Bohai Sea Environmental Risk Assessment

Bohai Sea
Environmental Risk Assessment
First Institute of Oceanography,

State Oceanic Administration, China
Bohai Sea Environmental Management Project

People’s Republic of China
GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme on

Partnerships in Environmental Management
for the Seas of East Asia
Bohai Sea
Environmental Risk Assessment
First Institute of Oceanography,

State Oceanic Administration, P.R. China
GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme on
Bohai Sea Environmental Management Project Building Partnerships in Environmental
People’s Republic of China Management for the Seas of East Asia
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BOHAI SEA ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT
January 2005
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes or to provide
wider dissemination for public response, provided prior written permission is obtained from the Regional Programme
Director, acknowledgment of the source is made and no commercial usage or sale of the material occurs. PEMSEA would
appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.
No use of this publication may be made for resale, any commercial purpose or any purpose other than those given above
without a written agreement between PEMSEA and the requesting party.
Published by GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme on Building Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas
of East Asia (PEMSEA) and the Bohai Sea Environmental Management Project of the People’s Republic of China.
Printed in Quezon City, Philippines
PEMSEA and BSEMP. 2005. Bohai Sea Environmental Risk Assessment. PEMSEA Technical Report No. 12. 114 p. Bohai Sea
Environmental Management Project of the People’s Republic of China and Global Environment Facility/United
Nations Development Programme/International Maritime Organization Regional Programme on Building
Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), Quezon City, Philippines.
ISBN 971-812-008-4
A GEF Project Implemented by UNDP and Executed by IMO
The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the
Global Environment Facility (GEF), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
the International Maritime Organization (IMO), and the other participating organizations.
The designation employed and the presentation do not imply expression of opinion,
whatsoever on the part of GEF, UNDP, IMO, or the Regional Programme on Building
Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA) concerning
the legal status of any country or territory, or its authority or concerning the delimitation of
its territory or boundaries.
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MISSION STATEMENT
The Global Environment Facility/United Nations Development Programme/International Maritime

Organization Regional Programme on Building Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas
of East Asia (PEMSEA) aims to promote a shared vision for the Seas of East Asia:
“The resource systems of the Seas of East Asia are a natural heritage, safeguarding
sustainable and healthy food supplies, livelihood, properties and investments,
and social, cultural and ecological values for the people of the region, while
contributing to economic prosperity and global markets through safe and efficient
maritime trade, thereby promoting a peaceful and harmonious co-existence for
present and future generations.”
PEMSEA focuses on building intergovernmental, interagency and intersectoral partnerships to

strengthen environmental management capabilities at the local, national and regional levels, and develop
the collective capacity to implement appropriate strategies and environmental action programs on self-
reliant basis. Specifically, PEMSEA will carry out the following:
• build national and regional capacity to implement integrated coastal management

programs;
• promote multi-country initiatives in addressing priority transboundary environment
issues in sub-regional sea areas and pollution hotspots;
• reinforce and establish a range of functional networks to support environmental
management;
• identify environmental investment and financing opportunities and promote
mechanisms, such as public-private partnerships, environmental projects for financing
and other forms of developmental assistance;
• advance scientific and technical inputs to support decision-making;
• develop integrated information management systems linking selected sites into a
regional network for data sharing and technical support;
• establish the enabling environment to reinforce delivery capabilities and advance the
concerns of non-government and community-based organizations, environmental
journalists, religious groups and other stakeholders;
• strengthen national capacities for developing integrated coastal and marine policies
as part of state policies for sustainable socio-economic development; and
• promote regional commitment for implementing international conventions, and
strengthening regional and sub-regional cooperation and collaboration using a
sustainable regional mechanism.
The twelve participating countries are: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Democratic People’s Republic
of Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, People’s Republic of China, Philippines, Republic of Korea,
Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. The collective efforts of these countries in implementing the strategies
and activities will result in effective policy and management interventions, and in cumulative global
environmental benefits, thereby contributing towards the achievement of the ultimate goal of protecting
and sustaining the life-support systems in the coastal and international waters over the long term.
Dr. Chua Thia-Eng

Regional Programme Director
PEMSEA
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Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
CHINESE SUMMARY ( 中文摘要 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
O BJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
S OURCES AND Q UALITY OF I NFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
D EFINITION OF T ERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
DESCRIPTION OF BOHAI SEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
THE RISK ASSESSMENT APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
R ISK A SSESSMENT A PPROACHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
R ISK P ATHWAYS OF B OHAI S EA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
RETROSPECTIVE RISK ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Identification of Assessment and Measurement Endpoints in the Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Determination of Likelihood of Harm on the Identified Target by the Suspected Agent . . 21
R ESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Maricultured Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Benthos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Phytoplankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Z OO plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
HABITATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Coasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
PROSPECTIVE RISK ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
D ESCRIPTION OF D ATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
N UTRIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
COD/DO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
C OLIFORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
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TOTAL S USPENDED S OLIDS (TSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
H EAVY M ETALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
PESTICIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
OIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
P OLYCYCLIC A ROMATIC H YDROCARBONS (PAHS ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
O IL S PILLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
H ARMFUL A LGAL BLOOMS (HAB S)/T OXIC A LGAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
SEA I CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
WINDSTORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
COMPARATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
SEAWATER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
SEDIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
HUMAN HEALTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
EXPOSURE A SSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
L IAODONG B AY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
B OHAI B AY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
L AIZHOU B AY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
C ENTRAL P ART OF B OHAI S EA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
RETROSPECTIVE R ISK A SSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
P ROSPECTIVE R ISK A SSESSMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMMEDIATE MANAGEMENT C ONSIDERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
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List of Tables
Table 1. Sources of Information for the Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Table 2. Details of Retrospective Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Table 3. Decision Criteria for Determining Likelihood of Harm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 4. The Total Catch Production in Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 5. Changes of CPUE for Valuable Species in Bohai Sea (1959–1998, kg/net.hr) . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 6. Summary of Information for the Retrospective Risk Assessment for Fisheries. . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 7. Diversity and Biomass of Fish in the Bohai Sea in 1982–1983 and 1992–1993. . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 8. The Average Length, Weight and Age of the Small Yellow Croaker from
the 1950s to 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Table 9. Detailed Retrospective Risk Assessment for Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Table 10. Annual Freshwater Run-off of Yellow River (1997–2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Table 11. The Salinity of Laizhou Bay for Selected Years (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Table 12. Main Maricultured Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 13. Retrospective Analysis for Mariculture Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 14. Detailed Retrospective Risk Assessment for Maricultured Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Table 15. Retrospective Analysis for Benthos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 16. Inter-decadal Change of Species Composition in the Bohai Sea Benthic Ecosystem
(Based on Mean Catch per Haul) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 17. Decadal Change of Dominant Species in the Bohai Sea Benthic Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 18. Detailed Risk Assessment for Benthos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Table 19. Retrospective Analysis for Phytoplankton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 20. Decadal Change in Phytoplankton and Its Dominant Species (x10 4 cell/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 21. Changes of Chl-a and Primary Productivity (1982–1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table 22. Detailed Risk Assessment for Phytoplankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table 23. Retrospective Analysis for Zooplankton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table 24. Decadal Change in Zooplankton Biomass (mg/m 3) in Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table 25. Detailed Risk Assessment for Zooplankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Table 26. Retrospective Analysis for Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Table 27. Changes in Wetland Area of Yellow River Delta (ha). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Table 28. Indexes of the Landscape in Some Regions of Liaohe River Delta Wetland . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 29. Detailed Risk Assessment for Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 30. Retrospective Analysis for Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 31. Detailed Risk Assessment for Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Table 32. Retrospective Analysis for Coasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Table 33. Erosion Rate of Coasts along Bohai Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Table 34. Changes in the Seawater Intruded Area and Intrusion Rate of the Coast around
Laizhou Bay (1976-1989). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Table 35. Flux of Water and Sand into Bohai Sea (100 million m 3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Table 36. Detailed Risk Assessment for Coasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Table 37. Water Quality Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Table 38. Marine Sediment Qualities of P.R. of China (Class 1, GB 18668-2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
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Table 39. PNECs Used in Calculating RQs for the Ecological Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Table 40. Human Health Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Table 41. RQs for Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Table 42. RQs for DIN from Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Table 43. RQs for DIP from Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Table 44. Non-point Contaminant Discharge of 13 Cities around Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Table 45. RQs for COD/DO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Table 46. RQs for COD from Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Table 47. Sources of Sewage and COD into Liaohe River in 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Table 48. COD Discharge of Bays and Districts in 1999 (in tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Table 49. RQs for Fecal Coliform in Water Column from Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 50. RQs for Fecal Coliform in Shellfish in Some Estuaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 51. RQs for TSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Table 52. RQs for Heavy Metals in the Water Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table 53. RQs for Pb in the Water Column from Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table 54. RQs for Cd in the Water Column from Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table 55. RQs for Hg in the Water Column from Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table 56. Concentrations of Heavy Metals in Several Years ( µg/L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Table 57. RQs for Heavy Metals in the Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Table 58. RQs for Cu in the Sediment of Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Table 59. RQs for Pb in the Sediment of Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Table 60. RQs for Cd in the Sediment of Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Table 61. RQs for Hg in the Sediment of Different Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Table 62. RQs for Heavy Metals in Shellfish Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Table 63. RQs for Heavy Metals in Seaweed Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Table 64. RQs for Heavy Metals in Fish Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Table 65. RQs for Arsenic in Shellfish Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Table 66. Heavy Metal Discharged into Whole Nation and Bohai Sea Annually . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Table 67. Annual Discharge of Pb from Three Typical Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Table 68. RQs for Pesticide in Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Table 69. RQs for Pesticide in Shellfish Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Table 70. RQs for Oil in the Water Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Table 71. Oil Discharge in Four Districts in 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Table 72. Oil Discharged by Moving Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Table 73. RQs for Oil in Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Table 74. RQs for Oil in Shellfish Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Table 75. RQs for Total PAHs in Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Table 76. RQs for Total PAHs in Shellfish Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Table 77. Main HAB Occurrences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Table 78. Some Known Toxic Algae Species and Its Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Table 79. Sea Ice Characteristics in the Three Bays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Table 80. Monthly Temperate Zone Windstorm in Laizhou Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Table 81. Serious Windstorms in Laizhou Bay and Bohai Bay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Table 82. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for Water Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
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Table 83. Comparative Risk Assessment for Water Column Based on
RQ Ave to RQ Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Table 84. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Table 85. Comparative Risk Assessment for Sediment Based on RQ Ave to RQ Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Table 86. Risk Assessment Summary for Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Table 87. Comparative Risk Assessment for Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Table 88. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for Liaodong Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Table 89. Comparative Risk Assessment for Liaodong Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Table 90. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for Bohai Bay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Table 91. Comparative Risk Assessment for Bohai Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Table 92. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for Laizhou Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Table 93. Comparative Risk Assessment for Laizhou Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Table 94. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for the Central Part of Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Table 95. Comparative Risk Assessment for the Central Part of Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Table 96. Risks Classification for the Bohai Sea Ecosystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Table 97. Risks Classification for Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Table 98. Risks Classification for Liaodong, Bohai and Laizhou Bays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
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List of Figures
Figure 1.Sampling Stations in Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Figure 2.Location of Bohai Sea in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 3.Map of Wider Bohai Sea Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 4.Risk Pathways for Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 5.The Fisheries Catch Production of Bohai Sea in the Past Decades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 6.The CPUE and Production of Main Fish Species
in Yellow Sea from 1949–1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 7. CPUE of Small Yellow Croaker Provided by a Fishing Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 8. Variations of Fishery Resource Biomass in the Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 9. Number of Fishing Boats from 1989–1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 10. Average Length of the Small Yellow Croaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 11. Percentage of Engraulis japonicus in the Total Catch
(percentage of wet weight) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 12. Scomberomorus niphonius Catch from 1949 to 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Figure 13. The Production of Different Types of Mariculture from 1989 to 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 14. Areas of Different Mariculture Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 15. Production of Farmed Marine Fish from 1989 to 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 16. Production of Farmed Shellfish from 1989 to 1998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Figure 17. Production of Farmed Shrimps and Crabs from 1989 to 1998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Figure 18. Production of Seaweeds from 1989 to 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 19. Shrimp Ponds Located in the Inter-tidal Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 20. Satellite Pictures of the Development of Farming Lands
in Hebei Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 21. Distribution of Benthos by Trawling between 1982–1983
and 1992–1993 (kg/h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 22. Phytoplankton Abundance in the Bohai Sea (x10 4 cell/m 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 23. Distribution of Phytoplankton from 1982–1983 (x10 4 cell/m 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 24. Distribution of Phytoplankton from 1992–1993 (x10 4 cell/m 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 25. Distribution of Zooplankton Biomass from 1982–1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 26. Distribution of Zooplankton Biomass from 1992–1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 27. The Satellite Picture of Yellow River Delta in 1996 and in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 28. The Oil Drill of Shengli Oil Field in the Yellow River Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 29. Coastal Erosion in the Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 30. Annual Changes in DIN in the Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 31. Annual Changes in DIP Concentration in the Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 32. Nearshore Seawater Quality of China in 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 33. Wastewater Outputs in the Bohai Area (tons/yr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure 34. Non-point Nutrient Load of Main Cities around Bohai Sea (tons/yr) ...... .. ..65
Figure 35. Fertilizer Use in Areas adjacent to the Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Figure 36. Soil Erosion of Main Cities around Bohai Sea in 1997 (tons/yr). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
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Figure 37. Annual Changes of COD in Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 38. Changes of Heavy Metals for 1993, 1995 and 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 39. Pesticides are insufflating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Figure 40. Annual Changes of Oil Concentration in Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Figure 41. The Black Xiaoqinghe River reflects the serious pollution of
sewage, heavy metals and oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 42. CB6A Oil Derrick of Shengli Oil Field Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 43. Knocked Oil Tanker with Spilled Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 44. Spilled Oil from the CB6A Wells of Shengli Oil Field (10 June 1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 45. HAB Occurrence in Bohai Sea (1952–1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 46. Poisoning Path of PSP to the Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 47. HABs in the Bohai Sea from 1989 to 1998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Figure 48. Highest DSP/PSP Content Locations in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Figure 49. Ice Thickness Map of Bohai Sea on 25 January 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Figure 50. Maritime Engineering Structures Damaged by Sea Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 51. Typhoons Touching Laizhou Bay (1945-1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 52. Windstorm by Typhoon No. 9216 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
666 – Benzene Hexachloride

ACCPMS – ASEAN – Canada Cooperative Programme on Marine Science
ADB – Asian Development Bank
ASEAN – Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASP – Amnestic shellfish poisoning
BOD – Biochemical oxygen demand
BSEMP – Bohai Sea Environmental Management Project
CN – Cyanide
CNSN – Center of National Science and Nature
COD – Chemical oxygen demand
CPUE – Catch per unit of effort
CR – Consumption rate
DAO – DENR Administrative Order
DDT – Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DFB – Biomass of demersal fish (ton)
DIN – Dissolved inorganic nitrogen
DIP – Dissolved inorganic phosphate
DO – Dissolved oxygen
DSP – Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning
EIA – Environmental Impact Assessment
ERA – Environmental Risk Assessment
GDP – Gross Domestic Product
GEF – Global Environmental Facility
Gm – Geometric mean/Geomean
HAB – Harmful algal bloom
HP – Horsepower
IRA – Initial risk assessment
ISQV – Interim sediment quality values of Hong Kong
ICM – Integrated Coastal Management
IMO – International Maritime Organization
LC50 – Lethal concentration that causes death in 50 percent of an exposed population
LOC – Level of concern
MoA – Ministry of Agriculture
MEC – Measured environmental concentration
MEL – Measured environmental levels
MEY – Maximum efficiency yield
MPN – Most probable number
MPP-EAS – GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of
Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas
xii
MSY – Maximum sustainable yield
NH3 – Ammonia
NH4 – Ammonium
NH4-N – Nitrogen in the form of ammonium
NO2 – Nitrite
NO2-N – Nitrogen in the form of nitrite
NO3 – Nitrate
NO3-N – Nitrogen in the form of nitrate
NOAEL – No observed adverse effect level
NSP – Neurologic shellfish poisoning
OA/g – Okadaic acid (OA) per gram (of sample, e.g., hepatopancreas); OA is a toxin
PAHs – Polyaromatic hydrocarbons
PCBs – Polychlorinated biphenyls
PEC – Predicted environmental concentration
PEL – Predicted environmental levels
PEMSEA – GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme on Building Partnerships in
Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia
PFB – Biomass of pelagic fish (ton)
PMO – Project Management Office
PNEC – Predicted no-effect concentration
PNEL – Predicted no-effect level
PO4 – Phosphate
PO4-P – Phosporus in the form of phosphate (orthophosphate)
ppm – parts per million or mg/l
ppt – parts per thousand or µg/l
PSP – Paralytic shellfish poisoning
QA/QC – Quality Assurance/Quality Control
RA – Risk assessment
RDA – Recommended daily allowances
RMB – Renminbi, the unit of China Yuan (CNY)
RPO – Regional Programme Office
RQ – Risk quotient: MEC (or PEC)/PNEC (or Threshold)
RQ Ave – Average risk quotient: MEC (or PEC)Ave/PNEC
RQ Max – Maximum risk quotient: MEC (or PEC)Max/PNEC (or Threshold)
RQ Min – Minimum risk quotient: MEC (or PEC)Min/PNEC
RRA – Refined Risk Assessment
SEAFDEC – Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
SEPA – State Environment Protection Administration
SOA – State Oceanic Administration
xiii
STXeq/kg – Saxitoxin (STX) equivalent per kilogram
TDI – Tolerable daily intake
TOC – Total organic carbon
TSS – Total suspended solids
URENCO – Urban Environmental Company
UNDP – United Nations Development Program
UNEP – United Nations Environment Program
UNEP-IE – United Nations Environment Program – Industry and Environment
UNEP-IETC– United Nations Environment Program – International Environmental Technology Center
USD – United States Dollar
U.S. EPA – United States Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. FDA – United States Food and Drugs Administration
VNS – Vietnam National Standards
WBSA – Wider Bohai Sea Area
WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature
xiv
Acknowledgments
The Bohai Sea Environmental Risk Assessment Report was prepared by Dr. Zhang Zhaohui,
Prof. Chen Shang, Ms. Wang Jing, Prof. Wang Zongling, and Dr. Lei Bo of the First Institute of
Oceanography SOA, under the auspices of the Global Environment Facility (GEF)/United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP)/International Maritime Organization (IMO) Regional Programme
on Building Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA) with
counterpart funding from the State Oceanic Administration (SOA) of the People’s Republic of China.
This risk assessment report was supervised by Prof. Zhu Mingyuan, with the assistance of Dr.
Wang Hong and Mr. Shi Honghua of the China Ocean University who provided many good
suggestions. We are grateful for their efforts for this report.
On behalf of the team members, I would like to extend our appreciation to the Bohai Sea
Environmental Management Project (BSEMP) and PEMSEA, for providing technical support and
devoting their time and effort to revise the initial and refined risk assessment reports. Their wisdom
and hardworking spirits have encouraged all of us to make this report as perfect as possible. We
would like to thank Regional Programme Director Dr. Chua Thia-Eng and Senior Programme Officers
Dr. Huming Yu and Mr. S. Adrian Ross of the Regional Programme Office of PEMSEA. We gratefully
acknowledge Ms. Maria Teresita G. Lacerna for her good organizing and coordinating skills between
us and PEMSEA and Ms. Cristine Ingrid S. Narcise for the technical refinements on the draft document.
Our appreciation is also given to Ms. Maria Corazon Ebarvia for her impressive training workshop
on Natural Resource Damage Assessment held in October 2003 in Qingdao, P.R. China.
We hope this report would provide the necessary information and profile of the Bohai Sea
environment that would be useful in pursuing the sustainable management and development of
Bohai Sea.
Dr. Zhang Zhaohui

Qingdao, P.R. China
xv
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Executive Summary
The potential harm to human and contaminant levels in the environment that present
environmental targets may arise from exposure low or acceptable risks to human health and the
to contaminants in the environment. These environment, and that there is not always a need
contaminants come from activities that bring for zero emission levels. Scientific studies have
economic growth and contribute benefits to specified threshold values below which adverse
society. The potential harm to environmental effects are not likely to occur. This implies that
targets may also arise from indiscriminate economic development activities can be managed
extraction of resources and physical destruction at levels that promote human health and
of habitats. The environmental impacts of these environmental protection, yet maintain activities
activities stem from the loss of ecological functions that produce economic benefits. This emphasizes
and the consequent disruption of the ecological the importance of cost-benefit analyses in
balance. The impacts may not be as evident as sustainable development initiatives.
impacts from pollutants but could be irreversible
and may lead to greater losses. The risk assessment attempted to answer two
questions: “What evidence is there for harm being
An environmental risk assessment estimates done to targets in the coastal area?” (referred to
the likelihood of harm being done to the identified as a retrospective risk assessment) and “What
targets because of factors emanating from human problems might occur as a consequence of
activities but which reach the targets through the conditions known to exist, or possibly exist in the
environment. This combines knowledge about future?” (referred to as a prospective risk
the factors that bring about hazards, their levels assessment).
in the environment, and the pathways to the
targets. This report, implemented as part of the
Global Environment Facility/United Nations
There can be two approaches to protecting the Development Programme/International Maritime
environment and human health. The first approach Organization Regional Programme on Building
is to eliminate the contaminant or stop the Partnerships in Environmental Management for
activities that produce it. Another approach is to the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), aimed to address
prevent the contaminant level from exceeding an these two questions and give the necessary
allowable level that presents acceptable risk. The information about the risks in the Bohai ecosystem
elimination of contamination to zero and human health. This report provides
concentrations may require large investments and information on the rationale of the environmental
discontinuing economic activities may hinder the risk assessment, the methodology developed and
delivery of goods and services that contribute to applied in the Bohai Sea initiative, the results of
human welfare and economic development. the work and recommendations for improving the
risk assessment as a management tool in Bohai Sea.
The second approach, the risk-based The report provides basis for the risk management
methodology, presumes that there are and interventions in Bohai Sea.
1
The Bohai Sea risk assessment was conducted was found only in Liaohe River Delta Wetland.
in three stages. First, an initial risk assessment Although the total area of Yellow River Delta
(IRA) was implemented as a screening mechanism Wetland did not decline, the area of natural
for identifying priority environmental concerns wetlands has declined and is seriously damaged.
on a sea-wide basis and the related data gaps and Oil exploitation is the primary reason for the
uncertainties. Second, the targets of interest were decrease of natural wetlands. The secondary reason
re-focused to human health, habitats and may be attributed to land reclamation for
commercial and non-commercial marine species. conversion into farming lands, reservoirs, ponds,
In addition, the refined risk assessment was salt-fields and paddy fields. These two damaged
conducted at two levels. Risks to Bohai Sea as a wetlands have caused the following consequences:
whole were considered, in which the sea was 1) the service function of damaged wetland
treated as a single compartment and a single ecosystems has decreased and now supports less
average exposure concentration was estimated. food for other living organisms; 2) the fragmented
For selected contaminants, risks to the four parts wetlands provide easily vulnerable and unsafe
of the Bohai Sea (Liaodong Bay, Bohai Bay, habitats and/or refuge for waterfowls and other
Laizhou Bay and the central region) were species (local and alien) and birds such as the red-
estimated, by calculating local exposure crowned crane, white crane and others often
concentrations in the vicinity of specific human wintering in the wetlands around Bohai Sea may
activities or natural resources. And lastly, the final be exposed to their predators; 3) the degradation
report verified the data for each step of the of wetlands has decreased its biodiversity and
assessment and further tidied up the calculation aesthetic function; and 4) the damaged wetland
and identification of the environmental concerns. ecosystem has decreased its ability to treat waste
Sources of uncertainties in the risk assessment for discharges.
some contaminants were also identified.
The results from the prospective risk
The results from the retrospective risk assessment in Bohai Sea showed various risks to
assessment in Bohai Sea showed a significant the ecosystem and human health. The prioritization
decline in natural resources and habitats of risks was based on the estimated magnitude and
particularly in capture fisheries and natural spatial extent of risk (i.e., area-wide vs. localized).
wetlands. For fisheries, the decline in both quantity Priority human health risks that need urgent
and quality was confirmed. A manifestation of management are the fecal coliform in the waters
decline in the quantity of fisheries is the decline of Beidaihe and estuary of Yellow River, fecal
in trawl catch per unit of effort (CPUE) from 138.8 coliform in shellfish tissue, lead (Pb) in seaweed
kg/net.hr to 11.2 kg/net.hr during the period samples, and toxins in shellfish, consequent to
1959-1998. Evidence of the deterioration in quality harmful algal blooms (HABs), that can cause
include: 1) the change in trawl catch composition diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) and paralytic
from economically valuable to less valuable shellfish poisoning (PSP). Localized risks from fecal
species; 2) disappearance/near-absence of some coliform in Laizhou Bay waters and Pb and
dominant species; and 3) fish sizes are becoming dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in shellfish
smaller. The identified primary agent for the tissue were also identified. On the other hand, the
significant decline in fisheries is overfishing. Other level of concern was low with regard to fecal
factors such as waste discharges from land- and coliform in Panjin seawater; mercury (Hg), copper
sea-based activities cannot be excluded. For the (Cu), cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) in shellfish
wetlands, the evidence of decline in the total area and fish tissue; and Hg, Cu and Cd in seaweed.
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Ecologically, in seawater, total suspended The risk assessment has shown that in order
solids (TSS), Pb, and oil need urgent management to protect natural resources and habitats, some
in Bohai Sea while dissolved inorganic nitrogen management programs should be considered,
(DIN), dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP), such as prolonging the fishing ban period,
chemical oxygen demand (COD) and Cd need reducing the number of fishing boats, increasing
management in particular areas. Current levels of the fishing fries by artificial methods, the setting
Hg and Cu in seawater present a lesser concern up of more nature reserves, limiting exploitation,
ecologically. In the sediment, the pesticides DDT build more waste treatment factories, and
and benzene hexachloride (666) should be the top reducing the discharge amounts. But all these
priorities for management followed by Hg, Cu, management actions should be beneficial and
Cd, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) profitable for the society; all these management
in some hotspot areas. Ecological risk from oil in initiatives should be good for the sustainable
the sediments was acceptable. Another persistent economic development in the Wider Bohai Sea
problem in Bohai Sea is the occurrence of HABs, Area (WBSA); and all these management
with increasing frequency in the past decade. initiatives should be undertaken with minimal
HABs, which may be associated with nutrient investment costs.
enrichment, present ecological risks from anoxic
conditions that may lead to death of aquatic For natural hazards like sea ice and
organisms and human health risks from DSP and windstorms, simulation and forecasting tools are
PSP. Separate area-specific assessments showed available to predict their occurrences and potential
that Liaodong Bay and Bohai Bay contribute more impacts. These natural hazards could not be
significantly to pollution/enrichment in Bohai Sea prevented from occurring but the extent of their
than Laizhou Bay. Important data gaps with impacts could be managed or mitigated through
regard to environmental levels of contaminants effective monitoring, assessment, forecasting and
and standards that need to be addressed were also warning systems, and well-coordinated disaster
identified. prevention and management plans.
3
Chinese Summary
中文摘要
人类和环境目标会由于暴露在致染物中而存在一定的潜在危害，这些致染物
主要来自于社会经济活动。对环境目标的潜在危害也可能来自于对资源的过度利用
及对生境的物理破坏，这些活动对于环境的影响主要表现在生态系统服务功能丧失
和生态失衡，但这种影响可能不像污染那样引人关注，通常是不可逆的并且可能导
致更大的经济损失。
环境风险评估是用来评估特定目标所受危害的可能性，这些危害通常是人类
活动造成的，并通过环境来危害目标。风险评估主要考虑风险因子、在环境中水平
以及风险作用路径。
对于保护环境和人类健康的方法主要有二种：一是去除环境中的污染物或停
止产生污染的活动；二是防止污染物超出允许的限度，将风险控制在一个可接受的
水平。但要去除污染物将需要巨大的投资，而且将限制相关的经济活动，阻碍社会
经济的发展。第二种方法则是基于风险学的方法，如果环境中的致污物水平比较低
或对人类健康及环境处于可接受的风险水平，我们则无需关注。这种方法并不要求
零排放，环境中的致污物水平低于特定值时，危害就不太可能发生。在这种情况
下，既可以对经济活动进行管理以保护环境和人类健康，又可以保证经济的可持续
发展。
环境风险评估主要是用来解释 2 个问题：有什么证据说明保护目标已经受到
了危害（对应于回顾性风险评估）？目前的状况将会导致什么样的问题发生（对应
于预期性风险评估）？本报告试图来回答上述的 2 个问题，并就渤海中生态风险与
健康风险给出必要的描述。
本报告是 GEF/UNDP/IMO 东亚海洋环境管理伙伴计划(PEMSEA)中“渤海环境

风险评估与管理”的中期报告。本报告提供了环境风险的基本原理、相关的方法、
及在渤海中的应用，目的是为改善渤海的环境提供相关信息及建议，并作为风险管
理的科学工具，为渤海的风险管理提供基本科学依据。
渤海的风险评估主要分为 3 个阶段：首先是初步评估，主要用来反映整个区
域的环境问题、确定相关数据的收集及数据质量、确定重点保护目标（如人类健
康、生境、经济及非经济物种）；第二阶段是高级评估，主要对渤海的风险及暴露
主要对渤海的风险及暴露水平进行确认、对于特定的致污物在不同区域的风
险分别进行评估、对特定资源及生境受人类活动的影响进行了分析；最后是本报
告，进一步确认了在各分析过程中的数据、归纳出了应关注的环境风险、对于结果
的不确定性也进行了确定、分析和归纳。
5
对渤海的回顾性风险评估结果显示，渤海的自然资源及生境都有明显的下降
或恶化，特别是渔业资源和湿地生境处于较高的风险之中。对于渔业资源而言，无
论资源数量还是质量都有所下降，比如，主要经济渔获种类的 CPUE 从 1959 年的
138.8kg/net.hr 下降到 1998 年的 11.2kg/net.hr；品质的下降主要表现在渔获物组成
中经济种类的减少、重要优势种的消失以及渔获物体型变小等。渔业资源的下降主
要原因是过度捕捞，当然其它环境污染因素也不能排除。对于湿地生境，目前的资
料显示只有辽河三角洲湿地的总面积有所减少，尽管黄河三角洲湿地的总面积并没
有减少，但是自然湿地的面积有所下降并受到一定程度的破坏。湿地面积下降及破
碎化的主要原因是由于石油开采、土地开发及转成其它用地（如养虾池、鱼塘、农
田、盐田等）。湿地受损的后果主要表现在：生态系统的服务功能下降、减少了对
其它生物的食物供应、栖息地功能减弱、生物多样性下降及美学价值降低等。
渤海的预期性风险评估结果表明，对于生态系统和人类健康都存在着一定的
风险。根据风险的等级和范围，对于人类健康而言，风险较高的因子为贝类体中的
DSP 毒素、PSP 毒素、粪大肠杆菌（北戴河及黄河口地区）以及海藻中的铅；局部
风险因子有莱州湾中的粪大肠杆菌，贝类体中的铅和 DDT；在贝类及藻类组织中
可接受的因子有汞、铜、镉、砷等，鱼类组织中的风险因子均处于可接受水平，无
需关注。对于生态系统而言，海水中对生态系统风险较高的主要因子有 TSS、铅和
石油，对这些因子需要进行管理以降低风险；海水中局部风险因子有 DIN、DIP、
COD、以及镉，这些因子需要一定的关注并在热点地区实施管理；海水中的 DO、
汞、铜等因子目前还处于可接受水平。沉积物中的 DDT、666 风险水平很高，该
当采取一定的措施来缓解；汞、铜、镉及 PAH 属于局部风险因子；石油为可接受
水平，目前无需关注。
此外，近十年来不断发生的赤潮也是需要关注问题之一。赤潮的发生与海水
的富营养化有一定关系，并导致相当的生态风险（如由于缺氧而引起水生生物的死
亡）与健康风险（如 DSP 和 PSP 引起的中毒）。从空间分布来看，辽东湾和渤海
湾所带来的污染和富营养化风险要明显高于莱州湾，相关的资料差距、污染水平及
标准等也在本部分进行了探讨和分析。
为了保护渤海的自然资源和生境，应当考虑实施进一步的管理措施，如延长
禁渔期、减少渔船数量、增加人工增殖苗种、建立保护区、限制开发活动、修建更
多的污水处理厂、减少污水排放量等。但这些管理措施应当充分考虑整个社会效
益，应当以最小的投资进行，应当有益于环渤海地区的经济可持续发展。
而对于发生在渤海中的海冰、风暴潮等自然灾害，已经有了相当多的模拟和
预测方法来进行影响分析。这些自然灾害是无法避免发生的，但是，它们的影响范
围和强度都是可以通过有效的监测、评估、预报、预警、协调及管理等手段来降到
最低。
6
Background
INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVES
Bohai Sea is a semi-enclosed sea located in The following are the objectives of the Risk
northern China, which has unique advantages in Assessment:
both geology and resources. It is an important
receiving water body that captures the • To establish a team to serve as a resource base
downstream impact from the surrounding Wider for local/national risk assessment projects and
Bohai Sea Area (WBSA) and supports the future risk assessment programs;
economic system. • To enhance the capacity of scientists and
professionals around the WBSA in conducting
However, with the spate of economic environmental risk assessment of trans-
development activities in the area, Bohai Sea is provincial boundary sea areas/pollution
confronted with serious challenges. Bohai Sea has hotspots;
been under considerable stress because of the loss • To examine and analyze the damaged status
of its service functions and sustaining capacities. of the environment and natural resources of
Bohai Sea;
Recognizing the importance and urgency of • To identify and prioritize inter-provincial
protecting Bohai Sea’s environment and environmental issues around Bohai Sea; and
resources, the government of China has decided • To recommend immediate management
to take effective measures to improve and actions to improve the environmental quality
sustainably manage the Bohai Sea environment. of Bohai Sea.
One of such concerted efforts is the Bohai Sea
Environmental Management Project (BSEMP),
implemented by the State Oceanic Administration SOURCES AND QUALITY OF INFORMATION
(SOA) with technical support and assistance from
PEMSEA. The risk assessment of Bohai Sea, one In this risk assessment report, the data used
of the indispensable components of BSEMP, is in the initial risk assessment (IRA) and refined
focused on the impact of land-based and sea- risk assessment (RRA) were verified and updated.
based activities and the contaminants derived The quality of data used in the retrospective and
from them, on living and non-living resources of prospective risk assessment was assessed through
Bohai Sea, including ecology, people and society. a scoring system to reduce uncertainties. The
scoring system was based on the documentation
This report’s chapters are Background, of procedures and adoption of quality assurance/
Description of Bohai Sea, the Risk Assessment quality control (QA/QC) procedures in sampling
Approach, Retrospective Risk Assessment, and laboratory analysis and was the same as that
Prospective Risk Assessment, Comparative Risk adopted by the ASEAN-Canada Cooperative
Assessment, and Conclusions and Programme on Marine Science (ACCPMS) —
Recommendations. Environmental Criteria Component. Data quality
7
score is from 1 to 3, where 1 denotes data with The primary sources of information for the
well-documented QA/QC procedures adopted in risk assessment were the Report of the Bohai Sea
sample collection and analysis. A score of 2 Coastal Resource Conservation and
denotes data generated from where employed Environmental Management Project (Agriculture
procedures were generally satisfactory, some Department and ADB, 2000). Other references
information, such as exact location of sampling that were used include the Monitoring Report
station, analyzing method is not confirmed. A score for Land-based Pollution and its Effects on the
of 3 denotes data generated where procedures Coastal Waters and Resources in China. A
were poorly documented or where the values detailed list of the sources for each parameter is
were cited without proper documentation or given in Table 1. The sampling stations are shown
explanation. in Figure 1.
Table 1. Sources of Information for the Risk Assessment.

Parameters Description of Data Location References Data
Quality
Score
Fisheries 1949–1998 statistics, and 1982, 1989, Entire Bohai Sea MoA, 1949–1998; 2
1992, 1998 fishery resource Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000
investigation (station unknown)
Maricultural 1949–1998 statistics, Entire Bohai Sea MoA, 1949–1998; 2
Species 1988–1998 marine culture statistics Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000
(unknown station)
Benthos 1982, 1992, 1998 investigation Entire Bohai Sea Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000 2
(unknown stations)
Phytoplankton 1982, 1992, 1998 investigation Entire Bohai Sea Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000 2
(unknown stations)
Zooplankton 1982, 1992, 1998 investigation Entire Bohai Sea Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000 2
(unknown stations)
Wetland 1981–1998 Research articles Entire Bohai Sea Liu Hongyu, et al., 2001 2
Beach 1993 Entire Bohai Sea Some research articles 3

Coast 1949–1990 Entire Bohai Sea Recent Marine Erosion along the Coast 2
of the Bohai Sea (Li Fenglin, 1994)
Nutrients 1998, station and depth unknown Entire Sea Ocean Environment Bulletin, 1998; 2
1985–1998 station & depth unknown Entire Sea Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000 2
COD 1985–1998 station & depth unknown Entire Sea Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000 2
DO Raw data: March 1995, 8 stations Jinzhou Bay Monitoring Report for Land-based 1
Pollution and its Effects on the Coastal
Waters and Resources in China
8
BACKGROUND
Table 1. Sources of Information for Risk Assessment (continuation).
Parameters Description of Data Location References Data

Quality
Score
Coliform
Water Column 13 stations, surface, Laizhou Bay Office of Ocean and Fishery, 2001 1
May-June & August-September 1998
Tissue 7 stations, shellfish, Beidaihe He Jie, et al., 2002 1
October-November 1997
TSS
Water column Raw data: March 1995, 8 stations Jinzhou Bay Monitoring Report for Land-based 1
Pollution and its Effects on the Coastal
Waters and Resources in China
Heavy Metals
Water column 1985-1998, station & depth Entire Sea Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000 2
and Sediment unknown
Tissue 1997, station & depth unknown Tianjin
Dalian Yantai
1993, station & depth unknown Tianjin
Laizhou Bay
As in tissue station & depth unknown Entire Sea
Pesticides
Water column 1997, station & depth unknown Entire Sea Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000 2
DDT and 666
DDT 1996, time, station & depth Entire Sea Bohai Sea Comprehensive 3
unknown Improvement Plan (SOA, 2000)
Oil
Water column 1985-1998, station & depth Entire Sea Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000; 2
and Sediment unknown
1993, 14 stations, 1 m water column Laizhou Bay Xie Xudong,1993; 1
Tissue time, station & depth unknown Entire Sea SOA, 2000 3
PAHs time, station & depth unknown Entire Sea SOA, 2000 3
Oil spills 1979-1998 Entire Sea Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000 2
HABs 1952-1998 Entire Sea Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000 2
Toxic algae
Sea Ice 1969-2000 Entire Sea SOA, 2000 2
Windstorm 1964-1987 Entire Sea Bohai Sea Ecology Comprehensive 2
Improvement Technique (First Institute
of Oceanography, 2003)
9
Figure 1. Sampling Stations in Bohai Sea.
Data Source: State Environment Protection Administration (SEPA)

Source: Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000
10
BACKGROUND
DEFINITION OF TERMS
effect occurring, e.g., the expected ratio
The key terms used in this report are between the number of individuals that would
defined below. experience an adverse effect in a given time and
the total number of individuals exposed to the
Effects assessment. The component of a risk risk factor.
analysis concerned with quantifying the manner
in which the frequency and intensity of effects Risk assessment. A process which entails some
increase with the increasing exposure to a or all of the following elements: hazard
substance. identification effects assessment, exposure
assessment and risk characterization. It is
Exposure assessment. The component of a risk identification and quantification of the risk
analysis that estimates the emissions, pathways resulting from a specific use or occurrence of a
and rates of movement of a chemical in the chemical including the determination of
environment, and its transformation or exposure/dose-response relationships and the
degradation, in order to estimate the identification of target populations. It may
concentrations/doses to which the system of range from largely qualitative (for situations in
interest maybe exposed. which data are limited) to fully quantitative
(when enough information is available so that
Hazard assessment. Comparison of the intrinsic probabilities can be calculated).
ability of a substance to cause harm (i.e., to
have adverse effects for humans or the Risk characterization. The step in the risk
environment) with its expected environmental assessment process where the results of the
concentration, often a comparison of predicted exposure assessment (e.g., PEC, daily intakes)
environmental concentration (PEC) and and the effects assessment (e.g., PNEC, no
predicted no-effects concentration (PNEC). observed adverse effect level or NOAEL) are
Sometimes referred to as risk assessment. compared. If possible, an uncertainty analysis
is carried out, which, if it results in a quantifiable
Hazard identification. Identification of the overall uncertainty, produces an estimation of
adverse effects, which a substance has an the risk.
inherent capacity to cause, or in certain cases,
the assessment of a particular effect. It includes Risk classification. The weighing of risks in
the identification of target populations and order to decide whether reduction is required.
conditions of exposure. It includes the study of risk perception and the
balancing of perceived risks and perceived
Risk. The probability of adverse effects on benefits. The general term “risk assessment” is
humans or the environment resulting from a used throughout this document while others
given exposure to a substance. It is usually might have used “characterization” or
expressed as the probability of an adverse “classification.”
11
Description of Bohai Sea
Bohai Sea covers an area of 77,284 km2. It is Figure 2. Location of Bohai Sea in China.
an important receiving water body that captures
the downstream impacts from the surrounding
WBSA, which includes Bohai Sea and its adjacent
provinces and municipalities, namely, the
Liaoning, Hebei and Shandong Provinces and the
municipality of Tianjin. There are more than 40
rivers flowing into it, among which Yellow River,
Haihe River, Liaohe River and Luanhe River are
the major ones. Average run-off is 7.2×108 million
m3/a and more than 1.3×108 tons of sand and mud
flow into Bohai Sea annually (Li Shuyuan, 1996).
Bohai Sea is a unique shallow marine

ecosystem with a strong pelagic–benthic coupling
process. Bohai Sea consists of three bays —
Liaodong Bay, Bohai Bay and Laizhou Bay and
the central region. Huge mud and sand loading
in the river water has formed two wide and plain
delta wetlands — the Liaohe River estuary and
the Yellow River estuary. The latter is the biggest
wetland in Asia. There are about 150 kinds of
birds wintering in Yellow River estuary. These
estuaries also provide grounds for fish, shrimp of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and
and crab to spawn, nurse and feed. These halobios 16 percent of the nation’s population. The area
are very rich in Bohai Sea, and include such main serves as an important maritime outlet for the
species as the yellow croaker, clam, scallop, country’s landlocked Great West and Northeast
abalone, and Chinese shrimp. The mariculture Provinces and a Euro-Asian transportation linkage
industry is highly developed in Bohai Sea, and as well.
has made the area into the most important center
of shellfish aquaculture in China. Bohai Sea is also The rapid economic and industrial development
rich in oil, salt, chemicals and other resources and in the WBSA in recent years resulted in tremendous
has adequate ports and tourism facilities. The amounts of land-based pollutants being discharged
main environmental disasters are harmful algal into Bohai Sea, exerting enormous pollution
blooms (HABs), oil spills, coastal erosion, pressure to its environment. The continued
intrusion of seawater, windstorms, and sea ice. degradation of the Bohai Sea environment has
damaged the resources and led to the sharp decline
WBSA is recognized as one of the major of their service functions, and undermined Bohai
centers of economic development in China. In Sea’s capacity to sustain the needs of the present
1999, the WBSA accounted for some 22 percent and future generation.
13
Figure 3. Map of Wider Bohai Sea Region.
116° 118° 120° 122° 124°
42°
42°
LIANDONG PROVINCE
Jinzhou
Panjin
Jinxi
Huludao Yingkou
BEIJING PROVINCE Suizhong

LIANDONG BAY
40°
Qinhuangdao
40°
Ì Tangshan
TIANINPROVINCE
Tianjin Jinzhou
BOHAI SEA Dalian

Tanggu Laotreshan
BOHAI BAY
HEBEI PROVINCE YELLOW SEA

38°
38°
Yantai
Weihai
Binzhou LAIZHOU BAY

Dongying
SHANDONG PROVINCE
36°
36°
116° 118° 120° 122°
14
The Risk Assessment Approach
An environmental risk assessment involves human health and/or ecological quality.

estimating the likelihood of harm being done to Assessment of risks can be carried out in terms of
human health and/or ecosystems through factors historical conditions as a retrospective risk
emanating from human activities that reach their assessment, where the fundamental question
targets via the natural environment. Hence, it concerns the extent to which these conditions are
usually combines an understanding of factors that likely to have caused adverse effects observed in
may cause harm (hazard identification) with an specific targets. The alternative approach is to
understanding of the likely levels of exposure in consider the extent to which current conditions
targets (exposure assessment). The basic principles and/or those likely to pertain to the future due to
and techniques for risk assessment (both new developments are likely to cause harm. This
retrospective and prospective risk assessment) are is the prospective risk assessment approach. Both
described in the Environmental Risk Assessment can be used as basis for environmental
Manual: A Practical Guide for Tropical Ecosystems management and imply the desire to control
(MPP-EAS 1999a). activities and conditions to levels that will not
cause harm and which are likely to be non-zero.
In comprehensive environmental management
RISK ASSESSMENT APPROACHES programs, such as the one being implemented in
Bohai Sea, a combination of retrospective and
The following is a summary of risk assessment prospective approaches is applied. Thus a
approaches applied. Based on available data, Bohai retrospective approach is applied to explain
Sea is divided into four parts: Liaodong Bay, Bohai observed deterioration in ecological targets and/
Bay, Laizhou Bay and the central region or the occurrence of human health problems in
the light of likely levels of exposure and their
Considering the conditions around Bohai Sea, causes. A prospective approach is applied to
the main economic and social drivers include: consider and compare the likely adverse effects
population, refining, extracting oil/gas/minerals, emanating from observed environmental
manufacturing, shipping, agriculture, aquaculture concentrations of chemicals. Both these approaches
and fishing. ought to be converged. The approach also ought
to indicate the relative importance of different
The main agents are nutrients and HABs, adverse effects and their causes and suggest
heavy metals, oil, chemical organics, other appropriate, cost-effective management programs.
chemicals, E. coli and overfishing. While the main
categories of the targets are human health, The fundamental feature of both retrospective
habitats, i.e., wetlands, beaches (swimming beach, and prospective risk assessments is the
muddy beach etc.) and sediment, and species, i.e., identification of problems and their causes on the
commercial and non-commercial marine species. basis of systematic and transparent principles that
can be justified in public and can be revisited when
Risk represents the likelihood that conditions more information and understanding become
will lead to harmful effects in targets that involve available. The key concept for risk assessment is
15
16
Provinces and Liaoning Hebei Tianjin Shandong
Municipality
Economic/ Population Refining Extract Manufacturing Shipping Agriculture Aquaculture Fishing

Social
gas/oil/
Drivers e.g. textiles
minerals
Nutrients& Heavy Oil Chemicals Organic

Toxic Materials Organic
Other and Inorganic
Chemicals E. Coliform Overfishing
Agents Harmful Materials
Algae Bloom Metals (TBT, PAH, pesticides etc.) (DO/BOD/COD,
(DO/BOD/COD,TSS TSS,etc.)
etc.)
Human Habitat Species

Targets
health Wetlands Beach Sediment In general Fish/Shellfish Endangered species
Effects on
Tourism/ Employment Health Cost Aquaculture Fisheries
Economy
entertainment
Figure 4. Risk Pathways for Bohai Sea.

THE RISK ASSESSMENT APPROACH
the comparison between environmental main risk agents, targets and their consequences
conditions (e.g., environmental concentrations of in/around Bohai Sea. The sources of agents are
chemicals) and threshold values likely to cause ultimately related to economic and other social
adverse effects in the targets under drivers that are distributed among Liaoning,
consideration. In the prospective risk assessment, Hebei, Tianjin and Shandong. The consequences
this is made explicitly as a risk quotient (RQ) that of pollution will have knock-on effects on the
is the ratio of an environmental concentration economy, although differently, among the
which can be either predicted (PEC) or measured littoral provinces and municipality; but any
(MEC) with a predicted no-effect concentration control would likely have impact on the
(PNEC) for the target of concern (RQ = P(M)EC/ economies within and outside the littoral
PNEC), such that an RQ < 1 indicates a low, and community. These considerations ought not to
thus acceptable risk and an RQ > 1 indicates a influence the way the risk assessment is carried
level of concern and possibly the deployment of out, but they may influence judgments about
management programs. PNECs have been priorities for actions and hence at which issues
derived from standards obtained from various the risk assessment is directed. Ultimately they
sources. will influence what management actions are
taken, when it will be important to weigh
benefits to human health and the environment
RISK PATHWAYS OF BOHAI SEA with costs to the economy. Involving a range
of social, national, governmental, and
The conduct of risk assessment began with a commercial interests, these considerations will
qualitative indication of risk pathways to draw never be far from an analysis of complex risk
attention to the key issues. Figure 4 shows the pathways of high economic importance.
17
Retrospective Risk Assessment
INTRODUCTION were reviewed and relevant data on identified

targets (habitats and resources) in the bay were
Retrospective risk assessment is an evaluation put together for the retrospective risk
of the causal linkages between observed ecological assessment. Steps prescribed in MPP-EAS
effects and stressor(s) in the marine environment. (1999a) were likewise applied.
It addresses risks from actions that began in the
past and can therefore be assessed based on Problem Formulation
measurements of the state of the environment
(Suter, 1998). It attempts to answer the question: The problem formulation phase involved
“What evidence is there for harm being done to defining the target and the way it is impaired
targets in the Bay?” (MPP-EAS, 1999a). In by recognizing that an undesirable effect on an
retrospective studies, it is important to identify ecological system or human population has
significant effects (targets and endpoints) and already occurred, identifying suspected (or
ascribe causation. The approach involves making known) agents, and considering the links
inferences about the causes of observed effects between the agents and the adverse effects on
(Suter, 1998), and this often requires temporal and the targets with an aim to eventually manage
spatial series of data for comparative purposes. these agents in order to reduce harm.
Comparison facilitates the ascribing of risks to a
particular source. Identification of Assessment and
Measurement Endpoints in the Targets
The retrospective approach employed for
Bohai Bay was of the “effects-driven assessment” It is important to determine the
type that addresses apparent ecological effects that assessment and measurement endpoints in the
have uncertain magnitudes and causes (Suter, targets. Assessment endpoints are features
1998). Under this perspective, risk is viewed as related to the continued existence and
the likelihood that current impacts are occurring functioning of the identified targets (e.g.,
and that demonstrating these existing impacts production, density changes and mortality),
confirms that a risk exists. It is important to note which may not be easy or would take much
that impacts have primary or secondary effects — time to measure. Hence, measurement
as these may cause direct or indirect changes in endpoints, which are features related to the
identified targets. These impacts range from those assessment endpoints but are easier to
occurring inland and near the coast to those measure, are used instead, such as biomass
occurring in the Bay itself as consequences of (for production), abundance (for density
developments and ecosystem exploitation. changes) and LC 50 or biomarkers (for
mortality).
METHODOLOGY
To elaborate on the interrelation of agents
A considerable volume of materials on Bohai and targets in Bohai Sea, a simplified risk
Bay from various studies, reports, and projects pathway (Figure 4) was used.
19
The identified targets for resources in Bohai The suspected agents for the different
Sea are classified into five groups: resources and habitats in Bohai Sea includes:
1. Overfishing (over-collection/over-
a. Fisheries; harvesting);
b. Maricultured species; 2. Destructive and illegal fishing;
c. Benthos; 3. Physical disturbance;
d. Phytoplankton; and 4. Physical removal/clearance;
e. Zooplankton. 5. Sedimentation;
6. Diseases;
The identified targets for habitats in Bohai Sea 7. Freshwater run-off;
cover: 8. Oil exploitation;
a. Wetland; 9. Over-reclamation;
b. Beach; and 10. Dam building;
c. Coast. 11. Tourist trampling;
Table 2. Details of Retrospective Risk Assessment.

Resource/Habitat
1. Is the target exposed to the agent?
Note: Answer YES if actual data (or visual observations of solid wastes, oil and grease, physical removal) show
the presence of that particular agent in the study area (whatever the level might be); also if activities that are
potential sources of these agents are present in the area.
2. a. Was/Were there any loss/es that occurred following exposure?
Note: Answer YES if data is available to show correlation between observed decline and exposure to the agents.
b. Was there any loss/es correlated through space?
Note: This asks if in places where exposure levels were higher, the impacts/losses were also greater.
3. Does the exposure concentration exceed the threshold where adverse effects start to happen?
Note: Please refer to the results of the prospective RA, especially if there are data available on contaminant levels
within the period when decline was observed or area where decline was observed.
4. a. Do the results from controlled exposure in laboratory or field experiments lead to the same effect?
Note: For agents for which controlled experiments in laboratories do not need to be conducted (e.g., collection,
clearance, reclamation, etc.), answer should be NR (not relevant); for other agents, answer YES only if experiments
have really shown that exposure to the agent has led to the decline of the particular resource or habitat.
b. Will removal of the agent lead to amelioration?
Note: Although in theory removal of agent will lead to amelioration, recovery might not come easily for some
targets, or some might not recover at all (e.g., for agents like physical removal, reclamation, land conversion).
5. Is there an effect in the target that is known to be specifically caused by exposure to the agent (e.g., biomarkers)?
Note: The observed effect should be specifically caused only by the identified agent and cannot be attributed to
any other agent. An example of specific evidence is the deformity observed in the reproductive organs of mollusks
as a result of exposure to TBT. If you answer YES to this question, please provide information in the discussion on
what specific evidences were observed that will link that particular agent to the decline (cite studies). The observed
effect can also be a physical observation such as tainting by oil.
6. Does it make sense? Logically and Scientifically
Note: Does it make sense for the agent to have caused the observed effect on the basis of scientific principles or
as established through simulation? (Is cause-effect relationship known to be possible, in principle?)
7. Try to determine likelihood (VL = Very Likely, L = Likely, P = Possibly, U = Unlikely, ? = Don’t Know
Note: In deciding the likelihood, please use the decision criteria, Table 3, (although the cases included in the table
are not comprehensive; other combinations of answers are possible); for cases that cannot be found in the table,
decide on the likelihood to be assigned then update the decision criteria table (include the new case(s) and likelihood
and provide explanation.)
20
RETROSPECTIVE RISK ASSESSMENT
12. Windstorm; In addition, changes in the physical feature

13. Seawater intrusion; of Bohai Sea particularly, bathymetric and
14. Underground water exploitation; shoreline changes, and their concomitant effects
15. Sand excavation; on habitats and resources, were also examined.
16. Dissolved oxygen (DO);
17. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD); Determination of Likelihood of Harm on
18. Chemical oxygen demand (COD); the Identified Target by the Suspected
19. Nutrients; Agent
20. Coliform;
21. Harmful algal blooms (HABs); Under the retrospective risk assessment
22. Heavy metals; phase, a set of questions, answerable by yes (Y),
23. Pesticides; no (N), maybe (M), no data, (ND) do not know
24. Total suspended solids (TSS); (?) and/or not relevant (NR), was formulated in
25. Total organic carbon (TOC); order to establish evidences of decline, causes
26. Oil and grease; of the decline, and consequences of the decline.
27. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); The following questions and steps (Table 2) were
28. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and adapted from MPP-EAS (1999a). The decision
other organics; criteria for determining the different categories
29. Oil spills; and of likelihood of harm for specific agents are listed
30. Zooplankton. in Table 3.
Table 3. Decision Criteria for Determining the Likelihood of Harm.

Case Result Decision Tables Conclusion
A No 1 & 2 = unlikely (U) No correlation
B Yes 1 & 2, ND for 3 – 6 = possibly (P) Just correlation
C Yes 1 & 2, but no 3 = unlikely (U) Correlation but negative evidence for cause-effect
D Yes 1 & 2, but no 6 = unlikely (U) Spurious correlation
E Yes 1, 2, & 3 = likely (L) Correlation with some evidence of cause-effect
F Yes 1, 2, & 3, but no 4a = unlikely/possibly (U/P) Correlation but negative evidence for cause-effect; if good
experimental design (e.g., low Type II error = unlikely), with
poor experimental design (e.g., high Type II error) = possibly.
G Yes 1, 2, & 3, ND for 4a, but no 4b = possibly (P) Correlation but lack of evidence for cause-effect
H Yes, 1, 2, 3, & 4a, but no 4b = likely (L) Correlation with evidence for cause-effect and recovery does
not always occur
I Yes, 1, 2, 3, 4a, & 5 = very likely (VL) Correlation with strong evidence for cause-effect
J Yes, 1, 2, 3, & 4a, but no 5 = likely (L) Correlation with evidence for cause-effect (a lack of biomarker
response is inconclusive evidence)
K Yes, 1, 2, 3, 4a, 5, & 6 = very likely (VL) Correlation with very strong evidence for cause-effect
L Yes, 1, 2, 3, but maybe 6 = possibly (P) Correlation but scientific/logical justification lacking
M Yes 6 but no data for 1 & 2 = unknown (?) Cause-effect relationship known to be possible in principle,
but no evidence in this case
N Yes 1, but no 2 Target is exposed but there is no evidence for decline; if there
is good evidence for no decline then there is no need to take
the risk assessment further; if evidence for no decline is weak
or questionable, seek more evidence.
21
In order to facilitate the assessment, all the (about US$7.4 billion) came from marine fisheries
above-mentioned questions were tabulated in a (including mariculture). More than 800,000 persons
matrix where each of the targets was subjected to were involved in this field (SOA report, 1998).
the series of questions. The answers to the The fishing production increased rapidly in the
questions were based on available information on past decades by the introduction of modern
the targets and agents. The matrices are termed fishing methods. The production grew five times
here as Decision Tables. Using these tables, agents more in 1998 (1618x10 3 tons) compared to the
that were likely to have caused adverse effects production in 1979 (322x103 tons). Figure 5 shows
have been systematically screened. the catch production in Bohai Sea from 1979 to
1998, Table 4 shows the data on fisheries
Upon screening, summaries of likelihood of production in Bohai Sea in recent years (MoA,
some identified agents causing decline in resources 1949–1998).
and habitats were prepared and were made part
of the basis for the results of the retrospective Evidence of Decline
risk assessment. It is important to note that the
summaries of likelihood were established on the The following
basis of the retrospective analyses (Decision evidence is based on
Tables) and on the prospective risk assessments data generated by
for different agents summarized in the the Agriculture
Comparative Risk Assessment section. Department and
ADB (2000) and the
The results of the retrospective analysis of each Blue Sea Action
resource or habitat (identified target) in terms of Program in Bohai Sea
spatial extent, changes observed and the identified (SEPA, 2001). Table
agents for these changes, and the ecological and 6 summarizes the
socioeconomic consequences of these changes is retrospective
summarized in tabulated form for each resource analysis for fisheries
or habitat assessed. in Bohai Sea.
Catch per unit of effort (CPUE) is the number

RESOURCES or weight of fish caught per unit of fishing effort,
e.g., weight in kilograms (kg) per fishing hour (H)
Fisheries or per horsepower (HP). It is often used as a
measure of fish abundance or fishing gear
The total area of Bohai Sea is around 77,284 efficiency.
km , almost all of which is set as fishing areas.
2
The total production value from all marine-related Figure 6 shows the CPUE of Yellow Sea and
industries in Bohai Sea was 90.7 billion RMB (about Bohai Sea from 1949 to 1993. The CPUE dropped
US$10.8 billion) in 1997, of which 62.29 billion RMB in the 1960s and remained in low level after 1980s,
Table 4. The Total Catch Production in Bohai Sea.

Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Catch (x1000 MT) 905 954 1,271 1,290 1,618
22
and fishing gear efficiency could not sustain the and the high efficiency of fishing gears. The CPUE
declining fisheries production. The only reason for Bohai Sea was 1.33 T/HP in 1995, while it
for CPUE decline is the depletion of resources. rapidly declined to 0.33 T/HP in 1997. The decline
The yield of small yellow croaker, which was the in the CPUEs could be a very clear evidence for
main fishing species between the 1960s and 1970s, resource volume decline.
shows the same trend with the CPUE. The CPUE
of small yellow croaker in a Qingdao fishing The CPUE for valuable species (Table 5) also
company (Figure 7) clearly shows that the volume shows a clear decline. It was 138.8 kg/net.hr in
of this resource declined to a very low level after 1959, declining to 50.4 kg/net.hr in 1982, and then
the 1960s with the use of motorized fishing boats to 11.18 kg/net.hr in 1998.
Figure 5. The Fisheries Catch Production of Bohai Sea in the Past Decades.
1800
1600
(x103t ton)
on)
1400
i on ( x103
1200
1000
Production
800
Pr oduct
600
400
200
0
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
Year
Figure 6. The CPUE and Production of Main Fish Species in Yellow Sea
from 1949-1993. CPUE (T/HP)
23
Table 5. Changes of CPUE for Valuable Species in Bohai Sea (1959-1998, kg/net.hr).
Valuable species 1959 1982 1992 1998
Small yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena polyactis) 51.0 7.2 5.7 0.4
Tail fish (Trichiurus muticus) 50.7 0.8 0.1 0.08
Half-fin anchovy (Setipinna taty) 8.2 18.0 8.0
Japanese anchovy (Engraulis sp) 6.8 25.0 0.2
Spotted sardine (Clupanodon punctatus) 6.5 1.6
Madura anchovy (Thrissa kammalensis) 2.6 7.2
Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus niphonius) 3.8 0.2 0.8
Prawn (Penaeus orientalis) 25.2 0.9 0.4
Squilla (Oratosquilla oratoria) 3.7 4.8 0.5
Swimming crab (Portunus trituberculatus) 3.7 9.2 2.9 0.4
Total 138.8 50.4 56.2 11.18
Source: SEPA, 2001
Table 6. Summary of Information for the Retrospective Risk Assessment for Fisheries.
Resource Type Areal Extent Results Impact
Changes Observed/Time Identified Agents
Fisheries Large 1. CPUE: 1.33 T/hp in 1995 and 0.33 T/hp Very likely: • Decrease in
(all of Bohai in 1997. 1. Recruitment mature
Sea) 2. CPUE for valuable species: 138.8 kg/ overfishing and individuals
net.hr in 1959, only 11.18 kg/net.hr in growth • Reduced
1998. overfishing; demersal fishery
3. Diversity index: 3.61 in 1983 and 2.52 in 2. Destructive and production
1993. illegal fishing; • Increased
4. Abundance: 85 species in 1983 reduced 3. HABs; production from
to 74 species in 1993. 4. Heavy metals; pelagic fisheries
5. Resource for demersal fisheries: 3.36 T/ 5. Pesticides; • Less production
km2 in 1930, 1.22 T/km2 in 1950, 0.89 T/ 6. Oil and grease; of eggs and
km2 in 1982, 0.696 T/km2 in 1992. 7. PAHs; and larvae
6. Fishing boat: total HP of fish boat 8. Oil spills. • Loss of
increased 3 folds in 1960s; increased 10 economically
times in 1970s, and 25 times in 1980s. Likely: important species
7. Fish length: small yellow croaker, 221 Freshwater run-off • Reduced
mm in 1950s, 179 mm in 1970s, and 123 decreased economic value
in 1988. due to decrease
8. Economically valuable species: high Possible: in average sizes
1. Oil exploitation of fish
value species occupied 69.6 percent in
the total catch in 1959, decreased 58.3 2.TSS/TOC • Decrease in
percent in 1982, and 18.9 percent in sustainable net
Unlikely: income
1992.
9. Low value small fish: 12.3 percent of the DO
total catch in 1959 increased to 19.8
percent and 53.4 percent in 1982 and
1992.
10. Dominant species: small yellow croaker
in 1950s, herring and chub mackerel in
1970s, Spanish mackerel in 1980s,
Japanese anchovy in 1990s.
24
The “Diversity Index (Shannon-Weaver Trichiurus muticus, Pagrosomus spp., Sparus sp.,
Index)” is an indicator of ecological structure and Pneumatophorus japonicus, Bothus sp, Gadus sp,
function of a resource community. From 3.61 in Engraulis sp, Mugil sp. and Nibea sp. More than 20
1983, it decreased to 2.52 in 1993 in the Bohai Sea, species of shrimp, particularly, Acetes chinensis, and
which means the ecological structure had a big about 10 species of crabs especially Portunus
change within the 10-year period. The main trituberculatus and Charybdis japonica are catchable
commercial catchable fish species also decreased and economically valuable. Cephalopods, such as
from 85 to 74 during the 10-year period. Loligo japonicus and Sepia esculenta, Rhopilema
esculenta are also catchable. But of all the catchable
There were 156 species of fish in Bohai Sea and economically valuable species, only the
and 70 of these species have high economical values Rhopilema, crabs, Logigo, Engraulis and Acetes can
for catching, such as Pseudosciaena polyactis, be caught in Bohai Sea at present.
Figure 7. CPUE of Small Yellow Croaker Provided by a Fishing Company.

CPUE (kg/HP)
Figure 8. Variations of Fishery Resource Biomass in Bohai Sea.
25
Demersal catchable biomass of fish also 1990s, biomass was only 0.696 T/km2/yr, a mere
declined. From 3.36 T/km 2 in 1930, this was 20 percent that of 1930. Figure 8 presents the
reduced to 1.22 T/km2 in 1950, then 0.89 T/km2 in fishery resource biomass changes in 1959, 1982,
1982, and only 0.696 T/km2 in 1992, based on the 1992 and 1998 (Jin Xianshi, 2001), showing a
investigation carried out in 1982–1983 and 1992– significant decline in all the seasons.
1993. In general, the demersal biomass of fish was
low in winter and high in spring, which was 3,000 Fish species and diversity declined in Bohai
T and 122,776 T respectively in the whole Bohai Sea. Table 7 shows the data results from the
Sea (Figure 8). The highest biomass could reach investigation in 1982–1983 and 1992–1993. The
123,824 T and per statistical data, the average average fish species was 52.5 in 1982–1983 and
biomass was 55,662 T annually. However, in the 44.25 in 1992–1993, which declined around 20
Figure 9. Number of Fishing Boats from 1989-1997.

> 400h p (> 600h p af t er 1993)
200-399h p (200-599h p af t er 1993)
80-199h p (61-199h p af t er 1993)
21-79h p (21-60 af t er 1993)
< 20h p
T o t al
10
8
Number of boats (104)
7
N umber of boats(10 )
4
0
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Year
Y ear
Table 7. Diversity and Biomass of Fish in the Bohai Sea in 1982–1983 and 1992–1993.
Items 1982/83 1992/93 1982/83 1992/93 1982/83 1992/93 1982/83 1992/93 Average Average
spring spring summer summer fall fall winter winter 1982/3 1992/3
N 61.00 43.00 61.00 54.00 64.00 61.00 24.00 19.00 52.50 44.25
H’ 2.14 1.16 2.56 2.40 2.98 2.43 2.22 1.47 2.48 1.87
E 0.52 0.31 0.62 0.60 0.72 0.59 0.70 0.50 0.64 0.50
T 11.50 10.30 22.70 21.90 20.10 18.00 1.00 1.90 13.83 13.03
PFB 94,006.00 81,520.00 53,634.00 78,655.00 53,844.00 70,210.00 1,996.00 23.00 50,870.00 57,602.00
DFB 28,770.00 5,599.00 37,379.00 30,722.00 38,801.00 18,755.00 15,865.00 2,994.00 30,204.00 14,518.00
Total 122,776.00 87,119.00 91,013.00 109,377.00 92,645.00 88,965.00 17,861.00 3,017.00 81,074.00 72,120.00
Ratio 3.26 14.50 1.43 2.60 1.30 3.80 0.90 0.10 1.72 5.25
N = Species number, H’ = Shannon index, E = Even index, T = Demersal temperature, PFB = Biomass of pelagic fish (ton),
DFB = Biomass of demersal fish (ton), Total biomass = PFB + DFB, Ratio = PFB/DFB
26
percent. The diversity dropped from 2.48 to 1.87. the 1950s, 179 mm in the 1970s, and 123 mm in
The ratio of pelagic fish and demersal fish biomass 1988. Table 8 illustrates the decreasing trend in
increased from 1.72 to 5.25, which means the length, weight and age of the small yellow croaker
valuable demersal fish resource declined and low since the 1950s. Figure 10 gives annual changes in
value pelagic fish occupied most of the catch. average length of the small yellow croaker. By
1988, the average length of the yellow croaker was
Table 7 shows that the fishery resource only half of what it was in the 1950s, and about
decreased in the whole Bohai Sea. While the one-seventh of the body weight and age in that
number of fishing boats had largely increased, period. Sexual maturity of the fish became one
total HP of fishing boats increased 3 times in the year old from being two years old in the 1950s.
1960s; 10 times in the 1970s, and 25 times in the Unfortunately, these adaptations were
1980s. Figure 9 gives some idea of fishing boat unsuccessful for its survival in Bohai Sea; the small
increments from 1989 to 1997. There were 64,100 yellow croaker still disappeared in the 1990s
boats in 1989, 78,500 boats in 1993, and 87,300 boats because of overfishing.
in 1997. The number of boats increased by 36
percent in 10 years. Since some boats did not More economically valuable species have
operate in Bohai Sea, there was no calculation for disappeared. High value species accounted for 69.6
fishing boat numbers per square kilometer or per percent of the total catch in 1959, which decreased
length of coastline. However, the data clearly to 58.3 percent in 1982 and to 18.9 percent in 1992.
establishes that the fishing efforts increased in the Low value small fish accounted for 12.3 percent
past years, which could aggravate the depletion of the total catch in 1959, which increased to 19.8
of fishery resources in Bohai Sea. percent in 1982 and to 53.4 percent in 1992. The
Engraulis was regarded as a low value species
The size of the fish species have become smaller before the 1980s and a huge amount of Engraulis
in the past few years. For example, the average eggs were found during the field survey. During
length of a small yellow croaker was 221 mm in the late 1980s, fishers switched to catching Engraulis
Figure 10. Average Length of the Small Yellow Croaker.

Mean Length (mm)
260
220
180
140
100
1958
1960
1962
1975
1980
1982
1986
1988
1956
1967
1964
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1967
1975
1980
1982
1986
1988
Yea r
Year
Table 8. The Average Length, Weight and Age of the Small Yellow Croaker from the 1950s to 1988.
Year 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988
Length (mm) 221.0 227.0 179.0 164.0 127.0 159.0 121.0 123.0
Weight (g) 203.0 218.0 102.0 77.0 35.0 70.0 30.0 31.0
Age (yr) 5.3 5.2 2.4 1.5 0.8 1.4 0.6 0.7
27
Figure 11. Percentage of Engraulis japonicus in the Total Catch (percentage

of wet weight).
Percentage
Year
Figure 12. Scomberomorus niphonius Catch from 1949 to 1992.

90
Spring catch
80
Autumn catch
70
Yield (1000 ton)
Total catch
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1949
1951
1953
1955
1957
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
Year 1991
after realizing that no other fish could be caught. Scomberomorus niphonius from 1949 to 1992. The
Hence, the production of the Engraulis increased yield used to rapidly increase after each new
rapidly since 1981. The standing stock of the fishing technique renovation. With the use of the
Engraulis in 1998 was only one percent of what it motorized fishing boats in the beginning of the
was in 1993. Figure 11 illustrates the percentage 1960s, production peaked in 1965 at 2.83x104 tons.
of Engraulis to the total catch production from 1981 The second production peak (7.95x104 tons) was
to 1988. This low value species was less than 7 in 1990, resulting from the introduction of the fast-
percent of the total catch in 1981, which became moving trawls technique. After, the production
around 80 percent in 1988. went down rapidly due to high fishing pressure.
The production of the Scomberomorus niphonius in
Another example is the Scomberomorus 1992 returned to its level in the 1960s at 25.9x103
niphonius, which was abundant in Bohai Sea and tons.
Yellow Sea. It spawns from April to June in Bohai
Sea then moves on to grow in the Yellow Sea. Dominant species have bigger changes in the
Figure 12 shows the production of the fisheries structure of Bohai Sea since the 1960s.
28
Upper trophic and highly valuable species got Trichiuris haumela is 11 g/hr, and 73 g/hr for Ilisha
lesser, with their ages and individual sizes elongata. The results showed that those two
becoming smaller in the catch composition. At the dominant species in the 1960s almost disappeared
same time, the percentage of lower trophic and in Bohai Sea in the 1980s. The biomass for
low valuable species rose up. For example, some commercial fishing species declined by about 40
highly valuable species, such as Pseudosciaena percent in 1982 compared to that in the 1960s.
polyactis, Trichiuris haumela, and Penaeus chinensis, However, Engraulis accounted for 88.4 percent
accounted for 69.6 percent in 1959, 58.3 percent in of the total catch during the 1992 investigation
1982, and 18.9 percent in 1992. However some low (spring). The biomass of Setipinna taty declined
value species, such as the Engraulis japonicus, by 50 percent in the summer investigation.
account for a significant portion of the total catch Moreover, no Scomberomorus niphonius was caught
before extinction, at 12.3 percent in 1959, 19.8 in 1992.
percent in 1982, and 53.4 percent in 1992.
Attributed Causes
Investigations show that Setipinna taty was the
dominant species in 1982, its biomass reaching Table 9 presents the detailed retrospective
10,500 T/yr and holding 19 percent of the total risk assessment for fisheries. The most likely
biomass of Bohai Sea. Other important species reasons for fishery decline were overfishing
were Pseudosciaena polyactis, Scomberomorus (both growth and recruitment overfishing),
niphonius, Engraulis japonicus, Raja porposa, destructive and illegal fishing gears, freshwater
Collichthys lucidus, Lateolobrax japonicus, Raja pulchra, run-off, oil exploitation, DO, HABs, heavy
Stromateodes argenteus, Cynoglossus semilaevis, Coilia metals, pesticides, TSS/TOC, oil and grease,
mystus and Navodon modestus. The CPUE for PAHs and oil spills.
Table 9. Detailed Retrospective Risk Assessment for Fisheries.

Fres shing d
ase
Fi e a n
tals
ion
Gre
ng
-off er
des
v
Me
Run wat
shi
lls
Ille r u c t i
itat
and
/TO
tici
Spi
erfi
Fisheries
vy
gal
lo
Bs
s
t
Des
Oil
PAH
Hea
Exp
TSS
Pes
Ov
HA
DO
Oil
Oil
1. Is the target exposed to the agent? Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

2a. Was there any loss/es that occurred following exposure? Y Y Y M N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
2b. Was there any loss/es correlated through space? Y Y Y ND N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
3. Does the exposure concentration exceed the
threshold where adverse effects start to happen? Y Y Y ? N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
4a. Do the results from controlled exposure in field
experiments lead to the same effect? Y Y ND ND Y Y Y Y Y ND Y Y
4b. Will removal of the agent lead to amelioration? Y Y N M ND Y Y Y Y ? Y Y
5. Is there an effect in the target that is known to be
specifically caused by exposure to the agent
(e.g., biomarkers)? Y Y Y ND M Y Y Y Y ND Y Y
6. Does it make sense (logically and scientifically)? Y Y Y ? NR Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Likelihood VL VL L P U VL VL VL VL P VL VL
Legend: Y – Yes, N – No, M – Maybe, ND – No Data, ? – Don’t Know, NR – Not Relevant,VL – Very Likely; L – Likely, P – Possibly, U – Unlikely
29
Overfishing is a very important factor in the tons of industrial and city sewage, which was 34
decline of fishery resources. The use of motorized percent of the nation’s total discharge, were
fishing boats and new high efficiency fishing annually discharged in WBSA. These sewage
techniques facilitated fishing with ease in Bohai contained 6.99x105 tons of pollutants, which was
Sea. This could be proven by the yearly catch 47.74 percent of the nation’s amount. 2.15x104 tons
increase. Overfishing would not only impact on of pollutants were discharged into Bohai Sea
the stock biomass of high value species, but also through the riverine systems every year,
on the recruitment of new resources. In the representing 72 percent of nation’s pollutants from
meantime, some destructive and illegal fishing the rivers to the sea.
gears were used in some fishing boats to get more
production. On another hand, the number of There are 32 large rivers that empty into Bohai
fishing boats increased in the past ten years. Sea, with an annual average freshwater run-off of
According to the incomplete statistical data, the 854.76x10 8 tons (Data from MoA, 1997). These
number of motorized fishing boats in Bohai Sea freshwater run-offs could also bring pollutants
and Yellow Sea increased from 18,499 boats (total into Bohai Sea. For example, the estuary of Wulihe
power 702,657 kW) in 1981 to 69,330 (1,667,195 River, a river into Liaodong Bay, was covered by
kW) in 1991 and 86,577 (2,156,583 kW) in 1997. All 2–4 mm of oil and the oil silt was 30–40 cm. The
these overfishing activities will give high stress concentration of lead, cadmium, and mercury
on fishery resource restoration. exceeded the standard by 300, 200, and 150 times
respectively. The river became a drainage of
Environmental pollution is another very industrial sewage discharge.
important reason for the decline of fishery
resources in Bohai Sea. Bohai Sea receives the All these environmental pollution must have
riverine run-off, agricultural run-off, industrial affected the survival, growth, and spawning of
run-off, and city sewage, which occupies 32 halobios. The results of the prospective risk
percent of the whole nation’s city sewage. Bohai assessment that showed ecological risks associated
Sea receives 47 percent of the whole nation’s with oil, heavy metals, pesticides, PAHs, nutrients
pollution amount with 1.6 percent area of the China and organic load in various environmental
seas. Based on the investigation (1997), 2.99 billion compartments in Bohai Sea support this assessment.
Table 10. Annual Freshwater Run-off of Yellow River (1997–2001).

Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Run-off (x108 ton) 18.61 106.1 68.36 48.59 46.51
Table 11. The Salinity of Laizhou Bay for Selected Years (%).
Year May August October
Surface Bottom Surface Bottom Surface Bottom
1959 27.96 28.23 29.64 29.99 27.02 27.20
1982 29.52 29.80 28.45 30.78 28.08 29.13
1992 29.77 29.76 30.46 30.54 28.66 28.70
1998 31.37 31.35 30.04 31.14 29.28 29.50
2002 32.26
30
HABs that occur in Bohai Sea with increasing

frequency have also been linked to fish kills.
Freshwater run-off could be a factor that Table 12. Main Maricultured Species.
would impact on the fishery resource, especially Scientific Name Common Name Economic
on the fishery resource recruitment. A stable Value
freshwater run-off is the key to keeping salinity Fish
and a hydrodynamic environment, which are very Pagrosomus major red sea bream high
important for spawning activities and the survival Sparus macrocephalus black sea bream high
of juveniles of halobios. Yellow River is the biggest Lateolobrax japonicus sea perch high
river in Bohai Sea, with an average run-off of about Fugu rubripes red fugu low
57.63x108 tons annually. However, its freshwater F. pseudommus black fugu low
run-off has grown lesser recently. Table 10 gives Mugil soiny barracuda medium
the figures for the run-offs of the Yellow River in Paralichthys olivaceous Japanese flounder low
the past five years, and Table 11 shows the salinity Solea solea sole low
Sebastodes fuscescens monk fish medium
of Laizhou Bay. These two tables show the
Oreochromus spp. African crucian low
correlation between Yellow River and the salinity
Hexagrammos spp. yellow fish low
of Laizhou Bay. The high salinity could restrain
Crustacean
the spawning activities of most halobios in the sea.
Penaeus chinensis Chinese prawn high
Therefore, the freshwater run-off reduction will
P. japonicus Japanese prawn medium
affect the recruitment of fishery resources, then P. monodon grass shrimp medium
result in the decline of the fishery biomass. Portunus spp. crab low
Mollusca
Consequences Mytilus edulis green mussel medium
Chlamys farreri Chinees scallop high
The decrease in fishery resources has caused the
Argopecten irradians Mexico scallop high
following consequences as described in Table 6: Patinopectin yessoensis Japanese scallop high
• The degradation of the Bohai Sea ecosystem Haliotis discus abalone medium
and destruction of its health; Meretrix meretrix hard clam high
• Decrease in mature individuals; Ruditapes philippinarum clam high
• Reduced demersal fishery production; Cyclina sinensis green clam low
• Increased production from pelagic fisheries; Scapharca granosa blood mussel medium
• Less production of eggs and larvae; Sinonvacula constricta knife mussel low
• Loss of economically important species; Crassostrea gigas Pacific oyster high
• Reduced economic value due to decrease in Ostrea edulis oyster low
Seaweed
average sizes of fish;
Laminaria japonica kelp high
• Decrease in sustainable net income; and
Porphyra tenera purple laver high
• Destruction of the stable development of
Undaria pinnatifida skirt kelp high
fishery and related industries.
Gracilaria verrucosa gracilar high
Echinoderm
Maricultured Species Apbistichopus japonicus sea cucumber medium
Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus sea urchin medium
There are more than 20 species of marine Anthocidaris crassispina sea urchin low
organisms which can be farmed in Bohai Sea. Most
of the species are economically valuable species,
31
which include fish, shellfish, crustacean, and kelp. Marine cultivation developed very rapidly in
The list of farmed species is provided in Table 12. the 1980s after fishermen and fishing companies
The important species include prawns and shrimps, realized that natural fishery resources have been
oysters, clams, scallops, mussels, abalone, kelp, in short supply. The government also encouraged
and sea urchins. them to shift to mariculture to protect the natural
resources. More fishermen switched to marine
The production from marine cultivation in farming of kelps, mollusks, fish, sea urchins, sea
Bohai Sea increased from 1,236x103 T in 1991 to cucumbers and other possible species. The
3,780x103 T in 1996. Shellfish contributed 85 percent production from total marine cultivation increased
of the total production (in weight) and 10 percent three times from 1991 to 1996, and reached 3.78
for seaweed, 3 percent for fish, and 2 percent for million tons. Figure 13 shows the production of
both crab and shrimp. various mariculture types. Such rapid growth in
mariculture brought heavy environmental
Evidence of Decline problems as discussed in the Prospective Risk
Assessment.
Table 13 summarizes the retrospective analysis
for marine cultivation in Bohai Sea based on data The cultivation area increased three times from
generated by the Agriculture Department and 1.64´105 ha in 1989 to 4.65´105 ha in 1998. Figure 14
ADB (2000). shows the increase in mariculture area and the
Table 13. Retrospective Analysis for Mariculture Species.

Marine Medium 1. The production of marine Very Likely: For fast development of
cultivation cultivation was increased 1. HABs mariculture:
from 1.236 million tons in 2. Disease 1. Destroying the normal energy
1991 to 3.78 million tons in 3. DO flow of ecosystem;
1996. 4. Heavy Metals 2. Harmful to health of
2. Cultivation area increased ecosystem;
from 1.64´10 ha in 1989 to
5
Likely: 3. Change in species
4.65´105 ha in 1998. 1. Pesticides replacement;
3. Production of farmed fish 2. Oil and grease 4. Shortening the food chain;
increased from 0.98x103 T in 3. PAHs 5. Simplification of food web;
1989 to 4.12x10 T in 1998.
4
4. Oil spills 6. Heavy self pollution; and
4. Production of shellfish 7. Worsening in water quality
increased from 6.74x10 T in5
Possible: declined.
1989 to 2.86x106 T in 1998. TSS/TOC
5. Prawn and crab production For decline in prawn and crab
decreased from 1.4x105T in production:
1991 to 5.25x10 T in 1998.
4 1. Decreasing the maximum
6. Production of kelp increased sustainable income; and
from 2.13x10 T to 6.77x10 T
5 5 2. Destroying stable
from 1989 to 1998. development of maricultural
and related industries.
32
Figure 13. The Production of Different Types of Mariculture from 1989 to 1998.
Figure 14. Areas of Different Mariculture Types.
Figure 15. Production of Farmed Marine Fish from 1989 to 1998.
4.5
4
3.5
(Production 10 t)
4
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
.5
0
* Note: The statistic method was changed in 1996; hereby two figures for 1996 are given to show the difference between the
new and old method. O—old method, N—new method.
33
rapid increase in inter-tidal farming area. This However, shrimp and crab farming production
means that the inter-tidal area was totally have reached their apex in 1991 with 1.4x105 tons.
disturbed by farming activities. The natural Production went down drastically after 1992 as a
habitat and environment were largely changed as viral disease spread through Bohai Sea. Around
many inter-tidal areas were converted into 80 percent of the shrimp farming factories were
farming ponds for shrimps. affected by the disease. Production in 1994 was
only 21.4 percent that of 1991 and production in
Fish production, as shown in Figure 15, 1998 only 5.25x104 tons, which is 40 percent that
increased 41 times from 0.98x103 tons in 1989 to of 1989 (Figure 17).
4.12x104 tons in 1998.
Attributed Causes
The shellfish production increased 4.2 times
from 6.74x105 tons in 1989 to 2.86x106 tons in 1998; The above figures show that the production
and kelp production increased 3.2 times from of most maricultured species, except for prawns
2.13x105 to 6.77x105 tons (Figure 16 and Figure 18). and crabs, have increased. The main reason for
Figure 16. Production of Farmed Shellfish from 1989 to 1998.
Mollusks
35
30
(Production 10 t)
5
25
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 17. Production of Farmed Shrimps and Crabs from 1989 to 1998.
15
(Production 10 t)
4
10
34
the increased production of most species was the take preventive measures. A detailed analysis is
increasing shift to marine farming. Mariculture, shown in Table 14.
however, is still growing in Bohai Sea.
Environmental pollution is regarded as another
On the other hand, the main cause of the important reason for the production decline of
decline in the production of prawns and crabs was prawn and crabs. Normally, shrimp ponds are
the fast spread of viral diseases since 1991, which close to the seashore, which means they could be
were difficult to control. To date, farmers still easily influenced by water pollution. Water in
could not control these diseases and could only shrimp ponds tend to stagnate, which could lead
Figure 18. Production of Seaweeds from 1989 to 1998.
8
(Production 10 t)
5
Table 14. Detailed Retrospective Risk Assessment for Maricultured Species.

ase
tals
Gre
Me
OC
es
lls
e
ticid
and
Spi
eas
vy
Mariculture Species
S/T
Bs
Hs
Hea
DO
HA
Dis
Pes
Oil
TS
Oil
PA
1. Is the target exposed to the agent? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

2a. Was there any loss/es that occurred following exposure? Y Y Y ND Y ND Y Y Y
2b. Was there any loss/es correlated through space? Y Y Y ND Y Y Y Y Y
3. Does the exposure concentration exceed the Y Y Y ND Y Y Y Y Y
threshold where adverse effects start to happen?
experiments lead to the same effect? Y Y ND ND ND ND ND Y Y
4b. Will removal of the agent lead to amelioration? Y Y Y ND Y ND Y Y Y
(e.g., biomarkers)? Y Y Y ND Y ND Y Y Y
6. Does it make sense (logically and scientifically)? Y Y Y M Y Y Y Y Y
Likelihood VL VL L P L L L VL VL
Legend: Y – Yes, M – Maybe, ND – No Data, VL – Very Likely, L – Likely, P – Possibly
35
to high COD/BOD by feeding and excretion of Figure 19. Shrimp Ponds Located in the Inter-
shrimps. Oxygen depletion resulting from high tidal Area.
COD/BOD, could kill the shrimps. At the same
time, feeding in ponds always makes the seawater
more eutrophic, which could lead to HABs and
oxygen depletion. Another problem in pond
farming was the fluctuating water temperature,
which make the shrimps and crabs vulnerable to
viral infections. Pond farming technology is
obviously affected by environmental changes,
which bring higher risks than farming fishes in
cages, and mollusks and kelps in the sea.
Consequences • Occupation of more land and/or inter-tidal

area to be farming ponds (Figure 19 and Figure
The fast development of mariculture had
20);
brought many serious consequences to the Bohai
• Destruction of natural habitats and resources
Sea environment, including:
in the inter-tidal area.
• Destruction of normal energy flow of the Production decline of prawns and crabs could
ecosystem;
result in the following:
• Shortening of the food chain and simplifying • Decrease in the maximum sustainable income
the food webs;
for fishermen; and
• Production of heavy pollution and worsening • Destruction of the stable development of
of water quality;
mariculture and related industries.
Figure 20. Satellite Pictures of the Development of Farming Lands in Hebei Province.
A. 1996 B. 1998
36
Benthos Both mean number per haul and mean catch

per haul of benthos decreased largely from 1982
Evidence of Decline to 1992. The mean catch in 1992 was 13.99 kg/
net.hr, 38.9 percent less than in 1982, which was
The seasonal pattern of the benthic community 22.91 kg/net.hr, while the mean number per haul
varied greatly from 1982 to 1992. In summer, the was 1,428 ind./net.hr, just 53.2 percent of that in
dominance of crustaceans in 1992 reached 83.7 1982 which was 2,683 ind./net.hr (Cheng and Guo,
percent, 45.9 percent higher than the same period 1998).
in 1982 (37.8 percent); while the dominance of
mollusks decreased from 58 percent in 1982 to 8.1 Table 17 shows the changes in dominant
percent in 1992. The results of the retrospective species, with the probable same trend as the
analysis are shown in Table 15. general species. The table shows an obvious
replacement of dominant species between 1982 and
Table 16 shows the details of changes of species 1993. In 1982, Loligo beka was the absolutely
composition in the Bohai Sea benthic ecosystem. dominant species, followed by Loligo japonica,
The dominant compositions were the same Trachypenaues spp., Oratosquilla oratoria and Portunus
between 1982 and 1993 except during the summer trituberculatus. In 1993, Loligo beka was still the first
season. The mollusk was dominant in the summer dominant species but Oratosquilla oratoria climbed
of 1982, while the crustacean was dominant in that to the second, and Loligo japonica became fifth in
of 1992. the dominant species list. Figure 21 shows the
Table 15. Retrospective Analysis for Benthos.

Resource Areal Results Impact
Type Extent
Benthos Medium The dominance of crustacean is Very likely: • Degradation of

83.7 percent in 1992, 45.9 percent 1. Overfishing benthic ecosystem;
higher than 1982. 2. Destructive and illegal fishing • Lower the
3. Physical disturbance biodiversity and
The dominance of mollusk is 58 4. Sedimentation stability of the
percent in 1982, 8.1 percent in 5. Over-reclamation marine ecosystem;
1992. 6. Sand excavation • Reducing the food
7. Heavy metal support of fishery
Mean number of 8. Pesticides resources; and
• Loligo beka per haul is 1032 in 9. Oil and grease • Loss of fisherman's
1982, which declined to 877 in 10. PAHs income.
1992. 11. Oil spills
• Loligo japonica was 801 in 1982,
which declined to 27 in 1992. Likely:
• Trachypenaues spp was 298 in 1. DO
1982, while only 77 in 1992.
• Portunus trituberculatus was 59 Possible:
in 1982, while 33 in 1992. 1. Oil exploitation
2. HABs
3. TSS/TOC
37
distribution of benthos between 1982–1983 and has become more serious with the development
1992–1993 (Cheng and Guo, 1998), exhibiting a of marine cultivation. The benthos biomass
decline during all the seasons. would be reduced by habitat disturbance,
especially in the inter-tidal areas, the satellite
Attributed Causes photos (Figure 20) clearly shows the changes
from natural habitats to the farming ponds.
Human activities are the main reasons for the
decline of the benthic biomass. First, overfishing Sedimentation could also influence the
and illegal fishing are identified as the most likely benthic biomass by habitat changes. The main
causes for the evident decline in benthic stock cause of sedimentation was silt from rivers in
and recruitment. Since the 1980s, the number of Bohai Sea. As shown in Table 8, the freshwater
fishing boats has doubled and illegal trawling run-off declined largely in recent years, which
nets have been used in some regions in Bohai Sea, could affect the sedimentation dynamics. This
which could cause very high fishing stress on the will also result in habitat change, which could
benthos and reduce the benthic biomass. be unsuitable for benthos.
Overfishing also resulted in the replacement of
dominant species and decline of the high-value The pollution in sediment could be another
species. Hauling has destroyed benthic habitats, possible agent for the decline of benthic
making them unsuitable for the benthic biomass. As discussed in the Prospective Risk
organisms' growth and reproduction in return. Assessment section, heavy metals and oil were
over the criteria level in some areas. The
Physical disturbances mainly come from pollution could have very serious adverse
excavating farming ponds, which would totally effects to the benthic growth and
destroy the habitats for benthos. This situation reproduction.
Table 16. Inter-decadal Change of Species Composition in the Bohai Sea Benthic Ecosystem
(Based on Mean Catch per Haul).
Seasons Survey time Crustacean (%) Mollusk (%) Echinoderm (%) Other (%)
May 1982 34.5 61.0 4.2 0.3
Spring
May 1993 31.2 65.8 2.5 0.5
August 1982 37.8 58.0 4.0 0.2
Summer
August 1992 83.7 8.1 8.1 0.1
October 1982 68.9 27.4 3.4 0.3
Fall
October 1992 58.8 38.9 2.2 0.1
February 1983 46.3 10.1 42.9 0.7
Winter
February 1993 13.0 3.6 76.8 7.3
Table 17. Decadal Change of Dominant Species in the Bohai Sea Benthic Ecosystem.
Dominant species Mean number per haul (kg/net.hr) Mean catch per haul (kg/net. hr)
1982–1983 1992–1993 1982–1983 1992–1993
Loligo beka 1,032 877 4.104 4.111
Loligo japonica 801 27 3.788 0.184
Trachypenaues spp. 298 77 0.993 0.336
Oratosquilla oratoria 129 180 2.407 3.979
Portunus trituberculatus 59 33 7.564 2.364
38
Figure 21. Distribution of Benthos by Trawling between 1982–1983 and

1992–1993 (kg/h).
Spring (1982 May) Summer (1982 August)
Autumn (1982 October) Winter (1983 February)
Spring (1993 May – June) Summer (1992 August)
Autumn (1992 October) Winter (1993 February)
39
Consequences generator of chemical energy; it is also a

fundamental level in the marine food chain. It
The decline of benthic biomass could have the provides food for fish, shellfish, shrimp, crab and
following impacts: other marine lifeforms. Phytoplankton performs
many important roles in the nutrients recirculation
• Degradation of benthic ecosystem and lower in the marine ecosystem.
benthic biodiversity;
• Reduction of food support for fishery Evidence for Decline
resources, and some benthos were fishery
species themselves, like most mollusks; The results of the retrospective analysis for
• Decrease the sustainable income for fishers and phytoplankton are shown in Table 19.
the stable development of fisheries and related
industries. Table 20 (Wang, 1998) shows the variation of
phytoplanktons. There were 31 genera and 70
Phytoplankton species of phytoplankton identified in Bohai Sea.
Diatom is absolutely dominant with 27 genera and
Marine phytoplankton is not only the primary 63 species, followed by dinoflagellate (4 genera, 7
producer of organic compounds and the major species). Compared with 1982, there was a big
Table 18. Detailed Risk Assessment for Benthos.

ion
n
Fish a n d
n
atio
ase
atio
tion
ing
mat
tals
e
e
Gre
ng
loit
v
anc
Ille r u c t i v
nta
ecla
des
Me
xca
lls
Dis sical
C
shi
turb
Exp
Benthos
/TO
Spi
ime
and
dE
tici
r-R
erfi
gal
Bs
vy
s
t
PAH
Phy
Des
TSS
Hea
HA
Sed
Ove
San
Oil
DO
Pes
Oil
Oil
Ov
1. Is the target exposed to the agent? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

2a. Was there any loss/es that occurred
following exposure? Y Y Y Y ND Y Y Y Y Y ND Y Y ND Y
2b. Was there any loss/es correlated
through space? Y Y Y Y ND Y Y N Y Y M Y Y ? Y
3. Does the exposure concentration
exceed the threshold where adverse
effects start to happen? Y Y Y Y ND Y Y ND Y Y ND Y Y ND Y
4a. Do the results from controlled
exposure in field experiments lead to
the same effect? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
4b. Will removal of the agent lead to
amelioration?
5. Is there an effect in the target that is Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
known to be specifically caused by
exposure to the agent (e.g.,
biomarkers)? Y Y Y Y ND Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
6. Does it make sense (logically and
scientifically)? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Likelihood VL VL VL VL P VL VL L VL VL P VL VL P VL
Legend: Y – Yes, N – No, M – Maybe, ND – No Data, VL – Very Likely, L – Likely, P – Possibly
40
reduction in phytoplankton abundance in 1992. the Chaetoceros spp. However, this species decreased
The density of phytoplankton was only 99×104 in 1992 and tied with Coscinodiscus spp. for the most
cells/m3 in 1992, which is only 35 percent that of dominant species. The distribution of
1982 (Figure 22). The density of phytoplankton phytoplankton in 1982 and 1992 is shown in Figure
was relatively higher in Laizhou Bay than the other 23 and Figure 24, which clearly describes the
bays. For the whole Bohai Sea, the first most phytoplankton biomass decline in the whole Bohai
dominant species of phytoplankton in 1982 was Sea.
Figure 22. Phytoplankton Abundance in Bohai Sea (×104 cell/m3).

250
250 Year
600 82- 83
200
200
92- 93
Density of 150 Density of 450
150 Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton
100
100 300
50
50 150
0 0
1982 1992 Feb May Aug Oct
1982 1992 Feb May Aug Oct
Table 19. Retrospective Analysis for Phytoplankton.

Phytoplankton Large The density of phytoplankton Very Likely: Reduce the food supply for
(all the in 1992 is only 35 percent of 1. Shellfish culture shellfish and other living
Bohai Sea) 1982. 2. Heavy metals organisms
3. Pesticides,
Dominant species changed 4. Oil spills Decline the shellfisheries resource
from Chaetoceros spp. in 1982 5. Zooplankton
to Coscinodiscus spp. in 1992. Loss of income for fishers
Likely:
1. TSS/TOC
Possibly:
1. Oil and grease,
2. PAHs
Table 20. Decadal Change in Phytoplankton and Its Dominant Species (×104 cell/m3).
Species Year Whole Bohai Sea Laizhou Bay Bohai Bay Liaodong Bay Central Waters
1992–1993 99 321 20 44 51
Phytoplankton
1982–1983 222 693 39 100 109
1992–1993 9 27 3 5 5
Coscinodiscus spp.
1982–1983 20 56 16 5 7
1992–1993 8 29 0.2 7 4
Chaetoceros spp.
1982–1983 90 378 2 10 6
41
Figure 23. Distribution of Phytoplankton from 1982–1983 (x104 cell/m3).
42
Figure 24. Distribution of Phytoplankton from 1992–1993 (x104 cell/m3).
43
The variation of chlorophyll-a and primary reason for the decline of the phytoplankton
productivity reflects the biomass of biomass. Most of the farmed shellfish were filter-
phytoplankton. Table 21 shows the chlorophyll-a feeding animals, and the phytoplankton was
and primary productivity of Bohai Sea between their main food. As analyzed in maricultured
1982 and 1992. These figures evidently show a species, shellfish farming developed quite fast
decline in phytoplankton. The average since 1990, especially scallops and oysters. They
chlorophyll-a was 0.98 mg/m3 in 1982 and only could filter huge numbers of phytoplankton.
0.61 mg/m3 in 1992, showing around 38 percent
decrease (Li, 1999). The primary productivity was Environmental pollution was considered as
312 mg C/(m2.d) in 1982 and 216 mg C/(m2.d) in a possible reason for the decline of
1992, which shows a 31 percent decrease. phytoplankton biomass. The environment was
polluted largely as a result of rapid economic
Attributed Causes development activities, and those pollutants
(such as heavy metals and pesticides) could make
Rapid development of marine cultivation in the seawater unsuitable for reproduction of
Bohai Sea, especially for shellfish, was the key phytoplankton.
Table 21. Changes of Chl-a and Primary Productivity (1982-1992).

Year August October February June Mean
1982-1983 1.15 1.05 1.1 0.64 0.98
Chl-a (mg/m3)
1992-1993 0.67 0.58 0.73 0.44 0.61
Primary productivity 1982-1983 537 297 207 208 312
mg C/(m2.d) 1992-1993 419 154 127 162 216
Table 22. Detailed Risk Assessment for Phytoplankton.

ase
tals
on
Gre
Me
Cu lfish
nkt
lls
OC
es
e
and
ticid
Spi
Phytoplankton
pla
ltur
vy
S/T
Hs
l
She
Hea
Zoo
Oil
Pes
PA
Oil
TS
1. Is the target exposed to the agent? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

2a. Was there any loss/es that occurred following exposure? Y Y Y Y ND ND Y Y
2b. Was there any loss/es correlated through space? Y Y Y ND ND ND Y Y
threshold where adverse effects start to happen? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
experiments lead to the same effect? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
4b. Will removal of the agent lead to amelioration? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
(e.g., biomarkers)? Y Y Y ND Y Y Y Y
6. Does it make sense (logically and scientifically)? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Likelihood VL VL VL L P P VL VL
Legend: Y – Yes, ND – No Data, VL – Very Likely, L – Likely, P – Possibly
44
Consequences Calanus sinicus, Sagita crassa and Labidocera euchaeta

were the dominant species. Compared with 1982,
Decline of phytoplankton will provide less the biomass of zooplankton in 1992 declined about
supply of food for shellfish and other marine 30 percent from 98.0 mg/m3 to 62.3 mg/m3 (Table
organisms heavily impacting on the fishery 24).
resources. The catch of shellfish may decrease and
lead to a decrease in the income of fishers. Figure 25 and 26 show the distribution of
zooplankton biomass in 1982 and 1992
Zooplankton respectively. There was an obvious decline in the
zooplankton biomass compared to the
Zooplankton occupies a key position in the distributions between 1982 and 1992.
marine food chain. It not only supplies energy to
upper trophic level (e.g., fish) but also controls Attributed Causes
lower trophic level (e.g., phytoplankton).
The biomass of zooplankton in Bohai Sea
Evidence of Decline decreased by 35.7 mg/m3 from 1982–1983 to 1992–
1993. One possible reason is the decrease of
The results of the retrospective analysis for phytoplankton in the same period as mentioned
zooplankton in Bohai Sea are shown in Table 23. before. The phytoplankton provides food for
There were 47 species of zooplankton recorded zooplankton, therefore the decline of
in Bohai Sea in 1992–1993, among which were 17 phytoplankton could cause the decline in
species of copepod, and 14 of hydromedusa. zooplankton biomass.
Table 23. Retrospective Analysis for Zooplankton.

Zooplankton Large The biomass of zooplankton Very Likely: 1. Increase the possibility of
(all the decreased from 98.0 mg/m3 1. Shellfish culture HABs;
Bohai Sea) to 62.3 mg/m from 1982 to
3 2. DO 2. Less food supply to fish
1992, and increased to 341.9 3. Heavy metals and shellfish;
mg/m from 1992 to 1998.
3 4. Pesticides 3. Less fisheries production;
and
Possibly: 4. Loss of income for
1. Harmful algal bloom fishermen.
2. TSS/TOC
3. Oil and grease
4. PAHs
5. Oil spills
Table 24. Decadal Change in Zooplankton Biomass (mg/m3) in Bohai Sea.

Year/Month May-Jun August October Average
1982–1983 88.6 125.9 79.4 98.0
1992–1993 72.8 57.9 56.7 62.3
Source: Living Community and Environment in Coastal Bohai Sea, 2001.
45
Figure 25. Distribution of Zooplankton Biomass from 1982–1983.
46
Figure 26. Distribution of Zooplankton Biomass from 1992–1993.
47
Another possible reason is the fast HABITATS

development of shellfish culture. Shellfish not
only grazes zooplankton but also competes with Wetlands
it for food.
There are two big wetlands located around
Environmental pollution also affects the Bohai Sea, i.e., Yellow River Delta Wetland and
zooplankton biomass. Pollutants, such as heavy Liaohe River Delta Wetland. The total area of
metals, oil, pesticides and HABs, adversely these wetlands is 648,284 ha (1997), in which
impact on the zooplankton biomass in Bohai Sea. Liaohe River Delta Wetland accounts for 314,857
ha (including 159,919 ha of natural wetlands and
Consequences 154,838 ha of artificial wetlands), and Yellow River
Delta Wetland accounts for 333,427 ha (including
The decline in zooplankton will lighten the 229,329 ha of natural wetlands and 104,098 ha of
grazing pressure to phytoplankton but the artificial wetlands).
probability of occurrence of HABs will increase.
The decline in zooplankton results in less food There are 150 species of birds in the WBSA, in
supply for fish and shellfish and other living which 97 species of waterfowls were found in
organisms. Consequently, the catch of fish and wetlands around Bohai Sea. Because of the long-
shellfish may decrease, affecting the income of term, high-intensity exploitation, the two wetlands
fishers. have been greatly damaged and degraded.
Table 25. Detailed Risk Assessment for Zooplankton. ase

tals
Gre
Me
des
Cu llfish
lls
C
and
/TO
re
Spi
tici
Zooplankton
vy
Bs
Hs
ltu
e
Hea
TSS
Pes
DO
HA
Oils
Sh
Oil
PA
1. Is the target exposed to the agent? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
2a. Was there any loss/es that occurred following exposure? Y Y ND Y Y Y Y Y Y
2b. Was there any loss/es correlated through space? Y Y ND Y Y Y Y Y Y

threshold where adverse effects start to happen? Y Y ? Y Y ? ? ? ?

experiments lead to the same effect? Y Y ND Y Y ND ND ND ND
4b. Will removal of the agent lead to amelioration? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

(e.g., biomarkers)? Y Y ? Y Y Y Y Y Y
6. Does it make sense (logically and scientifically)? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Likelihood VL VL P VL VL P P P P
Legend: Y – Yes, ND – No Data, ? – Don’t Know, VL – Very Likely, P – Possibly
48
Evidence of Decline to Bohai Sea about 0.16 km/yr, especially in the

estuary, the coastline moves forward very fast,
The retrospective analysis for wetlands is averaging 1.8 km/yr. The newly-formed wetland
shown in Table 26. Changes in wetland area and grows about 21.3 km2 annually. Around 2,535 km2
landscape structure will be analyzed to show the of land have been formed from 1855 to 1984. But
decline in wetlands. the area of the Yellow River Delta declined in
recent years since the large decline of Yellow River
Area of Wetlands freshwater run-off (Table 10).
Yellow River Delta Wetland has been Table 27 shows that from 1981 to 1998, the
expanding because of the long-term sedimentation natural wetlands declined about 73,375 ha because
of mud and sand from Yellow River. On average, of reclamation activities for reservoirs, ponds, salt
Yellow River brings 10.5x108 tons of silt down to fields and paddy fields. The area of reed fields
the delta every year. Some scientists estimated decreased to 19,103 ha in 1998, which is only 40.1
that the coastline of this delta area moves forward percent of the area in 1981 while tidelands greatly
Table 26. Retrospective Analysis for Wetlands.

Wetlands Small Yellow River Delta: Very likely: • Weakening the

1. 2,535 km of land was formed
2 1. Oil exploitation function of the
from 1855 until 1984. 2. Over-reclamation wetland ecosystem
2. 73,375 ha natural wetland 3. Physical removal/ • Less food supply for
declined from 1981-1998. clearance other living organisms
3. 40.1 percent reed field was left 4. Sedimentation • Less security for living
from 1981 to 1998. 5. Freshwater run-off organisms
4. Tideland decreased from 69,224 6. Dam building • Decreased
ha to 24,382 ha from 1981 to 1998. 7. Seawater intrusion biodiversity
5. Artificial wetland increased 8. Sand excavation • Low aesthetic function
50,600.5 ha. • Less ability to treat
waste discharge
Liaohe Delta Wetland: • Loss of tourism and
Area decreased from 366,000 ha in other related
1984 to 314,857 ha in 1998. industries
Table 27. Changes in Wetland Area of the Yellow River Delta (ha).
Types of Wetlands 1981 1990 1998
Natural Wetlands Reed field 47,636 25,409 19,103
Tideland 69,224 32,721 24,382
Artificial Wetlands Paddy field 80,000.4 86,068 101,914
Salt field 335.2 2,627.5 3,721
Reservoir 1,954.1 12,831.6 14,410
Pond 3,000 12,945.7 18,846
Source: Liu Honhyu, 2001.
49
Figure 27. The Satellite Picture of Yellow River Delta in 1996 and in 2001.
A. 1996 B. 2001
Figure 28. The Oil Drill of Shengli Oil Field in the Yellow River Delta.
decreased from 69,224 ha in 1981 to 24,382 ha in have decreased gradually while the artificial
1998. The area of artificial wetlands has increased wetlands have been increasing since the 1980s.
to 50,600.5 ha. Figure 27 shows the satellite images
of Yellow River Delta in 1996 and 2001 and the Landscape Structure
changes in wetland areas because of
sedimentation. There are many types of landscapes in the
delta wetlands. They are important habitats for
For the Liaohe Delta Wetland, the area of many kinds of wildlife. The fragmentation of
wetland decreased from 366,000 ha in 1984 to wetlands, however, is becoming more serious.
314,857 ha in 1998 (about 14 percent of loss), in Three kinds of indexes, i.e., diversity index of
which 31,850 ha was for exploiting oil and 13,334 landscape, dominance of landscape and index of
ha for planting. Moreover, the natural wetlands human interference, are used to measure the
50
structure of landscape of the Liaohe River Delta middle of the wetland, its natural wetland has
Wetland (Table 28). The diversity index of been fragmented, which could be attributed to
landscape in Liaohe River estuary was the the high density oil exploitation and reclamation
largest among three sampling regions; so was for ponds, paddy fields, salt fields and a
its dominance of landscape. The landscape of reservoir. Shengli Oil Field has been exploiting
the dry land had the lowest diversity index and oil for about 50 years and extending their oil
dominance index, and the highest index of extraction activities to the shallow waters
human interference. around Yellow River Delta. Figure 28 shows the
oil drill located in the Yellow River Delta field.
Attributed Causes
In Liaohe River Delta, human activities are
Both natural and human factors lead to the the main causes of changes. Oil exploitation is
changes of wetlands. For the Yellow River Delta the most important reason. From 1990 to 1995,
Wetland, the coastline has been expanding due 31,850 ha natural wetlands were converted to
to the flow of sand at 10.5×108 ton/year into oil fields. Reclamation is the second cause of
Bohai Sea, around two-thirds (2/3) of which natural wetland decline. Paddy fields increased
settle in the coastal area of this delta. In the from 69,624 ha in 1980 to 118,783 ha in 1998,
Table 28. Indexes of the Landscape in Some Regions of Liaohe River Delta Wetland.
Sampling Region Diversity Index of Landscape Dominance of Landscape Index of Human Interference
Estuary 2.36 6.22 2
Paddy Field 1.20 4.01 9
Dry Land 0.68 3.49 12
Source: Liu Zhenqian, 2000.
Table 29. Detailed Risk Assessment for Wetlands.
sion
-off
val/
tion
n
tion
atio
Run
C l e Remo
ntru
ma
ldin
nce
loit
nta
ecla
tion
er I
ter
Bui
ara
l
ime
Exp
sica
hwa
Wetlands
er-R
wat
ava
d
Dam
San
Sed
Phy
Fres
Exc
Oil
Sea
Ov
1. Is the target exposed to the agent? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

2a. Was there any loss/es that occurred following exposure? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
2b. Was there any loss/es correlated through space? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
threshold where adverse effects start to happen? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
experiments lead to the same effect? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
4b. Will removal of the agent lead to amelioration? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
(e.g., biomarkers)? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
6. Does it make sense (logically and scientifically)? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Likelihood VL VL VL VL VL VL VL VL
Legend: Y – Yes, VL – Very Likely
51
most of which are from reed fields and Possible Consequences

marshlands. It is estimated that natural reed
wetlands have decreased to only 24,000 ha in 2002. The service function of damaged wetland
About 60.3 percent of reed wetlands have been ecosystems will decline and provide less food to
lost in the past 15 years. The development of support other living organisms. Fragmented
aquaculture also destroyed natural wetlands. wetlands provide vulnerable and unsafe habitats
From 1985 to 1994, the area of aquaculture and/or refuge for waterfowls and other species
increased from 15,995 ha to 36,760 ha (Liu (local and alien). Birds such as the red-crowned
Honhyu, 2001). crane, white crane and so on, often wintering in
the wetlands around Bohai Sea may be exposed
Human activities severely affected the to predators. The degradation of wetlands
structure of wetland landscapes. Table 28 shows decreased its biodiversity and aesthetic functions
that the dry land region was the most seriously for human entertainment. The damaged wetland
interfered because it is easier for humans to access ecosystem decreased its ability to treat waste
dry land than the other regions. discharges.
Table 30. Retrospective Analysis for Beaches.

Beaches Small No Data Possible: • Local species loss

1. Physical removal/clearance • Damaged natural
2. Dam building landscape
3. Tourist trampling • Low aesthetic and
4. Seawater intrusion recreational value
5. Underground water extraction • Loss from tourism
6. Sand excavation.
Table 31. Detailed Risk Assessment for Beaches.

Physical Underground
Beaches Removal/ Dam Tourist Water
Seawater Sand
Building Trampling Intrusion Excavation
Clearance Extraction
1. Is the target exposed to the agent? Y Y Y Y Y Y

2a. Was there any loss/es that occurred following exposure? ND ND ND ND ND ND
2b. Was there any loss/es correlated through space? ND ND ND ND ND ND
threshold where adverse effects start to happen? Y Y Y Y Y Y
experiments lead to the same effect? Y Y Y Y Y Y
4b. Will removal of the agent lead to amelioration? Y Y Y Y Y Y
(e.g., biomarkers)? Y Y Y Y Y Y
6. Does it make sense (logically and scientifically)? Y Y Y Y Y Y
Likelihood P P P P P P
Legend: Y – Yes, ND – No Data, P – Possibly
52
Beaches Possible Consequences
Evidence of Decline The loss and/or damage of beaches could cause

the shift and loss of local benthos species that live
The results of the retrospective analysis for in sands. The natural landscape would also be
beaches around the Bohai Sea are shown in Table 30. adversely damaged and would further impact on
the aesthetic value.
The total area of beaches in Bohai Sea is 68.04
ha. The beaches are mainly located in the Liaohe
River Delta and Yellow River Delta. Intertidal Coasts
zones, swamps and riverside beaches accounted
for 75.1 percent, 17.5 percent and 7.4 percent Coastal changes in the Bohai Sea should be a
respectively in 1993 (He, 2002). special concern since coastal erosion is a regular
occurrence and the intrusion of seawater has
Attributed Causes become serious especially around Laizhou Bay and
Tianjing municipality.
While there may be no concrete data to confirm
the decline of beach areas, there are observations Evidence of Decline
that beach areas have actually been lost due to
construction of tourism facilities, ports, dams and The results of the retrospective analysis for
other infrastructures. the coasts of Bohai Sea are shown in Table 32.
Table 32. Retrospective Analysis for Coasts.

Coasts Small • 75 percent of the coast Very Likely: • Damaging function of the
has eroded. 1. Windstorm; coastal ecosystem;
• 8.5 percent has more 2. Sand excavation; • Destroying coastal
than 10 m/yr erosion 3. Decrease in industrial/ aquacultural
rate. underground water; facilities;
• 400 km coast had been
2
4. Physical removal/ • Loss of local species;
lost from 1949 to 1990. clearance; and • Damaging natural landscape;
5. Dam building. • Causing groundwater salty;
• Loss of land;
Possible: • Loss of coastal industries;
1. Tourist trampling; and and
2. Seawater surface level. • Human illnesses.
Table 33. Erosion Rate of Coasts along Bohai Sea.

Erosion Rate More than 10 m/yr 5–10 m/yr 3–5 m/yr 1–3 m/yr Less than 1 m/yr
Eroded Area 8.5 % 5.4 % 23 % 20 % 43.1 %
Source: Li Fengling, 1994.
53
Based on statistical data, 75 percent of the Bohai 1976 to 1989, which is 80 percent of the total coastal
Sea coasts have eroded (Table 33). About 8.5 plains of Laizhou Bay.
percent of the coasts have an erosion rate of more
than 10 m/yr, and 5.4 percent have an erosion rate Attributed Causes
of 5–10 m/yr. It was estimated that about 400 km2
of coasts have eroded from 1949 to the 1990s (Li Human activities are the major reasons for
Fenglin, 1994). coastal erosion, specifically the building of
reservoirs in the upriver area and sand excavation
The coastal region along Laizhou Bay is the in the coastal area. From 1950 to 1988, around 8,626
most severely intruded area around Bohai Sea. reservoirs were built in the upriver of all the rivers
This region intruded by seawater reached 343.6 that flow into Bohai Sea and their total capacity
km2 in 1991. The intrusion rate of seawater greatly reached 933 million m3. This led to a great decline
increased, from 46 m/yr in 1976 to 404.5 m/yr in of water and sand flowing into Bohai Sea (Table
1987, which increased 7.78 times (Table 34). The 35). The influx of water and sand into Bohai Sea
total intruded area amounted to 238.2 km2 from were 1,389 billion m3 and 14 billion m3 respectively
Figure 29. Coastal Erosion in the Bohai Sea.
Table 34. Changes in the Seawater Intruded Area and the Intrusion Rate of the Coast around
Laizhou Bay (1976–1989).
1976–1979 1980–1982 1983–1984 1984–1987 1987–1988 1988–1989
Intruded area 15.8 km 2
23.4 km2
31.9 km 2
98.5 km 2
32.36 km 2
36.24 km2
Intrusion rate 46 m/yr 92 m/yr 177 m/yr 345 m/yr 404.5 m/yr
Source: Ji Zixiu, 1996.
Table 35. Flux of Water and Sand into Bohai Sea (100 million m3).
1950–1964 1965–1979
Volume of Water 13,889.90 9,158.70
Volume of Sand 139.77 108.96
Source: Li Fenglin, 1994.
54
from 1950 to 1964, while they decreased to 915.9 Coastal erosion makes the coastal regions'
billion m3 and 10.9 billion m3 in from 1965 to 1979. groundwater salty and the coastal land unsuitable
The sharp decline of riverine sand and water for plant, animal and human life. Therefore, it
destroyed the dynamic balance of coasts, has resulted in the low yield of crops. The total
particularly in the estuaries where the intrusion output of crops around Laizhou Bay was 5,200
of seawater had become stronger. billion kg in 1979, and has decreased to 3,650
billion kg in 1987. In Laizhou City, around Laizhou
In Jinzhou and Penglai coasts, coastal erosion Bay, more than 445,000 people have been facing a
is mainly attributed to illegal and over-excavation shortage of freshwater.
of sand. The changes in the current fields due to
the dam building is also one of the main causes of Groundwater mixed with seawater has plenty
coastal erosion in the specific coast. The natural of chlorine ions, which may rust the metal
causes of coastal erosion include strong equipments used in agricultural/industrial
windstorms and sea level rise due to climate activities and lead to huge economic losses. It was
change. estimated that about RMB 150 million (US$18
million) of industrial production value per year
Consequences have been lost from 1977 to 1987 in Laizhou City.
Coastal erosion destroys the stability of coastal Seawater intrusion also makes groundwater
ecosystem and industrial/aquacultural facilities, unsuitable for drinking for both humans and
such as oil platforms, shrimp/crab ponds, animals. About 15,600 people around Laizhou Bay
farmlands and roads, which causes economic loss. area became ill because they drank salty water
In some coasts, the natural landscapes, such as in for extended periods due to freshwater shortage
swimming beaches, are destroyed. (Hu and Zang, 1992).
Table 36. Detailed Risk Assessment for Coasts.

ing
W a t e nd
el
Unde se in
storm
pling
ater
ce Lev
ation
rgrou
T r a m st
Remo l
val/
Build
ance
ca
Coasts
r
i
Sand
Tour
ea
Physi
Seaw
Wind
Excav
Decr
Clear
Surfa
Dam
1. Is the target exposed to the agent? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

2a. Was there any loss/es that occurred following exposure? Y Y ND Y ND Y Y
2b. Was there any loss/es correlated through space? Y Y ND Y ND Y Y
threshold where adverse effects start to happen? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
experiments lead to the same effect? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
4b. Will removal of the agent lead to amelioration? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
(e.g., biomarkers)? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
6. Does it make sense (logically and scientifically)? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Likelihood VL VL P VL P VL VL
Legend: Y – Yes, ND – No Data, VL – Very Likely, P – Possibly
55
Prospective Risk Assessment
INTRODUCTION is based on set tolerances or guidelines for

contaminants in food. RQs are the ratios of MELs
For the prospective risk assessment, the Risk (or PELs) and LOCs. LOCs are obtained by
Quotient (RQ) approach was adopted. The dividing the TDIs of specific contaminants in food
approach starts by using worst-case and average by the daily CR.
scenarios and progresses if the results show the
need for a more refined assessment and more MEL
MEL ((or
orPEL )
PEL)
sophisticated ways of assessing and addressing
RQ =
LOC
the uncertainties associated with the RQ technique.
The RQ technique can be applied to the prospective When the RQ is less than 1, it is presumed that
risk assessment in order to determine if measured the likelihood of adverse effects is low. When the
or predicted levels of environmental parameters RQ is greater than 1, there is a likelihood of
in Bohai Sea are likely to cause harm to adverse effects, the magnitude of which increases
environmental/human targets. It is accomplished with the increase in RQ.
by identifying the likely targets and comparing
their measured or predicted environmental RQs in this environmental risk assessment are
concentrations (MECs or PECs) with appropriate expressed as RQ Ave and RQ Max . The RQ Ave is
threshold values or predicted no-effects obtained by dividing the arithmetic mean of MECs
concentrations (PNECs) to obtain the RQs. For with the PNEC. For human health, the quotient is
human health, risk in seafood ingestion is obtained by dividing the MEC with the LOC.
estimated by comparing the measured or Though the geometric mean of environmental data
predicted environment levels (MELs or PELs) with would usually exhibit a less biased estimate than
the Level of Concern (LOC), which in this case the average one, the geometric data cannot be
will be the tolerable daily intake (TDI) divided obtained since the original data of the
by the consumption rate (CR). environmental parameters for each data point are
not available. The data are all exhibited in average
METHODOLOGY form as the Chinese scientific data are always in.
Available data are mostly in average and maximum
For the ecological risk assessment, RQs are the forms without the specific sampling points. RQMax
ratios of MECs (or PECs) and PNECs. gives an estimate of the worst or highest RQ based
on a set of available data by selecting the highest
MEC
MEC ((or
orPEC)
PEC) MEC and dividing it by the PNEC or LOC.
RQ =
PNEC
DESCRIPTION OF DATA
However, for human health, since almost all
the toxicants have accumulative actions and In the refined risk assessment (RRA), the data
accumulation of toxicant is dependent on seafood used in the initial risk assessment (IRA) were
consumption, risk to human health cannot be verified and updated. The quality of data used in
assessed only by dividing MEC with a PNEC that the retrospective and prospective risk assessments
57
was assessed through a scoring system to reduce The primary sources of information for the
the uncertainties. The scoring system was based prospective risk assessment were the Report of
on the documentation of procedures and Bohai Sea Coastal Resource Conservation and
adoption of QA/QC procedures in sampling and Environmental Management Project (Agriculture
laboratory analysis and was the same as that Department and ADB, 2000). Other references
adopted by the ASEAN-Canada Cooperative that were used include Monitoring Report for
Programme on Marine Science (ACCPMS) – Land-based Pollution and its Effects on the
Environmental Criteria Component. Data quality Coastal Waters and Resources in China. A
score is from 1 to 3, where 1 denotes data with detailed list of the sources and values for each
well-documented QA/QC procedures adopted parameter is given in Table 37.
in the sample collection and analysis. A score of
2 denotes data generated where procedures For the ecological risk assessment, the RQ-
employed are generally satisfactory although based prospective risk assessment technique was
some information, such as the exact location of considered adequate in determining risks posed
sampling stations and analytical methods are not by contaminants in the water column and
confirmed. A score of 3 denotes data generated sediment. In the RRA, the 12 parameters
where procedures are poorly documented or discussed include: 1. Nutrients; 2. DO/COD; 3.
where the values are cited without proper Coliform; 4. TSS; 5. Heavy Metals; 6. Pesticides;
documentation or explanation. The data source 7. Oil; 8. PAHs; 9. Oil spills; 10. HABs; 11. Sea
and quality is listed in Table 1. Ice; and 12. Windstorms.
Table 37. Water Quality Criteria.
Chinese Standards for ASEAN Marine Water U.S. EPA Quality Criteria for
Seawater Quality Quality Criteria Seawater for Regulatory
Agent (mg/l) (National Standards of (ASEAN, 2003) Purposes (U.S. EPA, 2000)
PR China, 1995) Marine acute Marine chronic
Class II criteria criteria
Nitrate 0.06
DIN 0.30
DIP 0.030 0.015 – 0.045
(coastal-estuaries)
DO >5 4
COD 3
Fecal coliform (ind/L) 2,000
TSS Man-caused increment = 10 50 (Malaysia)
Copper (Cu) 0.01 0.008 0.0029 0.0029
Mercury (Hg) 0.0002 0.00016 0.0021 0.000025
Lead (Pb) 0.005 0.0085 0.14 0.0056
Cadmium (Cd) 0.005 0.01 0.043 0.0093
DDT 0.0001 0.13 0.000001
666 0.002
Oil/grease 0.05 0.14 0.09 0.004
(Water soluble fraction)
PAHs 300
58
PROSPECTIVE RISK ASSESSMENT
The application of the threshold values or 2 is considered to be appropriate and applied.

PNECs is based on the following scheme — the The parameter DIN refers to Dissolved
local criteria values, i.e., Sea Water Quality Inorganic Nitrogen, that is, the sum of nitrate,
Standard of China (GB-3097-1997), are initially nitrite and ammonia.
applied. In the absence of local criteria values, the
ASEAN Marine Water Quality Criteria (ASEAN, The Chinese seawater quality standard for
2003) is then applied. Finally, the criteria value from marine sediments was also adopted (Table 38).
other jurisdictions, e.g., United States, is applied. The sediment quality is divided into three
The standards/criteria are listed in Table 37. classes. Class 1 waters are those zoned for
fisheries, protected areas for some endangered
There are four classes in the seawater species, for recreational purposes with direct
standard of China. Class 1 waters are those zoned skin contact, for aquaculture, bathing beaches,
for fisheries and protected areas for some and water areas for industrial purposes. Class 2
endangered species. Class 2 is for recreational is for common industrial waters while Class 3 is
purposes with direct skin contact, for aquaculture for ports. Class 2 was adopted for the prospective
and bathing beaches and for water areas of risk assessment. Table 39 shows the PNECs
industrial purposes. Class 3 is for industrial applied for each of the parameters under
waters and class 4 for ports. In this report, Class consideration.
Table 38. Marine Sediment Qualities of P.R. China (Class 1, GB 18668-2002)
Agent Sediment Quality Standard (mg/kg dry weight)
Hg 0.20
Cu 35.00
Pb 60.00
Cd 0.50
Arsenic 20.00
DDT 0.02
Oil/grease 500.00
666 0.50
Table 39. PNECs Used in Calculating RQs for the Ecological Risk Assessment.
Parameter Matrix PNEC Applied
Nutrients Water column Seawater Quality Standard for Class 2 (GB 3097-1997)
DO Water column Seawater Quality Standard for Class 2 (GB 3097-1997)
COD Water column Seawater Quality Standard for Class 2 (GB 3097-1997)
Coliform Water column Seawater Quality Standard for Class 2 (GB 3097-1997)
TSS Water column Interim Marine Water Quality Standard for Malaysia
Heavy Metals Water column Seawater Quality Standard for Class 2 (GB 3097-1997)
Sediment Marine Sediment Quality for Class 1 (GB 18668-2002)
Pesticides Water column Seawater Quality Standard for Class 2 (GB 3097-1997)
Oil Water column Seawater Quality Standard for Class 2 (GB 3097-1997)
PAHs Sediment Hong Kong Interim Sediment Quality Criteria
59
For the human health risk assessment, TDIs the lack of criteria for some contaminants, the
used in calculating RQs are shown in Table 40. halobios quality standard was adopted.
One of the major difficulties associated with the
human health risk assessment is the lack of The reliability of the assessment largely
Chinese TDIs. Most of the TDIs are derived from depends on the quality of data used as MECs and
the U.S. FDA, and there are recommended daily on the quality and relevance of the threshold values
allowances (RDAs) for the essential metals such used as PNECs or LOCs. The lack of Chinese values
as copper (Cu) instead of a TDI. RDA is widely for LOCs represents a major source of uncertainty
available for nutritional supplements, however, in the risk assessment.
it should be noted that an essential metal
exceeding an RQ of 1 is less likely to cause a risk Uncertainty can also arise from the variability
to human health than a non-essential metal in the RQs obtained. An initial measure of
exceeding an RQ of 1. In considering the risks uncertainty was obtained by taking the average
associated with essential metals such as mercury and worst-case RQs. A more quantitative measure
(Hg), it should be noted that for chromium (Cr) of uncertainty can be carried out using the Monte
the U.S. FDA has set the TDI for adults at 200 g/ Carlo estimation, a re-sampling technique which
day, whereas the RDA for it is 50 g/day for randomly re-samples pairs of MECs and PNECs to
adults. Thus, for adults the difference between come up with the percentage of the measured
RDA and TDI is a factor of 4. In the absence of values exceeding the threshold.
further information, this shall be used as a general
rule of thumb for the remaining essential metals,
such as Cu. NUTRIENTS
The CR used here is an average level in the Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) and
whole domestic scope while the local value maybe dissolved inorganic phosphate (DIP) are regular
higher. Considering the differences in the monitoring parameters in marine environmental
physiologic and metabolic characteristics of the management. The high concentration of DIN and
average American and the average Chinese, the DIP in Bohai Sea has caused many environmental
local seafood quality standard is also listed. The problems such as HABs. To some degree, the
standard, shown in Table 40, is made up initially growth of some kinds of shrimps has a negative
by the seafood sanitation standard and, due to correlation with the concentrations of DIN and DIP.
Table 40. Human Health Guidelines

TDI for adults Average CR Level Level of Concern Seafood Standard of PR China
Agents
(µg/person/day*) (kg/person/day) mg/kg in seafood (mg/kg wet weight)
Cu*** 2,000 74.07 50.0
Hg 16 0.59 0.3
Pb 75 0.027** 2.78 0.5 (fish &shrimp)
Cd 55 2.04 0.1 (fish)
< 0.5 (fish)
As 130 4.81 < 1.0 (shellfish)
< 2.0 (algae)
< 1.0 (crustacean)
DDT 80 2.96 1.0
Source: *TDI from U.S. FDA, **China Statistic Yearbook (1999); *** MPP-EAS, 1999b.
60
Water Column the critical level and hence the RQs are lower than
1. However the RQAve for DIN is very close to 1.
Worst-Case RQs
DIN and phosphate (P) are two main Uncertainty Analysis

pollutants in the water columns in the Bohai Sea.
The DIN indicates the sum of nitrate (NO 3), In Bohai Sea, DIN has increased since 1985.
nitrite (NO2), and ammonia (NH3). The PNEC of DIN reached 0.25 mg/l in 1998, ten times that in
DIN has the same value in the Chinese Seawater 1985. This increasing trend should be a cause for
Standard. The worst-case RQ of DIN is 25.67 and concern in the whole Bohai Sea.
the worst-case RQ of DIP is 11.83 (Table 41).
Moreover, the worst-case RQs for DIN and DIP The distribution of DIN varies with the
were both from Liaodong Bay. The waters of locations in Bohai Sea. The highest RQ of DIN is
Liaodong Bay have been seriously polluted by in Liaodong Bay, where RQMax reaches 25.67 and
nutrients, which have caused frequent HABs in RQAve is 5.37. In 66 percent of the water area, DIN
the area. exceeds the critical level, which indicates that an
immediate action be taken to reduce the discharge
Average of DIN in Liaodong Bay.
The RQ Ave for DIN and DIP are shown in The RQMax of Bohai Bay is 3.43 and RQAve is
Table 41. The average concentrations are below close to 1. In 68 percent of the water area, DIN
Table 41. RQs for Nutrients.
Agent MECAve (mg/l) MECMax(mg/l) PNEC (mg/l) RQAve RQ Max
DIN 0.25 7.70 0.3 0.83 25.67

DIP 0.019 0.355 0.03 0.63 11.83
Source: Ocean Environment Bulletin, 1998.
Figure 30. Annual Changes in DIN in the Bohai Sea.

0.3
0.25
0.2
DIN mg/l
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Source: Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000.
61
exceeds the critical level. But in other areas, RQ (11.83), as shown in Table 43. The RQMax of
especially in the central Bohai Sea, both the RQMax Bohai Bay is also higher than 1. But the two
and RQAve are still very low. average RQs are both lower than the critical level.
The distribution of DIP in Bohai Sea (Figure The polluted area has rapidly expanded in
31) is presents a similar trend to the annual changes recent years, which got worse in 1998 (Figure 32).
of DIN (Figure 30). The concentration of DIP has The area where the seawater quality is over the
increased in Bohai Sea since 1985. The trend should Class 2 water quality standard accounts for 76
also be a cause for concern especially in Liaodong percent of the whole Bohai Sea. Poor water quality
Bay and Bohai Bay. Liaodong Bay had the highest has resulted in large-scale HABs in the Bohai Sea.
Table 42. RQs for DIN from Different Locations.
MECAve (mg/l) MECMax(mg/l) PNEC (mg/l) RQAve RQ Max
Liaodong Bay 1.61 7.7 0.3 5.37 25.67

Bohai Bay 0.23 1.03 0.3 0.77 3.43
Laizhou Bay 0.091 0.202 0.3 0.30 0.67
Central Waters 0.028 0.038 0.3 0.09 0.13
Table 43. RQs for DIP from Different Locations.

MECAve (mg/l) MECMax(mg/l) PNEC (mg/l) RQAve RQ Max
Liaodong Bay 0.026 0.355 0.3 0.87 11.83

Bohai Bay 0.022 0.197 0.3 0.73 6.57
Laizhou Bay 0.004 0.005 0.3 0.13 0.17
Central Waters 0.008 0.012 0.3 0.27 0.40
Figure 31. Annual Changes in DIP Concentration in the Bohai Sea.
0.035
0.035
(mg/L)
0.03
0.03
Concentration (mg/L)
0.025
0.025
Concentration
0.02
0.02
0.015
0.015
0.01
0.01
0.005
0.005
00
1985
1985 1986
1986 1987
1987 1988
1988 1989
1989 1990
1990 1991
1991 1992
1992 1993
1993 1994
1994 1995
1995 1996
1996 1997
1997 1998
1998
Year
Year
62
Possible Sources of Nutrients in Bohai Sea 9,000 tons respectively. The load of DIN from
Yantai and Huludao towns, which are also the
Chemical/Industrial Wastes highest, amounts to 8,000 tons per year (Figure
34). The DIP load of Huludao Town (3,000 tons/
There are main chemical industrial bases yr) was also the highest.
located around Liaodong Bay, which discharge
nutrients into rivers and/or the bay. There are 73 Unit usage of total fertilizer (2,000 kg/ha) and
sewage outfalls in Liaoning Province, which nitrogenous fertilizer (150 kg/ha) also has
account for 33.6 percent of the whole nation’s increasing trends yearly. As proved in the
sewage. As shown in Figure 33, a great deal of eluviation experiment, the eluviation rate of NO3-
wastewater is drained into Liaodong Bay with N is about 10 percent when the fertilizer use per
Daliaohe River. It was estimated in 1995 that hectare is not more than 150 kg, but which
Daliaohe River receives 1.9 billion tons of reaches 20 percent when use is more than 150
wastewater annually. It is an urgent task to cut kg/ha, thus the fertilizer loss is doubled. Thus
down the wastewater output from Daliaohe River. the non-point load of nutrients into the Bohai
Sea likely increases. In Liaoning Province, there
According to the Liaoning Marine are as many as 36,000 tons of nitrogenous
Environment Bulletin, during the end of the 20th fertilizers flowing into the sea because of the low
century, DIN pollution of waters in the Liaohe eluviation rate.
River estuary is the fourth most serious among
the main estuaries and sea areas in China, and the Soil Erosion
first in Bohai Sea. Moreover DIP pollution in the
Liaohe River estuary tops all water areas Soil erosion due to intensive farming and
investigated in China. strong dust storm has taken much nutrient into
nearby rivers. The erosion is very serious as
Agriculture/Aquaculture indicated in Figure 36. Soil erosion may lead to
fertilizer loss, which depends on the soil texture,
Based on the statistical results of agricultural dank capability and the covering extent. The
fertilizer dosage, it is calculated that the annual scour of upper water caused by precipitation is
non-point load of DIN and DIP is 48,000 tons and the main reason of non-point pollution.
Figure 32. Nearshore Seawater Quality of China in 1998.
Source: SOA, 2000.
63
Figure 33. Wastewater Outputs in the Bohai Area (tons/yr).
Source: Ocean Environment Bulletin, 1998.
Source: Agriculture Dept. and ADB, 2000.
64
Figure 34. Non-point Nutrient Load of Main Cities around Bohai Sea (tons/yr).
total DIN total DIP
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Dalian Panjin Yingkou Huludao Qinhuangdao Tangshan Cangzou Tianjin Binzhou Dongying Weifang Yantai
Source: SOA, 2000.
Figure 35. Fertilizer Use in Areas adjacent to the Bohai Sea.
Figure 36. Soil Erosion of Main Cities around

Bohai Sea in 1997 (tons/yr).
Among the towns around Bohai Sea, the
soil erosion of Huludao Town (506 tons/yr)
600
Huludao
is the worst, which accounts for 32.1 percent
500 of the whole area total of 1,577 tons/yr.
400
Cangzhou
300 Dalian
Panjin Domestic/Commercial Waste
200
and Sewage
Yingkou
100 Tianjin
Tangshan Binzhou Weifang
0
More than 50 million people live around
Qinhuangdao Dongying Yantai
Liaodong Bay. The domestic/commercial
Source: SOA, 2000. waste and sewage are considered the major
sources of nutrients. Some are discharged
directly into the bay and some through the
river systems.
65
Table 44. Non-point Contaminant Discharge of 13 Cities around Bohai Sea.

Contaminant Discharge
City Discharge into
DIN DIP
(t/a) (%) (t/a) (%)
Dalian Liaodong Bay 10,075.3 14.5 583.0 18.6
Panjin 19,700.0 28.3
Yingkou 118.7 0.2
Cangzhou Bohai Bay 33.1 0
Qinhuangdao 1,487.8 2.1 118.5 3.8
Tangshan 21.2 0 4.4 0.1
Tianjin 24,877.2 35.7 1,254.9 40.0
Binzhou 8,372.2 12.0 783.2 25.0
Dongying Laizhou Bay 2,519.5 3.6
Weifang 455.0 0.7
Yantai 2,009.2 2.9 389.7 12.4
Total 69,669.3 100.0 3,133.7 100.0
Source: SOA, 2000.
COD/DO Average Scenario
COD (chemical oxygen demand) is the amount The RQAve for both COD and DO are less than
of O2 equivalent to the oxidants, which can oxidate 1. Since the RQMax for COD is above the critical
all the organic compounds of one liter seawater level, it is necessary to conduct an uncertainty
into CO2 and H2O. COD is the parameter in token analysis to determine the probability of the RQ
of the organic pollution. It was studied that COD value over 1.
has a negative correlation (γ = -0.8) with shrimp
numbers in some seawaters. Uncertainty Analysis
For DO (Dissolved Oxygen), unlike other Since 1985, COD concentration has shown a
parameters, concentrations lower than the strong increasing trend in the seawater of the
threshold value signal the deteriorating Bohai Sea (Figure 37).
environmental conditions. Therefore RQ for DO
is the ratio of PNEC over MEC. The spatial and temporal distribution of COD
is different in Bohai Sea (Table 46). In Liaodong
Bay, both RQAve and RQMax are above 1. In Laizhou
Water Column Bay, the RQAve is less than 1 but the RQMax is above
1. There were 32.5 percent of the areas in Liaodong
Worst-Case Scenario Bay and 20 percent in Laizhou Bay over the critical
level. Immediate action should be taken in
Under the worst-case scenario, RQ for COD Liaodong Bay and prior concern should be paid
in Bohai Sea is 3.57. It means the organic pollution in Laizhou Bay.
is serious and should be a cause for concern in
some waters. No RQMax for DO exceeds 1, but it From the 1960s land-based pollution from
does not imply DO concentration in the whole Xiaoqinghe River has caused a series of problems.
Bohai Sea is sufficient. In the autumn of 1986 and the spring of 1987 about
66
100,000 tons of neritic shellfish died of COD Sources for COD pollution include:
pollution. The Shouguang Town, located
downriver of Xiaoqinghe River, has suffered an 1. Several chemical industries were setup in
income reduction of RMB 80 million (about Liaoning Province in the 1950s, and little
US$9.6 million) per year because of severe consideration was given to sewage treatment
pollution. facilities when those factories were built.
Now with the low profits of these industries,
Possible Sources and Relative Importance they cannot afford to run and improve the
sewage treatment equipment. There are
The above analysis shows a very depressing more than 200 factories and mines around
result for Bohai Bay due to the riverine pollutants Liaodong Bay which discharge about 7
being discharged into the bay. Liaodong Bay million tons of contaminants annually.
received 1.89 billion tons of sewage and 740,000
tons of COD in 1995. Liaohe River, the worst 2. Very little domestic sewage is treated before
polluted river in China, is the biggest river being discharged. With more than 200
inflowing into Liaodong Bay. In 2000, 834,000 million people living around Bohai Sea, the
tons of COD in Liaodong Bay came from Liaohe domestic discharge into coastal waters is of
River. huge quantities. It is estimated that the top
Table 45. RQs for COD/DO.
COD 1.74 10.7 3 0.58 3.57

DO 10.09 6 5 0.50 0.83
COD source: Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000.
DO source: Monitoring Report for Land-based Pollution and its Effects on the Coastal Waters and Resources in
China, P87, Table 2-22.
Figure 37. Annual Changes of COD in Bohai Sea.

2
Concentration (mg/L)
1.5
0.5
0
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Year
67
efficiency of depuration plants is only 4. Lots of sewage from mariculture was

20 percent. The water quality research discharged directly into Bohai Sea.
done by SEPA (2001) showed that 71 An estimated 720 million tons of
percent of the Daliaohe River water sewage from mariculture is directly
system should be ranked into Class 4 or discharged into the sea from the
5 while the percentage of Haihe River whole nation daily, 35 percent (252
and Luanhe River was about 44 percent. million tons) of which is discharged
into Bohai Sea (State Ocean
3. Due to over-developed farmlands, heavy Environment Monitoring Center,
rain and worsening soil erosion took huge 1997).
amounts of mud into Bohai Sea. The
decomposition of organic compounds in 5. The vessel sewage, such as domestic
mud can reduce DO in water and release fecal sewage and some organic
nutrients at the same time. Water quality wastes discharged from watercrafts,
further worsened. can also increase COD in water.
Table 46. RQs for COD from Different Locations.

Area MECAve (mg/l) MECMax(mg/l) PNEC (mg/l) RQAve RQ Max
Liaodong Bay 3.16 10.7 3 1.05 3.57

Bohai Bay 1.32 2.3 3 0.44 0.77
Laizhou Bay 1.68 3.6 3 0.56 1.20
Central Waters 0.8 0.96 3 0.27 0.32
Table 47. Sources of Sewage and COD into the Liaohe River in 1995.
Sewage (Million Tons) COD (Tons)
Industry Domestic Total Industry Domestic Total
Liaohe River watershed 1,173.33 717.63 1,890.96 470,423 274,110 744,532
Source: SOA, 2000.
Table 48. COD Discharge of Bays and Districts in 1999 (in tons).
Bay COD
Liaodong Bay 632,514

Baohai Bay 400,401
Laizhou Bay 333,437
Liaoning Province 614,821

Hebei Province 87,431
Tianjin Municipality 208,771
Shandong Province 455,329
Source: SOA, 2000.
68
COLIFORM
Uncertainty Analysis
Water Column
Since the investigation was put up in the wet
Because coliform is not part of the regular season and only at four locations, the calculated
monitoring activities, there are no available data figures may be higher than the actual and the
for coliform in the whole Bohai Sea. The data used general scenario in the Bohai Sea may not be as
here for fecal coliform is from the Office of Ocean bad as the RQs obtained here. Concern should be
and Fishery (2001). given to verify these figures and reduce the level
of risk in hotspot areas.
In Laizhou Bay, the RQAve for fecal coliform is
less than 1 (0.37), however, the RQMax (1.20) is over Shellfish Tissue
the critical level, which means that most of the
waters of Laizhou Bay are not polluted by fecal There were only few data on the fecal coliform
coliform, but some hotspots were polluted by fecal of shellfish tissue in Bohai Sea. Since the
coliform. Risks from fecal coliform in the Yellow concentration in average seawater is lower than
River estuary is depressive, where RQAve reached in estuary water, the calculation result maybe
5.68 and RQMax reached 12. The situation was even worse than the actual scenario in Bohai Sea. The
worse in Beidaihe area, where the RQAve was 9.24. PNEC for fecal coliform of shellfish tissue, which
Urgent attention should be given to reduce the was 3,000 ind/kg fresh weight, was cited from
risk from fecal coliform in the estuary of Yellow the Interim Criteria for Shellfish Intendance of
River and Beidaihe. However, the fecal coliform China (1997). Calculated RQs were shown in Table
in Panjin was quite less than the criteria, RQMax 50, the RQAve was 1.48 in Beidaihe area, while the
was only 0.31. Through analysis, the risk for fecal RQMax was 4.33. These results illustrated that some
coliform can be learned that it varies in the actions should be put into implementation to
different areas. control the fecal coliform risk in shellfish tissue.
Table 49. RQs for Fecal Coliform in Water Column from Different Locations.
Location MECAve (ind./l) MECMax(ind./l) PNEC (ind./l) RQAve RQ Max
Laizhou Bay* 733 2,400 2,000 0.37 1.2

Yellow River Estuary* 11,362 24,000 2,000 5.68 12
Beidaihe** 18,487 48,000 2,000 9.24 24
Panjin** 353 620 2,000 0.18 0.31
*Office of Ocean and Fishery, 2001 (Table 77-78).
**He Jie, et al., 2002.
Table 50. RQs for Fecal Coliform in Shellfish in Some Estuaries.
Location MECAve (ind./l) MECMax(ind./l) PNEC (ind./l) RQAve RQ Max
Beidaihe** 4,428 13,000 3,000 1.48 4.33

Source: He Jie, et al., 2002.
69
Uncertainty Analysis During another investigation in Laizhou Bay,

the TSS flux through Xiaoqinghe River in 1998 was
Since the data for fecal coliform in shellfish 13,864.5 mg/l, which shows that land-based
tissue was only limited to a few estuaries, the import is a major source of TSS in Bohai Sea.
results of the risk assessment represent only some
spots of Bohai Sea. Some researches have shown that for such a
shallow sea as Bohai Sea, tidal current can cause
the periodic change of TSS while the ocean wave
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (TSS) by wind obtrusion is the main reason of the
seasonal changes.
Water Column
Data of total suspended solids (TSS) of the HEAVY METALS

whole Bohai Sea is currently unavailable. An
investigation in Laizhou Bay in 1991 showed that Water Column
the maximum TSS was in bottom waters, the RQ
of which was double the critical level while in the Worst-Case Scenario
upper waters. TSS was far below the criteria.
Another average observed value of TSS in March In Bohai Sea, the main heavy metal pollutants
1995 in Jinzhou Bay, one small bay in Liaodong are Hg, Pb, Cd and Cu. The RQMax of Pb and Cd
Bay, was 249.6 mg/l, and the maximum 464 mg/l. are both above 1, with Pb having the highest RQ
(6.52), followed by Cd (3.22). Pb and Cd should
The criterion for TSS in seawater is from the be a cause for concern in some areas.
interim standard of the Department of
Environment of Malaysia. RQs in the waters of Average Scenario
Jinzhou Bay exceeded the critical level of 1 for all
the 10 sampling stations. RQAve is 4.99 and RQMax In the four major metals, only Pb has an RQAve
is 9.28, hotspot waters were the borders of Jinzhou above 1, which means Pb is the most serious metal
Bay. contaminant and should be given high priority of
concern.
During the investigation in 1998 and 1999, the
scenario was similar to that in 1991. RQ of TSS in Uncertainty Analysis
bottom water is more than twice that in surface
water. The figure shows that some waters in Bohai Table 53 shows the results of RQ analysis for
Sea have TSS above the critical level though the Pb in different areas of Bohai Sea. Liaodong Bay
situation is not serious. is severely polluted by Pb. Its RQAve is 1.40 and
Table 51. RQs for TSS.

Location MECAve (mg/l) MECMax(mg/l) PNEC (mg/l) RQAve RQ Max
Jinzhou Bay* 249.6 464 50 4.99 9.28

Laizhou Bay** 12.3 99.6 50 0.25 1.99
Surface Water*** 8.25 43.67 50 0.17 0.87
Bottom Water*** 16.31 98.04 50 0.33 1.96
Source: *State Environment Monitoring Center, 1995, p87, Table 2-22.
**FIO-SOA, 1991, p55.
***Su Jian, et al., 2001.
70
RQMax amounts to 6.52. Pb in Liaodong Bay should in Liaodong Bay, where sewage from heavy
be given the first priority for management. Table industries was discharged into the bay untreated
54 shows that the RQMax for Cd was also obtained or with incomplete treatment, and Pb in Bohai Bay
at Liaodong Bay. Cd concentrations in the other is also beyond the criterion. Pb in Liaodong Bay
areas are still at low levels. Table 55 shows that should be given the first priority, while Pb in Bohai
Hg in the four parts of Bohai Sea are far below Bay and Cd in Liaodong Bay, the second.
the critical level, which poses little risk. As far as
the other bays are concerned, all the RQs for heavy As is shown in Table 56 and Figure 38, metals
metals are below critical level. concentrations have been increasing in the past
four years. The concentration of Pb in 1997 is 3.7
Heavy metal pollution in Bohai Sea is not very times that of 1993. The figure reaches as high as
serious except in some areas in Liaodong Bay and 5.2 when Cd is concerned. Effective steps must be
Bohai Bay. Concentrations of Pb and Cd are high put into practice to restrain the ascending trend.
Table 52. RQs for Heavy Metals in the Water Column.
Agent MECAve (mg/l) MECMax(mg/l) PNEC(mg/l) RQAve RQ Max
Hg 0.000027 0.0001 0.0002 0.14 0.50

Cu 0.00389 n/a 0.01 0.39 n/a
Pb 0.00557 0.0326 0.005 1.11 6.52
Cd 0.00083 0.0161 0.005 0.17 3.22
Table 53. RQs for Pb in the Water Column from Different Locations.
Area MECAve (mg/l) MECMax(mg/l) PNEC(mg/l) RQAve RQ Max
Liaodong Bay 0.00698 0.0326 0.005 1.40 6.52

Bohai Bay 0.00245 0.0131 0.005 0.49 2.62
Laizhou Bay 0.00134 0.005 0.005 0.27 1
Central Waters 0.00034 0.00059 0.005 0.07 0.12
Table 54. RQs for Cd in the Water Column from Different Locations.
Liaodong Bay 0.00168 0.0161 0.005 0.34 3.22

Bohai Bay 0.00008 0.00025 0.005 0.02 0.05
Laizhou Bay 0.00006 0.0001 0.005 0.01 0.02
Central Waters 0.00001 0.00015 0.005 0.002 0.03
Table 55. RQs for Hg in the Water Column from Different Locations.
Liaodong Bay 0.00003 0.0001 0.0002 0.15 0.50

Bohai Bay 0.000033 0.000068 0.0002 0.17 0.34
Laizhou Bay 0.000025 0.00008 0.0002 0.13 0.40
Central Waters 0.00016 0.000042 0.0002 0.08 0.21
71
In general, Pb in Liaodong Bay and Bohai Bay in the other three areas are under 1 while in
should be given first priority. More efforts should central waters the data is extremely close to 1,
be paid to reduce Pb pollution in Liaodong Bay and 33 percent of the sampling stations
and Bohai Bay and to cut down the upward trend investigated have Cu beyond the critical level.
of Pb and Cd.
For Pb, all RQs in the four parts are under
Sediment 0.5, showing a good scenario.
RQ analysis for the heavy metals in the As shown in Table 60, RQAve and RQMax of Cd
sediment is shown in Table 57. The maximum RQs in Liaodong Bay are 1.87 and 4.56 respectively,
for Hg, Cu and Cd in sediment exceed the critical which pose comparatively high risk.
level although their average RQs are not beyond Concentrations of Cd in 66.7 percent of the
1, which shows some regions are polluted. RQs for sampling stations were over the critical level.
Pb are still less than 1 and pose low risk. According Those in the other three areas are still under the
to this analysis, Cd in sediment in Bohai Sea should critical level. Attention to Cd in Liaodong Bay
be given the first priority and Hg, the second. should also be given.
Uncertainty Analysis Table 61 shows that only RQ Max of Hg in

Liaodong Bay exceeds the critical level, which also
Risk for heavy metals is discussed in terms of shows that some waters in Liaodong Bay have
different regions (Table 58–61). been polluted by Hg.
Cu in Bohai Bay (Table 58) should be one of In summary, heavy metals in sediment should
the concerns for management since both RQAve and be given concern because of the risks they pose.
RQMax in the bay average exceeded the critical level, Priority should be given to Cd in Liaodong Bay,
where Cu concentration in 75 percent of the followed by Hg in Liaodong Bay and Cu in Bohai
sampling stations has exceeded the criterion. RQs Bay.
Table 56. Concentrations of Heavy Metals in Several Years (µg/L).

Year Cu Pb Cd Hg
1993 2.69 1.41 0.23 0.08
1995 2.54 3.07 0.15 0.03
1997 3.05 5.17 1.20 0.18
Table 57. RQs for Heavy Metals in the Sediment.

Agent MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax(mg/kg) PNEC (mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
Hg 0.06 0.57 0.2 0.30 2.85

Cu 22.80 45.6 35 0.65 1.30
Pb 18.30 29.1 60 0.31 0.49
Cd 0.27 2.28 0.5 0.54 4.56
72
Figure 38. Changes of Heavy Metals for 1993, 1995 and 1997.
Table 58. RQs for Cu in the Sediment of Different Locations.
Area MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax(mg/kg) PNEC (mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
Liaodong Bay 15.3 21.9 35 0.44 0.63

Bohai Bay 36.2 45.6 35 1.03 1.30
Laizhou Bay 19.1 26.8 35 0.55 0.77
Central Waters 22.1 33.7 35 0.63 0.96
Table 59. RQs for Pb in the Sediment of Different Locations.

Area MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax(mg/kg) PNEC (mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
Liaodong Bay 16.8 29.1 60 0.28 0.49

Bohai Bay 16.8 22.6 60 0.28 0.38
Laizhou Bay 15 23.2 60 0.25 0.39
Central Waters 17.1 23 60 0.29 0.38
Table 60. RQs for Cd in the Sediment of Different Locations.

Area MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax(mg/kg) PNEC(mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
Liaodong Bay 0.934 2.280 0.5 1.87 4.56

Bohai Bay 0.141 0.238 0.5 0.28 0.48
Laizhou Bay 0.063 0.080 0.5 0.13 0.16
Central Waters 0.081 0.141 0.5 0.16 0.28
Table 61. RQs for Hg in the Sediment of Different Locations.
Area MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax(mg/kg) PNEC(mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
Liaodong Bay 0.169 0.500 0.2 0.85 2.50

Bohai Bay 0.031 0.050 0.2 0.16 0.25
Laizhou Bay 0.044 0.074 0.2 0.22 0.37
Central Waters 0.024 0.045 0.2 0.12 0.23
73
Tissue Both their RQAve and RQMax did not exceed 1. There
is no cause for concern for heavy metal content
The heavy metals (Hg, Cu, Pb, Cd) in the tissue during fish consumption.
of shellfish, seaweed and fish are analyzed
respectively in Tables 62 to 65. Arsenic (As) is included since it is another
contaminant from natural or anthropogenic
None of the RQAve in Table 62 was over 1, and sources, is easy to accumulate by organism, and is
only RQMax for Pb was 1.26. These results show still used in agriculture. Table 65 shows the RQs
that the heavy metals in shellfish do not show for As in shellfish tissue in the three bays.
cause for concern in the Bohai Sea, except for Pb However, their RQs are all under the critical level.
in some hotspots (RQMax = 1.26).
In summary, Pb in seaweed tissues posed high
Pb in seaweed tissue (Table 63) also poses very risks, thus, it should be given first priority. The
high risk. Its RQAve has reached 1.38 while RQMax other heavy metals, which have very low RQs,
is 2.58. People should be careful of seaweed indicate that no urgent concern is needed.
consumption in the Bohai Sea area. Management
programs should be undertaken immediately to Uncertainty Analysis
reduce the risk from Pb in seaweed tissue.
Compared with the RQs for Pb in the three
In Table 64, heavy metals in fish tissue from bays, the high risk from seafood may have
Tianjin and Laizhou Bay are all under the criteria. something to do with the accumulation rates in
Table 62. RQs for Heavy Metals in Shellfish Tissue.

Location MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax(mg/kg) LOC (mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
Tianjin and Hg 0.020 0.59 0.03

Dalian Cu 13.005 19.500 74.07 0.18 0.26
Pb 1.785 3.510 2.78 0.64 1.26
Cd 0.475 0.870 2.04 0.23 0.43
Table 63. RQs for Heavy Metals in Seaweed Tissue.

Dalian and Hg 0.065 0.09 0.59 0.11 0.15

Yantai Cu 5.16 7.88 74.07 0.07 0.11
Pb 3.84 7.18 2.78 1.38 2.58
Cd 1.25 1.63 2.04 0.61 0.80
Table 64. RQs for Heavy Metals in Fish Tissue.

Location of Maximum
MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax(mg/kg) LOC (mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
Concentration
Tianjin Hg 0.08 0.09 0.59 0.14 0.15
Laizhou Bay Cu 1.58 2.50 74.07 0.02 0.03
Laizhou Bay Pb 0.93 1.52 2.78 0.33 0.55
Laizhou Bay Cd 0.44 0.62 2.04 0.22 0.30
74
several tissues. Accumulation rates in shellfish (392 CR is the average for the whole nation's
times), fish (9 times) and seaweed (705 times), population. Evidence shows that people living
show that Pb is more easily accumulated in around the seashore consume more seafood than
seaweed tissue, followed by shellfish tissue. people living inland. Some further analysis and
investigation should be carried out for risk
Hotspots for Pb in shellfish tissue were assessment of seafood tissues around the Bohai
observed in some specific locations while the Sea as calculations gathered could create uncertain
scenario of the whole Bohai Sea cannot be shown results.
without concrete data. Data on heavy metals has
been assigned a score of 2 for data quality since Possible Sources of Heavy Metals
QA/QC procedures were not specified in the
documentation. Industrial emissions and wastes are the main
source of heavy metal pollution. Other sources
RQMax for Cu is not available due to lack of such as domestic sewage and atmosphere
corresponding period raw data. sedimentation also contribute to pollution.
Considering the differences in seafood From Table 66, there is a huge amount of heavy
consumption and in the physiologic and metabolic metals discharged into Bohai Sea. Of the five heavy
characteristics of the average American and the metals, Pb, Cd and Hg discharged into Bohai Sea
average Chinese, the U.S. TDI is unsuitable for accounted for over 90 percent of the whole nation’s
the risk assessment. discharges.
A single CR was also applied for computing Among the three cities listed in Table 67,
the RQs for metals in shellfish, fish and algae. This Tianjin has the largest Pb discharge. RQ
Table 65. RQs for Arsenic in Shellfish Tissue.

Liaodong Bay 1.13 3.12 4.81 0.23 0.65

Bohai Bay 1.02 1.89 4.81 0.21 0.39
Laizhou Bay 0.76 1.43 4.81 0.16 0.30
Table 66. Heavy Metal Discharged into Whole Nation and Bohai Sea Annually.
Cu Pb Cd Hg As
Whole Nation 390.69 634.47 146.36 6.17 66.58
Bohai Sea 67.46 572.61 143.26 5.75 39.58
Percentage (%) 17.3 90.3 97.9 93.2 59.40
Source: State Environment Monitoring Center, et al., 1995.
Table 67. Annual Discharge of Pb from Three Typical Cities.

City Location Pb discharge (T/yr)
Huludao Liaodong Bay 76.79
Tianjin Bohai Bay 272.77
Dongying Laizhou Bay 37.97
Source: State Environment Monitoring Center, et al., 1995.
75
distribution for Pb in Liaodong Bay and Bohai Bay

may have something to do with the ocean current
since some of the seawater swarming into
Liaodong Bay come from Bohai Bay.
PESTICIDES
Pesticides are divided into insecticide, weed

killer, bactericide, raticide and so on. Some of them
are organophosphorus compounds; some are
sulphide, mercurial, arsenide, or organochlorine
compounds. The total classes are over 400
varieties. The main insecticide employed in China
are organophosphorus compounds, such as
trichlorphon, dimethoate and parathion.
Figure 39. Pesticides are insufflating.
Only two major insecticides are considered in
the RA. DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) must be taken immediately to cease further
and 666 (benzene hexachloride) are both difficult discharge of such compounds into the sea.
to degrade and decompose, and were commonly
used in the 1960s then abandoned in the early Shellfish Tissue
1980s. Attention is then placed to DDT and 666 in
the Bohai Sea. RQs will be analyzed in the sediment As shown in Table 69, DDT exhibited RQAve
and seafood tissue. very close to 1 and RQMax as high as 4.42. Further
analysis needs to be done when the Chinese TDI
For pesticides in sediment, the high RQAve for is available.
DDT amounted to 5 and for 666 to 111.2, while
MEC Max is unavailable, it is sure to be higher. Uncertainty Analysis
Degradation is slow, which means that such
compounds will remain for a long period. Data on pesticides has been assigned a score
Consequently, the high risk posed by these of 2 for data quality since QA/QC procedures were
pesticides will also exist for a long time. Actions not specified in the documentation.
Table 68. RQs for Pesticide in Sediment.

Agent MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax (mg/kg) PNEC (mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
DDT 0.1 n/a 0.02 5 n/a

666 55.6 n/a 0.50 111.2 n/a
Table 69. RQs for Pesticide in Shellfish Tissue.

Location Agent MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax (mg/kg) PNEC (mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
Bohai Sea DDT 2.83 13.27 2.96 0.96 4.48

Source: SOA, 2000.
76
Only RQAve for DDT and 666 in the sediment Water Column
was calculated since their RQMax is unavailable.
Since the Chinese TDI is unavailable, RQ analysis Oil pollution is very serious in Bohai Sea. For
for DDT in shellfish tissue may have associated oil, RQAve = 2 and RQMax = 4.4. The high RQ value
uncertainties. indicates that actions should be done to reduce
oil pollution.
Sources of Pesticides
Uncertainty Analysis
Agricultural intensification is the main source
of pesticides. The application rate of pesticides in Oil pollution has aggravated in the past years
Dongying is 76.05 kg/ha while other regions especially in Bohai Bay, Figure 40 illustrates the
around Bohai Sea may have higher values due to changes of oil pollution in recent years. Oil
the development of local agriculture. concentration in Bohai Sea has increased from
1985–1997. The trend has accelerated in 1996 and
1997, with the 1997 concentration 4.35 times that
OIL of 1985.
With the development of maritime Possible Sources:

transportation and oil exploitation come the
spread of oil pollution. When oil concentration is • Sewage Discharge
0.12 mg/l, the death rate of Zoea shrimp is 50
percent. But in some regions of Bohai Bay and Table 71 shows oil discharge in different
Laizhou Bay, oil concentration in surface waters regions around Bohai Sea. The top discharge is in
is 0.1–0.3 mg/l, which is sure to have effects on Liaoning Province, with oil receipt of Liaodong
shrimp survival and metamorphism. At the estuary Bay amounting to 4,846 tons the same year,
of Wulihe River in Huludao, floating oil was as followed by Bohai Bay with 3,271 tons. It is
thick as 2–4 mm, which has led to nonliving water obvious that sewage discharge is the main source
areas as large as 5 km 2. From 1985–1990, oil of oil in Bohai Sea.
pollution was fairly severe, with 20 percent of the
sampling stations exceeding the criteria. In 1993, • Discharge of Ballast from Fishing and
oil in Laizhou Bay came to a concentration as high Cargo Ships
as 0.091 mg/l. From 1996–1997, the average level
amounted to 0.07 mg/l, with 60 percent of the Mobile ballast (all kinds of ships) account for
stations over the critical level (0.05 mg/l). In 13.2 percent of total oil pollution. There are 27,723
Jinzhou Bay, the figure rose to 94 percent of the powerboats registered in Bohai area and 1,515 T
sampling stations in 1997. The oil concentration of oil is discharged into the sea each year.
range of the whole Bohai Sea in 1999 was 0.04– However, it is difficult to estimate how much oil
0.06 mg/l, with 25–65 percent of the stations comes from transportation ships or unregistered
exceeding the standard. boats.
Table 70. RQs for Oil in the Water Column.

Oil 0.10 0.22 0.05 2 4.4

77
Figure 40. Annual Changes of Oil Concentration in Seawater.

0.1
0.08
0.06
mg/L
0.04
0.02
0
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Year
In addition, watercrafts coming in and going in Bohai near-shore, two in Panjin and three in
out of the wharfs as well as ship breaks may also Dongying, which discharge 1,484 T of oil and 2,140
produce much oil contamination. There were T of sewage each year. The reasons for the
330,000 incoming and outgoing vessels in the discharge may be mechanical or production
wharfs in Liaoning Province in 1995. accidents. Discharges from oil platforms account
for 3.7 percent of the total oil pollution in Bohai
• Discharges from Oil Platform Sea.
Another main source of oil pollution is the oil Sediment

platforms. There are five major oil platforms built
Whether from land-based or sea-based
Table 71. Oil Discharge in Four Districts sources, most of the oil in Bohai Sea was light oil.
in 1999.
When discharged into the sea, most of the oil
Oil (Tons)
either vaporizes, degrades, or becomes deposited
Liaoning 4,822
in the seabed. In the environment quality
Hebei 137
investigation in 1997, average oil concentration in
Tianjin 3,052
the sediment of the whole Bohai Sea was 61.4 mg/
Shandong 1,924
kg (RQAve = 0.12). But some estuaries are severely
Source: SOA, 2000.
Table 72. Oil Discharged by Moving Source.
City Merchant ship (time/yr) Fishing ship Oil sewage (ton/yr) Oil content (ton/yr)
Dalian 7,000 12,983 1,116

Yingkou 3,500
Panjin 780 3,600 3
Jinzhou 1,600 25
Huludao 3,469 3,798,600 347
Tangshan 518 3,237 523,100 5
Binzhou 1,242 500,000 4
Weifang 912 13,900 13
78
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAHS)
Sediment
Total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

(PAHs) have been measured in the sediments of
Bohai Sea but local PNECs for PAHs in sediment
were unavailable, so RQs were calculated using
the criteria for total PAHs from the Hong Kong
Interim Sediment Quality Values (EVS, 1996)
though it may not have the appropriate
suitability.
In Table 75, RQAve for total PAHs is only 0.22

Figure 41. The Black Xiaoqinghe River while RQMax amounts to 1.38, which means some
reflects the serious pollution of
sediment was polluted by PAHs and potentially
sewage, heavy metals and oil.
pose risk to aquatic organisms.
PAHs are organic compounds that are

polluted by oil. It is reported that in some shore derived from natural as well as anthropogenic
areas in Laizhou Bay, oil has a maximum sources, such as petroleum products, combustion
concentration of 350.53 mg/kg (Xie, 1993), with processes and municipal effluents. PAHs are
RQMax = 0.70. relatively water insoluble and most PAHs are
adsorbed in particulate matter in aquatic
Tissue ecosystems, accumulating in sediments and biota.
PAHs in sediment are persistent and some species
In the past, several fish poisoning accounts are considered to have potentially harmful effects
were reported. In 1985, when oil concentration in on the environment, but most studies in the
fish tissue was high, several people in Huanghua aquatic environment look at the total group of
County were hospitalized. But because of the lack PAH compounds and less is known about the
of the TDI, RQ-based risk cannot be analyzed. specific effects of individual compounds. Some
Table 73. RQs for Oil in Sediment.

Oil 61.4 350.53 500 0.12 0.70

Source: MECAve: Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000.
MECMax: Xie Xudong, 1993.
Table 74. RQs for Oil in Shellfish Tissue.

Agent MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax(mg/kg) LOC (mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
Oil 14.3 80.5 n/a

Source: SOA, 2000.
79
of the observed environmental effects of PAHs OIL SPILLS

include tumors in fish; inhibited reproduction in
aquatic invertebrates; toxicity among Ten serious oil spill accidents in Bohai Sea have
crustaceans; reduced embryo survival and occurred in the past ten years. Oil spill rate is 0.2
development in birds; and mutagenic, percent of the total loading oil in Bohai Sea, as
carcinogenic and teratogenic effects to birds and estimated.
mammals (Eisler, 1987).
Some serious oil spill accidents around Bohai
Possible Sources Sea are listed below:
Based on the PAHs components, possible • In 1979, Shengli Oil Field discharged
sources may be the decomposition of oil; release 45,708 T of oil into the Sea.
of gasoline, fuel and coal burning; and import of • In 1987, Qinhuangdao oil pier spilled
land-based sewage. 1,470 T of oil.
• In 1990, a Panama cargo ship crashed with
Shellfish Tissue a Libyan ship, 120 km2 area was polluted
by oil.
As shown in Table 76, total PAHs have been • In 1998, an oil derrick owned by Shengli
measured in some shellfish tissues. There were, Oil Field collapsed in Laizhou Bay and the
however, no available TDIs for PAHs hence RQs oil spill lasted for six months.
could not be calculated. Assessment on PAHs
should be carried out when TDI can be defined. A response system for oil spill and mitigation
in Bohai Sea was organized and set up by several
Effects on human health of PAH- departments, such as SOA for the accidents in oil
contamination of the marine environment usually exploitation, traffic department for the tanker oil
occur through food chain effects and consumption spill, and MoA for the aquaculture area. However,
of aquatic food products especially the filter- its response capability is not enough to deal with
feeding bivalve mollusks from severely the incremental dangers of oil spill accidents in
contaminated areas. Consumption of PAH- Bohai Sea and its response time is too long. In
contaminated seafood could pose cancer risk to 1993, two oil tanks crashed and 800 T of oil was
humans although only some PAHs have been leaked into Bohai Sea. The spilled oil was diffused
shown to be potentially carcinogenic and to maricultured regions and caused tremendous
measurements of total PAHs cannot be directly economic loss and long-term ecological effects on
equated with carcinogenic potential (Eisler, 1987). the living resources.
Table 75. RQs for Total PAHs in Sediment.

∑ PAHs 0.8772 5.5342 4.0220 0.22 1.38

Source: SOA, 2000.
Table 76. RQs for Total PAHs in Shellfish Tissue.

Agent MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax(mg/kg) LOC (mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
∑ PAHs 10.4 20.1 n/a

Source: SOA, 2000.
80
A predicting system for oil spill has been set Liaodong Bay, and 1.3 times in Bohai Bay in
up in Bohai Sea, which makes use of verified the past decades. The main HABs are listed in
models for both hydrodynamics and oil behavior Table 77.
and gives out predicted information, including
position, covered area, and distribution of oil spill. Figure 45 shows very few HAB incidents
before 1990 and with a number of HABs after
1990. There were 14 HAB incidents in 1999.
HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS (HABS)/
TOXIC ALGAE When HAB occurs, the energy flow of the
ecosystem will be blocked at the phytoplankton
HABs level, and will cause the crash of the pelagic
ecosystem, which is usually followed by oxygen
HABs have occurred frequently in recent depletion in the water column. If the toxic species
years, especially in Liaodong Bay and Bohai Bay, bloom, much toxin will then be produced which
where 60 percent of the HABs occurred in Bohai will be accumulated in shellfish tissues and do
Sea. HABs have occurred 2.3 times per year in harm to human health (Figure 46).
Figure 42. CB6A Oil Derrick of Shengli

Oil Field Collapse. Figure 43. Knocked Oil Tanker with Spilled Oil.
Source: SOA, 2000. Source: SOA, 2000.
Figure 44. Spilled Oil from the CB6A Wells of Shengli Oil Field (10 June 1999).
Source: SOA, 2000.
81
There were massive HABs along the shore Figure 47 shows the area where HABs took
area in Hebei Province from August to place in the past 10 years. Almost all the areas
September 1989. As large as 1.5x104 ha of shrimp had HAB incidents except the central part of Bohai
ponds were affected and about 10,000 tons of Sea. An area of 25,000 km2 in the east part of
shrimps suffered in the tide. The total loss Jinzhou Bay suffered from HAB occurrences and
amounted to RMB 300 million (US$36 million). the economic loss reached RMB 60 million (US$7
It was the most disastrous and long-lasting HAB million).
incident in China. Another incident was the HABs
that occurred in Liaodong Bay in August 1995, Toxic Algae
which caused the death of breed aquatics in some
sea areas. Some known toxic algae species in Bohai Sea
are listed in Table 78. None of the toxic algae has
The disaster happened again in 1998. The ever bloomed in Bohai Sea, although some species
HABs occurred first in Liaodong Bay, and have bloomed and produced toxins in other
spread to Bohai Bay and Laizhou Bay, with the regions. Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is the
area expanding to 5,000 km2 in September. The toxin of most concern, followed by paralytic
dominant species was ceratium, the maximum cell shellfish poisoning (PSP). When HABs occurred
density of which was 1.25×109 cells/m3. The alga in Liaoning Province, even other harmless
is nontoxic but usually makes waters anoxic. seafood was unmarketable, which led to
Table 77. Main HAB Occurrences.
Year Month Location Area (km2) Species
1952 June Laizhou Bay 1,400 Noctiluca scintillans

1977 August Bohai Bay 560 Prorocentrum minimum
1985 June/August Liaodong Bay Unknown Dinophysis
1989 August/September Bohai and Laizhou Bays 1,300 Dinophysis
1990 June/July Bohai Bay 10 Noctiluca
1990 August Laizhou Bay 10 Unknown
1990 August Laizhou Bay 1,200 Unknown
1990 August Laizhou Bay 1,000 Unknown
1990 September Laizhou Bay Unknown
1991 July Liaodong Bay 100 Unknown
1993 August Liaodong Bay 40 Unknown
1995 June Laizhou Bay 90 Noctiluca scintillans
1995 August Laizhou Bay 100 Unknown
1997 April Laizhou Bay Unknown Unknown
1998 August/September Laizhou Bay Unknown Noctiluca ceratium
1998 September Laizhou Bay Unknown Noctiluca ceratium
1998 September/October Bohai Sea Unknown Noctiluca ceratium
1998 September Liaodong Bay Unknown Noctiluca ceratium
1998 September Liaodong Bay Unknown Noctiluca ceratium
1998 October Bohai Bay Unknown Noctiluca ceratium
82
Figure 45. HAB Occurrence in Bohai Sea (1952-1999).

16
Number of HABs in the Bohai Sea

14
12
10
0
1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000
Year
unnecessary economic loss. The phenomenon species of the same genus were reported
in other regions is called "inordinate response." poisonous.
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning PSP in shellfish could affect its domestic sale
and export. The European Community (EC) has
In November 1998, several kinds of bivalve forbidden live shellfish importation since 1997
samples in Liaodong Bay were determined because the International Food Safety and
positive for DSP. The DSP in digestive gland Quality Regulation has not yet been implemented
of Chlamys farreri and Meretrix meretrix were 16.8 in China. Shellfish export to EC account for 11
µg OA/g and 8.6 OA/g respectively percent of the total shellfish export in 1995,
(Agriculture Department and ADB, 2000). dropping to 3.3 percent in 1998.
According to the DSP ingestion standard in
Japan, DSP in the digestive gland of shellfish
should not exceed 2.5 µg OA/g, thus the RQs Figure 46. Poisoning Path of PSP to
for DSP in digestive gland of Chlamys farreri and the Human Body.
Meretrix meretrix are 6.72 and 3.44 respectively.
Actions should be taken immediately to control
the risks of DSP.
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
In September 1997, PSP in clams was 133

µg STXeq/kg tissue in Yantai City (Agriculture
Department and ADB, 2000.) With the
maximum PSP concentration level of 80 µg
STXeq/100g tissue to the human body
(Sanitation Department, 1988), the RQ is 1.66. * In China, Nassarius is the main source of PSP
toxin to the human body.
In addition, Alexandrium monilata and many
83
Figure 47. HABs in the Bohai Sea from 1989 to 1998.
84
Figure 48. Highest DSP/PSP Content Locations in China.
Table 78. Some Known Toxic Algae Species and Its Effects.
DSP NSP PSP ASP other Fish Shellfish Mammal Or Anoxia References
killed killed Bird Killed
Alexandrium monilata X ? X (M) (B) Shumway, et al.，1987
C. fusus , C. tripos ? X X Rensel and Prentice, 1980; Cardwell, et al.，1977
Ceratium furca
Chaetoceros spp. X Bruno, et al., 1989；Rensel, 1992, 1993
Gonyaulax sp. ? X X Kim, 1998; Yuki and Yoshimatsu, 1989
Dinophysis ovum Schutt X Kat 1985; Shumway, 1990
Gonyaulax polygramma X X Lam and Yip, 1990; Grindley and Taylor, 1962
Gymnodinium breve X X X Steidinger, et al., 1998
Gymnodinium mikimotoi X X X ? Matsuyama, et al., 1998
Heterosigma akashiwo ? X Gowen, et al., 1982;Taylor and Haigh, 1993
Leptocylindrus minimus ? X Clement and Lembeye, 1994
Noctiluca scintillans X X Okaichi and Nishio, 1976
Prorocentrum minimum ? X X Wikfors and Smolowitz, 1993, 1995；Lukenbach,
et al., 1993; Cassie, 1981; Tangen, 1983
P. micans X Hallegraeff, 1991
Nitzschia spp. X X X Bates, etc., 1989; Jones, et al., 1995a，b; Martin,
et al., 1990；Haya, et al., 1991
Skeletonema costatum X X Kent, et al., 1995
Thalassiosira spp. X Kent, et al., 1995
Trichodesmium erythraeum ? X Hawser, et al.,1991; Suvapepun, 1989

85
SEA ICE was destroyed by draft ice. The direct loss

amounted to several hundred millions of RMB.
Frost usually appears in Bohai Sea every year The extent of sea ice in 2000 is shown in Figure
from November to March and mainly in terms of 49. Sea ice in Liaodong Bay is the most serious
drift ice. among the three bays with the thickness of 20–
40 cm and maximum monolayer ice as thick as 80
There were five serious sea ice disasters in cm.
the 20th century, with the most serious occurring
from January to March 1969. The whole Bohai Sea ice in China originates from Liaodong
Sea, except the Strait, was covered by drift ice. Bay. Sea ice characteristics in the three bays are
Oil platforms were pushed over, 58 of the 123 shown in Table 79. Sea ice is very common and
passenger liners/cargo ships were blocked, and occurs every year in Bohai Sea. Risk of ice is very
a screw propeller of a 50 thousand-tonnage ship high and loss to the economy is huge.
Figure 49. Ice Thickness Map of Bohai Sea on 25 January 2000.
centimeters
Source: SOA, 2000.
Table 79. Sea Ice Characteristics in the Three Bays.

Frost time Ice period Distance of draft ice to shore Fixed Ice
(day)
Liaodong Bay Mid November/early December 105–130 West 18 km, East 24 km, North 74 km
Bohai Bay Early/mid December 65 10–20 km North 3–4 km,
South 2 km
Laizhou Bay Early/mid December 75 Along 5 m-deep line Estuary and
West 0.5–2 km
Source: SOA, 2000.
86
Figure 50. Maritime Engineering Structure Damaged by Sea Ice.
Source: SOA, 2000.
A kind of dynamic-thermodynamic ice A Temperate Zone windstorm is

model for simulation of the ice growth, decay aroused by westerly weather. Yellow Sea
and drift in Bohai Sea is presented for review of and the Bohai Sea coastlands are the main
the climate and ice conditions. This model was suffering regions, with Laizhou Bay
linked to a numerical weather prediction with coastland as the most seriously affected
an atmospheric boundary layer model and tidal area. Temperate Zone windstorms in
current model for forecasting ice conditions in Laizhou Bay happen mostly in spring,
Bohai Sea. autumn and winter.
Based on high tide records from 1952

WINDSTORM to 1999 of the Yangjiaogou Hydrological
Station, downriver of the Xiaoqinghe River,
Most windstorms in Bohai Sea arise from the maximum tide exceeded 5.1 m for 56
Temperate Zone cyclones, others are by times, and 50 (89 percent) of which
typhoons. Laizhou Bay and Bohai Sea coast are occurred in spring, autumn and winter as
the main regions that experience windstorms. shown in Table 80. The top seasonal storms
occurred 23 times in autumn (41 percent).
Windstorms due to Temperate Zone Tides higher than 6 m occurred four times
Cyclone during the past 48 years, which resulted in
huge disasters — once in September while
According to statistics for the past 40 years, the other three were all in April, showing
the variable zone storms are as many as 50 times, that serious windstorms are most likely to
which is 78 percent of the total windstorms. happen in April in Laizhou Bay.
Table 80. Monthly Temperate Zone Windstorm in Laizhou Bay.

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Times 2 5 5 9 3 0 2 4 5 9 9 3
Percentage 3.6 8.9 8.9 16.1 5.4 0 3.6 7.1 8.9 16.1 16.1 5.3
Source: FIO, 2003.
87
Table 81. Serious Windstorms in Laizhou Bay and Bohai Bay.

Date Region Max Wind Speed (m/s) Max Tide Height (m) Max Water Level (m)
1964 (April 5) Laizhou Bay 26.4 (Yantai) 3.21 6.16
1965 (November 7) Bohai Bay 22.8 (Yangjiaogou) 1.94 4.72
1966 (February 10) Bohai Bay 25.4 (Yantai) 2.38 -
1969 (April 23) Laizhou Bay 34.9 (Yangjiaogou) 3.55 6.74
1980 (April 5) Laizhou Bay 31.3 (Yangjiaogou) - -
1987 (November 26) Laizhou Bay - 2.46 (Xiaying) 2.90
Source: SOA, 2000.
Typhoon Windstorm Figure 51 shows the typhoon windstorms in

the past 50 years in Laizhou Bay.
There have been 20 relatively serious
typhoon windstorms in Laizhou Bay since 1949. Figure 52 shows the most severe typhoon
From 1949 to 1980, there were 11 windstorms, windstorm caused by typhoon No. 9216 on 23
9 of which were very serious. From 1981 to 2000, April 1969. The highest sea level reached 6.74 m
there were nine windstorms, six of which were in Laizhou Bay and the maximum increased water
very serious. was 3.55 m and 1.74 m above the critical water
line. The enhancive water over 1 m lasted 38
Table 81 shows that Laizhou Bay and Bohai hours and those over 3 m lasted 8 hours. Water
Bay are the areas where windstorms are the level rose over 3 m in the south seacoast of
most serious. Though the data was recorded in Laizhou Bay, which broke the more than 50-km
the 1960s, the phenomenon caused by the sea dam and pouring seawater back 30–35 km.
weather may not be greatly dissimilar. The loss reached RMB 5 billion (US$600 million).
Figure 51. Typhoons Touching Laizhou Figure 52. Windstorm by Typhoon No. 9216.
Bay (1945–1997)
Source: FIO, 2003. Source: FIO, 2003.
88
Comparative Risk Assessment
Comparative risk assessments for the range of RQs as presented in the comparative RA
of agents of potential concern for Bohai Sea have tables. Agents for which risks are acceptable
been carried out separately for water, sediment (RQMax < 1) are also presented.
and seafood tissue. The results of these analyses
are summarized in Tables 82–87. The comparative SEAWATER
risk assessments also highlighted data gaps in
terms of lack of MECs and criteria. The assessment was made on 7 groups and
13 kinds of agents in seawater in Bohai Sea and
Risk agents are classified either as priority their risk quotients were calculated (Table 82).
risks or localized risks. Priority risk agents were Average RQs for fecal coliform, TSS, Pb and
determined on the basis of RQAve exceeding 1. oil of these 13 agents exceeded the critical
Localized risks were indicated by RQ Max that value, which showed that these are the most
exceeded 1. The ranking of priority or localized serious pollutants in the whole Bohai Sea.
risks was done based on the order of magnitude However, in addition to these three
Table 82. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for Water Column.
No. Agents MECAve MECMax PNEC RQAve RQ Max
Nutrients (mg/l)
1 DIN 0.250 7.700 0.3 0.83 25.67
2 DIP 0.019 0.355 0.03 0.63 11.83
COD/DO (mg/l)
3 COD 1.740 10.7 3 0.58 3.57
4 DO 10.090 6 5 0.50 0.83
5 Fecal Coliform (ind/l)
Laizhou Bay 733 2,400 2,000 0.37 1.2
Yellow River estuary 11,362 24,000 2,000 5.68 12
Beidaihe 18,487 48,000 2,000 9.24 24
Panjin 353 620 2,000 0.18 0.31
6 TSS (mg/l)
Jinzhou Bay 249.6 464 50 4.99 9.28
Metals (mg/l)
7 Hg 0.000027 0.0001 0.0002 0.14 0.50
8 Cu 0.00389 n/a 0.01 0.39
9 Pb 0.00557 0.0326 0.005 1.11 6.52
10 Cd 0.00083 0.0161 0.005 0.17 3.22
Pesticides (mg/l)
11 DDT n/a n/a 0.0001
12 666 n/a n/a 0.002
13 Oil (mg/l) 0.1 0.22 0.05 2.00 4.40
89
contaminants, DIN, DIP, COD and Cd have RQMax SEDIMENT

that exceeded 1. There were no MECs available
for water column concentrations of DDT and 666, From Table 84, it is clear that no contaminants
and no MECMax of Cu. The criterion for TSS was for which sediment data were available had
the interim standard adopted by the Department average RQs exceeding the critical threshold of 1
of Environment in Malaysia in MPP-EAS, 1999a. except for pesticides. RQAve for DDT and 666 are
both over the critical level, which means high risk
In Table 83, the range of RQs (from average from those pesticides. Cd, Hg and Cu have
to maximum) across pollutants was compared in maximum RQs that exceed 1.
the order of magnitude of RQ. It is clear that for
water columns, risks to the ecology of Bohai Sea Table 85 compares the range of RQs (from
associated with fecal coliform and TSS, Pb and average to maximum) across sediment-associated
oil are priority concerns. For nutrients, COD and contaminants in the order of magnitude of RQs.
Cd in the water column, the maximum RQs It is clear that the sediment risks to the ecology
exceeding 1 indicate localized risks from of Bohai Sea are associated with pesticides, heavy
potential hotspots. metals and PAHs in this order.
Table 83. Comparative Risk Assessment for Water Column Based on RQAve to RQMax.
Agents RQ < 1 1 < RQ < 10 10 < RQ < 100 RQ > 100
Nutrients
DIN
DIP
COD/DO
COD
DO
Fecal Coliform
Laizhou Bay
Yellow River estuary
Beidaihe
Panjin
TSS
Metals
Hg
Cu
Pb
Cd
Pesticides
DDT
666
Oil/Grease
Oil
90
COMPARATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT
HUMAN HEALTH using local TDIs instead of the U.S. TDI with
the application of more specific consumption
Table 86 shows the summary of risk rates for various seafood items. There was no
assessment for human health. For shellfish, fecal LOC available for oil and PAHs.
coliform shows high health risk in Beidaihe
(RQAve = 1.48), DSP and PSP also show quite high
health risks. People also need to take care of Table 87 compares the range of RQs (from
the DDT and Pb in shellfish, because their average to maximum) for contaminants in
maximum RQs exceed 1. For seaweeds, Pb needs seafood tissues in the order of magnitude of
urgent concern since its RQAve is 1.38. However, RQs. It is clear that seafood risks to human
there is no cause for concern in fish tissue, health are very low except for fecal coliform,
because their RQs did not reach critical levels. Pb, DSP and PSP. However, cumulative action
The assessment, however, needs to be refined should not be neglected for these risks.
Table 84. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for Sediment.
Agents MECAve (mg/kg) MECMax (mg/kg) PNEC (mg/kg) RQAve RQ Max
Metals
Hg 0.06 0.57 0.2 0.30 2.85
Cu 22.80 45.6 35.0 0.65 1.30
Pb 18.30 29.1 60.0 0.31 0.49
Cd 0.27 2.28 0.5 0.54 4.56
Pesticides
DDT 0.1 n/a 0.02 5.0 n/a
666 55.6 n/a 0.50 111.2 n/a
Oil 61.40 350.53 500 0.12 0.70
PAHs 0.8772 5.5342 4.0220 0.22 1.38
TSS 8.25 43.67 50 0.17 0.87
Table 85. Comparative Risk Assessment for Sediment Based on RQAve to RQMax.
Agents RQ < 1 1 < RQ < 10 10 < RQ < 100 RQ > 100
Metals
Hg
Cu
Pb
Cd
Pesticides
DDT •
666 •
Oil
PAHs
TSS
91
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT here were based on U.S. FDA standards. In adopting

these TDIs, it is assumed that relative toxicity,
Exposure assessment is the aspect of risk persistence and bioaccumulation are factored into
assessment that determines the actual level of the TDI. Further, most of the available TDI values
exposure and absorption of toxicants among the are for adults while children are generally
population of exposed individuals. considered the more sensitive group since their
body weights are less those of adults. Hence, the
The use of RQs in human health risk relative risks to children are considerably higher.
assessments has its limitations, as threshold values This is an important consideration in assessing and
below which no adverse effects appear for all the prioritizing human health risks to certain
contaminants in the RRA. All the TDI values used contaminants such as heavy metals and pesticides.
Table 86. Risk Assessment Summary for Human Health.
Agent MECAve MECMax PNEC/ LOC RQAve RQ Max Location
Fecal Coliform in Shellfish (ind./kg)

4,428 13,000 3,000 1.48 4.33 Beidaihe
Metals in Shellfish (mg/kg)
Hg 0.020 n/a 0.59 0.03 n/a Tianjin and Dalian
Cu 13.005 19.500 74.07 0.18 0.26 Tianjin and Dalian
Pb 1.785 3.510 2.78 0.64 1.26 Tianjin and Dalian
Cd 0.475 0.870 2.04 0.23 0.43 Tianjin and Dalian
Metals in Fish (mg/kg)
Hg 0.08 0.09 0.59 0.14 0.15 Tianjin
Cu 1.58 2.5 74.07 0.02 0.03 Laizhou Bay
Pb 0.93 1.52 2.78 0.33 0.55 Laizhou Bay
Cd 0.44 0.62 2.04 0.22 0.30 Laizhou Bay
Metals in Seaweed (mg/kg)
Hg 0.065 0.09 0.59 0.11 0.15 Dalian and Yantai
Cu 5.16 7.88 74.07 0.07 0.11 Dalian and Yantai
Pb 3.84 7.18 2.78 1.38 2.58 Dalian and Yantai
Cd 1.25 1.63 2.04 0.61 0.80 Dalian and Yantai
Pesticides in Shellfish (mg/kg)
As 1.13 3.12 4.81 0.23 0.65 Liaodong Bay
As 1.02 1.89 4.81 0.21 0.39 Bohai Bay
As 0.76 1.43 4.81 0.16 0.30 Laizhou Bay
DDT 2.83 13.27 2.96 0.96 4.48 Bohai Sea
Oil in Shellfish (mg/kg)
Oil 14.3 80.5 No LOCs
PAHs in Shellfish (mg/kg)
PAHs 10.4 20.1 No LOCs
DSP in Shellfish
Chlamys farreri 16.8µg OA/g 2.5µg OA/g 6.72
Meretrix meretrix 8.6µg OA/g 2.5µg OA/g 3.44
PSP in Clams 1.33 µg STXeq/g 0.8 µg STXeq/g 1.66 Yantai
92
Aside from the uncertainties introduced by For the RRA, four groups (general population,
the absence of age-specific local TDIs that can children, pregnant women and lactating mothers)
be used in calculating RQs, actual exposure to were identified as the population most at risk from
these contaminants are inferred through the use the effects of the contaminants present in the sea.
of the average consumption rate without regard
to sub-populations such as the coastal population
that may consume more seafood. Exposure=
Concentration * daily intake
body weight
The levels of exposure are measured based
on the frequency and duration of exposure as This expresses milligram toxicant per kilogram
well as the levels of contaminants in the exposure body weight per day (mg/kg/day).
media such as soil, water, air and food. Actual
absorption is determined by toxicological Based on the formula, the exposure of children
studies. is higher under the same conditions than adults
Table 87. Comparative Risk Assessment for Human Health.
Agents RQ < 1 1 < RQ < 10 10 < RQ < 100 RQ > 100 Location
Heavy Metals in Shellfish

Hg • Tianjin and Dalian
Cu Tianjin and Dalian
Pb Tianjin and Dalian
Cd Tianjin and Dalian
Heavy Metals in Fish
Hg Tianjin
Cu Laizhou Bay
Pb Laizhou Bay
Cd Laizhou Bay
Metals in Seaweed
Hg Dalian and Yantai
Cu Dalian and Yantai
Pb Dalian and Yantai
Cd Dalian and Yantai
Pesticides in Shellfish
As Liaodong Bay
As Bohai Bay
As Laizhou Bay
DDT Bohai Sea
Oil in Shellfish
PAHs in Shellfish
DSP in Shellfish Chlamys farreri and
Meretrix meretrix
PSP in Clams • Yantai
Fecal Coliform in Shellfish Beidaihe
93
due to differences in body weight. For lack of Liaodong Bay, the nutrients, especially DIN,
data on the consumption rates of children, pose relatively high risks to ecology followed
pregnant women and lactating mothers, the by Pb and COD in the water and Cd in
exposure dose for several contaminants cannot sediments. Localized risks were shown for DIP
be calculated yet. and Cd in water and Hg in sediments, but the
relatively high RQMax for DIP indicates cause for
concern. Reducing risk from nutrients should
LIAODONG BAY be given priority concern.
From Table 88, it is clear that data of all

contaminants of water column and sediment are BOHAI BAY
available, and only DIN, COD and Pb in water
and Cd in sediment have average RQs exceeding From Table 90, based on available data on
the critical threshold. However, in addition to contaminants for water column and sediments,
these four contaminants, DIP and Cd in water as fecal coliform in the water column and Cu in
well as Hg in sediment have maximum RQs that sediment gave RQ Ave exceeding the critical
exceed 1. threshold of 1. High average and maximum RQs
were obtained for fecal coliform. The nutrients
Table 89 compares the range of RQs (from (DIN, DIP) and Pb in water have maximum RQs
average to maximum) across contaminants in that exceed 1.
order of magnitude of RQ. It is clear that for
Table 88. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for Liaodong Bay.
Agents MECAve MECMax PNEC RQ Ave RQ Max
WATER COLUMN
Nutrients (mg/L)
DIN 1.61 7.70 0.3 5.37 25.67
DIP 0.026 0.355 0.03 0.87 11.83
COD/DO (mg/L)
COD 3.16 10.7 3 1.05 3.57
Fecal coliform (ind./L)
353 620 2,000 0.18 0.31
Metals (mg/L)
Hg 0.00003 0.0001 0.0002 0.15 0.50
Pb 0.00698 0.0326 0.005 1.40 6.52
Cd 0.00168 0.0161 0.005 0.34 3.22
Sediment (mg/kg)
Cu 15.3 21.9 35 0.44 0.63
Pb 16.8 29.1 60 0.28 0.49
Cd 0.934 2.28 0.5 1.87 4.56
Hg 0.169 0.50 0.2 0.85 2.50
94
Table 89. Comparative Risk Assessment for Liaodong Bay.
Agents RQ < 1 1 < RQ < 10 10 < RQ < 100 RQ > 100
WATER COLUMN
Nutrients
DIN
DIP
COD/DO
COD
Metals
Hg
Pb
Cd
Sediment
Cu
Pb
Cd
Hg
Table 90. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for Bohai Bay.
WATER COLUMN
Nutrients (mg/L)
DIN 0.23 1.03 0.3 0.77 3.43
DIP 0.022 0.197 0.03 0.73 6.57
COD/DO (mg/L)
COD 1.32 2.3 3 0.44 0.77
Fecal Coliform (ind./L) 18,487 48,000 2,000 9.24 24.0
Metals (mg/L)
Hg 0.000033 0.000068 0.0002 0.17 0.34
Pb 0.00245 0.0131 0.005 0.49 2.62
Cd 0.00008 0.00025 0.005 0.02 0.05
Sediment (mg/kg)
Cu 36.2 45.6 35 1.03 1.30
Pb 16.8 22.6 60 0.28 0.38
Cd 0.141 0.238 0.5 0.28 0.48
Hg 0.031 0.050 0.2 0.16 0.25
95
Table 91 compares the range of RQs (from presented by the high RQs for fecal coliform in
average to maximum) across contaminants in the the water column.
order of magnitude of RQ. Bohai Bay risks to
the ecology of Bohai Sea are mainly associated
with fecal coliform, nutrients (DIN, DIP) and Pb CENTRAL PART OF BOHAI SEA
in water column and Cu in sediment.
From Table 94, it is clear that no
contaminant in the water column and sediment
LAIZHOU BAY of the center part of Bohai Sea has average or
maximum RQs exceeding the critical threshold.
From Table 92, it is clear that except for However, Cu in sediment has RQ Max
fecal coliform in the water column, no other approaching 1.
contaminant in the water column and sediment
has an RQ Ave exceeding the critical level of 1. Table 95 compares the range of RQs (from
COD and Pb in water have maximum RQs that average to maximum) across contaminants in
exceed 1. the order of magnitude of RQ. It is clear that
the risks from the central part of Bohai Sea to
Table 93 compares the range of RQs (from the Bohai Sea ecology is very low.
average to maximum) across contaminants in the
order of magnitude of RQ. It shows that the risk Based on the above analysis, it may be
brought by Laizhou Bay to the ecology of Bohai concluded that the seawater and sediment of
Sea is very low. Human health risk is however Liaodong Bay and Bohai Bay were more
Table 91. Comparative Risk Assessment for Bohai Bay.
Agents RQ < 1 1 < RQ < 10 10 < RQ < 100 RQ > 100
WATER COLUMN
Nutrients
DIN
DIP
COD/DO
COD
Metals
Hg
Pb
Cd
Sediment
Cu
Pb
Cd
Hg
96
Table 92. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for Laizhou Bay.
WATER COLUMN
Nutrients (mg/L)
DIN 0.091 0.202 0.3 0.30 0.67
DIP 0.004 0.005 0.03 0.13 0.17
COD/DO (mg/L)
COD 1.68 3.6 3 0.56 1.20
Metals (mg/L)
Hg 0.000025 0.00008 0.0002 0.13 0.40
Pb 0.00134 0.005 0.005 0.27 1.00
Cd 0.00006 0.0001 0.005 0.01 0.02
Fecal Coliform (ind./L)
Laizhou Bay 733 2,400 2,000 0.37 1.2
Yellow River estuary 11,362 24,000 2,000 5.68 12.0
Sediment (mg/kg)
Cu 19.1 26.8 35 0.55 0.77
Pb 15.0 23.2 60 0.25 0.39
Cd 0.063 0.080 0.5 0.13 0.16
Hg 0.044 0.074 0.2 0.22 0.37
Table 93. Comparative Risk Assessment for Laizhou Bay.
Agents RQ < 1 1 < RQ < 10 10 < RQ < 100 RQ > 100
WATER COLUMN
Nutrients (mg/L)
DIN
DIP
COD/DO (mg/L)
COD
Metals (mg/L)
Hg
Pb
Cd
Fecal Coliform (ind./L)
Laizhou Bay
Yellow River estuary
Sediment (mg/kg)
Cu
Pb
Cd
Hg
97
Table 94. Refined Risk Assessment Summary for the Central Part of Bohai Sea.
Agents MECAve MECMax PNEC RQAve RQ Max
WATER COLUMN
Nutrients (mg/l)
DIN 0.028 0.038 0.3 0.09 0.13
DIP 0.008 0.012 0.03 0.27 0.40
COD/DO (mg/l)
COD 0.8 0.96 3 0.27 0.32
Metals (mg/l)
Hg 0.000016 0.000042 0.0002 0.08 0.21
Pb 0.00034 0.00059 0.005 0.07 0.12
Cd 0.00001 0.00015 0.005 0.002 0.03
Sediment (mg/kg)
Cu 22.1 33.7 35 0.63 0.96
Pb 17.1 23.0 60 0.28 0.49
Cd 0.081 0.141 0.5 0.16 0.28
Hg 0.024 0.045 0.2 0.12 0.23
Table 95. Comparative Risk Assessment for the Central Part of Bohai Sea.
Agents RQ < 1 1 < RQ < 10 10 < RQ < 100 RQ > 100
WATER COLUMN
Nutrients
DIN
DIP
COD/DO
COD*
Metals
Hg
Pb
Cd
Sediment
Cu
Pb
Cd
Hg
98
severely polluted than the other parts of Bohai For Liaodong Bay, nutrients (DIN, DIP),
Sea. COD and Pb in the water column and Cd in
sediment pose relatively high risks to the
For the water column, risks to human health ecology of Bohai Sea. Bohai Bay risks are
associated with fecal coliform and risks to the mainly associated with nutrients (DIN, DIP)
ecology of Bohai Sea associated with nutrients, and Pb in the water column and Cu in sediment.
Pb and oil are priority concerns. The risks to the Risk to the ecology of Bohai Sea from Laizhou
ecology of Bohai Sea from sediment-borne Bay and the central part of Bohai Sea is
contaminants are associated with pesticides and relatively low, although the human health risk
heavy metals. It is clear that seafood risks to from fecal coliform in the water column in
human health are associated with fecal coliform, some parts of Laizhou Bay require urgent
DSP, Pb and PSP. attention.
99
Conclusions and Recommendations
RETROSPECTIVE RISK ASSESSMENT composition and change of dominant species from

1982 to 1992. The most important reasons were
Marine Living Resources overfishing and the use of destructive fishing
methods. In some coastal waters, discharge of
For fisheries, a clear evidence of significant pollutants, e.g., heavy metals and pesticides may
decline in quantity and quality was confirmed. A have contributed to the decline. Overfishing and
manifestation of decline in fish quantity is the habitat pollution caused the degradation of benthic
decline in trawl CPUE from 138.8 kg/net.hr in ecosystem and lower biodiversity.
1959 to 11.2 kg/net.hr in 1998. Evidence of the
deterioration in quality include: 1) the change in There is evidence for definite decline in the
trawl catch composition from economically abundance and density of phytoplankton from 1982
valuable to less valuable species; 2) disappearance/ to 1992. The retrospective risk assessment
near-absence of some dominant species; and 3) fish indicates that the reasons for decline are the fast
sizes have become smaller. The identified primary development of shellfish culture and
agent for the significant decline in fishery is environmental pollution.
overfishing. Other factors such as waste discharges
from land- and sea-based activities cannot be The biomass of zooplankton in Bohai Sea
excluded. decreased sharply from 1982 to 1992. One reason
for the decline is the decrease in phytoplankton.
Most of the maricultured species developed Another is the fast development of shellfish
rapidly in the past few years with only shrimp aquaculture. Increase in zooplankton biomass was
and crab production declining. The fast observed from 1992 to 1998.
development of marine cultivation could bring
about some adverse effects. The wastewater Habitats
discharge from farming could pollute the
environment, especially BOD and COD pollution. For wetlands, the evidence of decline in the
The fast development of farming would occupy total area was found only in Liaohe River Delta
more land and/or inter-tidal areas, which could Wetland. Although the total area of Yellow River
lead to habitat destruction. The reason for the Delta Wetland did not decline, the area of natural
decline in shrimp and crab production was mainly wetlands has declined and is seriously damaged.
the spread of disease and environmental pollution. Oil exploitation is the primary reason for the
decrease of natural wetlands. The secondary
As far as benthos is concerned, evidence of reason may be attributed to land reclamation for
significant decline in quantity and quality was conversion into farming lands, reservoirs, ponds,
found. The decline in quantity can be confirmed salt-fields and paddy fields.
by the large decrease in mean number per haul
and mean catch per haul. The deterioration in These two damaged wetlands have caused the
benthos quality is shown by the change in species following consequences: 1) the service function of
101
the damaged wetland ecosystem will decrease and PROSPECTIVE RISK ASSESSMENT
support less food for other living organisms; and
2) the fragmented wetland provide easily The risk agents were classified into three
vulnerable and unsafe habitats and/or refuge for classes (priority risks, localized risks, and
waterfowls and other species (local and alien) and acceptable risks) according to the prospective risk
birds, such as red-crowned cranes and white assessment. The standards for this classification are:
cranes, often wintering in the wetland around
Bohai Sea may be exposed to their predators; If RQAve > 1, then it is priority risk;
3) the degradation of wetland decreased its If RQMax > 1, then it is localized risk; and
biodiversity and aesthetic function for human If RQMax < 1, then it is acceptable risk.
entertainment; and 4) the damaged wetland
ecosystem decreased its ability to treat waste All the agents for ecosystem risks are
discharges. summarized in Table 96, and all the agents for
human health risks are summarized in Table 97.
Some beaches around Bohai Sea, which are The results showed that TSS, Pb, and Oil belong to
mainly located in the Liaohe River Delta and the priority of concerned agents in the Bohai Sea.
Yellow River Delta, have also been lost because DDT and 666 in the sediment are also in the first
of the building of tourism facilities, ports, dams priority class. While DIN, DIP, COD, and Cd in
and others structures. But the available data was the water column are the localized risk agents and
very limited for a detailed analysis. should be of concern in some hotspots, as well as
Hg, Cu, Cd, and PAHs in sediment. However, DO,
Based on historical data, the Bohai Sea coast Hg, Cu in water and oil, and TSS in the sediment
had been severely eroded, especially in Jinzhou, are acceptable, thus concern is minimal.
Tianjin and Laizhou Bays. Human activities are
the major reasons for coastal erosion, especially HAB occurrence has been a persistent problem,
the building of reservoirs in the upriver areas and with the causes for its occurrence still very unclear.
illegal- and over-excavation of sand in the coastal However, the huge nutrient load in recent years
areas. The natural reasons include seawater maybe one of the main reasons. How to predict
intrusion, strong windstorms and sea level rise. and prevent HABs is now becoming a grim problem
Table 96. Risk Classification for the Bohai Sea Ecosystem.

Priority Risks Localized Risks Acceptable Risks
Water Column • TSS • DIN, DIP • DO

• Pb • COD • Hg
• Oil • Cd • Cu
Sediment • DDT • Hg • Oil
• 666 • Cu • TSS
• Cd
• PAHs
102
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
for scientists. Every effort must be taken to reduce Yellow River; DSP, PSP, and fecal coliform
the occurrence of HABs. (Beidaihe) in the shellfish; and Pb in the seaweed.
The localized group includes fecal coliform in the
For human health risks in the Bohai Sea, the water column of Laizhou Bay, and Pb and DDT in
primary concern group includes fecal coliform in the shellfish. The acceptable risk agent group
the water column of Beidaihe and estuary of includes fecal coliform in Panjin waters; Hg, Cu,
Table 97. Risk Classification for Human Health.

Priority Risks Localized Risks Acceptable Risks
Water Column • Fecal coliform in the • Fecal coliform in • Fecal coliform in Panjin
estuary of Yellow Yiver Laizhou Bay
• Fecal coliform in Beidaihe
Shellfish Tissue • DSP • Pb • Hg
• PSP • DDT • Cu
• Fecal coliform • Cd
• As
Fish Tissue • Hg
• Cu
• Pb
• Cd
Seaweed Tissue • Pb • Hg
• Cu
• Cd
Table 98. Risk Classification for Liaodong, Bohai and Laizhou Bays.
Area Media Priority Risks Localized Risks Acceptable Risks
Liaodong Bay Water • DIN • DIP • Fecal coliform

• COD • Cd • Hg
• Pb
Sediment • Cd • Hg • Cu
• Pb
Bohai Bay Water • Fecal coliform • DIN, DIP • COD
• Hg
• Cd
Sediment • Cu • Pb
• Cd
• Hg
Laizhou Bay Water • COD • DIN, DIP
• Fecal coliform • Hg
• Pb • Cd
Sediment • Cu
• Pb
• Cd
• Hg
103
Cd and As in shellfish; and Hg, Cu and Cd in important areas. Other agents were not within
seaweed. There are no cause for concern in fish harmful levels to create high risks to the
tissue since the risks are minimal. ecosystem.
The risks in Liaodong Bay, Bohai Bay and

Laizhou Bay are listed in Table 98, according to R ECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMMEDIATE M ANAGEMENT
the data analyzed. CONSIDERATION
Priority must be placed on minimizing the very Based on the ecological risk assessment in the
high risks presented by DIN, COD and Pb in the Bohai Sea, it is clear that there is an
water column and Cd in the sediment to the overexploitation of fishery and benthic resources.
ecosystem in Liaodong Bay. MECs of DIN are Evidence shows of the decline in quantity and
over the critical level in 80 percent of the area of quality in fishery production, a situation serious
Liaodong Bay. Meanwhile, DIP and Cd in the enough to need immediate action, such as
water column and Hg in the sediment should also prolonging the fishing ban period, reducing the
be of priority in some areas, because they present fishing boat catch amount, and increasing fish fries
risks to the ecosystem in the hotspots. However, by artificial technology.
fecal coliform, Hg in the water column and Cu
and Pb in the sediment are now in acceptable levels To protect the natural wetlands in Yellow
and will not present high risks to the ecosystem River and Liaohe River Deltas from degradation,
in Liaodong Bay. The possible sources of nutrients laws should be enforced to control the
include domestic, commercial, chemical, overexploitation of area conversion into ponds,
industrial, agricultural and maricultural waste. It paddies and salt fields.
means further actions should be taken to treat
sewage before discharge and control the nutrient For pollution risks in the Bohai Sea,
load from agriculture or aquaculture. consideration must be made towards building
more water treatment facilities and reducing the
In Bohai Bay, some urgent actions should be amount of discharge.
given to the fecal coliform in the water column
and Cu in sediment. Concern should be given to But all these management actions should
DIN, DIP and Pb in the water column in some benefit society; should be good for the sustainable
areas, since they present risks to the ecosystem. economic development in the WBSA; and should
The other agents are still in acceptable levels and be taken with minimal investment cost. A further
present no harm to the ecosystem. analysis of the ecological risk management in Bohai
Sea is being conducted right now, which will
In Laizhou Bay, concern should be given to enable suggestions and recommendations to be
COD, fecal coliform and Pb in seawater in some made from the analyzed report.
.
104
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Engineering Department, Government of Environment of Malaysia.
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Improvement Technique. First Institute of resources in the Bohai Sea." Journal of
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Zhang Xiaoling. 2001. "Investigation of
Su Jian, et al. 2001. "Analysis of SPM Data pollution of Pb, Cd, Hg and As in
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Qingdao, 31(5):647-652. Journal, 25 (3): 87-90.
107
Glossary
Accuracy. The degree to which a measurement Biomagnification. Result of the process of

reflects the true value of a variable. bioaccumulation and biotransfer by which tissue
concentrations of chemicals in organisms at one
Adverse ecological effects. Changes that are trophic level exceed tissue concentrations in
considered undesirable because they alter valued organisms at the next lower trophic level in a food
structural or functional characteristics of chain.
ecosystems or their components. An evaluation
of adversity may consider the type, intensity, and Community. An assemblage of populations of
scale of the effect as well as the potential for different species within a specified location and time.
recovery.
Comparative risk assessment. A process that
Agent. Any physical, chemical, or biological entity generally uses a professional judgment approach
that can induce an adverse response (synonymous to evaluate the relative magnitude of effects and
with stressor). set priorities among a wide range of
environmental problems.
Assessment endpoint. An explicit expression of the
environmental value that is to be protected, Concentration. The relative amount of a substance
operationally defined by an ecological entity and in an environmental medium, expressed by
its attributes. relative mass (e.g., mg/kg), volume (ml/L), or
number of units (e.g., parts per million).
Attribute. A quality or characteristic of an
ecological entity. An attribute is one component Contaminant of concern. A substance detected at
of an assessment endpoint. a hazardous waste site that has the potential to
affect ecological receptors adversely due to its
Benthic community. The community of organisms concentration, distribution, and mode of toxicity.
dwelling at the bottom of a pond, river, lake, or
ocean. Correlation. An estimate of the degree to which
two sets of variables vary together, with no
Bioaccumulation. General term describing a distinction between dependent and independent
process by which chemicals are taken up by an variables.
organism either directly from exposure to a
contaminated medium or by consumption of food Disturbance. Any event or series of events that
containing the chemical. disrupts the ecosystem, community, or population
structure and changes resources, substrate
Bioconcentration. A process by which there is a availability, or the physical environment.
net accumulation of a chemical directly from an
exposure medium into an organism. Ecological component. Any part of an ecosystem,
including individuals, populations, communities,
and the ecosystem itself.
109
Ecological entity. A general term that may refer Fate. Disposition of a material in various
to a species, a group of species, an ecosystem environmental compartments (e.g., soil or
function or characteristic, or a specific habitat. An sediment, water, air, biota) as a result of transport,
ecological entity is one component of an transformation, and degradation.
assessment endpoint.
Food-chain transfer. A process by which
Ecosystem. The biotic community and biotic substances in the tissues of lower-trophic-level
environment within a specified location and time, organisms are transferred to the higher-trophic-
including the chemical, physical, and biological level organisms that feed on them.
relationships among the biotic and abiotic
components. Habitat. Place where a plant or animal lives, often
characterized by a dominant plant form and
Ecotoxicology. The study of toxic effects on physical characteristics.
nonhuman organisms, populations, or
communities. Hazard. The likelihood that a substance will cause
an injury or adverse effect under specified
Effects assessment. The component of a risk conditions.
analysis concerned with quantifying the manner
in which the frequency and intensity of effects Hazard assessment. Comparison of the intrinsic
increase with an increasing exposure to the ability of a substance to cause harm (i.e., to have
substance. adverse effects for humans or the environment)
with its expected environmental concentration,
Environmental risk assessment. The likelihood that often a comparison of PEC and PNEC. Sometimes
an environmental condition caused by human referred to as risk assessment.
activity will cause harm to a target. It involves
estimating the likelihood of harm being done to Hazard identification. Identification of the
human health and/or ecosystems through factors adverse effects that a substance has an inherent
emanating from human activities that reach their capacity to cause, or in certain cases, the assessment
natural targets via the natural environment. of a particular effect. It includes the identification
of the target populations and conditions of
Exposure. Co-occurrence of or contact between a exposure.
stressor and an ecological component. The contact
reaction between a chemical and a biological Ingestion rate. The rate at which an organism
system or organism. consumes food, water, or other materials (e.g.,
soil, sediment). Ingestion rate usually is expressed
Exposure assessment. The component of a risk in terms of unit of mass or volume per unit of
analysis that estimates the emissions, pathways time (e.g., kg/day, l/day).
and rates of movement of a chemical in the
environment, and its transformation or LC 50 . A statistically or graphically estimated
degradation, in order to estimate the concentration that is expected to be lethal to 50
concentrations/doses to which the system of percent of a group of organisms under specified
interest may be exposed. conditions.
110
GLOSSARY
Lowest-observable-adverse-effect level (LOAEL). Representative samples. Serving as a typical or

The lowest level of a stressor evaluated in a toxicity characteristic sample; should provide analytical
test or biological field survey that has a statistically results that correspond with actual
significant adverse effect on the exposed environmental quality or the condition
organisms compared with unexposed organisms experienced by the contaminant receptor.
in a control or reference site.
Retrospective risk assessment. An evaluation of
Measurement endpoint. A measurable ecological the causal linkages between observed ecological
characteristic that is related to the valued effects and stressor(s) in the environment.
characteristic chosen as the assessment endpoint.
Measurement endpoints often are expressed as the Risk. The probability of an adverse effect on
statistical or arithmetic summaries of the humans or the environment resulting from a
observations that make up the measurement. given exposure to a substance. It is usually
Measurement endpoints can include measures of expressed as the probability of an adverse effect
effect and measures of exposure. occurring, e.g., the expected ratio between the
number of individuals that would experience
Population. An aggregate of individuals of a an adverse effect in a given time and the total
species within a specified location in space and number of individuals exposed to the risk
time. factor.
Precision. A measure of the closeness of Risk assessment. A process, which entails some
agreement among individual measurements. or all of the following elements: hazard
identification, effects assessment, exposure
Predicted or estimated environmental assessment and risk characterization. It is the
concentration (EC). The concentration of a material identification and quantification of the risk
predicted/estimated as being likely to occur in resulting from a specific use of occurrence of a
environmental media to which organisms are chemical including the determination of
exposed. exposure/dose-response relationships and the
identification of target populations. It may
Primary effect. An effect where the stressor acts range from largely qualitative (for situations in
on the ecological component of interest itself, not which data are limited) to fully quantitative
through effects on other components of the (when enough information is available so the
ecosystem (synonymous with direct effect; probabilities can be calculated).
compare with definition for secondary effect).
Risk characterization. The step in the risk
Prospective risk assessment. An evaluation of the assessment process where the results of the
future risks of a stressor(s) not yet released into exposure assessment (e.g., PEC, daily intake)
the environment or of future conditions resulting and the effects assessment (e.g., PNEC,
from an existing stressor(s). NOAEL) are compared. If possible, an
uncertainty analysis is carried out, which, if it
Reference site. A relatively uncontaminated site results in a quantifiable overall uncertainty,
used for comparison to contaminated sites in produces an estimation of the risk.
environmental monitoring studies, often
incorrectly referred to as a control.
111
Risk classification. The weighting of risks in order Species. A group of organisms that actually or
to decide whether risk reduction is required. It potentially interbreed and are reproductively
includes the study of risk perception and the isolated from all other such groups; a taxonomic
balancing of perceived risks and perceived grouping of morphologically similar individuals;
benefits. the category below genus.
Risk Pathways (Exposure Pathways). A Stressor. Any physical, chemical, or biological

diagrammatic representation of the course that all entity that can induce an adverse response
agents take from a source to exposed organisms (synonymous with agent).
(target) (Modified from U.S. EPA). In the diagram,
each exposure pathway includes a source or Threshold concentration. A concentration above
release from a source, an exposure point, and an which some effect (or response) will be produced
exposure route. If the exposure point differs from and below which it will not.
the source, transport/exposure media (i.e., air,
water) are also included. For the particular use of Tolerable daily intake (TDI). Regulatory value
the report, the major categories found in the equivalent to the acceptable daily intake
diagram include economic/social drivers established relevant regulatory bodies and
(sources), hazards, resources and habitats agencies, e.g., US Food and Drug Administration,
(targets), and the effects on the economy. It may World Health Organization, and the European
also sometimes be referred to as the conceptual Commission Scientific Committee on Food. It is
model that describes an ecosystem or ecosystem expressed in mg/person, assuming a body weight
components potentially at risk, and the of 60 kg. And is normally used for food
relationships between measurement and contaminants.
assessment endpoints and exposure scenarios.
Trophic level. A functional classification of taxa
Sample. Fraction of a material tested or analyzed; within a community that is based on feeding
a selection or collection from a larger collection. relationships (e.g., aquatic and terrestrial plants
make up the first trophic level, and herbivores
Secondary effect. An effect where the stressor acts make up the second).
on supporting components of the ecosystem,
which in turn have an effect on the ecological Uncertainty. Imperfect knowledge concerning the
component of interest (synonymous with indirect present or future state of the system under
effects; compare with definition for primary consideration; a component of risk resulting from
effect). imperfect knowledge of the degree of hazard or
of its spatial and temporal distribution.
Sediment. Particulate material lying below water.
Uptake. A process by which materials are
Source. An entity or action that releases to the transferred into or onto an organism.
environment or imposes on the environment a
chemical, physical, or biological stressor or
stressors.
112

Bohai Sea Environmental Risk Assessment

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Bohai Sea

Environmental Risk Assessment

First Institute of Oceanography,

Bohai Sea Environmental Management Project

GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme on

First Institute of Oceanography,

Printed in Quezon City, Philippines

A GEF Project Implemented by UNDP and Executed by IMO

The Global Environment Facility/United Nations Development Programme/International Maritime

PEMSEA focuses on building intergovernmental, interagency and intersectoral partnerships to

• build national and regional capacity to implement integrated coastal management

Dr. Chua Thia-Eng

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Table 1. Sources of Information for the Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Figure 1.Sampling Stations in Bohai Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

666 – Benzene Hexachloride

Dr. Zhang Zhaohui

本报告是 GEF/UNDP/IMO 东亚海洋环境管理伙伴计划(PEMSEA)中“渤海环境

Table 1. Sources of Information for the Risk Assessment.

Beach 1993 Entire Bohai Sea Some research articles 3

Table 1. Sources of Information for Risk Assessment (continuation).

Parameters Description of Data Location References Data

Figure 1. Sampling Stations in Bohai Sea.

Data Source: State Environment Protection Administration (SEPA)

Bohai Sea is a unique shallow marine

Figure 3. Map of Wider Bohai Sea Region.

116° 118° 120° 122° 124°

BEIJING PROVINCE Suizhong

BOHAI SEA Dalian

HEBEI PROVINCE YELLOW SEA

Binzhou LAIZHOU BAY

116° 118° 120° 122°

An environmental risk assessment involves human health and/or ecological quality.

Economic/ Population Refining Extract Manufacturing Shipping Agriculture Aquaculture Fishing

Nutrients& Heavy Oil Chemicals Organic

Human Habitat Species

Figure 4. Risk Pathways for Bohai Sea.

INTRODUCTION were reviewed and relevant data on identified

Table 2. Details of Retrospective Risk Assessment.

12. Windstorm; In addition, changes in the physical feature

Table 3. Decision Criteria for Determining the Likelihood of Harm.

Catch per unit of effort (CPUE) is the number

Table 4. The Total Catch Production in Bohai Sea.

Changes Observed/Time Identified Agents

Figure 7. CPUE of Small Yellow Croaker Provided by a Fishing Company.

Figure 8. Variations of Fishery Resource Biomass in Bohai Sea.

Figure 9. Number of Fishing Boats from 1989-1997.

Figure 10. Average Length of the Small Yellow Croaker.

Figure 11. Percentage of Engraulis japonicus in the Total Catch (percentage

Figure 12. Scomberomorus niphonius Catch from 1949 to 1992.

Table 9. Detailed Retrospective Risk Assessment for Fisheries.

1. Is the target exposed to the agent? Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

Table 10. Annual Freshwater Run-off of Yellow River (1997–2001).

HABs that occur in Bohai Sea with increasing

Table 13. Retrospective Analysis for Mariculture Species.

Changes Observed/Time Identified Agents

Figure 14. Areas of Different Mariculture Types.

Figure 15. Production of Farmed Marine Fish from 1989 to 1998.

Figure 16. Production of Farmed Shellfish from 1989 to 1998.

Figure 18. Production of Seaweeds from 1989 to 1998.