanφ and can be made as close as desired toφ.[72] A pentagram colored to distinguish
its line segments of different lengths.
The four lengths are in golden ratio
Triangle whose sides form a geometric progression to one another.

If the side lengths of a triangle form a geometric progression and are in the ratio 1 :
r : r2, where r is the common ratio, then r must lie in the range φ−1 < r < φ, which
is a consequence of the triangle inequality (the sum of any two sides of a triangle
must be strictly bigger than the length of the third side). If r = φ then the shorter two
sides are 1 and φ but their sum is φ2, thus r < φ. A similar calculation shows thatr >
φ−1. A triangle whose sides are in the ratio 1 : √ φ : φ is a right triangle (because 1
+ φ = φ2) known as a Kepler triangle.[73]

Golden triangle, rhombus, and rhombic triacontahedron

A golden rhombus is a rhombus whose diagonals are in the golden ratio. The
rhombic triacontahedronis a convex polytope that has a very special property: all of
its faces are golden rhombi. In the rhombic triacontahedron the dihedral angle
The golden ratio in a regular
between any two adjacent rhombi is 144°, which is twice the isosceles angle of a
pentagon can be computed using
[74]
golden triangle and four times its most acute angle. Ptolemy's theorem.

Relationship to Fibonacci sequence

The mathematics of the golden ratio and of the Fibonacci sequence are intimately
interconnected. The Fibonacci sequence is:

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610,

987, ....

The closed-form expressionfor the Fibonacci sequence involves the golden ratio:

One of the rhombic triacontahedron's

rhombi

The golden ratio is the limit of the ratios of successive terms of the Fibonacci sequence (or any Fibonacci-like sequence), as
originally shown by Kepler:[22]
Therefore, if a Fibonacci number is divided by its immediate predecessor in the
sequence, the quotient approximates φ; e.g., 987/610 ≈ 1.6180327868852. These
approximations are alternately lower and higher than φ, and converge on φ as the
Fibonacci numbers increase, and:

More generally:

All of the faces of the rhombic

where above, the ratios of consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence, is a case
triacontahedron are golden rhombi
when .

Furthermore, the successive powers ofφ obey the Fibonacci recurrence:

This identity allows any polynomial in φ to be reduced to a linear expression.

For example:

A Fibonacci spiral which approximates the

golden spiral, using Fibonacci sequence
square sizes up to 34. The spiral is drawn
The reduction to a linear expression can be accomplished in one step by using
starting from the inner 1×1 square and
the relationship
continues outwards to successively larger
squares.

where is the kth Fibonacci number.

However, this is no special property of φ, because polynomials in any solution x to a quadratic equation can be reduced in an
analogous manner, by applying:

for given coefficients a, b such that x satisfies the equation. Even more generally, any rational function (with rational coefficients) of
the root of an irreducible nth-degree polynomial over the rationals can be reduced to a polynomial of degree n ‒ 1. Phrased in terms
of field theory, if α is a root of an irreduciblenth-degree polynomial, then has degree n over , with basis .

Symmetries
The golden ratio and inverse golden ratio have a set of symmetries that preserve and interrelate them. They are
both preserved by the fractional linear transformations – this fact corresponds to the identity and the
definition quadratic equation. Further, they are interchanged by the three maps – they are reciprocals,
symmetric about , and (projectively) symmetric about 2.
More deeply, these maps form a subgroup of the modular group isomorphic to the symmetric group on 3 letters,
corresponding to the stabilizer of the set of 3 standard points on the projective line, and the symmetries correspond to the
quotient map – the subgroup consisting of the 3-cycles and the identity fixes the two numbers,
while the 2-cycles interchange these, thus realizing the map.

Other properties
The golden ratio has the simplest expression (and slowest convergence) as a continued fraction expansion of any irrational number
(see Alternate forms above). It is, for that reason, one of the worst cases of Lagrange's approximation theorem and it is an extremal
case of the Hurwitz inequality for Diophantine approximations. This may be why angles close to the golden ratio often show up in
phyllotaxis (the growth of plants).[75]

The defining quadratic polynomial and the conjugate relationship lead to decimal values that have their fractional part in common
with φ:

The sequence of powers ofφ contains these values 0.618..., 1.0, 1.618..., 2.618...; more generally, any power of φ is equal to the sum
of the two immediately preceding powers:

As a result, one can easily decompose any power of φ into a multiple of φ and a constant. The multiple and the constant are always
φ:
adjacent Fibonacci numbers. This leads to another property of the positive powers of

If , then:

When the golden ratio is used as the base of a numeral system (see Golden ratio base, sometimes dubbed phinary or φ-nary), every
integer has a terminating representation, despiteφ being irrational, but every fraction has a non-terminating representation.

The golden ratio is a fundamental unit of the algebraic number field and is a Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number.[76] In the field

we have , where is the -th Lucas number.

The golden ratio also appears in hyperbolic geometry, as the maximum distance from a point on one side of an ideal triangle to the
closer of the other two sides: this distance, the side length of the equilateral triangle formed by the points of tangency of a circle
inscribed within the ideal triangle, is .[77]

Decimal expansion
The golden ratio's decimal expansion can be calculated directly from the expression
with √5 ≈ 2.2360679774997896964 A002163. The square root of 5 can be calculated with the Babylonian method, starting with an
initial estimate such asxφ = 2 and iterating

for n = 1, 2, 3, ..., until the difference between xn and xn−1 becomes zero, to the desired number of digits.

The Babylonian algorithm for √5 is equivalent to Newton's method for solving the equation x2 − 5 = 0. In its more general form,
Newton's method can be applied directly to anyalgebraic equation, including the equationx2 − x − 1 = 0 that defines the golden ratio.
This gives an iteration that converges to the golden ratio itself,

for an appropriate initial estimate xφ such as xφ = 1. A slightly faster method is to rewrite the equation as x − 1 − 1/x = 0, in which
case the Newton iteration becomes

These iterations all converge quadratically; that is, each step roughly doubles the number of correct digits. The golden ratio is
therefore relatively easy to compute with arbitrary precision. The time needed to compute n digits of the golden ratio is proportional
to the time needed to divide twon-digit numbers. This is considerably faster than known algorithms for the transcendental numbersπ
and e.

An easily programmed alternative using only integer arithmetic is to calculate two large consecutive Fibonacci numbers and divide
them. The ratio of Fibonacci numbers F 25001 and F 25000 , each over 5000 digits, yields over 10,000 significant digits of the golden
ratio.

The decimal expansion of the golden ratio φ[2] has been calculated to an accuracy of two trillion (2 × 1012 = 2,000,000,000,000)
digits.[78]

Pyramids
Both Egyptian pyramids and the regular square pyramids that resemble them
can be analyzed with respect to the golden ratio and other ratios.

Mathematical pyramids and triangles

A pyramid in which the apothem (slant height along the bisector of a face) is
equal to φ times the semi-base (half the base width) is sometimes called a
golden pyramid. The isosceles triangle that is the face of such a pyramid can
be constructed from the two halves of a diagonally split golden rectangle (of
A regular square pyramid is determined by
size semi-base by apothem), joining the medium-length edges to make the
its medial right triangle, whose edges are
apothem. The height of this pyramid is times the semi-base (that is, the the pyramid's apothem (a), semi-base (b),
slope of the face is ); the square of the height is equal to the area of a face, and height (h); the face inclination angle is
φ times the square of the semi-base. also marked. Mathematical proportions
b:h:a of and and
The medial right triangle of this "golden" pyramid (see diagram), with sides are of particular interest
is interesting in its own right, demonstrating via the Pythagorean in relation to Egyptian pyramids.

theorem the relationship or . This Kepler

triangle[79] is the only right triangle proportion with edge lengths in geometric progression,[73] just as the 3–4–5 triangle is the only
right triangle proportion with edge lengths in arithmetic progression. The angle with tangent corresponds to the angle that the
[80]
side of the pyramid makes with respect to the ground, 51.827... degrees (51° 49' 38").

A nearly similar pyramid shape, but with rational proportions, is described in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (the source of a large
part of modern knowledge of ancient Egyptian mathematics), based on the 3:4:5 triangle;[81] the face slope corresponding to the
angle with tangent 4/3 is 53.13 degrees (53 degrees and 8 minutes).[82] The slant height or apothem is 5/3 or 1.666... times the semi-
base. The Rhind papyrus has another pyramid problem as well, again with rational slope (expressed as run over rise). Egyptian
[83] and the rational inverse slope (run/rise, multiplied by a factor of 7 to
mathematics did not include the notion of irrational numbers,
[81]
convert to their conventional units of palms per cubit) was used in the building of pyramids.

Another mathematical pyramid with proportions almost identical to the "golden" one is the one with perimeter equal to 2π times the
height, or h:b = 4:π. This triangle has a face angle of 51.854° (51°51'), very close to the 51.827° of the Kepler triangle. This pyramid
relationship corresponds to thecoincidental relationship .

[82]
Egyptian pyramids very close in proportion to these mathematical pyramids are known.

Egyptian pyramids
In the mid-nineteenth century, Röber studied various Egyptian pyramids including Khafre, Menkaure and some of the Giza, Sakkara,
and Abusir groups, and was interpreted as saying that half the base of the side of the pyramid is the middle mean of the side, forming
what other authors identified as the Kepler triangle; many other mathematical theories of the shape of the pyramids have also been
explored.[73]

One Egyptian pyramid is remarkably close to a "golden pyramid"—theGreat Pyramid of Giza(also known as the Pyramid of Cheops
or Khufu). Its slope of 51° 52' is extremely close to the "golden" pyramid inclination of 51° 50' and the π-based pyramid inclination
of 51° 51'; other pyramids at Giza (Chephren, 52° 20', and Mycerinus, 50° 47')[81] are also quite close. Whether the relationship to
the golden ratio in these pyramids is by design or by accident remains open to speculation.[84] Several other Egyptian pyramids are
very close to the rational 3:4:5 shape.[82]

Adding fuel to controversy over the architectural authorship of the Great Pyramid, Eric Temple Bell, mathematician and historian,
claimed in 1950 that Egyptian mathematics would not have supported the ability to calculate the slant height of the pyramids, or the
ratio to the height, except in the case of the 3:4:5 pyramid, since the 3:4:5 triangle was the only right triangle known to the Egyptians
π or φ.[85]
and they did not know the Pythagorean theorem, nor any way to reason about irrationals such as

Michael Rice[86] asserts that principal authorities on the history of Egyptian architecture have argued that the Egyptians were well
acquainted with the golden ratio and that it is part of mathematics of the Pyramids, citing Giedon (1957).[87] Historians of science
have always debated whether the Egyptians had any such knowledge or not, contending rather that its appearance in an Egyptian
building is the result of chance.[88]

In 1859, the pyramidologist John Taylor claimed that, in the Great Pyramid of Giza, the golden ratio is represented by the ratio of the
length of the face (the slope height), inclined at an angle θ to the ground, to half the length of the side of the square base, equivalent
to the secant of the angle θ.[89] The above two lengths were about 186.4 and 115.2 meters respectively. The ratio of these lengths is
the golden ratio, accurate to more digits than either of the original measurements. Similarly, Howard Vyse, according to Matila
Ghyka,[90] reported the great pyramid height 148.2 m, and half-base 116.4 m, yielding 1.6189 for the ratio of slant height to half-
base, again more accurate than the data variability
.

Disputed observations
Examples of disputed observations of the golden ratio include the following:

Historian John Man states that the pages of theGutenberg Bible were "based on the golden section shape".
However, according to Man's own measurements, the ratio of height to width was 1.45.[91]
 Some specific proportions in the bodies of many animals (including humans [92][93] ) and parts of the shells of
[5]
mollusks are often claimed to be in the golden ratio. There is a large variation in the real measures of these
elements in specific individuals, however , and the proportion in question is often significantly different from the
golden ratio.[92] The ratio of successive phalangeal bones of the digits and the metacarpal bone has been said to
approximate the golden ratio.[93] The nautilus shell, the construction of which proceeds in alogarithmic spiral, is
often cited, usually with the idea that any logarithmic spiral is related to the golden ratio, but sometimes with the
claim that each new chamber is proportioned by the golden ratio relative to the previous one; [94] however,

measurements of nautilus shells do not support this claim. [95]

In investing, some practitioners oftechnical analysis use the golden ratio to indicate support of a price level, or
resistance to price increases, of a stock or commodity; after significant price changes up or down, new support and
resistance levels are supposedly found at or near prices related to the starting price via the golden ratio. [96] The use
of the golden ratio in investing is also related to more complicated patterns described by Fibonacci numbers (e.g.
Elliott wave principle and Fibonacci retracement). However, other market analysts have published analyses
suggesting that these percentages and patterns are not supported by the data. [97]

See also
Golden angle Plastic number
Section d'Or Sacred geometry
List of works designed with the golden ratio Silver ratio

References and footnotes

1. Note: If the constraint on a and b each being greater than zero is lifted, then there are actually two solutions, one
positive and one negative, to this equation.ϕ is defined as the positive solution. The product of the two solutions is

negative one, and the negative solution can be written as .

2. A001622
3. Livio, Mario (2002). The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi, The World's Most Astonishing Number
(https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=w9dmPwAACAAJ). New York: Broadway Books.ISBN 0-7679-0815-5.
4. Piotr Sadowski (1996).The knight on his quest: symbolic patterns of transition in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
(h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=RNFqRs3Ccp4C&pg=P A124). University of Delaware Press. p. 124.ISBN 978-0-
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6. Euclid, Elements (http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/toc.html)
, Book 6, Definition 3.
7. Summerson John, Heavenly Mansions: And Other Essays on Architecture(New York: W.W. Norton, 1963) p. 37.
"And the same applies in architecture, to therectangles representing these and other ratios (e.g. the 'golden cut').
The sole value of these ratios is that they are intellectually fruitful and suggest the rhythms of modular design."
8. Jay Hambidge, Dynamic Symmetry: The Greek Vase, New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1920
9. William Lidwell, Kritina Holden, Jill Butler
, Universal Principles of Design: A Cross-Disciplinary Reference
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com/2012/09/24/proportion-control/). The New York Times.
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n/teaching/maa/markowsky.pdf) (PDF). The College Mathematics Journal. 23 (1).
14. Mario Livio,The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi, The World's Most Astonishing Number
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15. ῎Ακρον καὶ μέσον λόγον εὐθεῖα τετμῆσθαι λέγεται, ὅταν ᾖ ὡς ἡ ὅλη πρὸς τὸ μεῖζον τμῆμα, οὕτως τὸ μεῖζον πρὸς τὸ
ἔλαττὸν, translated in Richard Fitzpatrick (translator) (2007).Euclid's Elements of Geometry. ISBN 978-
0615179841., p. 156
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the theory of quasiperiodic functions had been known for nearly sixty years, it was the mathematics of aperiodic
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"
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Further reading
Doczi, György (2005) [1981].The Power of Limits: Proportional Harmonies in Nature, Art, and Architecture
. Boston:
Shambhala Publications.ISBN 1-59030-259-1.
Huntley, H. E. (1970). The Divine Proportion: A Study in Mathematical Beauty
. New York: Dover Publications.
ISBN 0-486-22254-3.
Joseph, George G. (2000) [1991].The Crest of the Peacock: The Non-European Roots of Mathematics(New ed.).
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-00659-8.
Livio, Mario (2002) [2002].The Golden Ratio: The Story of PHI, the World's Most Astonishing Number
(Hardback
ed.). NYC: Broadway (Random House).ISBN 0-7679-0815-5.
 Sahlqvist, Leif (2008). Cardinal Alignments and the Golden Section: Principles of Ancient Cosmography and Design
(3rd Rev. ed.). Charleston, SC: BookSurge.ISBN 1-4196-2157-2.
Schneider, Michael S. (1994). A Beginner's Guide to Constructing the Universe: The Mathematical Archetypes of
Nature, Art, and Science. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-016939-7.
Scimone, Aldo (1997).La Sezione Aurea. Storia culturale di un leitmotiv della Matematica
. Palermo: Sigma Edizioni.
ISBN 978-88-7231-025-0.
Stakhov, A. P. (2009). The Mathematics of Harmony: From Euclid to Contemporary Mathematics and Computer
Science. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing.ISBN 978-981-277-582-5.
Walser, Hans (2001) [Der Goldene Schnitt 1993]. The Golden Section. Peter Hilton trans. Washington, DC: The
Mathematical Association of America.ISBN 0-88385-534-8.

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], "Golden ratio", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business
Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers,ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
"Golden Section" by Michael Schreiber, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.
Golden Section in Photography: Golden Ratio, Golden rTiangles, Golden Spiral
Weisstein, Eric W. "Golden Ratio". MathWorld.
Quotes about the Golden Ratio
"Researcher explains mystery of golden ratio" . PhysOrg. December 21, 2009..
Knott, Ron. "The Golden section ratio: Phi". Information and activities by a mathematics professor
.
The Pentagram & The Golden Ratio. Green, Thomas M. Updated June 2005. Archived November 2007. Geometry
instruction with problems to solve.
Schneider, Robert P. (2011). "A Golden Pair of Identities in the Theory of Numbers".arXiv:1109.3216 [math.HO].
Proves formulas that involve the golden mean and theEuler totient and Möbius functions.
The Myth That Will Not Go Away, by Keith Devlin, addressing multiple allegations about the use of the golden ratio in
culture.

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