Latin Language, All About It PDF

5
THE LATIN LANGUAGE

W.
M.
LINDSAY
Bonbon
HENRY FROWDE
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE
AMEN CORNER, E.C
MACMILLAN
&
CO., 66
FIFTH AVENUE
THE
LATIN
LANGUAGE
AN HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
LATIN SOUNDS, STEMS, AND FLEXIONS
BY
W. M.
LINDSAY,
M.A.
FELLOW OF JESUS COLLEGE, OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

1894
- 6 1946
PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

BY HORACE HART. PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
TO
PROFESSOR ROBINSON ELLIS
PREFACE
SINCE Corssen's great work (last edition, Leipzig, 1868-70),
no book devoted to a separate investigation
there has been
by Comparative Philological methods of the Latin Language,

its
declensions, its conjugations, its formation of the various
and the changes
parts of speech,
of its pronunciation
and
we
except the short summary (last edition,

written
Nordlingen, 1889)
by Professor Stolz for the Iwan
Miiller Series of Handbooks of Classical Antiquity.
And yet
orthography,
if
the additions to our knowledge of the subject since Corssen's

Not only has the whole Science
time have been very great.

of Comparative
Philology been,
by the help of men
like
Johannes Schmidt, OsthofF, and Brugmann 1 set on a sounder

basis, but a vast amount has been added to our knowledge of
,
the Early Latin authors, especially Plautus, of the Umbrian,

Oscan, and other dialects of ancient Italy, of Romance, and
of the Celtic family of languages, a family closely
united with the Italic group. The time has surely come for
a new treatment of the subject, such as I venture to offer in
above
all
the ten chapters of this volume.

I should have liked to have added to
them a
fuller dis-
cussion of the relation of Latin to the other languages of

Italy.
But
had already exceeded the generous
I take this opportunity
of ac-
the fullest
extent
knowledging
possible
mann,
my
to
indebtedness to Brug-
Grundriss
der
Vergleichenden
Grammatik in chaps,
iv-viii,
Seelmann, Aussprache
chap.
ii.
limits
des
and
Latein
to
in
PREFACE.
viii
allowed by the Delegates of the Press, and it seemed to me

until more evidence is forthcoming in the shape of
It is
dialectal inscriptions certainty can hardly be attained.
that
much
to be desired that
some of the money which
is
being
raised every year for excavations should be devoted to this

field of research.
who fought
The records
so gallantly with
of peoples like the Samnites.
Rome
for the rule of Italy,
and
whose religion and manners so greatly influenced the ruling

race, should not be allowed to lie neglected.
And
yet, while
the Latin, Greek, and Etruscan inscriptions of Italy are carefully sought after year by year, there has been practically no
organized search for the remains of Oscan, Umbrian, Pelignian,

and the rest. I trust that some step may be taken ere long
in this direction.
It
help which
me
acknowledge with gratitude the kind

have had from numerous correspondents, both
remains for
to
country and abroad, as well as from my Oxford

friends, such as my colleague, Mr. E. R. Wharton.
My
special thanks are due to Mr. Sweet for looking through
in this
the proof-sheets of my chapter on Latin Pronunciation, and

to Professors Mommsen. Bormann, Huelsen, and Dressel for
giving me access to the advance-sheets of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.

My friend, Mr. J. A. Smith, Fellow of
Balliol College, has been
book in
proof,
especially on
and
good enough to go over the whole
to give
me many
one of the most
valuable suggestions,
problems of the
difficult
language, the formation of the Perfect Tense.

OXFORD, August, 1894.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
........
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER
PAGE
xxvi
I.
THE ALPHABET.
SEC.
1.
2.
3.
The Alphabet
The Alphabet
The letter F
4-
5-
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
of twenty-one letters
5
5
The Guttural-symbols
Y- and W-sounds
Double Consonant
Signs for long vowels
.........
..........
.........
gg for ng
11.
New
12.
Influence of Greek Orthography
Letters for Greek
13. Syllabic
Sounds
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
.12
12
Writing
CHAPTER
II.
PRONUNCIATION.
1.
2.
Description of the A-sound by Latin phoneticians
.........
.........
.........
.
5.
Interchange of a and e
Interchange of a and o
Anomalies in Romance
6.
7.
Descriptions of the E-sound by Latin phoneticians, &c.
8.
for
9.
for e in hiatus
10.
'
3.
4.
...
Rustic
'
e for
in hiatus
17
18
18
20
.21
.22
22
11. I for e
for
17
17
21
unaccented e
.
13
.............
unaccented e
12.
13.
a for e
14-
15.
Descriptions of the I-sound by Latin phoneticians
1 6.
by Grammarians
23
23
23
25
25
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
X
SEC.
and
17.
Interchange of
18.
19.
Anomalies in Romance
20.
29
in hiatus
....
21. Descriptions of the O-sound by Latin phoneticians

22. Close for open o in accented syllables before certain consonant-
groups
unaccented 6
24.
u
u
25.
26.
U,
23.
............
for
for 6
Other changes of 6 and 6
29. o for
30. 6 for
U-sound by Latin phoneticians
au in Romance
36.
37. o
and au
40.
42. ai for ae
Greek
44. oe
37
37
39
40
40
40
40
...........
........
............
............
............-44
and e
Romance
45. oe in
Greek
35
37
au
Greek transcriptions of au
ae for au
41. e for ae
43.
......
au
for accented
38. a for
39.
34
37
35.
33.
33
33
36
ii
34.
32.
....
u
Other changes of u and u
Diphthongs
Grammarians' account of diphthongs
Ter. Maurus on an
31.
32
34
27. Descriptions of the

28. Greek v in Latin
30
30
32
41
42
42
42
43
43
44
cu
44
47. ui of cui
44
46.
48. J,
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
44
Testimony of grammarians
j and v in early Latin
in late Latin and Romance
v confused with b in late Latin and Romance
Intervocalic v dropped
v dropped
vowel
54. Postconsonantal
55. ai, ei before a
56.
62.
63.
....
.
Testimony of grammarians
58. h between vowels
59. h in Old Latin
60. Greek aspirates in Latin
57.
61.
47
.48
49
49
52
52
53
.53
.55
57
57
57
M,N
60
Phonetic descriptions of normal m, n
65
65
The Agma
m, n before consonant
64.
65. Final
65
67
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xi
SEC.
PAGE
ns
66.
67.
68.
69
69
69
7o
7o
nx
mn
gn
7- net
71- nd
69-
?0
72. Parasitic
Tenues and mediae
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
vowel in Greek loanwords
83.
84.
...
Greek tenues in loanwords

Confusion of mediae and tenues in Latin words
Mediae and tenues at end of word
Mediae and tenues in the Dialects
.
B, P
Phonetic descriptions of
80. bs, bt
81. ps, pt
82.
70
71
.
-75
-77
76
.
78
b,
78
79
.... .......
bm, mb
b and dialectal
b and m
79
.80
............
f
D, T
87. d and 1
88. d and r
:
85.
86.
d, t
89. tl
90. Assibilation of ty,
GU
94.
84
86
86
gu
g before narrow vowels
c,
95- ct, tt
99.
tor.
Interchange of r and
vowel with
105. r-n
106. 1-n
107.
-91
of
92
92
92
-93
.........
............
..........
.............
..........
............
Avoidance of two
104. rs
91
... ..... ...

...
The grammarians on the pronunciation
102. Parasitic
103.
98. of r
100. of r
1,
r's
95
96
96
96
96
before consonant
108. rl
109. r before
no. final r
97
consonants
97
97
in. Metathesis
112. ly
87
89
89
L,
97. Phonetic descriptions of
96.
80
80
80
82
82
82
83
83
dy
K, C, G, QU,
92. Phonetic descriptions of the Gutturals
91.
93. qu,
74
97
.-
.'
"
"3- ry
"4- F
98
-.
sound of
98
98
100
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xii
PAGE
100
SKC.
116.
mf
117. S, X, Z
1
19.
Latin
s,
.101
.
Romance
in
Greek
Latin z
121. Old Roman z
122. Old Roman s (z), later r
123. Prosthetic vowel with st, &c.
124. s before a consonant
125. x
120.
103
104
........
.........
.
Double consonants
Testimony of the grammarians
129.
Reduction of
11
to
1,
ss to
s,
after a
diphthong or long vowel
letter in
Latin
Double consonants in Italian

132. Double consonant (not 1, s) after long vowel
133. Final double consonant
134. Final consonants
135. 'Sandhi' in Latin
136. Latin 'Doublets'
137. Dropping of final consonant in Latin
.
of final consonants in
Dropping
J 39.
Syllable-Division
140.
Testimony
Quantity
141.
of
grammarians
Romance
145.
146.
147.
148.
119
....
125
126
129
131
133
140
141
.141
142
&c
142
150. Vowel-contraction in compounds in the early dramatists

151. Synizesis in Late and Vulgar Latin
Other examples of vowel-contraction
143
144
'...
153. Elision
154. Parasitic
124
122
.124
....... ...
.
19
vowel before another vowel

Change in quantity of vowel before certain consonant-groups
r with consonant
s with consonant
n with single consonant
1 with consonant
149. Crasis of vowels, Synizesis,
152.
.....
Position
142.
143. Shortening of long
144.
113
122
''....
'
.118
121
.no
.no
118
138.
107
108
.
and double
131.
105
107
108
128.
130. Confusion of single
105
.105
126. Final s
127.
103
144
144
vowels
145
CHAPTER
III.
ACCENTUATION.
1.
2.
Nature of the Latin Accent

Testimony of the grammarians,
Accent
On
148
(i)
On
the Nature of the Latin

154
3.
the circumflex accent

Accentuation of Greek loanwords
155
4.
Romance Accentuation
156
(2)
154
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SEC.
.......
......
.........
........
........
........
........
.....
.........
...........
.......
....
..........
.........
.........
......
.....
.....
...
..........
...........
.....
.......
..........
.......
..........
.........
.........
6.
The Earlier Law of Accentuation

Traces of I.-Eur. accentuation in Latin
7.
Secondary and main accent
8.
The Paenultima Law
5.
9.
10.
xiii
Testimony of the grammarians

Exceptions to the Paenultima Law
Vulgar- Latin Accentuation

12. Accentuation of the Sentence
i2. Latin Sentence-Enclitics
11.
13.
Syncope
14.
Syncope
Syncope
Syncope
Syncope
15.
16.
17.
18.
under the Old Accent
Law
Other Examples.
The
Parasitic
au
(i)
Pretonic
28. (8)
Vowel unchanged,
29.
ii.
i.
in Latin
Long vowels
Recomposition and Analogy
and False Analogy

(13) Shortening of Syllables long by position
Change and Shortening of Vowel in Unaccented Final Syllable
I. Loss or Syncope of Short Vowel
36. Loss of -e
Change of Vowel
Change of final short vowel
37. II.
39. Alternation of final e

40. III.
words
33. (12) Assimilation, Dissimilation,
38.
in Greek loanwords
32. (ii) Pretonic
35.
165
166
'
to e
with internal
Shortening of Long Syllable
Final long vowel in Hiatus

42. Breves Breviantes
41.
43.
of final -a
44.
of final -e
Shortening
Shortening
45. Shortening
46. Shortening
47. Shortening
48. Shortening
49. Shortening
-i
of final -u
~
.
of final diphthong
of long vowel before final Consonant
.'.
....
i
181
183
184
185
191
192
192
193
194
195
196
196
196
196
197
198
198
199
199
200
201
201
203
203
204
205
206
206
207
209
210
210
.211
of final -o
of final
177
Diphthongs in Hiatus
31. (10)
163
164
Vowel
25. (5) je and ve

26. (6) Later change of o to u, u to ii, i
2 7- (?) Greek words with Vowel-change
30. (9)
162
.178
I.
in other short syllables

2 3' (3) Diphthongs, ai, ae
22.
24. (4)
159
160
Change of Unaccented Vowels
34.
of Final Syllable
under the Paenultima Accent Law.
Syllables long by position

20. II. Short Syllables (i) in -r
21. (2) in -1 or Labial
19.
157
159
.170
in the Pi-aenestine Dialect of Latin
Post-tonic
(2)
PAGE
212
213
213
213
213
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xiv
PAGE
SEC.
50. Shortening of Final Syllable long
Shortening of Monosyllables
52. Loss of Final Syllable with -m
by
position
.
51.
CHAPTER
....
...
214
215
216
IV.
THE LATIN REPRESENTATIVES OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN SOUNDS.

1.
219
2.
Latin a for I.-Eur. a
221
3.
221
4. I.-Eur.
223
5-
6.
Lat. e for I.-Eur. e
.223
224
for 6
7. I
225
8.
9.
Latin e for I.-Eur. e
10. 6 for e
11.
with
w and
226
for (accented) e
229
230
12. I
13.
15.
Other examples of Lat.

ie, not ii
16.
14.
for I.-Eur.
231
232
232
i?-0
19.
Latin 6 for I.-Eur. 6

Latin a for I.-Eur. 6, under influence of v
20.
ii
21.
22.
23-
tJr
18
............
..........
for 6
u, I.-Eur.
Latin u for I.-Eur. u

25. Latin ii and Latin 6
24.
26.
The Diphthongs
27. AI
28. I.-Eur. ai,
29. AI,
AE
...
Latin ae
225
226
(ai)
on Inscriptions
30.
AU
31.
Other examples
32-
BI
33.
Other examples of I.-Eur.
34.
ei
232
233
234
235
235
237
237
237
238
239
239
241
242
242
242
243
.243
&c
244
244
35-
EI and
BIT
36.
Other examples of I.-Eur. eu
245
246
37.
OU,
38.
01
I in Inscriptions,
U in
.'
Inscriptions
246
246
39. Other examples of I.-Eur. oi

40. 01, OE, U on Inscriptions
41.
ou
42.
Other examples of I.-Eur. ou
247
;
247
248
249
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
XV
PAGE
SEC.
43.
44.
The spurious diphthong ou
250
250
45-
AI
251
46.
AU
47-
El
48.
BIT
49-
OI
50.
51.
52.
for older ovi, ove
252
252
252
252
OTJ
Variation (Ablaut) of Vowels
I.-Eur. and Latin e and 6
............
....... ...
..........
............
............
............
............
............
...........
....
.........
.
and
53.
54. o-a, e-a

55-
a-o
56. a
57.
58.
59. 6
60. u
61. e
62.
and a
and e
and 1
and u
and a
6u-au
68.
Latin
63.
64. I.-Eur. initial y
65. I.-Eur. y preceded
67.
and o
by a consonant
y between vowels
66. I.-Eur.
......
........
........
........
............
.........
........
......
.......
72.
w
w (and Latin v) between
I.-Eur. w after a consonant
I.-Eur. w before a consonant
73.
M,
71.
I.-Eur.
74. I.-Eur.
75.
for
m
ms
77. I.-Eur.
mr, ml
79.
I.-Eur.
vowels
other examples
76. I.-Eur.
78.
259
260
260
260
260
261
261
262
264
264
265
265
69. I.-Eur. initial

70.
253
253
258
258
258
259
other examples
265
266
267
267
268
268
269
270
270
270
270
271
272
272
80.
mn
81.
The M- and N-Sonants
273
82.
Other examples of the Nasal Sonants

Other examples of am, an, ma, na
274
274
84.
L,
85-
275
275
83.
86. I.-Eur.
87.
other examples
'
88. I.-Eur. r
for r
other examples
consonant
89. ss for rs before

90. rr for rs before
91.
vowel
.
'
.........
.;
_"
276
276
277
277
277
278
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xvi
PAGE
SEC.
92.
The L- and B- Sonants
Other examples of the liquid Sonants

94. Other examples of al, ar, la, ra
95. Tenues, Mediae, and Aspirates
96. Media or aspirata assimilated to unvoiced consonant in Latin
97. Tenuis assimilated to voiced consonant in Latin
278
279
279
279
281
93.
....
98.
281
281
99.
100.
Other examples of I.-Eur. p
101.
Other examples of I.-Eur. b
102.
mn
103.
BH
for
bn
104. I.-Eur.
bh
105.
106.
282
282
282
282
282
...........
........
other examples
283
283
284
284
284
107. I.-Eur. tl
jo8. I.-Eur. tt
109.
no. Other instances

in. Latin 1 for d
112. Latin r ford
113. tr for
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
dr
284
285
286
of I.-Eur. d, Latin d
287
289
DH
289
289
290
293
293
293
Other examples of I. -Eur. dh

The Gutturals
x for Guttural with s
ct for Guttural with t
.........
119. gn,
gm
for en,
cm
h dropped between vowels

Dialectal f for h
The Palatal Gutturals: K, G, KH,
120. Latin
121.
T
22.
123.
294
294
295
GH
Other examples of I.-Eur. k
124. I.-Eur.
295
kw
135. Velar Gutturals with Labialisation : Q,H

136. I.-Eur. q3, Latin qu ; other examples
296
296
296
296
297
297
297
298
298
298
298
298
299
300
137. c for
300
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
....
Other examples of I.-Eur. g
GH
Other examples of I.-Eur. gh
The Gutturals Proper K, G,
:
GH,
KH
other examples
131.
132.
Other examples of I.-Eur. g
gh
other examples
qu
Latin qu of other origin

"
140. I.-Eur.
.-*.'.
/"
.... ....
GH
133134. I.-Eur.
139.
130. I.-Eur.
138.
..
301
.301
g'A,
Latin v
other examples
301
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
141. Dialectal b
142. g for L-Eur. g
143-
144. I.-Eur.
145.
146.
The
S, Z
gh in Latin
Sibilants
S,
149. Initial sibilant before
O^Latin
stJ, si, scl
consonant
157.
158.
159.
middle of word
....
...........
Assimilation of sibilant to preceding r, 1

preceding dental to the sibilant
154. Assimilation of
155. Latin ss for tt
156.
302
302
302
302
302
303
305
305
306
307
307
308
308
309
309
309
309
......
........
....
.......
......
.....
.
151. Sibilant before voiced consonant in

152. Sibilant before r in middle of word
153.
PAGE
other examples
147. I.-Eur. s, Latin s ; other examples

148. Latin r for intervocalic sibilant
150.
XVll
...........
..........
SEC.
Other groups with a sibilant

Loss of Consonant in Group
Other examples
Assimilation of Consonants
.310
311
.......
Assimilation in Preposition compounded with Verb

161. Other examples of Assimilation
1 60.
162.
Lengthening by Compensation
163.
Assimilation of Syllables
CHAPTEK
313
314
.314
315
V.
FORMATION OF NOUN AND ADJECTIVE STEMS.
STEM-SUFFIXES
1.
I.
2.
Suffixes
316
ending in -6, -a (Nouns and Adjectives of the First and

Second Declension). -O-, -A.316
Latin 0- and A-suffixes
other examples
.318
.318
-IO-, -IA-, (-YO-, -YA-)
.
3.
4.
-TJO-,
6.
I.-Eur.
Latin Verbal Adjectives in -uus,

-NO-, -NA-
9.
I.-Eur. NO-suffix
10.
IT.
12.
Latin -nus
Latin -Inus
Latin -anus
15.
Other examples
Other examples of the EO-suffix
1 8.
Examples
-dhro-
....
........
..........
of I.-Eur. -tero-
19. I.-Eur. -tro-
21.
-Ivus, -tivus
-KA-
17.
20. I.-Eur.
..........
-MENO-, -MENA-M6-, -MA-
16. -B.6-,
....
.... ......
.....
............
14.
13.
8.
7.
.........
.....
-UAStems in -wo-
5.
....
.
and
-ero- in
-L6-, -LA-
Latin
322
322
323
324
326
326
326
326
327
328
328
328
330
330
330
331
331
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xviii
PAGE
SEC.
Adjectives formed by the LO-suffix

23. Nouns denoting the Agent or the Instrument
22.
25.
Diminutives
Neuters formed with the
26.
The
24.
suffix -tlo-
.......
....
suffix -dhlo-
334
27. -T6-, -TA28. Participles in -tus

29.
Abstract Nouns in
30.
Neuters in -mentum
-334
.....
-ta (-sa)
'
32. Adjectives
....
-KA-
731. -KO-,
with the KO-suffix
33. Adjectives in -icius

34. Suffixes ending in i
(Nouns and Adjectives of third Declension)

Other examples of I-stems
36. Adjective I-stems from O-stems
37- -NI38. Other examples of Latin -ni39- -MI-
-I-
35.
......
Other examples of Latin
-li-,
-ri-
44.
45.
46.
......
ending in -u (Nouns of fourth Decl.).

Other examples of U-stems in Latin
49. Interchange of U- with O-stems
50. Other examples of TU-stems
51. The Suffixes -YE- (Nouns of fifth Decl.) and -I
52. Other examples of Latin Ferns, in -I, -Ic, &c
-IT-
....
....
.......
48.
and
54. Suffixes
The Stems
in -E
-EN-, -YEN-.
Decl.).
ending in
Neuter R-stems
-EH- and -TEH-
-r
....
.
(Nouns of third
Decl.J. -R-
59. Nouns of relationship

60. Latin Nomina Agentis
.........
ending in -t (Nouns and Adjectives of third

Other examples of Latin T-stems
61. Suffixes
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
-NT-
Other examples of Latin -ent-
-WENT-
Decl.).
... ...
.
......
-T-
341
342
342
342
343
343
344
344
347
347
348
349
349
349
350
350
350
350
351
.352
........
.....
...........
Other examples of Latin -osus

(Nouns of third Decl.
340
340
-WEN-,
.
EN-stems in Latin
56. Suffixes
58.
-I-
ending in -n (Nouns of third
-MEN55. Masc.
339
339
341
47. Suffixes
57.
Other examples of the suffix -tiin Latin

Examples of Latin -tionAdjectival -ti- for -to- in Latin
Other examples of Latin -tat(i)-, -tiit(i), -tudin-
53. -ye-
336
336
337
337
338
338
338
.339
42. -TI-
43.
335
336
-339
40. -BI-, -LI41.
332
332
333
333
352
.352
353
353
354
69. Suffixes ending in a Guttural (Nouns and Adjectives of third Decl.), 354
70. Other examples
355
67. Suffixes ending in -d
68. Other examples
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xix
.........
........
...........
...........
.....
.......
75.
ending in -s (Nouns and Adjectives of third Decl.). -ESNeuter ES- stems in Latin
Adjective ES-stems
Masc. (and Fern.) ES-stems
Other S stems
76.
-YES-
71. Suffixes
72.
73.
74.
77. Suffixless
Forms
80. II.
357
357
357
358
.....
...........
Eeduplicated Nouns and Adjectives in Latin
82.
A-stems
O-stems
............
............
............
........
...
........
............
.....
84.
I-stems
85.
86.
88.
U-stems
N-stems
R-stems
Dental and Guttural Stems
89.
S-stems
90.
Stem-suffixes
87.
and Composition
in
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
I.
Nom.
3.
Nona. Sing, of A-stems in Latin
Sing.
5.
RO-stems
YO-stems
6.
I-stems
7.
S-stems
8.
N-stems
Masc., Fein.
11.
O-stems
12.
I-stems
13.
U-stems
14.
S-stems
15.
R-stems
in
Nom.
19.
Fifth Decl. Stems
II.
22.
23.
Dat. Sing
373
374
375
375
376
376
-377
Neut.
.......
377
378
378
378
378
379
379
379
381
__
O-stems and I0-stems

U-stems
Consonant stems
21.
Sg. Neut. of Adjectives
18.
20.
Gen. Sing
A-stems
17.
Diphthong stems
Nom., Ace. Sing.
16. -S
.366
-371
.......
............
.....
...
............
........
............
I.
10.
9.
COMPARISON OF
NUMERALS.
ADJECTIVES.
1.
365
VI.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
2.
365
365
365
Romance
CHAPTER
4.
358
358
363
363
364
364
364
364
COMPOSITION
81.
83.
356
356
stems at end of Compounds in Latin

Latin Independent Suffixless stems
78. Suffixless
79.
355
355
.382
-"
..........
'.
383
384
384
385
XX
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
SEC.
24.
A-stems
386
25. Fifth Decl.

26. O-stems
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
Stems
.386
387
387
U-stems
Consonant-stems
Ace. Sing.
The endings -im and -em
Voc. Sing.
Other examples
387
387
388
Abl. Sing
Latin Abl. with -d
35. I-stem and Cons.-stem
33.
34. 0.
'
Abl.' in
36. Instr.
37.
Sing
Locative Sing.
38. Locatives in
39. A-stems,
and
42.
43.
I-stems
I.
44. Cons.-stems
45.
46.
47.
-e
in Latin
Masc., Fern.
50.
A- and O-stems
Other stems
51.
Ace. Plur.
irregular Comparatives
and Superlatives
....
Two
Duo
63.
Four
Quinque
67- Six
68. Seven
69.
Eight
70.
Nine
Ten
Eleven
73. 0.
403
404
404
404
406
407
407
408
409
410
410
.411
412
412
413
Quattuor
65. Five
64.
72.
One
Unus
62.
71-
........
NUMERALS
Three
Tres
66.
Some
56. III.
61.
55.
59.
60.
Plural
The Comparative Suffixes

The Superlative Suffixes
58.
...........
........
.........
...........
...........
54.
57.
THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
52. II.
53.
-e
Nom., Ace. Plur. II. Neut.

Gen. Plur.
-um and -orum in O-stems
48. Dat., Abl., Loc., Instr.

49.
and
&c
Nona. Plur.
A-stems
O-stems
40.
41.
-I
-i
388
389
390
391
392
392
395
396
397
397
398
398
399
399
399
401
402
402
414
414
..
..........
.....
......
.
.
to
Nineteen
Latin duovicesimus
414
415
415
415
415
416
416
417
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
XXI
PAGE
SEC.
74.
Twenty
to
Ninety
75. Viginti, &c.
78.
The Hundreds
Centum, &c.
The Thousands
79.
Mille
80.
The Numerals
76.
77.
in
417
418
418
...........
...
Romance
CHAPTEK
419
419
420
420
VII.
THE PRONOUNS.
THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THE REFLEXIVE,
..... .....
............
........
.....
..........
1.
I.
2.
Declension of ego
3.
2 Sing.
4.
Declension of tu
5.
Reflexive
6.
Declension of sui
...........
........
Plur.
7.
Declension of nos
2 Plur
Declension of vos
9.
II.
Their forms
!6.
....
..........
...........
.....
DEMONSTRATIVES
13. III.
15.
......
THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
11.
12.
14. 0.
Sing.
8.
10.
Latin so-
The
Hie
particle -ce
17- Iste
19- Is
.............
.............
'
20. Ip&e
21. Idem
The Pronominal Gen. and Dat.
23. IV.
423
423
424
424
424
425
425
426
426
427
429
432
432
433
435
.436
18. Ille
22.
421
422
Sg.
RELATIVE, INDEFINITE,
437
440
441
442
AND INTERROGATIVE
PRO-
NOUNS
443
24.
Stems qi- and qSo-
444
25.
Case-forms
445
26.
The stem qSuThe Possessive cujus
27.
...........
........
..........
.
28.
Other Derivatives
29.
V.
30.
The Pronouns in Romance
THE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES
446
447
447
449
452
CHAPTER
VIII.
THE VERB.
THE CONJUGATIONS
....
1.
I.
2.
Traces of the Athematic Conjugation in Latin
.,
453
455
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxii
PAGE
SEC.
3.
THE TENSE-STEMS
II.
'
(Strong Aorist and S-formations

forms in Latin
7.
Strong Aorist
Old Latin forms with -ss- (-s-)
A. Present, (i) With E-grade of root and Thematic Vowel
Other examples
8.
Weak
9.
(2)
'
4.
5.
6.
12.
1
3.
14.
15.
6.
459
464
465
466
467
467
468
10. (3)
11.
........
grade of root
reduplicated root
With
With
root nasalized,
With
i.
nasal infix,
ii.
With
nasal affix
469
Other examples of nasal infix

Retention of Nasal throughout the Tenses
Other examples of nasal affix
Other Verb-stems with n
(4) With suffix -Y(V, -lYOi in the third Conjugation Presents with Y(J-suffix
471
Other examples of E-grade roots

Of weak grade roots
Alternative forms in -o and -eo
Of roots with -a, -e, -o
In ceptives, and other Verb-stems
475
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
472
472
472
....
.......
........
.......
.......
Inceptives in -sko- (-sko-)

23. Causatives and Intensives in -eyo24. Latin Desideratives in -turio
22.
471
(5)
476
476
476
475
476
477
477
478
478
478
478
479
....
'
Latin Iteratives or Frequentatives in -*tayoOther Derivative Verbs with the YC-suffix

27. Other suffixes
28 Other examples of Latin Inceptives
29. Of Latin Causatives, &c.
30. Of Latin Desideratives
31. Of Latin Iteratives
32. Of Latin Derivative verbs with YO-suffix
25.
26.
.....
.
.481
482
482
......
.........
.......
483
486
488
4 89
Of other Verb-suffixes
33a. The Conjugations in Romance
34. B. Imperfect
33.
Fourth Conj. Impft. in -Ibam

Future,
37. Fourth Conj. Fut. in -Ibo
38. Third Conj. Fut. in -ebo
39. D. Perfect
forms
40. Other examples of Reduplicated
35.
491
36. C.
49 1
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
Unreduplicated
Form of Reduplication
Assimilation of Reduplication- vowel to Stem-vowel
Loss of Reduplication
and Unreduplicated forms
Co-existent
Reduplicated
493
493
'
46. S-Preterite
47. Origin of the Perfect in -vi (-ui)
-vi
48. Shortened forms of the Perfect in
49.
Shortened forms of the Perfect in

Latin Perfects in -u(v)i
50. O.
51.
Some
Irregular Perfects
-si
.........
494
501
501
502
503
503
504
504
505
506
508
508
509
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxill
PAGE
SEC.
52. E.
Pluperfect
53. F. Future-Perfect
509
.....
........
......
...........
.
THE MOODS.
57. B.
59.
60.
A.
Subjunctive.
of
(Relics
Imperative
Other examples of 2 Sg. Im per. with bare stem
Other examples of Imper. in -tod
Imper. Pass. 2, 3 Sg. in -mino
.510
510
the I.-Enr.
511
514
516
.......
61. 3 PI.
Imperat.
517
519
.519
.519
.521
THE VOICES
62.
IV.
63.
Impersonal use of Latin Passive

Active and Middle
64.
Optative Mood in Latin.)

O. Latin Subj. and Opt. forms
Some
58.
formed with A uxiliary Verbs.
54. G. Tenses
55. III.
56.
519
.
521
65. V.
THE PEPtSON-ENDINGS
522
66.
(i)
Active,
524
67-
68.
Sg
Athematic
Sg
69. 3
70.
The 3
71.
72.
2 Plur
Sg
525
Sg. of fero, volo
............
Sg. Pft. in Latin

Plur.
....
73. 3 Plur-
3 PI. Pres. in -nunt

75. 3 PI. Perf.
74.
7<.
526
526
527
529
529
529
(a)
78.
Use of
79.
3 Sing
80.
Plur
Plur
3 Plur
VI. THE
and
-re
-ris
531
531
Passive (Deponent),
77. 2 Sing.
532
Sing
.......
...
533
533
534
534
534
81. 2
82.
83.
534
INFINITIVE
84. Pres. Inf.
Act
85. Pres. Inf.
Pass
86. Fut. Inf.

87.
'.
Act
535
537
537
537
53 8
Fut. Inf. Pass
VII. THE SUPINES

VIII. THE PARTICIPLES
90. Pres. Part. Act
88.
538
89.
-539
91. Perf. Part. Act

92. Perf. Part. Pass
'Truncated' Participles
94. IX. THE GERUND AND
95. Origin of the suffix -ndo-
93.
54
54 1
.......
..........
GERUNDIVE
96. Adjectives in -bundo-, -cundo-, &c.
Some
Irregular Verbs
98. Irregular Verbs in Romance
97.
_"
54 r
543
543
544
544
545
547
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxiv
CHAPTER
IX.
ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.

PAGE
SEC.
1.
........
ADVERBS
.548
553
555
10.
Nominative Adverb-forms
Genitive Adverb-forms
Accusative Adverb-forms
Ablative (Instr.) and Locative Adverb-forms
Adverbs in -tus
Adverbial word-groups and compounds
Other Adverbs
Numeral Adverbs in -ies
Pronominal Adverbs
11.
PREPOSITIONS
572
12.
13.
Ab,
Ab,
14-
Af
15-
Ad
16.
Ambi-
17-
An
18.
Ante
19.
Apud
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
561
.........
.......
....
............
....
ap-, po-, abs, a-, au-, af,

abs, a
absque
....
20. Circum, circa, circiter

21. Clam, clanculum
22.
555
559
...
581
581
581
Dis
582
Endo
582
583
583
Extra
In
31. Infra
32. Inter
584
584
....
33. Intra, intus

34.
Juxta
35-
Ob
Palam
38.
585
585
585
585
585
586
586
Penes
Per
'
.588
,',..
39. P640. Post,
pone
41. Poste, posti-d. pos, po42.
Prae
43.
Praeter
Pro, por45. Pro- and pro.
586
44.
577
577
578
-581
co-
30.
37.
577
577
579
580
28. Erga, ergo

29. Ex, ec-, e
36.
575
579
Coram
De
567
578
.
Com-, (cum), with, and

Contra (see
i, 4)
562
565
567
588
589
589
589
590
590
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SEC.
46.
Procul
47.
Prope
48.
Propter
49.
Be-
............
............
...
............
..........
........
............
Secundum, secus
50f. Simul
50.
51. Sine, se
52. Sub, subter,
55.
Tenus
Trans
superne
Usque
58. Versus,
versum, adversus, adversum, exadversus, exadversum
CHAPTER
PAGE
590
59 i
591
59 i
.591
subtus
56. Uls, ultra
57.
53. Super, supra, insuper,

54.
XXV
592
592
593
593
593
594
594
595
595
X.
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

T.
CONJUNCTIONS
2.
(i)
3.
Atque, ac
4.
1^2)
5.
(3)
Disjunctive.
Adversative.
6.
(4)
vero
Limitative and Corrective.
7.
,5)
Explanatory.
6) Conclusive.
8.
59 6
Conjunctive.
Que,
atque, ac, quoque, etiam
Ve, aut, vel, sive, seu
....
Quidem, immo
Enim, nam, namque, quippe, nempe, nemut
......
........
...........
.....
utinam
(12) Conditional.
5-
16.
17.
18.
'
Si, nisi, ni, sin, sive, seu,
Concessive.
Etsi,
quamquam, quamvis,
....
....
.
licet
.....
.....
Final.
19. Interjections
INDEX
modo, dummodo
Ut, quo, quominus, quin, ne, neve, neu, iiedum

Ne (nae), -ne
(15) Asseverative Particles.
In-, ne-, nee, non, baud, ve(16; Negatives.
-^14)
598
599
599
600
602
603
604
605
Ne, nonne, num, utrum, an, anne, cur, quare,
14.
12.
Ergo, itaque, igitur
13.
(9)
... ...
Comparative. Ut, uti, quasi, ceu, quam

(10) Temporal.
Quum, quando, dum, donee, ut, ubi
(11) Causal.
Quum, quoniam, quod, quia, quippe
11.
At, ast, sed, autem, atqui, tamen, ceterum, verum,
9- (7) Optative.
Ut,
10. (8) Interrogative.
quianam
et,
605
606
608
610
610
613
613
614
615
.616
619
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
A. L. L. =Archiv
f.
lat.
Lexikographie u. Grammatik, ed. Wolfflin. Leipz.
1884 sqq.
Jourii. Phil. = American Journal of Philology.
Anecd. Helv.-Anecdota Helvetica, ed. Hagen (a Supplement to the Gram-
Amer.
matici Latini, ed. Keil).
Ann. Epigr. =Cagnat, L'annee epigraphique. Paris, 1889

Ann. Inst.=Annali dell' Institute di corrispondenza
1829 sqq.
Arch. Glottol., Arch. Glott.
Ital.
= Archivio
sqq.
archeologica.
Rome,
Glottologico Italiano.
Rome,
1873 sqq.
Athens, 187282.
Indog. Sprachen, ed. Bezzenberger. Gottingen,
'A.Orjv.^'AOrjva.wvavyypa.fj.ijLa.irfpioSiKoi'.
B. B. -Beitrage
Kunde
z.
1877 sqq.
B. P. W., Bed. Phil.
1 88 1
Brit.
d.
Woch. = Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift.
Berl.
sqq.
Mus.
=The
Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British
Museum, ed. Sir Ch. Newton. Oxf. 1874 sqq.

Biich. Umbr. = Biicheler, Umbrica.
Bonn, 1883.
Bull. - Bullettino dell'
Institute di corrispondenza
archeologica.
Rome,
1829 sqq.
Burs. Jahresber. = Jahresbericht iiber d. Fortschritte d. Classischen Alterthumswissenschaft, ed. Bursian. Berl. 1875 sqq.
C. G. L. = Corpus Glossariorum Latinorum, ed. Goetz und Gundermann.
Leipz.
A. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarnm. Berl. 1873 sqq.

G. = Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, ed. Boeckh. Berl. 1828 sqq.
C. I. L. = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
Berl. 1863 sqq.
Class. Rev. = Classical Review.
Comm. Lud. Saec. = Commentaria Ludorum Saecularium, ed. Mommsen, in
vol. viii of the Ephemeris Epigrapkica (also published in the Monumenti
C.
I.
C.
I.
Antichi, vol.
Comm.
Ribbeck.
i,
part
3).
= Commentationes
Philologae
Ottoni Ribbeckio.
Leipz.
1888.
Comm.
Schweizer-Sidler = Philologische Abhandlungen Heinrich Schweizer-
Sidler
Comm.
gewidmet. Zurich, 1891.

- Commentationes Woelminianae.
Woelffl.
Eckinger - Eckinger, Die Orthographic
Munich.
Leipz. 1891.
lateinischer Worter in griechischen Inschriften.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.
Edict. Diocl.^the Edict of Diocletian (contained in the
of the Corpus Inscr. Lot.}.
Eph. Epigr. =Ephemeris Epigraphica. Berl. 1872 sqq.
XXVli
Supplement
to vol.
iii
to the
(A Supplement
Corpus Inscr. Lat}.
Etudes G. Paris = Etudes romanes dediees a Gaston Paris. Paris, 1891.

Etym. Lat. = Etyma Latina, by E. R. Wharton. Lond. 1890.
Fabr. = Fabretti, Corpus Inscr. Italicarum antiquioris aevi. Turin, 1867.
Fleck. Jahrb.
= Jahrbucher
classische Philologie,
f.
ed. Fleckeisen.
Leip/.
1855 sqq.
Gl. Cyrill., Gl. Philox., Gl. Plac.
Glossaries (contained in vols.
-the Cyrillus, Philoxenus, and Placidus

and v of the Corpus G-lossariorum Latinorum,
ii
ed. Goetz und Gundermann

Harv. Stud. = Harvard Studies in Classical Philology.
Herm. = Hermes. Zeitschrift f. classische Philologie.
.
I.
F,
= Indogermanische Forschungen,
ed.
Boston, 1980 sqq.

Berl. 1866 sqq.
Brugmann und
Strass-
Streitberg.
burg, 1891 sqq.
Inscriptiones Graecae Siciliae et Italiae, ed. Kaibel.

R. N. =- Inscriptiones Regni Neapolitan! Latinae,
Leipz. 1852.
Journ. Hell. Stud. = Journal of Hellenic Studies.
I. I. S. Î.
N.,
I.
Journ. Phil.
K. Z.
=Lex
Lex Repet.
Lib. Gloss.
Mommsen.
= Journal
of Philology.
vergleicheiide Sprachforschung. ed. Kulm. Berl. 1872 sqq.
Agraria (No. 200 in vol. i of the Corpus Inscr. Lat.}.
Zeitschrift
Lex. Agr.
Berl. 1890.
ed.
f.
Lex Repetundarum (No. 198 in the same vol.).

(selections from which are contained
= Liber Glossarum
in vol. v
of the Corpus Glossariorum Latinormri).
= Melanges d'Archeologie et d'Histoire

publication of the Ecole francaise de Rome.)
Mel. Arch.
Mem.
1st.
lettere
Mem.
Soc.
Paris, 1884 sqq.
(The
Lombard. = Memorie dell' I. R. istituto Lombardo di scienze,

ed arti. Milan, 1843 sqq.
Ling., M. S. L. = Memoires de la Societe de Linguistique de Paris.
Paris, 1868 sqq.
Meyer-Lubke = Meyer-Liibke, GrammaHk
romanischen
der
Sprachen.
Leipz.
1890 sqq.
Mitth. = Mittheilungeii d. kaiserlich
deutschen archaologischen Instituts.

Athens, 1876 sqq.
Mitth. (rom.) = ditto (romische Abtheilung).
Mon. Anc. ^Res Gestae Divi August!: ex monumentis Ancyraiio et Apolloniensi, ed.
Mommsen.
Berl. 2 1883.
Mon. Antichi = Monumenti Antichi pubblicati per cura
della Reale
Accademia
dei Lincei.
Milan, 1890 sqq.

Morph. Unt., M. U. -= Morphologische Untersuchungen, byOsthoff and Brugmann. Leipz. 1878 sqq.
M. S. L. (see Mem. Soc. Ling.).

Mur. Muratori, Novus thesaurus veterum
Neue = Neue,
inscriptionum.
Milan, 173942.
Berl. 1866 sqq.

Not. Scav. = Notizie degli Scavi di antichita (Atti della R.
Formenlehre
Lincei).
Or., Or. Henz.
d. latelnischen
Rome, 1876
Sprache.
= Orelli, Inscriptionum Latmarum
vol. iii (Suppl.), ed.
Accademia
dei
sqq.
Henzen.
Collectio,
Zurich, 1856.
vols. i-ii, Zurich, 1828,
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.
xxviii
I
(see Transactions of American Philological Association 1893, vol. xxiv, pp 50 sqq.).
P. B. Beitr. = Beitrage z. Geschichte d. deutschen Sprache u. Literatur, ed.
Osthoff, Dunkles u. helles
Paul und Braune.

Philol.
= Philologus
Halle, 1874 sqq.

Zeitschrift f. d kla<sische Alterthum.
Go'ttingen, 1846
sqq.
Phil. Soc. Trans.
= Transactions of the Philological Society.

Phonet. Stud. = Phonetische Studien
Zeitschrift f. wissenschaftliche u.
praktische Phonetik. Marburg, 1887 sqq.
Probi App. Probi Appendix (contained in vol. iv of the Grammatici Latini, ed.
:
Keil).
Rev. Phil.- Revue de Philologie. Paris, 1877 sqq.

Rhein. Mus. ^ Rheinisches Museum f. Philologie. Frankf.
Rivista di Filologia.
Riv. Filolog.
Rossi = De
S. C.
sqq.
Rossi, Inscriptioncs Christianae Urbis Romae, 2 vols.
Bacch.
=.
am
Main, 1842 sqq.
Rome, 1873
Rome, 1861-1888.
Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus (No. 196 in
vol.
of the
Corpus Inscr. Lat.}.

Stud. Ital. =Studi Italiani di filologia classica
Studem. Stud.
mund.
Arch
Suppl.
vol.
Studien auf
d.
Florence, 1893 sqq.

Gebiete d. Archaischen Lateins, ed. Stude-
Berl. 1873 sqq.

Glott.
= Supplementi Periodici
all'
Archivio Glottologico Italiano,
Turin, 1891.
Tab. Bant. ^-Tabula Bantina (No. 197 in vol. i of the Corpus Inscr. LaC).
Versamml. Philolog. = Verhandlungen d. Versammlungen deutscher Philologen u. Schulmanner.
Von Planta = Von
Planta, Grammatik d Oskisch-Umbrischen Dialekte, vol.
burg, 1893.
Wien. Stud. = Wiener
Studien
Zeitschrift
f.
class.
Philologie.
i.
Strass-
Vienna,
1879 sqq.
Wilm. = Wilmanns, Exempla InscripHonum Latinarum, 2 vols. Berl. 1873.

1. 1. I., Z vet. = Zvetaieff, Inscriptiones Italiae Inferior is Dialecticae.
Moscow,
Zv.
1886.
In the transcription of the various I.-Eur. languages the system of Brug-
mann,
Grundriss
cl.
vergleichenden Grammatik, Strassburg,
1886 sqq. (Engl. trans.;
London, 1888 sqq.) is in the main followed, though in I.-Eur.' fo**ms Gutturals
Proper are denoted by k, g. &c. (not as in Brugmann by q, g, &c.), and y, w
often replace Brugmann's i, u, while in 0. Engl. (Brugmann's Anglo-Saxon')
words the orthography of Sweet, History of English Sounds, is preferred. I follow
Brugmann in distinguishing the Oscan and Umbrian inscriptions written in
the Roman alphabet from those written in the native alphabets by printing
the former in italics, a type reserved in this book for Latin words, stems,
suffixes, and sounds. (On the use of fr, g, gh see p. 290.)
*
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE

CHAPTER
THE ALPHABET
I.
1
.
IF an alphabet is to express the sounds of a language

But this
properly, each nation must construct one for itself.
1.
was not realized by the ancient languages of Italy. The

Oscan and Umbrian stocks borrowed for the expression of their
language the alphabet used by the Etruscans, who had themselves
ideal
borrowed
it
at
an
earlier period
Oscans nor Umbrians were at
some common
from the Greeks
and
so neither
able to express in writing

sounds of their language, such as d and o, which
first
were wanting in the Etruscan speech (von Planta, Osk.-Umbr.

Dial, i., p. 44).
The Latin Alphabet, consisting in the later
Republic of twenty- one letters, ABCDEFOHIKLMNOPQRSTVX,,
was borrowed from some Chalcidian colony (e.g. Cumae), to
judge from the form of the letters, which more nearly resemble
those of the Chalcidian inscriptions than of any other Greek
stock.
War
So few Latin
inscriptions earlier
have been preserved, that
than the second Punic
trace each separate

the
the
Greek
of
stage
process
alphabet to the
adapting
The symbols for the Greek
exigencies of the Latin language.
it is difficult to
in
aspirate mutes,
buck
vol.
(the
^-sound
Hiibner's article in Miiller's.Hemrfd.

i.
Klass.
pp.
summary
list
Alterthumswissenschaft,
492 sqq.
1886,
of our
gives a
'
an^-//eap
of
what
is
of the authorities,
'),
<&
(as in
known and
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap.
I.
'
-sound of our ' inborn in
symbol for the
the Chalcidian alphabet, while X was the symbol for the /fo-sound,
Attic E), were found superfluous by the Latins, in whose lan-
'),
(the
guage these sounds were unknown, and were retained as symbols

for numbers merely,
for 100 (later modified to C, the initial
of centum), ty (later L) for 50, 4> for 1000 (later M, the initial
of mille), while the right-hand half of the symbol, viz. D, was
used for the half of 1000,
been the upper half of
500, just as V, for 5, seems to have

(used probably in the Etruscan adaptai.e.
Greek alphabet for 10) (Ritschl, Opusc. iv. 704 and

in Hermes xxii. 598).
For the /-sound, the
in
a
sound
which
time was quite
Quintilian's
spirant,
tion of the
722;
Mommsen
bilabial
unknown
in Greek (Quint, xii. 10. 29), the nations of Italy seem

have
taken
the Greek combination of symbols FH (digamma
to
with aspiration), a combination found in a few of the earliest
Greek inscriptions to express a sound which seems to have been

a development of an original sw- (e.g. MeKaSajutoe, in the proper
name Hecademus, on an inscription of Tanagra (Rohl, Inscr.
Graec. 131), and which may have been at that time some adumbration of the /-sound.
This double letter fH, which we find in
a very old Latin inscription on a brooch found at Praeneste with
FHEFHAKED (=fecit) (C. I. L. xiv. 4123), in the earliest
Etruscan inscriptions,
e.
g. vhulênas (the proper
name
Fulcinius)
(Fabr. Suppl.
306), and in the inscriptions of the Veneti, an
tribe
of
N.E. Italy (Pauli, Altitalisc/te'Forschungen iii.
Illyrian
was
in
the Etruscan alphabet reduced to a symbol
p. 97 sqq.),
iii.
like the figure 8 (a modification of H, the F being dropt), while

in the Latin alphabet the second element of the compound was
and F alone was used.

The exact course of events
which led to the use of the Greek symbol for the ^/-sound (in
Chalcidian inscriptions written c n ^
f ), to express the Latin
^-sound as well as the Latin <7-sound, and in time to the almost
discarded,
symbol K, cannot, with the evidence at present forthcoming, be determined (for a conjecture, see ch. ii. 75).
On the very old Dvenos inscription, for example (Annali dell'
total disuse of the
Inst.
(
1880),
fecit],
we
find
FEKED
(or
FEKED
corrected into FECED),
PAKARI, COSMIS (comis\ VIRGO (vlrgo
The inconvenience
of
this
practice
led
in
?)
side
by
side.
time to the use
THE ALPHABET.
l.]
form of the symbol C to express the ^/-sound, the

example of which is found on the as libralis of Luceria
of a modified
earliest
(between 300 and 250 B.C. according to Mommsen), with Ga.f.

(Gai
Jilius) (llklon,
was received
Venture
et
Prononciati'on,
p.
145
sqq.).
It
Roman
alphabet at the time possibly of

Appius Claudius Caecus, censor 312 B.C., and took the place of Z,
the symbol apparently for soft or voiced s, a sound which had by
into the
time passed into the r-sound (see ch. iv. 148). The symbols of
the Greek vowels t and v were used not only for the Latin vowels
this
i and u, but also for

they- and w- sounds of words like jam, vox,
a confusion frequently remarked on by the grammarians (e.g.
'
'
'
Quint, i. 4. 10 iam sicut etiam scribitur, et uos ut tuos '),
{
'
'
'
which persisted till very late times; though on Inscriptions

from the beginning of the Empire onwards we often find a tall
form of I used for the y-sound (Christiansen, de Apicibus et
I longis, p. 29) and the Emperor Claudius tried without
;
success to introduce a
the
new symbol, an
inverted
digamma,
for
?r -sound.
The
third guttural symbol of the Greek Alphabet, Koppa,

for the ^-sound of Latin, a sound at first ex-
was retained
pressed by Q,
e.
g.
QOI
on the Dvenos inscription, then
(qui)
byQV.
In the second century
B. c.
the cultivation of literature at
Rome, in particular possibly the imitation of the quantitative

verse of Greece, led to two usages, perhaps borrowed, the one
from
the
Greek, the other
not
(if
both)
from
Oscan
the
the doubling of a consonant to express the repeated or lengthened sound (see ii. 127), the doubling of a vowel
and o ?) to express the long quantity *. The earliest
(a, e, u,
alphabet, viz.
example of the former is the Decree of Aemilius Paulus, 189 B.C.

(C. I. L. ii. 5041), with POSSIDERE, &c., beside POSEDISENT, &c.,
for all the older inscriptions 2 write the consonant single in such
cases; of the latter, the Miliarium Popillianum, 132 B.C. with
PAASTORES. Ennius
is
mentioned as the introducer of the double
consonant, while the practice of doubling the vowel

1
In Oscan this is normally confined

vowels in the first syllable.
to long
is
ascribed
As do the oldest Oscan

and all the Umbrian
tions
inscripinscrip-
tions written in the native alphabet.
;But tristaamentud, 'testamento').
B 2
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap.
I.
Roman
tradition to the poet Accius, another of whose

was the use of gg for the velar nasal followed
reforms
spelling
The practice of doubling the consonant
ch.
ii.
by g (see
63).
by the
remained to the latest times, in spite of a temporary resort in the

reign of Augustus to the use of the slcllicm, a sickle-shaped
mark placed above the
single consonant, to express its repeated

but the double vowel was soon discarded
or lengthened sound ;
in favour of the apex, a
mark
placed above the single vowel, to

express length, originally of a shape like a sickle, or like the
The apex was
figure 7, later of the form of the acute accent.
much
in fashion
till
about
30
A. D.,
random over short and long vowels
when
alike,
universal use as the doubled consonant.
it
came
to be used at
but never attained so
Long
was indicated
a form likewise employed to denote the

and
for initial i (Christiansen, de Apic'ihux rf,
often
also
^-sound,
by the
lo Jiff
tall
form of 1
is).
last century of the Republic, when Greek Grammar,

and even Greek Phonetics, came to be studied at Rome, the
necessity was felt for the more exact expression of the sound of
Greek loan words, which were more and more entering into
In the
For the Greek

which had hitherto been represented by the Latin
tenues T, P, C, compound symbols TH, PH, CH were introduced ; and the mispronunciation of these sounds was considered
the language especially of the upper classes.
aspirates,
as great a fault in polite society as the dropping of h is with us

The Greek v (earlier represented by Latin V).
(see ch. ii.
60).
which had by this time the //-sound (see ch. ii. 14), was now expressed by the Greek letter itself in its Attic form T, just as we use
Spanish n in loan words like canon,' while for Greek (formerly
'
denoted by
SETVS, for Zethus, C. T. L. i. 1047, patrisso,

old
the
&c., Plaut.),
symbol Z was revived. The reforms proposed
the
by
Emperor Claudius, the use of the Greek symbol of the
s-, -ss~, e. g.
rough breathing for the ^'-sound
(see ch.
ii.
14), of the reversed
for the /w-sound of scripsi, urbs, &c. (see ch. ii.

78), of the
digamma for the w-sound of vos, &c., did not survive
inverted
his
1
own
Was
Oscan?
reign (see Bucheler, de

this
We
too
have
borrowed
fliet,
from
'fient,'
on
Ti. Clanflio
an Oscan
Caesare grammaticd).
inscription earlier than

211 B.C. (Rhein. Mus. 1888, p. 557).
THE ALPHABET.
2-5.]
2. The Alphabet of twenty-one letters. Cicero (Deor. Nat. ii. 37. 93) argues
against the Atomic Theory by showing the improbability of any chance combinations of the twenty-one letters of the alphabet ever producing a single
hoc qui existimet fieri, non
liiie much less an entire poem, of Ennius
'
intellego cur non idem putet, si innumerabiles unius et viginti formae litterarum, vel aureae vel quaelibet, aliquo coiciantur, posse ex iis excussis annales
quod nescio an ne in uno quidem versu

This Alphabet, A to X, is often found on
coins of the last century of the Kepublic e. g. C. I. L. i. 374, c. 100 B.C.)
and Quintiliaii (first cent. A. D.) speaks of x as the last letter of the alphabet
Enni, ut deinceps
possit
legi possint, effici
tantum valere
fortuna.'
(nostrarum ultima, i. 4. 9).

393, 454, both with YZ
of the Republic).
i.
But
;
Y and Z are added on some

Y all belonging to
417 with
coins
(e. g. C. I. L.
the last century
That early Greek fh, a development of I.-Eur. sw-, had

3. The letter F.
some kind of /-sound is made not improbable by the analogy of other lanIn Old Irish, where I.-Eur. sr between two vowels became ijike
guages.
*r- in Greek {>ev/j.a, AUTO'S), hr. rh, (e.g. a 'his' prefixed to sruth, 'stream,'
is pronounced a rhoo), I.-Eur. sic- when preceded by a vowel became /, e. g.
a fiur, 'his sister' (I.-Eur. *esyo swesor\ which points to a connexion between
It must however be added that I.-Eur. w- in
hie (wJi), and the /-sound.
A still
e.g. faith, 'a prophet' (cf. Lat. vdtes).
furnished by the Aberdeenshire dialect of Scotch, where
or /t>-sound of Scotch 'what,' 'when,' &c., appears as /, 'fat,' 'fan.'
Irish regularly
better analogy
the
nil-
4.
X.
x,
becomes/,
is
the last letter of the alphabet (Quint,
(litterarum) ultima,
was
also written xs
i. 4. 9
'x nostrarum
qua tarn carere potuimus quam psi non quaerimus),
from early times (e. g. EXSTKAD for extra, on the S. C.
de Bacchanalibus, 186
B. c. C. I. L.
i.
196), especially at the period of
the
SAXSVM on an epitaph of one of the

PKOXSVMEIS for proximis, EXSIGITO, LEXS on the Lex
Scipios, c. 130 B.C., i. 34
Bantina, bet. 133 and 118 B.C., i. 197), and is common in the Augustan age
and in plebeian inscriptions of a later epoch (for examples, see Index to
and for instances in
C. I. L. viii. &c.
exsemplo Comm. Lud. Saec. A. 26
Virgil MSS., see Ribbeck, Ind. p. 445). Terentius Scaurus, second cent. A. D.,
condemns the spelling nuxs,' 'truxs,' 'feroxs' as an unnecessary repetition
The guttural element is repeated
of the sibilant element of the x-sound.
in the spelling ex, e. g. VCXOR for uxor (a misspelling which has led to the
poet
and grammarian, Accius
(e. g.
'
corruption roxor in MSS. of Plautus, Class. Bev. v. 293), VICXIT (C. I. L. v. 5735).
also find xc,
(For examples in Virgil MSS., see Kibbeck, Ind. p. 391).
e. g. IVXCTA (C. I. L. vi. 14614), and sx, e. g. VISXIT (viii. 67), all various ways
of expressing the same sound (a c-sound followed by an s-sound), for which
We
we also find a more accurate expression, namely cs, e. g. VICSIT (vii. 5723).
This last combination was used to express the sound in the Etruscan
alphabet, the symbol X being retained only as a numerical symbol, for
the number 10.
If
5. Z.
we
are to believe Velius Longus
(7.
51 K), this symbol
was
found in the Carmen Sail are

though whether the mysterious jumble of
letters which the MSS. of Varro, L. L. vii. 26, offer as a fragment from this
hymn, coseidodorieso, &c., can be fairly quoted as an instance of Old Latin
s is doubtful, for the reading suggests
eeu (Greek & ZeS) more than anything else and Varro quotes the passage as exemplifying the old use of s
;
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
6
(not
273
s)
for later
r.
where the
B. c.),
It is
letter
[Chap.
I.
found on coins of Cosa [C. I. L. i. 14 COZANO (after

should have the ordinary z-form and not the form
printed in the Corpus (see Kitschl. Opusc. iv. 721 wl]. The dzenoine of the
Dvenos inscription is too doubtful to quote for the letters may read not only
dze noiiie. on the ninth day/ but also die noine, or even Dvenoi ne. This old Latin
;
seems to have expressed the sound of soft or voiced s (but see ch. ii. 121 the
sound in our verb 'to use' while our noun 'use' has the hard or unvoiced s.
Between vowels in Latin s had once this soft sound, and was presumably
written 2; but this sound passed at an early time into the r-sound (c. 350 B.C.,
to judge from the remark of Cicero, Fam. ix. 21. 2, that L. Papirius Crassus.
2
dictator 415 A. u.
c.
= 339
B.C.),
name from
was the
of his family to change the
first
in the Digests (i. 2. 2. 36) Appius Claudius

Papisius to Papirius
is mentioned as the author of the change
litteram invenit ut pro Valesiis
;
Martianus Capella tells us that the letter

was removed from the alphabet by Appius Claudius Caecus, the famous censor
of 312 B.C., adding the curious reason that in pi-onouncing it the teetli
Valerii essent, et pro Fusiis Furii).
assumed the appearance of the teeth of a grinning skull (Mart. Cap. iii. 261
z vero idcirco Appius Claudius detestatur, quod dentes mortui, dum expriIn the Oscan language this soft s sound was retained
mitur, imitatur).
The native Oscan alphabet (derived from the
without passing into r.
Etruscan), expresses it by the letters, which is also used for the hard s-sound,
:
symbol denotes the fe-sound but in the later inscriptions, whicli

is used (e.g. eizazunc egmazum
(in Latin,
earum rerum), on the Bantia tablet, c. 1308.0.).
(On the question whether
while the
s-
are written in Latin characters, z
the z Latin character) of Osc. zicolo-, dieculus,' represents the soft s-sound or
the fe-sound of the letter written in the Oscan alphabet like a capital I with
'
top and bottom strokes prolonged, and in the Umbrian alphabet with the
same strokes slanting instead of horizontal, and on the occasional use of the
native letter for the s-sound, e.g.
Umbr.
'
zefef,
sedens/ see von Planta,
Osk.-
Unibr. Dial. p. 71.)
A special symbol for the #-sound, made by6. The Guttural-symbols.

adding a small stroke to the symbol C, is said by Plutarch (Quaest Rom. 54
and 59 cf. Ter. Scaur. 7. 15 K.) to have been the invention of Sp. Carvilius
Ruga c. 293 B.C., presumably because he was the first to write his name Ruga
with the new symbol, as L. Papirius Crassus, dictator 339 B.C., was the first
to conform the spelling of the family-name Papisius to the new pronunciation
Papirius. The remark, however, of Martianus Capella about tne action of the
censor of 312 B.C., Appius Claudius Caecus, with regard to the letter Z, whose
position in the Latin alphabet was occupied by the new symbol G, suggests
;
C and G symbols was the work rather of that

The exclusive use of the symbol C for the /c-sound led
to the disuse of the symbol K, which however, thanks to the conservative
instinct of the Roman nation, was still retained as abbreviation for the proper
name Kaeso, and in a few words before the vowel a, e.g. Kalendae, a common
that the differentiation of the
many-sided reformer.
spelling on inscriptions (see C. I. L. i.. Index, p. 583), interkalaris, kaput,

kalumnia. Terentius Scaurus, second cent. A. D. (p. 15 K.) tells us that the letter
K was called ka, while the name of C was

had been before his time used
names,
ce,
e.g. krus (for ka-rus\ era (for cera}.
speaks of some
and that these
letters
themselves
to indicate the syllables represented
by
their
Velius Longus, first cent. A. D.,

sticklers for old usages in his own age, who in their corre-
THE ALPHABET.
6, 7.]
spondence always spelt karissime with k not c p. 53 K.) see also Quint, i. 7. 10
Diom. 424. 29 K. Cledonius 28. 5K. Maximus Victorinus
Prise, i. 12. 5 H.
Probus 10. 23 K.
Serv. in Don. p. 422 K.
Donatus, p. 368 K.
195. 19 K.
For spellings with ka in Virgil MSS., see Eibbeck, Index, p. 429
and for
;
similar spellings elsewhere, Georges, Lex. Lat. Wortf.

&c.,
and Brambach,
Lat. Orth. p. 208.)
s.
The symbol C
vv. Carthago, capnt, earns,

was similarly retained in
old use for the g-sound in the abbreviations of proper names, C. for Gaius,
seems to be
Cn. for Gnaeus just as an old five-stroked form of the symbol
its
the original of the abbreviation for the name Manius, later written
with
apostrophe. That it persisted in other words also to the beginning of the
literary period, we see from the fact that a large number of archaic words,
quoted by the grammarians from the early literature, are spelt with c not </,
The proper spelling of these
e.g. aceiare for agitare (Paul. Fest. 17. 30 Th.).
obsolete words was occasionally a subject of discussion, e. g. whether PACVNT
in the
XII Tables,
(cf. paciscor",
NI ITA PACVNT, stood forpagunt (cf. pe%>igi} pango), or forpacunt

i. 6. 10-11
Ter. Scaur. 7. 15 K.
cf. Fest. 330 23 Th.)
(Quint,
and probably the
//er aâpa/cr?? pianos
a source of error as that of
to
e,
C
of O
of early
to
ci,
to
rj,
andg was almost
o, o>,
ov in
as fruitful
the Homeric
text.
Thus/nco, uotfrigo, may be the proper form of the Old Latin verb, used by
Accius frigit saetas (of a boar) Trag. 443 K., &c. cf. Greek typiaou for QptK-yca}
Paul. Fest. 51.
decere (cf. SeicofMii, upoaôKaca] of Old Latin degere,
expectare
32 Th.). (On the use of C for the (/-sound see also Mar. Victorin. p. 12 K.
who quotes Cab mo, lece, acna; Fest. 242 and 284 Th., &c. C is invariably used
for g on the Columna Eostrata (C. I. L i. 195), an Imperial restoration which
probably followed with some fidelity the spelling of the old inscription.)
;
'
'
'
The
letter Q often takes before u the place of classical Latin c, especially in

inscriptions of the time of the Gracchi, e.g. PEQVNIA, OQVPARE, QVRA (for a list
of the instances, see Bersu, Die Gutturalen, p. 49)
though whether Eitschl
;
492 n, 687), is right in his suggestion that one of the grammatical

reforms of the poet Accius may have been the restriction of ft to the c-sound
and of q to the c-sound before u, is quite uncertain. (For Accius'
before
use of gg for ng in aggulus, &c., yc for nc in agceps, &c., in imitation of the
(Opusc. iv.
Greek use of 7 for the nasal guttural, see below). Marius Victorinus says
(12. 19 K.)
Q et fuisse apud Graecos, et quare desiderat fungi vice litterae,
:
si
cognoscere potestis,
pontificum libros
Y- and W-Sounds
legeritis.
j and v were not distinguished in Latin MSS. nor

indeed in the earlier printed editions. In Italian some writers keep up the old
Latin habit of using i forj, e.g. Gennaio for Gennajo (Lat. Janudrius) others
7.
use j for -ii, e. g. vizj vices.' Even now we generally print the texts of the older
Latin writers, Plautus, Terence, &c., with i, u, not j, v, partly to give their
language an archaic appearance, but mainly because a large number of words
which in the Classical period, or the Empire, had the y- and w- sounds, had
'
sound of the vowels (sometimes of the half-vowels)

example, is a trisyllable in Plautus, never a dissyllable. The
minuscule forms v and u are developments of the V, of Capital, and the U
of Uncial writing. The use of the tall I form on Inscriptions for the ?/-sound
has already been mentioned, as well as its use for initial i, and for long /.
How far the I-symbol (in ordinary form or tall form) might be employed for
-uw- is very doubtful. Sittl, in Burs. Jahresber. 1891, p. 250,
-yi-, or V for -wu
quotes abicere for abyic- (?), VESVIVS for Vesuv- C?) cf. Brambach, Orth. p. 94.
in earlier times the
larua, for
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap.
I.
Monumentum Ancyranum we have
IVENTVTIS (3. 5 M.), and in

(Kibbeck, Ind. p. 448). Equally doubtful
is the occasional usage in the earlier history of the Latin alphabet of the
Greek digamma-symbol (whether in the F-form or in the Etruscan form, viz. an
On
the
Virgil
MSS.
iuenis, fluius, exuiae, &c.
Cornutus (ap.
the middle horizontal line) for the w-sound.
K. itaque in prima syllaba digamma et vocalem oportuit
et Aeoles fecerunt et antiqui nostri, sicut scrippoiii, 'Fotum,' 'Firgo,' quod
tura in quibusdam libellis declarat) implies merely that some of his gram-
E wanting
Cassiodor. 148. 8
matical predecessors made a hobby of writing F for v (cf. Prise, i. 35. 17 H.).
The second symbol in the phrase d*enoin-e on the Dvenos tablet may be
u variety of this symbol in the later form Dvenoi ne, but it may also be z,
flze noine or (most likely) a form of i.
(See above. )
Cicero wrote U to express the sound of the second element of an i -diphthong
Vel.
before a vowel (see ch. ii.
55), e.g. aiio, Maiia, Aiiax (Quint, i. 4.
Long.
qui et
et in plerisque Cicero
Aiiacem' et * Maiiam' per duo
7.
'
54 K.
Cf. Prise,
also Troiia, and with three i's, coiiidt.
ascribes the spelling Pompeii i to Julius Caesar).
On
inscriptions
pp. 444 sqq.),

aiiunt,
c.
we
i.
303 and
i.
14 H.,
who
and Eilvs (see Weissbrodt in Philologiis, xliii.

Ambrosian Palimpsest of Plautus, eiius,
MSS. of Plautus and Virgil, see Studemund's
find E!IVS
and in MSS.
(for
videtur auditu emensus scriptionem,

He mentions
i scribenda existimavit.
like the
examples in
Apograph, Ind. p. 509 Kibbeck, Prol p. 138).

In the Umbro-Oscan alphabets, which are derived from the Etruscan, the
to-sound is expressed by the digamma, in the form of a capital E wanting
the middle horizontal stroke, while V expresses both the u- and the o-vowels
;
o sound by inserting
(the Oscan alphabet came in time to discriminate the
a dot between the two arms of V). On the question whether Osc. ii and i
correspond to I.- Eur. iy and y in words like Osc. heriiad and heriam, see
ch. iv.
63.
Double Consonant. Festus in his discussion of the word solitaurilia

412 Th.), which he derives from taunts, in the sense of Kox^vrj, and the
8.
(p.
Oscan sollo- (in Latin totus), declares the doubling of the consonant to have
been a practice introduced by the poet Ennius (239-169 B.C.) into Latin
orthography in imitation of the Greek usage (per unum 1 enuntiari non est
mirum, quia nulla tune geminabatur littera in scribendo. quam consuetudinem Ennius mutavisse fertur, utpote Graecus Graeco more usus). The
Roman tradition, which ascribes this spelling reform to Ennius, as well as
the doubling of the long vowel to Accius, is supported by the dates at which
these spellings are first found on inscriptions (double consonant 189 B.C.,
double vowel 132 B.C.) though it is quite possible that Ennius followed, not
the Greeks, but the Oscans, who used double consonants much earlier than
the Romans, and to whose nationality he belonged quite as much as to the
Greek. We do indeed find a double consonant before 189 B.C. in the spelling
HINNAD (the town of Enna in Sicily), 211 B.C. (C. I. L. i. 530), which is a mere
reproduction of the Greek spelling found on coins, e.g. HENNAION (Head,
but even after 189 B.C. the double consonantHistoria Numorum, p. 119)
sound is often written with the single letter till the time of the Gracchi,
;
when
the double letter became the established spelling (see Ritschl, Opusc.
iv.
165 sqq.).
The sMttcws
is
only found on a few inscriptions of Augustus' time
Mumiaes
THE ALPHABET.
8, 9.]
Sabe?io
that
it
1361. osa x. 3743. Marias Victorinus, fourth cent. A.D., states

often to be seen in old MSS. (sicut apparet in multis adhuc
C. I. L. v.
was
veteribus ita scriptis libris
(p.
8 K.
Cf. Isidor. Orig.
i.
26. 29).
9. Signs for long vowels. No instance of oo for o is found 011 the extant
Latin inscriptions, though we have uootum on an inscription in the Faliscan
dialect, whose orthography was very like the Latin pretod de zenatuo sententiad
itootum declet (in Latin, 'praetor de senatus sententia votum dedit '), (Zvetaieff,
Inscr. Ital. Inf. 70).
For i Accius wrote ei (Mar. Victorinus 8. 14 K.), either
because the diphthong ei had by this time become identical with the i-sound.
or in imitation of the Greek orthography ( 12)
for Greek a had taken the
same course as Latin ei, and expressed the same sound as original long i fBlas^.
:
Lucilius prescribed rules for the use of ei and

p. 51).
but instead of keeping ei for the original diphthong, and the single
letter for the original long vowel, he used foolish distinctions ', if we are to
believe Velius Longus (56. 7 K.) such as that the double symbol was suitable
for a plural, e.g. puerei Nom. PL, the single symbol for a singular, e.g. pueri
Griech. Aussprache";
''
longa'
Gen. Sg. (alii vero, quorum est item Lucilius, varie scriptitaverunt, siquidem
iis, quae producerentur, alia per i longam, alia per e et i notaverunt, velut
differentia quadam separantes, ut cum diceremus viri,' si essent plures, per
e et i scriberemus, si vero esset unius viri, per i notaremus, et Lucilius
in
'
nono
in
iam puerei uenere
'
postremo facito atque
ut puerei plures fiant.

'
'pupilli,' 'pueri,'
Lucili,'
si
i,
facis solum,
hoc unius
fiet
item
'
hoc illi factum est uni

tenue hoc facies i
haec illei fecere
adde e ut pinguius fiat.)
The same absurd reason seems to be assigned for the differentiation of
of pilum, a mortar (Sing.) and petta, javelins
mettle, meillia and miles, militia
(Plur.) in another fragment of Lucilius (9. 21-24 M.).
'meille hominum,' 'duo meillia;' item hue E utroque opus; 'miles,'
'militiam'; tenues i, 'pilam,' qua ludimus, 'pilum,'
quo pisunt, tenues. si plura haec feceris pila,
quae iacimus, addes e, 'peila,' ut ptenius fiat.
Another fragment (or rather two fragments), of more doubtful reading, seems
to prescribe single i in the Gen. Sg. of lO-stems. but ei in the Voc. Sg. (9.
'
'
'
17-20 M.)
porro hoc 'filius Luci;'

i solum, ut
Cornell,'
(1)
'
feceris
(2)
'mendaci' 'Furique.'
addes e
'
Cornificique,'
cum
dare, 'Furei,'
iusseris
(unless
we
read
'
date, Furei,'
and make the ei-form Voc.
Plur.).
Whether the
persistent use of -i in the Gen. Sg. of O-stems on inscriptions

is due to the rule which Lucilius
supports, or whether it is to be otherwise
explained, is hard to say (see ch. vi.
20).
Varro, while disapproving of
Lucilius'
1
arguments, seems
to
have followed his
Or should we call them mnemonic,
as opposed to scientific, distinctions,

meant to impress the orthographic
practice, for Ter. Scaurus (p.
on the memory of the common

whom Lucilius wrote his
book? (see Lucil. 26. i M.).
rules
people for
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
10
[Chap.
I.
19 K.), after quoting the passage from Lucilius beginning 'naeille hominum,'
goes on to say quam inconstantiam Varro arguens in eundem errorem diversa
via delabitur, dicens in plurali quidem numero debere litterae i e (om. MSS.)
But in general the spelling ei on
praeponi, in singular! vero minirne.
:
Inscriptions seems to occur for any T-sound (see the Index to C. I. L. i., and
From the time of Sulla the symbol in use is the tall
below, ch. iv.
34).
cf.
though EI shows itself even later, while from

used at random for the short and long vowel alike
This tall I may be indicated by Lucilius' phrase i
p. 29).
longa,' and even by Plautus' allusion to the 'littera longa' in Aid. 77, where
the miser's old serving- woman in a fit of despondency thinks of hanging
I (Christiansen,
130 A. D. the
(Christiansen,
c.
herself
28),
tall I is
'
neque quicquam meliust mihi,
Ut
opinor,
quam
ex
me
ut
unam
faciam litteram Longam.
u.) But the

time makes this
doubtful, especially in the case of Plautus. The remark in the Rudens
one letter more than medicus shows that the
(v. 1305) that mendicus has
(Cf. Ausonius 'iota longum,'of a hanging body,

absence of the long form from the Inscriptions
Epigr. cxxviii.
till
Sulla's
'
'
word was not expressed by ei.

long
The reason which induced Accius to use EI, and not II, for the long z-sound
was probably the fear of confusion with a common symbol for E, viz. II, in
which a long vertical stroke is substituted for the three horizontal strokes.
There was a similar symbol for F, viz. I with a short vertical stroke both
these by-forms of F and E being probably more used in writing than on
inscriptions, though they are common enough in plebeian inscriptions of
i
of the first
later times, along
with a by-form of
with four horizontal strokes
fl
(See Hiibner, Exempla Scripturae Lat. Epigr.}.
In Greek inscriptions a double vowel is found perhaps only in the name

its cognates.
In the second century B. c. the spelling Maa/weAAos,
Maap/oj, Maap/fos is the rule, and it is common till 50 B.C. But the aa is not
found in derivatives where the Greek accent does not fall on this vowel, e.g.
Marcus and
MapKiavos, Map/ft A \avos, &c. (Eckinger, p. 8).

In the first century A.D. the use of uu for u
seems to have been affected for

a time, for the spelling nuulli occurs on wax tablets found at Pompeii
(Notizie degli Scavi, October, 1887), and uu is often found for u of fourth decl.
nouns in Virgil MSS. (see Kibbeck, Ind. p. 449), e. g. metuus, curruus ; also suus
In the Bamberg MS. of the elder
(cf. Probi Appendix, p. 202. 27 K.).
Pliny uus is the regular spelling in the Gen. Sg. and (Nom. and) Ace. PI. of
fourth decl. nouns (see preface to Sillig's edition \ so that this must have been
for SMS
Pliny's own practice (Probus, Inst. Art. 116. 33 K., refers to this spelling).
Lucilius seems to have objected to Accius' rule of doubling the vowels, at
least in the case of A, which, he points out, has the same quality when short
and when long (see ch. ii. i) hence a and a, he argues, should be written
in the same way, like Greek a and d (9. 4-7 M.)
a primum longa, et breuis syllaba. nos tamen unum
hoc faciemus, et uno eodemque ut dicimus pacto
;
scribemus 'pacem,' 'placide/ 'lanum,'

Graeci ut faciunt.
'
aridum,' 'acetum,'
'Apes, "Apes
(On rehemens for vemens, see ch.

10.
gg
for ng.
ii.
56.)
The guttural nasal
of English
'
'
sing
(ch.
ii.
61)
was
ex-
THE ALPHABET.
10, 11.]
1 1
pressed befoi'e a Guttural by 7 in Greek, e.g. 077* Aos, cry/cdA^, and was called by
Greek grammarians the Agma.' Accius proposed to follow the example of
'
the Greeks, and express this sound in Latin by g instead of n, e.g. 'aggulus'
for angulus, aggens for angens,
iggerunt for ingerunt, agceps for anceps.
(Varro ap. Prise, i. p. 30 H. ut Ion scribit, quiiita vicesima est litera, quam
vocant agma, cuius forma nulla est, et vox communis est Graecis et Latinis,
ut his verbis
'aggulus,' 'aggens,' 'agguila,' 'iggerunt.' in eiusmodi Graeci
et Accius noster bina g scribunt, alii n et g, quod in hoc veritatem videre
'
'
'
'
'
non
facile
Similiter
est.
The
agceps,' 'agcora.')
example of this spelling (cf. Eph. Epigr.

is perhaps found in the spelling ager
vii.
'
928)
Inscriptions offer no
its existence
but a trace of
which the MSS.
for agger,
with
offer
singular persistence for a line of Lucilius (26. 81 M. cf. 11.5 M.). If Lucilius
and his contemporaries used gg for ng, they would be forced to use the single;
letter in
like agger, aggero, &c.
New
Letters for Greek Sounds

Our
Y, Z, CH, PH, TH, RH.
wy,' comes from the Latin name for the letter which was
(Mem. Soc. Ling. vi. 79). Greek v is often represented by Latin ui, and
11.
name
ui
words
'
for
y, viz.
'
e. g. quinici foricvviKot, and 'A/;Aas for Aquila(ibid.. viii. 188 Eckinger,

Before the introduction of the Greek letter, Latin u was used in loanwords like tumba, &c., while at a later time i was employed, e. g. cignus and
the Romance forms of these earlier and later-loan words indicate that these
spellings represented the pronunciation of the time (see ch. ii.
28). Y was
not allowed in native Roman words (Caper vii. 105. 17 K.), though it sometimes
gained a footing through a mistaken idea that a word was borrowed from the
vice versa,
p. 123).
Greek,
e. g. sylva
supposed to be the Greek
v\rj,
lympha identified with Greek
&c. (see ch. ii.

if we are to believe the grammarians, was
28). Greek
expressed in earlier times by d also (Prise, i. p. 36 y et z in Graecis taiitumvvptyr),
modo ponuntur
dictioiiibus,
inveniantur, et pro v u, pro
'
quam vis
vero
'
massa pro
quoque mutasse
Sagun
dicentes, et Meden-
in multis veteres haec

.
vel ss vel
posuisse, ut
'
'
Sethus pro ZfjOos

ZaxvvOos, pclfa,
tius' pro Mezentius) (see ch. ii.
120).
The earlier expression of Greek 0, <, x by t, p, c (e. g. adelpus, Metradati
turn,'
inscr. of 81
0uos,
Poem
c.
'
(?), Not. Scav.
'
1887, p.
no) remains
words
like
tus,
on an
Greek
Greek x^' (f- Quint, i. 5. 20 diu deinde servafind b

(veteres) adspirarent, ut in triumpis ').
in Old Latin Bruges for &pvyes, and in ballaena for (f>d\\atva, the former of
for &oiviKfs, calx,
tum ne consonantibus
for
in
We
which was used by Ennius, and was still to be found in copies of his poems in
Cicero's time (Cic. Orat. xlviii. 160 Ennius
ui patefecerunt Bruges/ non
Phryges, ipsius antiqui declarant libri), w hile the latter remained in current
use.
till the middle of the fourth century
(F was not regularly used for
A. D. (Hermes xiv. p. 70), though it is often found on plebeian inscriptions from
Severus' time, and even on Pompeian graffiti we have, e. g. Do/he, C. I. L.
vi. 680).
But as early as 146 B. c. we find th, ph, ch in the dedicatory inscrip.
<f>
tions
i.
of the Graecizing L.
541 in Saturnians
Mummius
(C. I. L.
i.
546 CORINTHO
(?),
146 B.C.
ACHAIA CAPTA CORINTO DELETO
ROMAM REDIEIT TRIVMPHANS).

The importance attached in polite society at Rome to the correct pronunciation
1
They may be
later restorations.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
12
[Chap.
I.
12, 13.
of these aspirated consonants in Greek loan-words led to their wrong use in

native Latin words (ch. ii.
60), e. g. pulcher, referred to Greek TroAvxpovs,
a spelling
on a denarius of Claudius Pulcher (C. I. L.

(0. Engl. antefn from Gk avTHpuvrj
For Greek
to be written with th, anthem.'
found as early as 104
much in the same way

through Low Lat.) has come
i.
380),
B.C.
as
'antem
'
'
and for -,5/5-, the older spelling was r, >T, e.g. Regium, Burrus (the
invariable form of the name Tlvfipos in Ennius, according to Cic. Orat. xlviii.
1 60
The use of rh for initial was not approved by Varro, who preferred to
initial
/>,
>
write
'
Rodus,'
'
retor
(Varro, L. L.
iii. fr.
57. p. 182
Wilm.).
In Oscan inscriptions similarly Greek aspirates are usually expressed by

tenues, e.g. Arkiia (for 'Apx"")? Meeilikiieis (for MfiXix'tov Gen.), and so'
Pelignian Perseponas, Proserpinae,' Gen., but we have also Osc. thesavrei, 'in
'
thesauro/ Loc., &c.
Influence of Greek Orthography. The use of y for the guttural

without success by Accius (see above), was clearly borrowed
from the Greeks. The spelling ei for the long i sound, and the employment
of double consonants, may possibly, as we have seen, have come from the
same source. But however natural it may appear for the Romans to have
adopted Greek spelling along with Greek terminology in matters of Grammar
and Phonetics, there is hardly a single instance of the practice that can be
12.
nasal, advocated
established by proof (see Zarncke's attempt in Comm. Rilbech; 1888}.
The remark of Ter. Scaurus (p. 15 K., quoted

13. Syllabic Writing.
above, that k had been employed to denote the syllable fra, c the syllable ce,
suggests (unless indeed he is merely alluding to the common practice of
abbreviating words by writing only the initial letter of each syllable), that
spellings on early inscriptions like LVBS for lubeji)s on a Marso-Latin inscription (C. /. L. i. 183), may be not really evidences of syncopated pronunciation,
The
but rather traces of an old custom of syllabic writing (see ch. iii.
14).
syllabaries found on Etruscan inscriptions (e. g. Fabretti 2403 and 450), as well
as the use of a dot (like the Sanscrit virama), to indicate those consonants
which are not followed by a vowel, in the inscriptions of the Veneti, an
Illyrian tribe of N.E. Italy, are perhaps other indications that syllabic writing
prevailed at an early period in the Italian peninsula.
CHAPTEK
II.
PRONUNCIATION
1.
A. Ix the words
'
man/
'
1
.
we
father/ the vowels which

'
are
'
roughly as short a and long / are
really very different from each other, and would be phonetically
In Sweet's Handbook of
expressed by two distinct symbols.
in the habit of classing
Phonetics, while the second
written
is
and
a,
the
'
first is
denoted by
se, a symbol which

that
has
of
the
nature
of an E-sound.
the
vowel
implies
something
If we compare our pronunciation of the words ' man/ ' hat/ \vith
a combination
the
German
of
of the letters a
Mann/
'
er
e, viz.
hat/ we see that the German vowel
'
the same as the a of English father or German
'
while we might say that our man/ hat/ bat/ have
'
is
'
'
Vater/
in
them
something of the sound of men/ bet/ Seelmann, who classifies

the varieties of A as normal a,' ' a inclined to an E-sound,' and
f
'
'
a inclined to an
O-sound
'
being something not quite

so definitely an O-sound as the vowel of our words 'all/ awe
'),
is of
opinion that the Latin a had a leaning to e rather than to 0,
1
(this last
'
and goes so far as to give to Latin a of the Imperial age the

^-sound of English f maii.' This however is not the sound of
modern Italian
a, e.g.
identical in quality
1
now judges
to be
father/ though,
owing
padre, which Sweet
with the a of English
'
Seelmann, Aussprache des Latein, Heilbronn, 1885,

Latin Pronunciation.
is
the chief book on
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
14
[Chap. II.
to our smaller use of lip-action in utterance, the
vowel has with
And
the evidence at
us what he terms a more
'
muffled
'
sound.
our disposal is not at all strong enough to allow us to determine

with precision under which class of A-sounds Latin a should be
placed, nor yet
how
far
which accompanied
it,
its
quality was altered by the consonants

it had to some extent
nor even whether
On
a different quality as a long and as a short vowel.

point indeed we have some evidence of weight.
We
that Latin a and

differ so
a, if
they differed at
as Latin e
markedly
in
(ix. fr. 4 M),
and
<?,
quality, did not
all in
and
this last
can be sure
u and
For
u.
criticizing the proposal of the poet and

a single vowel for a short, a double
Accius
to
write
grammarian
for a long vowel (thus a for a, aa for a), says that the vowel a
Lucilius
has the same sound in pronunciation when long as when short,

and should be written in the same way, e.g. pdcem, pl&cide, &c.,
just as the Greeks write a and d in the same way, e.g. 'Apes
v
and Apes (the passage is quoted on p. 10).
And
remark
his
is
Romance
borne out by the evidence of the
In them there are no means of tracing the quantity

languages.
of a Latin vowel, unless the long and the short vowel differed in
This difference did exist in the
quality as well as in quantity.
case of other vowels, e.g. i and
guages Latin i appears as close
misi for Lat. ml.n
Ital.
and
in
so in the
Latin
beve for Lat.
however, show no divergence
when we
e,
Romance
I as close
blbit),
Latin a and
any Romance language
are in doubt whether a Latin a
a syllable long by position for example,
was long or
we have
lan-
(e.g. Ital.
a,
and,
short, in
to refer to
some
other family of languages, which happens to have borrowed the

word at an early period from the Latin.
word like saccus is
Welsh and Breton forms,
shown by
its
Ital. sacco,
Span. saco.
sach, not to speak of

Gothic sakkus, O. H. G. sac, O. Engl. saecc, to have had a short
a ; but this could not have been told from its Romance forms,
Welsh and Breton
Long
a appears in a different guise in
representing Latin pdcem in

the formula of the priest at absolution, pacem do tibi), but not in
Romance,
(e.g. poc,
e.g. Ital. pace,
kiss,
Span. paz.
of the pronunciation of a, given by the Latin
writers on phonetics, do not much help us to determine the shade
The accounts
PRONUNCIATION.
1.]
VOWELS.
15
which the Latin vowel expressed, nor

any of their descriptions free from the suspicion of Greek
bias.
The evidence to be drawn from the phenomena of the
or shades of the A-sound,
are
language itself is equally indecisive. It is true that a becomes e

the unaccented syllable (long by position), as aunfex from
in
aurum and
and
fads.,
in Early Latin in
open syllables
e.
too,
g.
from ad and ago, an e retained in classical

Latin before r, e. g. impero from paro. But this was the fate of
every short vowel in the unaccented syllable, and not of a alone,
so that e was the natural sound which any short Latin post-tonic
&begit, classical aMgit,
vowel tended to assume, unless attracted by a following Labial

to an O-, U- or U-sound, e.g. occupo from ob and capio, lestumo(C. I. L. i. 197, 3) from stem testi- (see iii. 18). Varieties in
the spelling of foreign names like SarcUca and SercUca, Delmatia
and Dalmatia prove nothing for Latin a. More important is the
nium
fact tha,tjd-,jaj-
J ej->
with open
e.
seem to have tended to the pronunciation/*?-,

Thus Jdnudrius became Jenudriiis jajunus is
;
Here the change of

the Plautine form of the classical jejmius.
a to e was due to the influence of the palatal/ (our y) preceding,
just as the u ofjumperus was changed to i by the same palatal
in
Vulgar Latin jinipirus (Probi Appendix, 199. 8 K.) (ItaL
ginepm, Fr. genievre, Span, enebro). No such influence is at

work in the mispronunciation stetim for stMim, a Roman cockneyism like London keb for ' cab/ mentioned by a grammarian of
(
'
A. D. (Consentius, p. 392, r6 K.
per immuta(?) century
tionem fiunt barbarismi sic litterae, ut siquis dicat ' bobis pro
the fifth
'
'
'
vobis,
peres
'
pro pedes,
stetim
'
pro statim, quod vitium plebem
Romanam quadam
is
quoted by
deliciosa novitatis affectione corrumpit). This

Seelmann as a strong argument for his assertion
that Latin a had in Imperial times the sound of English a in

1
man ; though on the other hand we might argue for an
'
A-sound more inclining to o from Vulg. Lat. *notare. a by-form

of natare, to swim, which ousted the #-form in Vulgar Latin
about 100 B c.
In Plautus' time and later vacare was pronounced
like vocare
the o-sound apparently having been produced by the
influence of the labial v (our
w)
(cf.
Kcodparos,
Kodparoy
for
Qnacfadtus on Gk. inscriptions), as e was by the palatal / (our y)

in Jemidrius.
In one of Phaedrus' fables (App. 2i) a man
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
16
[Chap. II.
caw of a crow for ave I ave ! It is worth

mentioning that Oscan u, the representative of Ind.-Eur. O, O,
and, when at the end of a word, of Ind.-Eur. A, which must
have had a sound something like our a in all,' awe,' and which
is in those inscriptions which are written in Latin characters
mistakes
the
'
'
'community, Nom. Sing, of

four times,' Ace. PI. Neut.), rarely by u
(e.g. petiru-pert)) as in Greek characters by o (e.g. rcofro), is yet
written by Festus and by Paulus, his epitomator, with a.
expressed
A-stem ;
Festus,
by
(e.g. tovto, 'state,'

'
petiro-pert,
when he mentions the Oscan word
for 'four,' writes it
petora (p. 250,

33 Th.) and Paulus gives veia, not veio, as the
word for 'cart' (p. 560. 1. 17 Th.) though Lucilius, if Festus
1.
7 Th.) quotes him accurately, makes o the Latin equi(p. 426,
valent of the Oscan Neut. PL suffix in sollo (Lat. tota),
1.
uasa quoque omnino dirimit non sollo dupundi.
The evidence then of the Latin language itself points to

Latin a having had a sound which was liable to influence in the
Into the modifications of Latin
direction of o as well as of e.
Romance language,
a in each several
it
is
hardly necessary to
they are as likely to be due to the vocal peculiarities

of the nations conquered by the Romans, as to the nuances of
enter, for
sound in the language of the conquering race. French is the

language where Latin a has been most widely replaced by e
(e.g. chef, Lat. caput, while in champ, Lat. campus, though e is
not written, the preceding guttural has been palatalized) and in
'
Portuguese it is something between the a of father and the
;
'
a of
'
man/ though
Italy a has
English a in
it
the sound
what may be
called the
is
more guttural.
But
in
normal A- sound, that of
man/ It is only in two

the Po-valley), and the coast of Apulia,
has an E-sound, while in some parts of Italy it tends to
districts,
that
before
'
father,'
Emilia
not that of a in
(i.e.
an O-sound (Meyer-Lubke,
Ital. Gram.
Speaking
18-21).
that
the
influence of a palatal or r often
say
generally,
changes a into an E-sound in the Romance languages (e. g.
Corsican berba), whereas an O-sound is produced under the
we may
influence of such letters as
some
dialects of
N.
I,
v, b (e.g. oltro
for Latin alter in
Italy), while before n Latin a
is
in
some
PRONUNCIATION.
2-4.]
VOWELS.
17
So that the evidence, taken

places changed to e, in others to o.
as a whole, is rather more in favour o attributing to Latin
a a sound which varied to some extent in character, according
1
which accompanied, it, than of giving it

of our a in
man/ And in the
the
E-character
definitely
absence of more definite proof, it will be best, for practical
the consonant
to
'
purposes, to use in reading Latin the sound which the vowel bears
in the language of the direct descendants of the Roman people,
the normal A-sound of Italian padre.

2.
Descriptions of the A-sound by Latin phoneticians.
The formation
of the (Greek or Latin?) sound is described very cleverly by Terentianus

Maurus (second cent. A.D.) (p. 328 of Keil's edition), in spite of the limitations
of the difficult Sotadean metre (
w
w w '- w - w - -)
:
prima locum
immunia
littera sic
ab ore sumit
rictu patulo tenere labra,
linguamque
iiecesse est ita
pendulam
reduci,
ut nisus in illam valeat subire vocis,

nee partibus ullis aliquos ferire dentes.
Marius Victorinus (fourth cent. A.D.) (p. 32 of Keil's edition) compresses

the same description, in his usual way
a littera rictu patulo suspensa,
neque impressa dentibus lingua enuntiatur. It is still further compressed by
Martianus Capella (fourth or fifth cent. A.D.) (iii. 261, p. 63 of Eyssenhardt's
:
edition in the Teubner series)
A sub
hiatu oris congruo solo spiritu
memo-
ramus.
3.
Interchange of a and
e.
Delmatia
and Dalmdtia
Vel. Longus, p. 73 K.
'
placet etiam Delmatiam quoque, non Dalmatian! pronuntiemus, quoniam

a Delmino maxima ejusdem provinciae civitate tractum nomen existimatur.
'
On
Inscriptions, we have sometimes a, e.g. Dalmat. (C. I. L. vi. 1607), somee, e.g. Delmatia (C.I.L. iii. p. 280) (see Georges. Lex. Lat. Worlf. s. v.).
Je-,
for ja-, jajThe Vulg. Lat. name of the month was Jenuarius (C. I. L. vi.
times
jej-
1708, of 311-314 A.D., and other inscriptions) [see Schuchardt, Vok. i. 185. So
in Greek inscrr. 'levovapicav C. I. G. 9486 (Catana)
'levapiow I. I. S. 62
(Syracuse)], which has developed into the Italian Gennajo (cf. Span. Enero),
;
with open e. Jejunus (with e according to Ter. Maur. 343 K.), jejentaculum
supplanted the older jajunus, jajentaculum, the Plautine forms (A. L.L. 7. 528).
Jenua, for janua, is indicated by Sardinian enna, genna, and is sometimes
found in MSS. (see Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 185). Jajunus reappears in late
Latin (in the Itala, e. g. Luc. iii. 20), and in Span, ayunar, while the shortened
forms jantaculum, jantdre are found in MSS. along with the usual jentaculum,
and jantare is indicated by Old Span,
jentare (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv.)
;
I.
F.
ii.
Anz.
p.
35
On
Vulg. Lat. jecto forjacto (Ital. gettare, Fr. Jeter), see

and for other examples of a-e, Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv.
yantar, Port, yantar.
Sarapis, serracum, Serdica, metaxa, Sabadius,
Interchange of a and
and
Diet. s. v. Serranus.
the form reflected in the languages of

Natare
those countries which were earliest colonized (Sard, nadare, Span, nadar, Port.
4.
o.
is
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. II.
nadar, Prov. nadar), while *notdre appears in O. Fr. noer, Raet. nudar, Koum.
innota, Ital. nuotare, which shows that *notare did not find its way into
Vulgar Latin till about 100 B. c. *Vodtus is the Vulg. Lat. original of Ital.
empty/ and vocare, voc(u}us (see Georges, Lex. Wortf.} of

Vocatio for vacdtio is found on the Lex RepetunSard, bogare, Span, hueco.
darum of 123-2 B.C. (C.I.L. i. 198. 77 militiaeque eis uocatio esto), and is
the spelling of Julius Caesar in his Lex Municipalis of 45 B. c. (i. 206. 93 and
voto. 0. Fr. voit,
'
103
vocatio rei militarist
Plautus puns on
'
to
vocare,
be empty,' and
vocare
'to call,' in Cas. 527: Fac habeant linguam tuae aedes.

Quid ita? Quom
ueniam, uocent. Marmor (Greek pappapos} follows the analogy of Nouns in -or.
(For other examples of a-o, see Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 177 sqq., and Brambach,
s. v. Tamyris, and cf. below, ch. iv.
55.)
HtiJfsMchlein
Anomalies in Romance. Accented Latin a sometimes shows o, somein Romance from a variety of causes. Thus Ital. chiovo, from Lat.
Ital. (dialectal) opre for apre, Fr. ouvrir,
ddvuSj shows o by influence of v
hardly point to Vulg. Lat. *operio for dperio, but are rather influenced by
Ital. monco from Lat. mancus is due to
co(<j^pcrio, Fr. couvrir, Ital. coprire
the synonym tronco from Lat. truncus. Vulg. Lat. *grevis (Ital. greve and
5.
times
grave)
may have
adapted
itself to levin
melum, not malum, the original of the
Romance words for apple (Ital. melo, &c.), seems to be the Greek form priXov,
and is indicated by the pun in Petronius, chap. Ivi. ^.37. 19 Biich.) concontus cum malo (leg. melo). The appearance of e for a in the
tumelia
.
unaccented
syllable,
e. g.
Vulg. Lat.
alecer
(with stem
alecro-} for
a/am-
(Ital.
and eerasium in Marc. Einp.) from

*ceresus for ctrasits (Greek Kpaa6s} in the Romance words for cherry (Ital.
ciriegio, &c.) is due to the same law which produced consecro from safro (ch.
The mispronunciations fetigo Prob. 212. 4, secratum Mar. Viet. x. 6, are
iii).
allegro.
to
Span, alegre),
ceresio-
be similarly explained.
words
(ceresium
(On the variation of Italian a with I.-Eur.
like Lat. pateo fOsc. pate-) besides Gk. Trerdn/v/xt, see ch. iv.
6.
E.
The evidence for the pronunciation
of Latin e
in
61.)
is
much
In the
stronger than the evidence at our disposal for Latin a.
Romance languages we have clear proof that short and long e had
in the parent-speech a different quality, e being an open E-sound
like Engl. 'men/ e a close E-sound like Fr. ete.
(Our 'fail/
'
have a diphthong of this close e combined with an I-sound.)

These sounds are retained without a change in Italian at the
present day in such words as bello (Lat. lellus) with open e, stella
*
fate
(Lat. stella)
with close
Romance languages open
e,
though
in
open syllables in many
has developed to
ie
(Ital. criepa,
Span.
from Lat. crepat) (cf. Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 328). All

this harmonizes so wonderfully with the evidence we can draw
from the Latin language itself, and from the statements of the
crieba,
Latin grammarians, as to leave little room for doubt. According to the grammarians long e is an E inclining to an I-sound/
'
PRONUNCIATION.
5, 6.]
VOWELS.
what phoneticians nowadays call close

be an E inclining to an A-sound '), while short
e
precisely
*
19
e
e
'
(open e would
approaches the
ce, which in the Romance lanfrom

Latin e (e. g. Ital. cielo, Span,
guages
undistinguishable
cielo, from Lat. caelum, exactly as Ital. criepa, Span, crieba, from
Lat. crepaf).
Latin e and
are merged in the same way in
Romance (Ital. fendo from Lat. f%ndo like vendo from Lat.
vendo ; messo from Lat. missus, like mesa from Lat. me(n)sa; all
sound of the Latin diphthong

is
with close
being distinguished only in the oldest Romance

Sardinian (Sard, veru from Lat. verus, but pira from
e),
dialect, viz.
Lat. *p%ra,
pwum,
for
which the Italian words are
vero, pera), so
that the two sounds must have become very like one another in
quality at an early period of Vulgar Latin.
They were not
however
identical, for they are clearly distinguished in Latin

loanwords in other languages (e.g. ~L&i.fules, cera, loanwords of
the second to the fourth cent. A.D., are in Welsh ffydd, cwyr).
And
so the probable history of the
syllables
close
is
e,
g. eligo
(e.
from
lego),
and then passed into
similarly close
e,
for
is
e to % in
change of
that the open
unaccented
e first
became
Italian e in unaccented syllables

'
ten
example, the final e of diece,
i.
'
fail to give this sound

only in the unaccented syllable that we find
substituted for e in the mispronunciations censured by the
and English speakers of Italian often

It
correctly.
i
is
grammarians, pinaria for penaria, pidato for pedatu, decim for

though on plebeian epitaphs, and the like, we find
decent t &c.,
instances of
for accented
e,
some of which may be a mere
graver's mistake of dropping a stroke of II, a common way of

writing E. Before another vowel e seems to have approached
the sound of
like -eus
and
to judge
-ius, -eolus
was recognized
from the frequent confusion of
and
-iolus.
Before
older
ei,
suffixes
-sound
the
as the correct pronunciation, or at least the correct
spelling, e.g. mieis, mils, contracted to mis; dii, diis, contracted

to di, dis; ii, Us, contracted to i, is in Plautus, &c.
The con-
trary tendency, to substitute e for % before a vowel, was a feature

'
of rustic Latin and some of these ' rustic forms, especially in
;
names
way
of agricultural implements and the like, have found their

into ordinary Latin, e. g. mateola for *matiola (Sanscr.
maty am).
Another
dialectal
change was to replace

C 2
by
before
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
20
rct
e.
is
The remark o Quintilian (i. 4. 8)

was required to express the sound of the
g. stircus for stercns.
that some
new
vowel of
final
[Chap. II.
letter
heri, Jiere (in
discussed in
'
here
'
neque e plane neque
auditur),
16.
In Oscan, as we
shall see
14), the short
and long E-sounds
seem to have corresponded to Latin e, e, in being" the one open,

the other close.
A short E- vowel, however, when lengthened by
'
'
compensation or any other cause, appears to have retained the

open sound for it is expressed by doubling the symbol of the
short vowel (e. g. eestint, Lat. exstant keenzstur, Lat. censor,
;
censores],
and not by the symbol of the long vowel.
nevertheless the evidence points to e-
For Latin
-e(n)s- for -ens-
for ex,
having had the close sound; for evitat is the instance given by
a grammarian (see below) of the close E-sound of ordinary
Latin e, and the Romance and Celtic forms of Lat. mensa,
me(n)sa (Ital. mesa, Welsh mwys, &c.) point to the ordinary
e- vowel.
But Vulg, Latin Jenuarius (for Jdnuarius) is shown
by Italian Gennajo (with open e) to have had the E-sound which
is most near a, that is, the
open sound. (On ens see
144.)
7.
Descriptions of the E-sound by Latin phoneticians, &c.

(329. 116 K.)
tianusMaurus in his account
Teren-
e quae sequitur vocula dissona est priori,
quia deprimit altum modico tenore rictum,

premit hinc et hinc molares,
et lingua remotos
curiously omits all reference to the difference between short and long e.
There must, however, have been such a reference in some part of his writings,
for Pompeius, as we shall see, quotes him as an authority on this very point
Marius Victorinus, whose account always closely corresponds with his, after
describing e as follows (33. i K.) e quae sequitur, depresso modice rictu oris
reductisque introrsum labiis effertur, goes on to say o, ut e, geminum vocis
sonum pro condicione temporis promit. Martianus Capella (iii. 261) has
E spiritus facit lingua paululum pressiore. More valuable are the remarks of
those grammarians who give practical hints on the correct pronunciation
of actual Latin words.
Servius (fourth cent. A. D.) (in Don. 421. 17 K.) is very
vocales sunt quinque, a e i o u.
ex his duae, e et o. aliter sonant
clear
e quando producitur vicinum est ad sonum
productae, aliter correptae
i
meta
litterae, ut
quando autem correptum, vicinum est ad sonum
diphthongi, ut equus.
(By the diphthong he means ae of aequus, &c.)
Cautions against the confusion of equus and aequus occur more than
:
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
once in the writings of the grammarians. Thus Pompeius (fifth cent. A.D.)
says the one vowel-sound is short, the other long (285. 6 K.) plerumque male
pronuntiamus et facimus vitium, ut brevis syllaba longo tractu sonet
siqui
:
PRONUNCIATION.
7-9.]
VOWELS.
21
velit dicere 'aequus' pro eo quod est equus, in pronuntiatione hoc fit (cf.
Alcuin 295. 4 K.
'aequitas,' 'aequus,' id est Justus,
per ae diphthongon
scribenda sunt
'equus,' si animal significat, per simplicein e) (see
41).
Pompeius, in another passage ( 102. 4 K.), ascribes the comparison of the long ee aliter longa, aliter brevis sonat
to the z-sound to Tereiitianus Maurus
:
ad
litteram.'
'
dicis
quotienscumque e longam volumus
'
dicit ita Tereiitianus
ipse sonus sic debet sonare,
quomodo sonat
debet esse, sic pressa,
evitat,' vicina
littera.
angusta, ut vicina
sic
proferri, vicina sit
quando
ad i
sit
brevem e, simpliciter sonat. And Sergius (in

Don. 520. 27 K.) gives much the same account as Servius vocales sunt quinque.
hae non omnes varies habent sonos, sed tantum duae, e et o. nam quando e
litteram.
quando
'
'
vis dicere
correptum
sic sonat,
est, sic
quasi
sonat, quasi diphthongus, 'equus
ut
'
;'
quando productum
est,
demens.'
unaccented
8. i for
non
i,
Caper
e.
(first
cent. A.D.) (93. 3 K.)
cella penaria,
dicendum ibid. TOO. 23 K. primo pedatu, non 'pidato,' dicendum Velius Longus (first cent. A.D.) (76. 9 K.) 'comprimo' quoque per
i malo
et e contrario decem audacius
scribi, quamvis compressus dicatur
dixerim, quamvis inde decies trahatur, quoniam, ut supra dixi, sono usitatiore gaudet auditus, referring to the form decim,' which is found now and
'pinaria,'
'
'
'
'
then on inscriptions.
(For other examples, see ch.
iii.
22.)
The Appendix Probi censures vinia (198. 3K.), cavia

coclia and codiarium (198. 6), lancia (198. 8), solia(ig8. 10),
9. i for e in hiatus.
(198. 5), brattia (198. 6),
'calcius (198. 10), tinia (198. 19), baltius (198. 23), lintium (198. 31),
Ariam
g^jfassiolus (198. 26).
(e. g.
C. I.
L. vi. 541, of
88 A.
D.),
palliarium (198.
horriorum (e. g. vi.
are frequent spellings on inscriptions. Cf. Greek oppia, dpta

irci\iov in the Edict of Diocletian, 301 A. D.
first cent. A. D.
Vulg. Lat. *mia for mea, &c., is shown by Sard, mia,
noTtoAot, TloTicaXot.
0. Fr. moie, Koum. mea.
Velius Longus (first cent. A. D.) says (77. 16 K.)
8680, of 68 A.
D.),
from the end of the
nostris auribus
at
Our MSS.
enim
'
placet
'
miis per
non meis' per

i
i,
istoc nihil est magis, Syre,
e,
ut Terentius
miis nuptiis aduersum.
have not preserved the old spelling in this passage (Heaut.

but that it was a spelling current in the older period we see from mieis
699)
on one of the Scipio Epitaphs (C. L L. i. 38, of 130 B. c.). In the Lex Parieti
Faciendo (C. I. L. i. 577), a copy of an inscription of 105 B.C., we find the Abl.
PI. abiegnieis, aesculnieis, distinguished in spelling from Ace. PI. abiegnea (K. Z.
of Terence
Similarly clii, diis represented the pronunciation, although spelt dei,

agree with the other cases, as we learn from Caper (first cent. A. D.)
nam et deabus Cicero dixit igitur deis ratio, diis
dei non dii
(109. 6 K.)
consuetude and the same must hold of ii, Us (ieis, C. I. L. vi. 877, time of
xxx. 500).
deis to
'
'
on the Regulations for the Ludi Saeculares of

cf. Caper 106. u K. earn (MSS. iam)
semper dicendum, quia nihil est 4am.' item non 'iamus/ sed eamus. (On
the spelling of the Plur. of is and deus see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv.) ByAugustus
ieis, iei,
but
eos,
17 B.C. (Monumenti Antichi
&c.,
i.
iii))
1
But the use of i may have been
a mere usage of orthography to avoid
the awkward collocation -el-, which
might be misread as the symbol
for
the long i-sound (i. 9), or -eei-, which

might suggest the e-sound (ibid.) fol-
lowed by
i.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
22
[Chap. II.
-ea and -ia are sometimes differentiated by the subtlety of grammarians, a practice very properly censured by Cornutus (ap. Cassiod. 150. 18
K.) vineas per e quidam scribendas tradiderunt, si hae significarentur, quas
at contra per i, vinias, illas sub quibus latere miles solet,
in agris videmus
quod discrimen stultissimum est. nam neque aliunde vineae castrenses
dictae sunt, quam quod vineis illis agrestibus similes sunt. (For other examples
forms in
:
of
varying with
-ea, -eus
Orth. p.
133
-ra,
-ius,
and consult Georges,
Brambach
see Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 424
s. vv. glarea, Unea, janeus, mustaceus,
;
Lex. Wortf.
mrgineus,vitreus, gallinaceus, cavea,urceolus, adorea,lancea, oreae, ostrea,pausea, labea,

linteo, phaseolus, nauseo, coprea, cocMea, hordearius ; and Brambach, Hiilfsbuchlein
s.
to
'
vv. balteus, solea, tinea,
change
and
bractea.')
'
lilyum,' area &c. into arya,' so

63^.
(see ch. iv.
same sound
to give a
tendency
They have been explained by that tendency

i (t/), which turned niium &c. into
that -ens. -eum, -ius, ium were merged in the
But they are more easily explained by the
in hiatus into consonantal
vowel in hiatus the close sound
18).
viam
Varro (E. E. i. 2. 14) rustici
e for * in hiatus.
appellant.
(The Oscan word is via-, the Umbr. vea- and via-) ; -eo
for -to is common in inscrr. of Etruria, Praeneste, &c. (Sittl, Lok. Versch. p. 10),
the Praenestine form of ciconia is given
e. g. Praenestine flleai (C. I. L. i. 54)
10.
'
veham
'
Rustic
'
'
by the MSS.
est ciconia
of Plautus, True. 690, as conea not conia

in Plaut. Most. 48 the MSS. read aleato
'
'
:
ut Praenestinis conea
Charisius
garlic.'
on
27 K.) censures the pronunciation of 'alii diserti' oleum, doleiim, palleum

the Appendix Probi rejects aleum (198. 18 K.), Ifleum (198. 19", laneo (197. 29),
ostemn (198. 5). [For other exx. see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv. alium, ascia, dolium,
(70.
folium, lanio, ostium, pallium, solium, spolium

spongia
the normal spelling

edition,
i.
p.
Schuchardt (Vok.
18).
of the kind from
and spongea were

in the MSS. of Martial
Both
lilium, sobrius.
MSS. and
ii.
and Brambach,
Hillfsb. s.vv. feriae,
used, the latter being, for example,
and Friedlander's
number of misspellings
(see Georges, s.v.
p. 37")
gives a
inscriptions.]
Schuchardt (Vok. i. p. 227) quotes a large number of spellings

inscrr. of the fourth cent., and later in which an i appears for e.
It
is not easy to decide how many represent a pronunciation of I for e [thus
11. I for e.
from
Aurilius (third cent.), Cornilius seem to represent that change of e to 1 before

a syll. with % (y} in hiatus, which appears in fllius, with the ordinary Latin
long i-sound (close i,

14), to judge from its Romance descendants, Ital. figlio,
Span, hijo, &c. on this possible change of e to 7, see ch. iv.
7], how many
a pronunciation of i for e (e. g. jtticiterT), how many are dialectal (the equivalent
of Lat. e is an i-sound in several of the Italian dialects, e.g. Osc. ligud lege'
;
'
and how many are mere mistakes. In Greek inscrr. % for Lat. e is
came to take the i-sound
late, probably dating from the time when Greek
but Avpi\ios (-iAX(os) is found beside AvprjXios in the second cent. (Eckinger,
The rare spelling decreiuit for decrevit on an inscr. of 1893.0. from
p. 24\
Spain (C. I. L. ii. 5041) cannot be quoted as an example of the transition of e
to 7. The use of ei for e in the unaccented syll. in the word inpeirator (for
impSrdtor) on the same inscr. suggests that ei in decreiuit may have been meant
ch. iv.
5),
77
to indicate the close e-sound [cf. leigibus xiv. 2892 (Praeneste), pleib. (Eph.
i.
Delirus and delerus are rightly explained by Velius Longus (73. 2 K.),
3)]
Epigr.
who
follows Varro
the form
delerus is
detirus is the proper form, derived from lira a furrow, while

due to a fanciful connexion of the word with Gk. \rjpfiv.
VOWELS.
PRONUNCIATION.
10-14.]
23
(On the comparative prevalence of the two spellings see Georges, Lex. Wortf.
and cf. App. Probi 198. 19 delirus non delerus') torpldo beside torpedo
(Caper 106. 8 K.) is merely the substitution of a more familiar for a less familiar
see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.), and the same is true
suffix (cf. grdvido forgravedo
;
s. v.,
*venlnum (Fr. venin). Bizacinus for Bysacenus (App. Probi,

*pulKcmum (Ital.
198. i), *pergammum (Ital. pergamino, Fr. parchemin),
pulcino, Fr. poussin) (-emis, -enum have been in fact supplanted by -mo- in
Romance languages, e.g. Ital. Saracino, Messina, &c., Fr. serin, a canary, if
of Vulg.
from
Lat.
*raclmus (Ital. racimolo, Fr. raisin), *vervlcem (Ital. berbice, Fr.

(See also Georges, s. vv. crumena, sesamum,
Siren),
brebis), *mantlle (Ital. mantile), &c.

seriais
12.
cf.
199. 6
App. Probi
hermeneumata non erminomata.')

'
for accented e (see Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 329

censured in App. Probi 199. 6 K. (cf. Quint, i. 4. 12),
blpennis,
sqq.).
is
due
Bipinnis for
to confusion
of pinna with penna (cf. Caper 100. 17 K.) carictum beside cdrectum (de Dub. Nom.
v 573- 2 K. Virgilius in bucolicis 'tu sub carecta latebas,' nunc caricta), may
follow the analogy of salictum, &c., but it is more likely that the true reading
;
here
Plur. of cariceum (Nonius 21. 24 M.
is caricea,
On
carrizo.
ch. iv.
11
ScMa, schida
?),
the original of Span,
and vegeo, filix and felix, fiber and feber, pinna and penna, see
and on benevolus and benwolus, benefwus and benificus, &c., ch. iii. 37.
for scheda (see Georges, s. v.) seems to follow the analogy of scindo ;
vigeo
The use of e for i is discussed in 17.

of prospwio, prosico, &c.
c became by a phonetic law of the language i (see ch. iv.
apwio, sico, &c.,
Before ng every Latin
and other consonant- combinations may have

towards the close e-sound or the -sound (see Georges, Lex. Wortf.
8), e.g. tingo, confringo, attingo
influenced
vv. Vergilius,
s.
dignus has
and cf. 144) ;

spellings like frumintum
point to a modification of e like that of o (ch. iv.
Verginius, hernia, segmentum, Forsenna,
vergiliae,
been explained as *dec-nus from
(Schuchardt, Vok.
20) before
i.
354)
may
dccet,
and
nt.
a for
13.
e.
Before
re
we
find a for
in the mispronunciation novarca (for
mentioned in the Appendix Probi (198. 34 K.) but forms like ansar
198. 22 and 2^\passar (ib. 198. 33), carcar in the Acts of the Arval Brothers,
worerca)
(ib.
better explained as cases of assimilation to

(cf. App. Prob. 197. 32), are
the vowel of the accented syllable (see ch. iii. 33) and calandae, the Vulg. Lat.
form of cdlendae [in Greek always Ka\av8ai (cf. Eckinger), Welsh calan, New
Year's Day, Mod. Gk. KaXavrd], may be a i Conj. Gerundive form. (Schuchardt,
&c.
Vok.
i.
p.
206
14. I.
in
sqq.,
has collected a
of examples of doubtful validity.)
The Romance languages show us that Latin #, I

Latin
quality, like
merge in Latin
Latin
list
bibit,
e,
e,
e.
while Latin
Latin
I
remains
misi from Latin mlsi.
Romance vowels, the least liable

Romance language it preserves
its
?',
we have
e.
differed
seen, they
g. Ital. beve,
from
from Latin is, of all

change. In almost every
character unaltered, and
This
to
as
every influence of neighbouring consonants, so that there

great likelihood that it has remained the same on Italian soil
resists
is
from
Roman
times
till
now.
Italian
si
will then exactly repre-
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
24
sent the vowel sound of Latin

'
see
is
'
'
an open I-sound, but, according to Sweet,
than
German Kind,
of
while the latter
'
nearer e of
"
men
"
as fuller (plenior) than that of

a sound between e and i' They add
'
is
'
The Latin grammarians
bitten/
similarly speak of the sound of

?,
This
of Ij&i.finUus.
sic, finite
has the close I-sound, like French si, fini, Germ, sie, our
being rather a diphthong, while our i in bit/ fish,' kin,'
Italian
*
[Chap. II.
a third I-sound, which in the Romance languages is not distinguished from ordinary Latin i, viz. the # of optimus older
The
optumns, &c., which they style a sound between i and u.'
and
as
Latin
e
E
and
I
differed
natural inference is that Latin
e,
'
the short vowel being open, the long close, while i before a labial,
in words like optimns, had some sound like that of German ii in
'
bitten/ modified
by
the same sound as Germ,
of
labialization, or as it is usually called,
'
This
schiitzen, Hiitte.
ii
is
Kind/
round-
i. e. lateral
compression of the cheek passage, and narrowing
of the lip-aperture (Sweet, Handbook, p. 13).
The relation of the E- and I-sounds in Oscan seems to offer
ing,'
a close parallel to that in Latin.

e, e.
alphabet
I is
i,
g.
edum
(Lat. Mere,
g. bivus (Lat.
e.
v'tvi,
Nom.
I.-Eur. e
esse
'
to eat
PL).
the same sign (except that for e it is

indicate length), a modification of this
'),
is
in the
Oscan
estud (Lat. esto)
and
For
last,
which we conven-
they have
often written double to
i
e.g. fiisnam, a temple, Ace. Sg. (cf. Ij&t. festus),

In Greek characters the three signs are e, i, t ;
pid (Lat. quid).
in Latin characters e, i, i.
Everything points to their e having
tionally write
i,
been, like Latin
Latin
e,
an open E-sound, their
the close I-sound of
Romance languages they have merged

one sound i. Whether the iu of Oscan
while like the
7,
and open i in
ultiumam (Lat. ultimam)
close e
indicates the Latin ft-sound
is,
with the
scarcity of material at our disposal, uncertain (see ch. iv.

23).
In rustic Latin, as we saw ( 10), i before a vowel was replaced
by
e i e-
accented
tnateola for *matiola, while in the ordinary language

before a vowel, e. g. dies, seems to have had the quality
It had possibly the same quality in words like audit,
of long
i.
where
the
i, originally
long (e.g. audit, Plaut.), has been
shortened owing to the difficulty felt by the Romans in pronouncing a long vowel before final t (see ch. iii. 49). Rustic Latin
PRONUNCIATION.
15, 16.]
e for
in
gpeca,
25
probably a development of the old
is
&c.,
VOWELS.
Similarly e, the old vowel of the open unaccented

syllable, e.g. O. Lat. abegit for ftbigit, was retained in rustic
Latin.
ei.
diphthong
15.
Descriptions of the I-sound by Latin phoneticians.

Terent. Maur. (329. 119 K.)
ticians describe only the ^-sound.
porrigit ictuni genuinos prope
Mar. Victor.
voceni dabit
ad
ipsos,
renidet supero terms labello
minimumque
The phone:
K.) i semicluso ore impressaque sensim lingua dentibus

Mart. Cap. (iii. 261) I spiritus (facit) prope dentibus pressis.
(33. 2
16. by Grammarians.
The w-sound attracted a good deal of attention
from Latin grammarians, and had the honour of being noticed by various
rulers of the Roman Empire. Julius Caesar effected the adoption of the
his successor
spelling optimus maximus, and the like, on State inscriptions
Augustus, we are told, reverted in these forms to the old spelling with u
the Emperor Claudius took a course different from both of his illustrious
;
predecessors, and tried to introduce into the Latin alphabet a new letter to
The statements of the Latin grammarians
express this particular sound.
about the various sounds of Latin i are not always perfectly clear, and must
be examined in detail. Quintilian (middle of first cent. A. D.), speaking of

the letters wanting to the Latin alphabet says (i. 4. 8) that some special
sign is required for the sound between i and u in words like optimus, and
similarly for the sound between e and i in words like here (older heri\ sibi, quasi
(older
qudse} [cf. rase, ube in Virgil
MSS., Ribbeck, Index, pp. 436, 451, nise

and (wT ith ube, sebe, &c.) on late inscrr.
In the Appendix Probi 199. 16 K.) we have nescio ubi non
(see Georges).
medius est quidam u et i litterae sonus non enim optumum
nesciocube']
dicimus aut 'optimum ,' et in 'here' neque e plane neque i auditur. In
another passage he tells us that the change in spelling, optimus, &c., from
optumus, &c., was made by the influence of Julius Caesar, a statement repeated
by Velius Longus in the passage quoted below, and first uttered, according to
Cornutus (ap. Cassiodor. 150.
K.) by Varro
Quint, i. 7. 21 iam 'optimus
maximus,' ut mediam i litteram, quae veteribus u fuerat, acciperent, Gai
here
nunc e littera
primum Caesaris inscriptione traditur factum.
terminamus at veterum comicorum adhuc libris invenio 'heri admeuenit,'
quod idem in epistulis Augusti, quas sua manu scripsit, aut emendavit,
sibe,
Lex Rubria
in
of 49 B.
c.
(C.l.L.
i.
205),
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
sibe et quase scriptum in multorum libris est, sed an

deprehenditur
hoc voluerint auctores nescio T. Livium ita his usum ex Pediano comperi,
qui et ipse eum sequebatur haec nos i littera finimus. This example, here
and fieri, has given rise to some doubt for we are accustomed to regard JterS
and hen as differing in quantity, like rure and run', Tibure and Tiburi (the -e
being the Cons. -stem Locative suffix -i, the -1 being the I-stem Abl. suffix -Id,
'
'
F. L
non enim
sic
dieimus ut 'optimum.'
enim
sincere
aut.
'optumum'
non
The reading
Perhaps,
of one MS.,
opimum for optimum,
certainly wrong.
22.
Cf. Quint,
i. 7.
is
21,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
26
[Chap. II.
ch. iv).
We have here, for example, in Martial i. 44 est positum nobis nil
here praeter aprum, but hen in Terence. Eun. 169 heri minas pro ambobus
uiginti dedi, often shortened by the peculiar metrical law of the comedians
by which are was scanned as dve, cave as cav$, &c. (see ch. iii), as in the line,
Hec. 329 her! nemo uoluit Sostratam intro admittere.
Some have been led
by this into the mistaken idea that what Quintilian is referring to, is that
interchange of
diphthong
ei,
which we see on old inscriptions in rendering the

1,
ploirume for ploirumei, later plurimi, on an epitaph of one of
L. i. 32).
But, as we shall see from the passages quoted from
and
e. g.
the Scipios (C. I.

other grammarians, the phrase a sound between e and i is the designation
for Latin i in such a word as hominem and we may be sure that in Quintilian's
time the word heri, as well as here, would invariably have in the utterance of
everyday speech a short final syllable. He tells us expressly of the word ave
'
'
(have} that, although it ought by right to have a long final vowel, being an
Imperative of a verb of the second conjugation, like splende, aude, it was never,
except by precisians, pronounced otherwise than have (i. 6. 21). (A fuller
account of this shortening is given in ch. iii.
Velius Longus, who like
40.)
Quintilian belonged to the first cent. A. D., talks of the 'exilis sonus of
the Latin vowel 1 and, in some cases, of i, e.g. in 3 Sg. Pres. Ind. of verbs of
the fourth conjugation, audit, &c. (In Plautus and the oldest literature this
i is
long, audit, the shortening having been effected by the influence of the
final
just as with us the vowel of note is shorter than the vowel of 'node.'
See ch. iii.
49.)
Ordinary i, as in 3 Sg. Pres. Ind. of the third conjugation,
Of
latus sonus,' while the i of optimus is pinguis.'
ponit, &c., he calls the
this last sound he says that the spelling and pronunciation of u for i in
optimus, manibiae, &c., was regarded in his time as old-fashioned and countrified
'
'
'
t,
'
i vero littera interdum exilis est, interdum pinguis, ut in eo quod

'
viiicit
condit exilius volo sonare in eo vero quod signifi catur
prodit
vincire
condire
usque pinguescit ut jam in ambiguitatem cadat utrum
prodire
per i quaedam debeant dici an per u ut est 'optumus maxumus.' in quibus
(49 K.)
est
'
'
'
'
'
adnotandum antiquum sermonem

rusticanum, atque
erravere
illis
plenioris soni fuisse et, ut ait Cicero,

u talia scribere et enuntiare.
placuisse per
autem grammatici qui putaverunt superlativa per u enuntiari.
ut enim concedamus
'
fere
'
'
'
illis in
optimo,' in maximo,' in pulcherrimo,' in
justiesimo,' quid facient in his nominibus, in quibus aeque manet eadem
quaestio superlatione sublata, 'manubiae' an 'manibiae,' 'libido,' an

'
lubido ? nos vero, postquam exilitas sermonis delectare coepit, usque
i littera
castigavimus illam pinguitudinem, non tamen ut plene i litteram
'
enuntiaremus. et concedamus talia nomina per u scribere iis qui antiquorum

voluntates sequuntur, ne tamen sic enuntient, quo modo scribunt and
varie etiam scriptitatum est
mancupium
aucupium
again (67 K.)
manubiae,' siquidem C. Caesar per i scripsit, ut apparet ex titulis ipsius, at
relinquitur igitur
Augustus per u, ut testes sunt ejus inscriptiones
;
'
'
'
'
'
utrumne per antiquum sonum, qui est pinguissimus et u litteram

occupabat, velit quis enuntiare, an per hunc, qui jam videtur eligantior,
and a little further on
exilius, id est per i litteram, has proferat voces
mihi videtur nimis rusticana enuntiatio futura, si per u extu1^68. 6 K.)
lerimus. ita tamen existimo enuntiandum, ut nee nimis i littera exilis
electio,
But the Comm. Lud.
Saec.
has optimus maximus.
PRONUNCIATION.
16.]
VOWELS.
27
si scripseris, enuntiationis sono nimis plena.

Here
sit, nee, u litteram
'
his account of the * sound between i and u is perfectly clear.
Optumus had
in old times been written and pronounced with a U-sound ; but such
pronunciation was old fashioned and countrified in his own time, the sound
used in polite circles being something between a normal U-sound and
a normal I-sound.
But the beginning of the first passage, where he discusses the other two kinds of I-sound, is not so intelligible.
His examples
are evidently carefully chosen synonyms of the third and fourth conjugations
and one cannot but suppose that he meant to contrast the i of prodit (from
prodo}, vincit (from n'nco), condit (from condo\ with that of the third person
Keil supplies a sentence between the
singular of prodire, vincire, condire.
words sonare and in eo, and reads exilius volo sonare, si dico ab eo quod est
in eo vero quod significat prodire, &c. He refers
prodere, vincere, condere
the 'pinguescit' to the sound of I, not to the i of optimus, &c., understanding
Velius Loiigus to distinguish i from I as 'exilis sonus' and 'pinguis sonus.'
These words, 'exilis/ latus/ 'pinguis/ unfortunately lack the precision of
the terminology of modern phoneticians. They remind us of Lucilius' use
of tenuare and plenius facere some two centuries earlier, in a passage
not less obscure (9. 14 M.)
;
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
pilam' qua ludimus,

pilum
quo pisunt, tenues, si plura haec feceris pila
quae iacimus, addes e, 'peila/ ut plenius fiat;
whereas a later grammarian, Pompeius (fifth cent.

'pinguis' to distinguish vocalic from consonantal
uses
A. D.),
and u
'
tenuis
'
and
ecce
(103 K.)
adverte, quomodo sonat u, unus/ ecce u vides quam tenuiter sonat. junge
illam ad aliam litteram, et vide quia non sic sonat, sed pinguius sonat,
i
'
sic sonat 'unus' quando u sola est? non, sed

quando dico pinguior sonus est. numquid dicis
u-a-nus ? ergo vides quia, si ponantur solae, tenuem sonum habeiit, si
jungantur ad alias litteras, pingues sonant, similiter et i sic patitur.
itur/
'vulnus/ 'vanus.'
tenuiter sonat.
'
'
numquid
vanus
'
'
'
ecce tenuius sonat;

et accipit sibilum.
si
(t
dicas 'Titius/ pinguius sonat, et perdit sonum suum,

palatalized.) This confusion of terms must be borne in
mind in reading
the passage we now quote from Consentius (fifth cent. A.D. ?),
a passage interesting from its account of the Gaulish and Greek mispronunciations of Latin i (394.
K.) iotacismum dicunt vitium quod per i litteram
vel pinguius vel exilius prolatam fit.
Galli pinguius hanc utuntur, ut cum
dicunt 'ite/ non expresse ipsam proferentes, sed inter e et i pinguiorem

sonum nescioquem ponentes. Graeci exilius hanc proferunt, adeo expression!
ejus tenui studentes, ut, si dicant 'jus,' aliquantulum de priori littera sic
Romanae linguae in hoc erit
proferant, ut videas disyllabum esse factum.
'
moderatio, ut exilis ejus sonus sit, ubi ab ea verbum incipit, ut ite/ aut
pinguior, ubi in ea desinit verbum, ut 'habui/ 'tenui'; medium quendam
sonum inter e et i habet, ubi in medio sermone est, ut 'hominem.' mihi
videtur, quando producta est, plenior vel acutior esse ; quando autem
brevis est, medium sonum exhibere debet, sicut eadem exempla, quae posita
'
Consentius hre uses ' pinguis and * tenuis or
sunt, possunt declarare.
tamen
'
'exilis' like
Pompeius, not like Velius Longus, while he distinguishes long i

i in hominem as 'a sound between e and i.'
as 'plenior vel acutior/ short
What he means by
saying that in habui,
tenui,
had the 'pinguis
sonus,'
must
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
28
be that the
words were pronounced in his time habuyi,'

<
[Chap. II.
'
tenuyi.'
(Seelmann
gives quite a different explanation.)

These three accounts of Latin I,
in connexion with the evidence

I, taken
supplied by the Romance languages, where Latin I has become a close
E- sound, while Latin I is invariably close I, give us the right to suppose
that the usual Latin i was different in quality from Latin I, being an open
bit or Germ. Kind, while I was the ordinary close I of Italian
I, like Engl.
and other languages though they suggest the further possibility of there
'
'
having been a short variety of this
latter
in such
words as the 3 Sing. Pres.
Ind. Act. of the fourth conjugation, prodit, audit, condit, where the i, long in
the time of Plautus, was shortened through the difficulty felt by the Romans
in pronouncing a long vowel before final -t. Seelmann is of opinion that this
short variety of close i came gradually to replace open i in the language of
the educated classes at Rome in the first centuries of the Empire (postquam
sermonis delectare coepit, Vel. Long.), and so explains the strange
statement of the fourth century commentators on Donatus, quoted in our
discussion of the sound of e ( 7), that i, i, with u, u, were not distinguished
exilitas
like
e,
e,
o,
later enlarges on this very

more probable that these commentators,
though Consentius a century
distinction in the case of
i.
It is
though they refer to some Latin instances (meta, demens, equus), are really
quoting remarks of Greek phoneticians on the sounds of Greek vowels,
designed to explain the presence of separate signs for long and short e and o
in the Greek alphabet (e, 77, o, to) and, if this be so, it cannot but suggest
the alarming suspicion that their phrase, e is like the diphthong, e like i,'
may really mean that Greek c had the sound of at (as was the case in Attic
Greek by the second cent. A. D.), 77 of i (the itacism of modern Greek. Blass
ascribes the change of t] to i to the fifth cent. A. D.).
To pass to the ii-sound ofoptimus, which in the Romance languages is merged
;
'
The statements of the grammarians we have quoted, parLongus (49 K.), show us clearly that in the first century
A. D. the vowel had a sound between u and i, having had at an earlier period
a U-sound.
Still earlier it was an o (see ch. iii.
18), and we may regard it
as the sound which u (whether originally o or u or a, c.) took in open syllables
in ordinary Latin
i.
ticularly that of Velius
when influenced by the presence of a labial ; whereas accented

u remained, e. g. cubo. The passage which we now quote from Velius Longus
extends the same sound to I in accented syllables influenced by the labial
sibilant v, as in vir, virtus (75 K.)
'aurifex' melius per i son at quam per u.
at 'aucupare' [et aucupium] mihi rursus melius videtur sonare per u quam
after the accent,
per
et
'
idem tamen aucipis malo quam aucupis/ quia scio sermonem et

aurium volupfcati. unde fit ut saepe aliud scribamus, aliud
'
decori servire et
enuntiemus, sicut supra locutus sum de viro' et virtute,' ubi i scribitur et

paene u enuntiatur. unde Ti. Claudius novam quandam litteram excogitavit
similem ei notae quam pro adspiratione Graeci ponunt, per quam scriberentur
;
'
secundum exilitatem i litterae, neque secundum pinguitudinem u literae sonarent, ut in viro et virtute,' neque rursus secundum
latum litterae sonum enuntiaretur, ut in eo quod est legere, scribere. In the
last words he seems to refer to I of the third conjugation, legit, legimus,
legitis, &c., the sound of which he calls 'latus' as opposed to the 'exilis
sonus' of I, and the 'pinguis sonus' ofi/w and this confirms our view that
in the passage first quoted from him, the same threefold distinction was
eae voces, quae neque
'
'
'
PRONUNCIATION.
17.]
VOWELS.
29
explained between prodit of third conj. with 'latus sonus,' proclit of fourth conj.
'
exilis sonus,' and optimus with 'piiiguis sonus.' There are a large number
of references by other grammarians to this i/u sound (see Seelmann, p. 205).
with
Of these we need only quote two one from Marius Victorinus (fourth
cent.), who points out that this vowel is really the Greek v (Latin j/) (see
and one from Priscian, who, like Velius Longus, gives this sound of
28)
Greek v to accented i influenced by a preceding v. Mar. Victor. 19. 22 K. sunt
qui inter u quoque et i litteras supputant deesse nobis vocem, sed pinguius
;
sed et pace eorum dixerim, non vident y litteram

u.
enim gylam,' 'myserum,' 'Syllam' (MSS. syllabam), 'proxymum dicebant antiqui. sed nunc consuetudo paucorum hominum ita loquentium evanuit, ideoque voces istas per u (vel per i) scribite. The spelling
myserum, which is found on some inscriptions, may be explained by Greek
quam
i,
exilius
desiderari
quam
'
sic
'
si'Zwwas spelt sylva through a fanciful connexion with {/A?/,

26 crista non crysta ')
but it
(cf. App. Probi 197.
All the Komance
is difficult to explain gyla (for gula) in the same way.
languages point to gula as the Vulgar Latin form (Ital. Span, gola, Fr. gueule).
nvffapos, just as
and
'
so Sylla for *Syrula
'
The antiqui alluded

in spelling met with
'
to are
merely former grammarians, whose innovation
favour, to judge from the instances found on

Priscian i. 6 i et u
inscriptions (Schuchardt, Vok. ii. pp. 197 sqq., 218 sqq.).
vocales, quando mediae sunt, alternos inter se sonos videntur confundere,
little
'
et i quidem quando post consonanoptimus,' quis

digamma functam Aeolici ponitur brevis, sequente d vel m vel r vel
t vel x, sonum y Graecae videtur habere, ut 'video/ 'vim,' 'virtus,' 'vitium,'
vix.'
Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 221, gives a few examples of vy- for m- in late
inscriptions and in the Appendix Probi (198. 20 K.) we have vir non vyr,'
teste Donato, ut
tem
'
'
'
vir,'
loco
'
virgo non vyrgo,' virga non 'vyrga/ so that the existence of this tendency
to pronounce accented i as u after v can hardly be doubted. (The Latin name
'
'
See below.) But Greek v does not represent Latin i
for y, Greek u, was ui.'
on
Greek inscriptions. Other examples of accented i/u are
in this position
by some purists of the Augustan age (Mar. Victor.

simus ' scripserunt), and by
5 K. Messala, Brutus, Agrippa pro sumus
simus, written for sumus
'
9.
lubet and ttbet dupeus

Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. w.) ; though two of these, simus and libel,
might be explained as enclitic words and so wanting the accent, e. g. amatisumus, lubet-ire, quodlubet, &c. (see iii. 12).
(See also Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv.
The Eomance forms point to both
Bruttii, dims (earlier duens), linter, scrupulus.
Augustus himself (Suet. Aug.
and
87) (cf. C. I. L. ix. 3473. 14)
clipeus (see
(e.g. Fr. sommes) and simus (e. g. Ital. siamo from *semo, O. Roum. semo).
Supparum, with byforni siparum (see Georges s. v. ) seems to be an Oscan word
(Varro, L. L. v. 131), and the mispronunciations imbilicus' (Prob. App. 198.
cf. Ir. imbliu), 'scoriscus' (ib. 198. 32 K.), 'arispex' (Vel. Long. 73. 9 K.)
4 K.
have been variously explained.) (On the w-sound, see Parodi in Studi Italiani,
sumus
'
i.
3850
17. Interchange of i and e. The misspellings on inscriptions testify abundantly to the close relation between i and e (close e\ e. g. karessemo merentessemo
but i is rarely written
(C.I.L. ii. 2997) (see Schuchardt, Vok. ii. pp. 1-67)
e except in Gaul and Britain, where 6 too appears as u.
In rustic Latin indeed
such words as spica were pronounced speca (Varro, R. E. i. 48. 2) but it is not
clear whether this was not confined to words which originally had the
;
diphthong
ei (cf. vella,
Varro, R. R.
i.
2.
14).
If
so,
the
e is
that dialectal
for
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
30
I.-Eur.
ei
which
found in the Uinbrian language,
is
[Chap. II.
e.g. prevo- (Lat. pnvus,
and in various parts of Italy. Demidius for dimidiiis

(App. Prob. 198. 27 K.) is due to confusion of de with dl- (dis) [cf. demedius,
x. 3428, and in MSS. (see Schuchardt, Vok. ii. 71).
Fr.
C. I. L. vii. 140
demi] Serena for Slrena (App. Prob. 199. 10) to confusion with serenus (cf. Fr.
serin, canary ?). On dtllrus and delerus, see ch. iii. The vowel of the open unacand this ancient sound
cented syllable was in Old Latin e, not i (see iii. 18
privatus
Osc. prehato-\
So that
remained in Rustic Latin.
of hominem, &c., as well as e for I of

spica, &c., and e for i in hiatus of via, &c., characterized the pronunciation of
'
the country districts. Cicero often alludes to the rustic substitution of the
e- for the z-sound in the utterance of his friend L. Aurelius Cotta, the author of
e
for
'
the famous jury-law, the Lex Aurelia Judiciaria of 70 B. c. quare Cotta noster,
cujus tu ilia lata, Sulpici, iionnunquam imitaris, ut iota litteram tollas et
:
plenissimum
(de Orat.
iii.
non mihi oratores antiquos, sed messores videtur imitari

iii. n. 42
Brut, xxxvi. 137 Ixxiv. 259 and Quintilian
dicas,
Cf.
12. 46.
xi. 3. 10).
The frequent occurrence
Greek inscriptions of e for Lat. i (e.g. TeQepios,

having had (unlike Latin e) the close E-souiid
2
But it may often be merely
p. 23).
(see Blass, Amsprache des G-riechischen
a retention of the early Latin spelling, of the form in which the word was
This c for I is the usual spelling in KO^CTIOV at
first borrowed by the Greeks.
may
A.ei/Ttoi/)
oil
point to Greek
periods, while KatKt\ios is replaced by KcutAto? after 50 B. c., Kancrca\iov by

KainTQj\iov in the first cent. A. D. ; AeTreSos is the form of the Republican,
AfTrtSos of the Imperial Age.
(For other examples see Eckinger, p. 29 sqq.,
all
and
examples of
for
in Latin, Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.vv.
gitto, Mbiscum, minus,

the late Lat. emitari, see
and 198. 22 K.)
minister, sinus, sine, sinapi, vindico. comissor, solidus.
Schuch. Vok.
ii.
20,
and
Prob. App. 199.
cf.
2,
On
18. i in hiatus. The Romance forms of the word for day (Ital. di, Sard, die,
Span, dia, 0. Fr. di) have all i, which is the normal representative of Latin
*
and on inscriptions we have sometimes the lengthened form of the letter,
which usually denotes long i, e.g. D!ES (C. I. L. vi. 7527) D!E (10239, also
PR!VSQVAM). (On plvs see
143.)
;
10.
Anomalies in Romance.
Ital. freddo, Fr. froid,
from
'Lai.frlgidus,
point
to *friddus, fromfrig(i)dus (cf. App. Probi 198. 3 K. frigida non frigda), where the
I has been referred to the
analogy ofrigidus (but see 127) ; *glerem replaces gtirem
in Celtic countries (Fr.
Vulg. Lat.
loir,
*subilo, *siifilo,
O. Prov. gles), but not elsewhere (Ital. ghiro)

to whistle (e.g. Ital. sufilare,
stbilo, *s7/?Zo,
beside
subillare, sibilare, O. Fr. subler, siffler), have been explained by reference to

or to subido, the Etruscan word for a nuteplayer ; Greek I in xpTaâ is
sufflare,
treated like Latin
in Fr. chreme, Ital. cresma.
Having discovered that Latin e is open E, Latin

E, we are almost entitled to infer that Latin o will be
open O, Latin close O. For each language has what phoneticians call a
basis of articulation,' according to which all its
20. O.
e close
'
sounds are regulated
and
if
one set of sounds
a particular way, any set of corresponding sounds
is
treated in
is
likely to
PRONUNCIATION.
18-20.]
VOWELS.
31
The Teutonic languages, for

receive a similar treatment.
example, changed the I.-Eur. Aspirate Mediae to voiced Spirants
'
this/ &c.).
(clh to <f, the sound of our th in
They correspondto th of thin/
to
the
Tenues
unvoiced
moved
Spirants
ingly
(t
'
&c.)
ment
and similarly the Mediae to Tenues (d
to
or gradation of sounds first discovered
known
as
'
Grimm's Law/
From
guage, we are thus often able

and we could in the absence
moveby Grimm, and

t,
&c.), a
detecting one sound in a lan-
to guess what other sounds will be

of other evidence infer the quality
of the O-sounds in Latin from that of the E-sounds.
Evidence,
however, is not wanting. The Romance languages, for example,
show Latin o as open O, Latin 5 (with which Latin u is merged)
as close O. This open O is in many languages developed in open
syllables to uo (e. g. Ital. ruota, from Lat. rota), as open E to ie
in Spanish no has further developed to ne (e. g. ruede),
6), while
a change that reminds us of the substitution of ve- for vo- in
In Italian we have molle
Latin words like verto, older vorto.
(
(with open O) for Latin wall is, sole (with close O) for Latin sol,
wlem, the open O having the O-sound of German voll, Stock, the
close that of
German
Fr. chaud.
Our
short o
'
'
in
stock/
sound, formed with the tongue lower in the
'
mouth, than the open O of German (our O-sound in oar is
}
'
nearer this), while our long o in so is a diphthong.
'
folly/
is
lower
so,
'
'
'
'
In unaccented syllables in Latin open O, before a Labial or
/,
seems, like open E before other consonants, to have become close,

and then to have passed into a U-sound, as e into an I-sound, e. g.
from se dolo, consnlo (Early Lat. co-sol-). In Italian, o, like

takes
the close sound in syllables after the accent.
This u, as
e,
we saw ( 14), might sink to il, e.g. consilium but as a rule o is
sedulo
retained in the spelling of
compounds more persistently than
e,
accolo,agncola (agricula, Schuch. ii. 133). Even when accented,

o seems to have had the close sound before certain groups of
e.g.
consonants, such as
with another consonant (not
II),
or n with
another consonant, rn, &c., to judge from such varieties of spell-
ing as Old Latin Culcides for Colchides (Quint, i. 4. 16), Old

Latin and Rustic Li&tmfrunde* im-frondes, Vulg. Lat. twrnus for
tonms ; and this is confirmed by the misspellings on plebeian
inscriptions,
and the
like (collected
by Schuchardt,
Vok.
ii.
pp.
14,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
32
In Celtic countries u
&c.).
instead of
o, e.
is
often found on Latin inscriptions

(C. I. L. xii.
g. nepus (for nepos).
The O-sounds
[Chap. II.
5336.)
Oscan language offer the same analogy

The Oscan alphabet, being
to the Latin, as the E-sounds ( 6).
borrowed from the Etruscan, had originally no sign for but only
of the
<9,
the sign for u. This -sign was used for o as well as for u, while for
o a modification of the sign was used, conventionally written by us
u.
In Latin characters u expresses Oscan
u,
and
Oscan u, though
in the final syllable before a labial u sometimes takes its place [e. g.
Osc. estud, in Latin writing estud (Lat. estd, older estod\ Osc. pud,
in Latin writing pod (Lat. quod), Osc. deikum, in Latin writing
deicum (Lat. dicere, older
deicere),
and dolom, dolum (Lat. ddlum)\.
In Greek characters Oscan u is ou, and sometimes o, Oscan u is

This Oscan u, as was noticed before ( i), represents I.-Eur.
0.
final A of Nom. Sg. of A-stems and Ace. PI. Neut. of O-stems,
and can hardly have been anything but some form of open O.
21. Descriptions of the O-sound by Latin phoneticians.
Maurus distinguishes short from long
(vi. 329. 130-134 K.)
Terentianus
igitur sonitum reddere cum voles minori,

retrorsus adactam modice teneto linguam,
rictu
neque magno,
sat erit patere labra.
at longior alto tragicum sub oris antro

molita rotundis acuit sonum labellis.
'
of o is perhaps more applicable to

Aussprache des Griechischen*, p. 26), than
is possibly, as we have seen, borrowed
from Greek writers on Phonetics. Marius Victorinus (vi. 33. 3-8 K.) summarizes
This
'
tragic tone in the
mouth-cavern
cw, which was open

(Blass,
Latin o, and the whole description
Greek
o, ut e, geminum vocis sonum pro condicione temporis

promit
igitur qui correptum enuntiat, nee magno hiatu labra reserabit,
et retrorsum actam linguam tenebit.
longum autem productis labris, rictu
The commentators
tereti, lingua antro oris pendula sonum tragicum dabit.
on Donatus (Servius, in Don. p. 421. 17-19 K.) say the same o productum
quando est, ore sublato vox sonat, ut 'Roma' quando correptum, de labris
vox exprimitur, ut 'rosa' Sergius, in Don. p. 520. 30-31 o quando longa est,
the older account

.
intra palatum sonat
'
'
'
Roma,' orator
quando brevis est, primis labris
rosa.'
Martianus Capella (iii. 261) says merely O
exprimitur
opus,'
rotundi oris spiritu comparatur.
'
'
22. Close for open o in accented syllables before certain consonantBefore I and another
groups.
(See Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 114 sqq.)
consonant o became u in classical Latin, e. g. consulto (early consolto, C. I. L.
1. 548, latter
part of second century B. c.) pulcer (but PoZc[er], C. I. L. i. 552 of
131 B.C., cf. Prise, i. 27. 12 H.) culpa (Old Lat. colpa Prise. 1. c.). Before m or n
when these nasals are followed by a consonant we see the same tendency.
;
VOWELS.
PRONUNCIATION.
21-24.1
33
The classical
spelling is u in umbo, lumbus, unguis, uncus (see ch. iv. 20). Before
nd in Vulg. Lat. u replaced classical o (K. Z. xxx. 336), as is shown by the
Romance forms (e. g. Ital. risponde, with close o, Sard, respundit) and in
Italian we have close o in ponte, fronte, fonte, which corresponds with
Priscian's remark that funtes, frundes, &c., were the older forms retained in
Rustic Latin. (Prise, i. 26. 35 H. multa praeterea vetustissimi etiam in
gungrum pro goiigrum, cunchin pro
principalibus mutabant syllabis
;
'
'
'
'
huminem pro
conchin,
tertio
Lucretius in libro
hominem
'
'
'
proferentes,
ftintes
'
pro
foiites,
unde
atque ea nimirum quaec unique Acherunte profundo,
quae tameti a junioribus repudiata sunt quasi rustico more dicta. Cf.
Velius Longus p. 49. 15 K. unde in multis etiam nominibus variae sunt
and Charis. p. 130. 29 K. sic
scripturae, ut foiites funtes, frondes frundes
.
ab Ennio est declinatum annalium libro vii russescunt frundes, non frondes.)
Rumpia is the Latin form of popfyaia, the long two-edged sword of the
Thracians, quoted from Ennius by Gell. x. 25. 4, and read in the MSS. of
and not the long vowel, is
Livy xxxi. 39. u. Before rn a close sound of
perhaps indicated by the apex on the o of ornare in some inscriptions (e. g
;
<">,
Greek
C. I. L. x. 6104. 1839. 6009) (a fuller discussion of this point in
145).
Greek ropvos was in Vulgar Latin turnus (so spelt in the
KoOopvos is cothurnus
MSS. of Symmachus, Epp. v. 10), e. g. Span, tornar, Ital. torno (with close o).
;
The vowel of tornus has been referred to the close sound of Greek o (while <a
had the open sound) (K. Z. xxx. 336), and the u of amurca (Greek dôpyrj), and
other Greek loanwords in Latin (cf. App. Probi 198. 22 botruus not butro.'
L L. ii. 668 and Sard, budrone}, might be explained in the same
way. But it is unlikely that the nuances of Greek vowels would be retained
in words naturalized in Latin, and the tendency to give o the close sound before
these consonant-groups is visible in genuine Latin words.
Perhaps bb is
'
Cf. Butrio, C.
another group of the kind. Obba was in the time of Nonius (fourth cent.
ubba (Non. 146 M. obba. poculi genus, quod mine ubba dicitur).
In Greek Inscriptions we have Movvravos for Lat. Montdnus (C. I. A. iii. 1138,
of 174-8 A.D.
but usually Moyrai'os), Bov\naxtos, K.ovp@ov\(av (and K.op/3-},
For other examples of o-u before consonantnovaTovpios (see Eckinger, p. 54).
groups in the accented syllable, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv. conchis, dupundius,
A. D.)
formo(ri}sus, Corsi, Volscus, proboscis, colostra, bulb us, furnus, fornix, fornax, Fulvius,
cochlea
triumphus,
promunturium
we have
and
also
in the unaccented syllable, s. vv. wlsella, to(ri)sillae,

For classical -uvHulfsb. s. vv. furvus, formica.
Brambach,
domes (see Georges s.vv.). Curium (for corium}

6 is a strange variety. The Appendix Probi
censures furmica (197. 27 K.), formunsus (198. 9
detunclo (199. i), purpureticum
marmur (197. 19), as well as torma for turma (198. 4 and 28".
have tundunt
O. Lat.
-ov-
in
flovius,
on the Edict of Diocletian
viii.
We
on two rustic Calendars

23.
96. 13
lulligo
is
2
.
p. 280) for class, tondent.
Cf. Sard, tundere).
The mispronunciation pimento for polenta (Charis.

shows this change in the pretonic syllable. Cf.
(Georges s.v), &c. In the post-tonic syllable the change to u
ufor unaccented
K.
Caper
6.
106. 4 K.)
for loUlgo
see ch.
;
normal
the
(C.I.L.
iii.
18.
24. u for 6. These two sounds are,

Romance languages. In Late Latin
as was mentioned above, merged in

inscriptions the expression of 6 by w
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
34
is
[Chap. II.
very common, e. g. patrunus for patronus. (Cf. App. Probi 197. 28 sobrius
'suber.')
Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 91 sqq., has collected a large number of
non
Forms like
instances from Inscriptions and MSS. (cf. facitud, C. 1. L. i. 813%
pumuio, pomXlio belong to a somewhat different category for the original sound
here was cm (cf. pater poumilionom on an old Praenestine cista, Eph. Epigr. i. 20
;
and 6 was a development of ou, in the same way that e was of ei (see iv. 32).
The same 6 for ou seems to appear in the classical forms robustus, roblgo, for
which we have occasional byforms rubustus, rubigo (see Georges s. v., and cf.
Probi Append. 199. 5 K. robigo non rubigo). (This use of o and u for earlier
ou is discussed in ch. iv.
41.)
nungentos/ Bede 281.
(Cf. nongentos non
'
26 K.)
25.
Other changes of 6 and
6.
a mispronunciation of cortlna
Curtlna,
(Dub. Nom. 575 7K.\ may follow the analogy of curtus faeneris, &c., forfaenoris,
&c. (Vel. Long. 72 arid 73 K. ) are influenced by generis and the like praestolor
;
and praestulor (Curt. Valerian, ap. Cassiodor. 157. 23 K. Alcuin 306. 12 K.

Bede 286. 19 K.) depend onpiaesto audpraestu ostium was in Vulg. Lat. ustium
(ustei Gen. is found in Marc. Emp. xxviii. 37 (Ital. uscio, O. Span, uzo, FT.
corallium
ovum, an egg, was* ovum (Ital. uovo, Span, huevo, O. Fr. uef)
huis)
and
and curalium are two different forms (Greek >topak\iov and Kovpd\iov]
the same must be said of opilio and upu-io.
(The note of Servius on Eel. x. 19
;
venit et upilio, &c., implies these quantities
propter
metrum
nam
opilio dicimus et graeco usus est schemate, sicut

eo quod est oi/o/za, et ovprj pro eo quod est opy. Cf.
nunc
illi
ait 'upilio,'
dicunt ovvopa pro
Caper 112 K.
upilio,
opilio.)
The Latin grammarians do not speak so much

26. U, Y.
about the difference of short and long u as they do about # and I,
much appeal to the

Romance u and u take quite different paths, u being
o, and u preserved, as we found # merged in e, and
perhaps because the
But
ear.
merged
first
distinction did not so
in
in
Short ^ and o of Latin are distinguished not only in

Sardinian (the only Romance language which distinguishes Latin
i and e), but also in Roumanian and in the Latin element of the
preserved.
in the two
and changed back again
Albanian language, though
latter
become
to
close
o,
u.
may have
(A.L.L.
vii.
are distinguished also in Latin loanwords in Welsh.

Latin u is little altered in Romance, except that in
first
61.)
They
some
has taken a ^'-sound, in France (lune, for Latin luna),

a Celtic country, and, perhaps by Greek influence, through the
countries
it
south-east coast of Italy. Italian
Ti,
which seems to retain the sound
of Latin u, as Italian I of Latin
I,
has the close U-sound of Fr.
Germ, gut, du, while our two '

*
sou,
a w-sound.
Our
short u,
e.
'
g.
is
'
full,'
a diphthong ending with

open U, the German
put,' is
u of und, Lust, &c. being, according to Sweet (Handb.
p.* 28),
PRONUNCIATION.
25-27.]
VOWELS.
The
rather closer than the English.
'
35
obscure vowel
'
of
'
but,'
'
sometimes carelessly spoken of as ( short u is an entirely

different vowel, not to be called a
-sound at all.
In Welsh and
which
is
Breton some Latin loanwords show
I for u,
e.
g. Bret, dir (Lat.
d&nis), but this is probably due to the Celtic tendency to turn

^-sounds into ^-sounds (see however K. Z. xxix. 46). Vulg. Lat.
jinipirus (e.g. Ital. ginepro) for jumperus (Probi Append. 199. 8 K.)
shows the same influence of the palatal spirant^' (oury) as Vulg.
Lat. Jenuarius for Jdmiarius
But
i).
there
is little
reason to
had naturally a u- sound. Plautus, Men. 654,

'
tu tu you
to the hooting of an
the
reiterated
compares
you
believe that Latin u
'
owl
Matrona.
Quae
'
Tu
tu istic inquam. Peniculus. Vin adferri noctuam,

usque dicat tibi ? Nam nos iam defessi sumus.
tu tu
'
'
This seems to point to the co-sound of our too-whoo/ though

such comparisons should never have too much stress laid on them.
The
hardly known in the Romance

The connexion between u and close O
palatalization of c before u
languages (K. Z. xxix. 46).
is
seen in the numerous misspellings of o for u in plebeian inscripIn unaccented syllables, as

ii.
149, &c.).
is
tions (Schuchardt, Vok.
we have
seen ( 14), u tended to the ^-sound of optumus, optimns,

which was written n to the time of Julius Caesar, afterwards i,
and which in the Romance languages is not distinguished from i.
This was the sound of Greek
v, which
in older Latin
was treated like
n, but afterwards was with more exactness spelt (and pronounced) with the Greek letter T (y) ; though in ordinary usage
Latin
we
often find
it,
like the ^'-sound of
In Oscan u took after certain
optimm, represented by
letters a jm-sound,
e.
i.
g. tiurri (Lat.
Diumpais (Lat. lumpis, lymplns), as in the Boeotian dialect

'
'
but
r i*1 English tune is pronounced tyun
Tuyj] was noi>x a
l
there is no trace of this sound in Latin (see ch. iv.
7).
farrim),
'
'

vi. 329.
142 145 K.
U-sound by Latin phoneticians.
Ter. Maur.
hanc edere vocem quotiens paramus ore

nitamur ut u dicere, sic citetur ortus
pi'oductius autem coeuntibus labellis
:
natura soni pressior altius meabit.

1
The confusion of Carthaginian miuulec

is no evidence.
Pom. 1009
D 2
(?)
with Lat. mures in Plaut.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
36
Mar. Viet.
vi.
33.
[Chap. II.
8-9 K. u litteram quotiens enuntiamus productis et coeunMartianus Capella iii. 261 TJ ore constricto labrisque
tibus labris efferemus.
prominulis exhibetur.
28. Greek v in Latin.
Ter. Scaurus says (vii. 25. 13 K.) y litteram
supervacuam latino sermoni putaverunt, quoniam pro ilia u cederet. sed cum
quaedam in nostrum sermonem graeca nomina admissa sint, in quibus
evidenter sonus hujus litterae exprimitur, ut
'
'
'
'
hyperbaton et hymnus et
hyacinthus et similia, in eisdem hac littera necessario utimur. Y, as a
Greek letter, was not allowed in Roman words (see ch. i.), for the custom
of writing gyla, &c., never gained acceptance (Caper vii. 105. 17 K. y litteram
nulla vox nostra adsciscit. ideo insultabis 'gylam dicentibus. Cf. Bede vii.
2 73- 33 K.
Ter. Scaur, vii. 22-23 K.
Vel. Longus vii. 8r. 5-8 K.
Mar.
Victorin. vi. 33. n K.), unless the word was mistaken for a Greek one, e. g.
1
sylva referred to Greek v\rj, lympha to Greek VV^T\ (Cf. crista non crysta,
App. Probi 197. 26 K.). The new letter invented by the Emperor Claudius
to express the ii-sourid of optumus, optimus is used for Greek v in words like
Nymphius, Bathyllus in the Fasti Antiates written in the reign of Claudius
2
But before the use of the Greek letter Y, the Greek vowel
(C. I. L. i
p. 247).
was written u (Cassiod. 153.
K. Y littera antiqui non semper usi sunt, sed
itaque in illorum quidem libris hanc
aliquando loco illius u ponebant
Suracusas
sumbola sucophanscripturam observandam censeo, Suriam
cf. ibid. 160. 16 K.
and the MSS.
tas,' at in nostris corrumpi non debet
of Plautus indicate such spellings as Hiliiria for lllyria, &c,
Burrus and
Bruges were the forms used by Ennius for Pyrrhus and Phryges (Cicero, Orator
That it was also pronounced like
xlviii. 160 ipsius antiqui declarant libri).
ordinary Latin u we see from the Romance forms of these earlier Greek loanwords which make no distinction (e.g. Lat. tmriba for Greek TU/ÔS, isinltal.
tomba, in Sard, tumba, in Fr. tombe), not to speak of Plautus' pun on Lydus
and ludus (Bacch. 129), and on chrysalus and crucisalus (ib. 362). After the
M-sound of optumus, optimus came to be spelt with ?, the same letter was in
ordinary usage employed for Greek u, e. g. cignus (Greek KVKVOS), in Ital.
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
cecero, being pronounced probably in the same way as the i of optimus, which
in Romance is not distinguishable from ordinary
Tondrus for Tyndareus on
?".
an old Praenestine
cista (C.
I.
L. xiv. 4109) is
perhaps to be explained by the
o before nd (ch. iv.

Greek KV is often spelt qui, e.g. Vulg.
20).
quiatus for cyathus (see Schuch. Vok. ii. p. 273 sqq. for examples), as Latin qui
is often expressed by Greek KV ; e. g. 'Aicv\as for J.qmla, Kvpcivos and Kvpivos
for Quzrinus on Greek inscriptions (see Eckinger, p. 123). Oe is found for Greek
M-sound of
byforms of gyms, colyphia, &c. (see Georges s. vv., and

Schuch. ii. 278). Latin ii is in Greek inscriptions always expressed by o till
the beginning of the Empire, when ov takes its place. We find v especially
in the suffixes -uttus, -ulus, -urius, &c.
(Eckinger, p. 58 sqq.) Sulla, Sylla for
v in goerus, coloephia,
Syrula
16) is
always SvAAas.
(For spellings of Greek

Schuchardt's examples from
and
1
and the Latin
?7-sound
with
?/,
M,
see
inscriptions and MSS., Vok. ii. p. 218 sqq.,

consult Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv. cuniba, murra, myrtetu^m, myrtum, lympha,
Varro Men. 50 B. makes the Gen.

In Glossaries we have
Plur. lymphon.
nymphaticus for lymphaticus, e.g.
nym-
phaticus'arrepticiusGl. Sangall. 912

Ainbr. B. 31 supr.
PRONUNCIATION.
28-32.]
DIPHTHONGS.
37
Syrus, serpyllum, and Brambach, HulfsMchlein s. vv. thynnus,

The Appendix Probi has: tymum non 'tumum' (199. 6);
myrta non murta (199. 7^ Marsyas non Marsuas (197. 24) clamys non
clamus (198. 20) gyms non girus (197. 27) Byzacenus non Bizacinus'
Thynia,
murmillo,
stilus.
syllaba,
'
'
<
'
'
'
<
'
(198. i)
amygdala
29. o for
makes
it
11011
stvrax
The coincidence
of Latin 6 and u in the Romance languages

we should find o written for u on late inscriptions, and
Roman tiles, for example, from the figlina Bucconiana are
ti.
(C. I. L.
(Georges
collected
26).)
natural that
in plebeian forms.
in the earlier period
Boconiana
'amiddula' (198.
marked
from Diocletian's time often

and Greek aTvpa appears in late Latin as
[In addition to the large number of instances of o for u
xv. p. 386)
s. v.).
Vok.
by Schuchardt,
Bucconiana, but
ii.
149 &c., see Georges, Lex.
p.
s.
Wortf.
vv.
columna, urceolus, cunnus, luxurio, verecundus, and cf. App. Probi 198. 23 puella
non'poella'; 198. 12 cluaca non 'cloaca': 197. 25 columna non 'colomna'
68 and ch.
(on the last example, see

30. 6 for u.
iii.
This interchange, as
33.)]
we have
seen
24), is properly
confined to words which had originally the diphthong ou, which became in
Latin a sound expressed variously by o and by u (ch. iv. 41). Some examples of
the interchange have been mentioned in

occasionally in
To them may be added
bocula,
MSS.
jucundus (Georges
by Schuchardt,
24.
s.
of Virgil for bucula (Ribbeck, Index, p. 391), jocunclus for

v.), and the examples (many of doubtful worth) collected
Vok.
ii.
p.
181 sqq.
ii and u.
Coluber was in Vulg. Lat. colober, the u
being assimilated to the accented o (see ch. iii. 33). Hence Vulg. Lat. colobra,
with open o accented before br (cf. ch. iii. n). (Sicil. culovria, Span, culebra,
0. Fr. culuevre)
cf. Append. Probi 199. 2 K. coluber non colober
so colober
31.
Other changes of
on
inscrr. e.g.
Mur. 1144.
3,
and
MSS. (Schuch.
in
ii.
149)
nurus
was
norus
App. Probi 198. 34 nurus non nura '),

with open o (Ital. nuora. Span, nuera), perhaps by analogy of soror. Luridus
was *lur(i)dus (Ital. lordo, Fr. lourd) pumex shows *piim~, in Ital. pomice,
(see
Georges
s.
v.) or
rather *nora
'
(cf.
Span, pomez, Fr. ponce) nuptiae was *noptia (Ital. nozze, Fr. noces), explained
by analogy of nova nupta (?). Upilio and opilio, curaUum and corallium were
Aurugo and aungo are due to interchange of suffixes, not
25.
explained in
;
(So grdmdo and gravedo,

10.)
curious tendency to interchange u-i and i-u appears in Vulg. Lat. stiipila
(seen in Ital. stoppia, 0. Fr. estoble, Fr. eteule, &c.), unless stup- and stip- are
to transition of vowel-sound.
original byforms.
Gk.
MvTi\.rjvT)
and
(On mitulus and

MtruAiJi/T?,
32. Diphthongs.
mytilus, see
Lat. Ufica
We
Brambach,
and Greek 'I
Hulfsbuchl.
s. v., cf.
have no reason to doubt that Latin
au, ae were in the classical period,

None of the
diphthongal sounds.
and for some time
after,
grammarians who discuss

But
that
these diphthongs suggests
they were anything else.
in various dialects of Italy au had been early reduced to a single
sound
'
'
ae to a single sound e, a dialectal or rustic pronunciation which shows signs of its presence in the speech of everyday
life.
The Romance languages indicate that in Vulgar Latin ae
o,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
38
[Chap. II.
had become hardly distinguishable from an open E-sound ; and

the reiterated warnings of grammarians, from the fourth cent.
A. D. onwards, against the confusion of words like aequus and
eqmis
Welsh praidd (Latin
the same story.
tell
praeda, for
*prae-foda or *prae-hida ) from prehendo, prae-kendo) must have

been borrowed before this decay set in but Varro's use of ae,
;
instead of
e,
to express the
in scaena, seems to
sound of Greek
show that the process
77
(probably open
of development
e),
had at
begun before the Imperial Age. On the other hand, an has

been preserved intact by several of the Romance, languages and
in the others (e. g. Italian and French), where it has developed to
least
o
(Ital. cosa, poco, &c., with open o ; Fr. chose), this development
can be proved to be post-Roman. In Latin loanwords in Welsh
we have sometimes au, e. g. aur (Lat. aurum), sometimes close o.
The pronunciation of these diphthongs must have been a com-
bination of the simple sounds of which they are composed ; au,

an a rapidly followed by a u (or o), something like German an ;
but
ae, an a rapidly followed by an e, something like Welsh ae
how modified from century to century, it is impossible to say.
In (originally) unaccented syllables in compounds, au was reduced
;
to u (through eu?), e.g. defr&do,
from fraudo
(see ch.
iii.
18)
from Lat. audire) ; ae, or rather the earlier ai, to i

(through ei?), e.g. dutuum, from taedeo (ibid.) ; but in later Latin
the reduction was seldom carried out (ch. iii.
The inter23).
(cf Ital. udire,
.
au, only used by women, seems to have been a cry

expressing wonder or indignation, e. g. Ter. Adelph. 336 au, au,
mi homo, sanusne es ? while the diphthong ae occurs in several
jection
exclamations, such as vae (the Lettish wai), hahae and

(Cf banbari to bark.)
haliaJiae.
&c.
Ae had been
in early times ai
and
this old spelling
was often
used by lovers of antiquity in the Imperial period, though the

curious feature of
pronunciation was of course ae, and not ai.
Latin, reflected in
Romance, was the substitution of a for
Vulgar
au in syllables before the accent, when the next syllable contained
the vowel u, e.g. Agustus, found on Inscriptions for Augustus.
The same tendency is shown in the Sardinian

(Ital. agosto.)
dialect of Italian, where Lat. latirns is laru, &c., and in our
'
'
laughter
au has an a-sound.
PRONUNCIATION.
33.]
DIPHTHONGS.
39
a diphthong used in early times, had been reduced first to

then to a simple sound H (through some <?-sound probably)
Oi,
oe,
before the classical period.

later
diphthong
What was
which we
oe,
the exact sound of the
words
in
find
like
coetus
(from
and the small number of

words which possessed this diphthong makes it impossible to
ascertain its treatment in Romance.
We have already seen
that
it
is
found
as
an
(
occasionally
expression of Greek
28)
difficult to
co(m)-itus), is
determine
goerm (beside gfnis\ coloephia (beside colypliia]. The

was a cry of pain. Thus in Plautus, Mil. 1406,
when the soldier is being thrashed, he shouts oiei, satis sum
verberatus and in Terence, Phorm. 663, the miserly father, hear-
v,
e.g.
interjection oiei
ing of the large
sum demanded by
oiei, nimium
had received a blow
the parasite, cries out, as
he
if
est.
Eu is another diphthong, which arose at a later period through

fortuitous combination, e.g. neuter, a trisyllable (Consentius p. 389.
28 K.) (from ne and uter, with the accent on the ne.
149), sen (so
16 and n) (by reduction of si-ve, sei-ve, ch. x.
while
I.-Eur.
eu was, like I.-Eur. on, in the Italic languages
4);
ou, a diphthong found in early Latin, but reduced to u (as I.-Eur.
Latin eu of the
ei to
the second cent. B.C. (ch. iv.
26).
1) by
neu, ceu, ch. x.
Greek fav) must have been pronounced like

(cf.
followed rapidly by u (or o) ; for a fifth century grammarian
16 K.) dwells on the distinction between eo,
(Agroecius 122.
and
lieu.
Greek
eu seems to have been usually pronounced
eho,
Interjection heu
e
Ui, which can hardly claim to rank as

a Latin diphthong, is seen in the interjection Imi, where it may
and in the Dative
express the sound of a whistle, our whew
as a disyllabic in Latin.
'
'
which does not seem to have much

from the Nominative qul.
cui y
differed in pronunciation
Grammarians* account of diphthongs.

6 a et o semper principes sunt,
33.
ap. Gell. xix. 14.
subit et praeit
praeit in
'
Euripo,' subit in
'
Nigidius
i
et
Aemilio
(first
cent. B.C.),
e et
u semper subditae,
'
;
Ter. Scaurus (second
et
e litter(ae)
cent. A. D.) vii. 16. 5 K. a igitur littera praeposita est
aulai
ut
pictai vestis,' et
apud antiques i littera pro ea scribebatur,
Marius
medio'
sed magis in illis e novissima sonat (cf. Quint, i. 7. 18^
.
'
'
Victorinus fourth cent. A. D.) vi. 32. 4-6 K. duae inter se vocales jugatae
ac sub unius vocis enuntiatione prolatae syllabam faciunt natura longam,
quam Graeci diphthongon vocant, veluti geminae vocis unum sonum, ut ae,
;
oe,
au
cf.
Ter.
Maur.
vi.
338. 418-427 K.
and
365. 1326-1334
[Probus] de
ult.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
40
syll. iv.
219. 25 K.
25-26 K.
Bede
Servius, in Don. iv. 423. 30 K.
[Chap. II.
Mallius Theodorus
vi.
586
20-25 K.
vii. 229.
34. Ter. Maurus on au. Terentianus Maurus makes a distinction between

Latin au and au, while Latin eu, he says, is like Greek eu always eu. Au, as in
'aut age,' 'aut ubi,' 'Aurunci' of Virgil, he compares to Homer's avtpvffav
(presumably afepvaav) and urap for avrap, in contrast to the (accented) au of
aurum,
Greek
auspices,
'
avpiov
aut age
'
inquit
ille vates,
saepe dixit
aut ubi
'
'
Aurunci,' quod aeque barbarum est producere

pes ubique lege constat, prima cum correpta sit,
consonans et una plenum non queat tempus dare
'
dixit
avfpvaav inquit poeta sic et avrdp corripit.
means anything, which is doubtful, it ought to mean that in 'aut age.

aut ubi the diphthong had a more reduced sound than the au of aurum, a reduc^
tion which was similar to that seen in pretonic au followed by a syllable with
If this
'
u,
Aruncus like Agustus
&c.
Ribbeck, Ind.
35.
ARVNCEIO,
(Cf.
C. I.
L. vi.
13416
Arunci in Virgil MSS.,
p. 388.)
Had au been an open O-sound
au in Bomance.
in Vulg. Lat.
it
would
has ae as been merged in e. But that the o of

Ital. poco, Fr. chose, is a late development we see from the forms of the words,
which would otherwise have been *pogo, *cose (Meyer-Liibke, Rom. Gram. i.
We may similarly infer the diphthongal character of au, ae, at the
p. 235).
time of the Empire, from the frequently- repeated statement of the grammarians that after a diphthong it was impossible to pronounce a double
consonant, e.g. paulum (not paullum}, Paulus (usually spelt Paullus, but not
so pronounced), while after a long vowel double I was common, e. g. stella,
have been merged in Latin
Polla, vlllum
36.
o,
(Diminutive of vlnum)
(see
127).
u for accented au. The change of au to u in the (originally) unaccented
syllable is in conformity
for Plautus and Terence
with the rule in defrudo, the spelling recommended

on the strength of the MSS. by Ritschl (Parerga, i.
540) (see also Georges s.v.).
But we
find also sedfrude in the
Lex Repetun-
darum (123-122
B.C.) (C.I.L. \. 198,

64) (but sed fraude,
69), where there
seems no reason for supposing the syllable to have been unaccented [Another
instance of the confusion of au and u in this word is the spelling fraustra, often
found in MSS. of Virgil

fraude in A.
(see
iv.
Lachm.
which also exhibit frude for

MSS. of Lucretius hswefrudem ii. i^,frudi vi. 186
Similarly the u for unaccented au which appears
(see Ribbeck, Index s.v.),
675, as the
p.
85")].
regularly in the compounds of claudo, seems to have called into life a byform
of the simple verb, cludo, in the first cent. A.D. (Georges, Lex. Lat. Wortf.
s.v. claudo, and p. 750), which remains in the Italian chiudo.
(For cludam,
lame, in Plaut. Pseud. 659, read with the palimpsest claudam.}
and
is a feature of the Umbrian

language (e. g. ote,
and was preserved in rustic Latin, and even
in the Latin of the streets of Rome. Festus tells us of a millionaire who was
nicknamed Orata (i. e. aurdta, goldfish), because he wore two gold ear-rings
37. o
Lat. aut}
au.
and other
for
au
'
'
dialects,
[Festus 202. 13 Th. orata, genus piscis, appellatur a colore auri quod rustici
orum ' dicebant, ut auriculas 'oriculas,' itaque Sergium quoque quendam
'
PRONUNCIATION.
34-38.]
DIPHTHONGS.
41
Oratam dicuiit esse appellatum, &e. (For oricula, cf. App.

praedivitem
Probi 198. IT auris non 'oricla.' Oricla occurs as a cognomen on inscriptions,
.
L. xii. 5686, no. 652.)]

Cicero's rival Clodius, was the first of the gens
change the name Claudius to the plebeian form Clodius, no doubt with the
view of conciliating the mob. Cicero himself in his letters often uses the
more homely forms with o, e. g. loreolam (Att. v. 20. 4), pollulmn (Fam. xii. 12. 2
oricula (Quint. Fr. ii. 13. 4), like oriciUa, Catull. xxv. 2 fsee A. L. L. vi. 84), while
plodo is quoted from his De Gloria' by Diomede (p. 382. 26 K.), and in Plautus
we seem to find assonance of aurum with ornamentnm, ornatus, of auspicium with
So too Priscian
omen, of auribus with oculus (Bursian's Jahresberiolit, 1881, p. 33).
C. I.
to
'
(i. 52, p. 39 H.) says

(au) transit in o productam more antique, ut 'lotus'
pro lautus, plostrum pro plaustrum, cotes pro cautes sicut etiam pro o,
ausculum pro osculum, frequentissime hoc
au, ut 'austrum' pro ostrum,
faciebant antiqui. This usage of cm for o [cf. Paul. Fest. 21 (apparently referring
:
'
'
'
'
'
'
to a passage of
Plautus) ausculari dicebant antiqui pro osculari] is
found in
Plautus, not merely in aurichalcum (Greek opet'xct A/cos), where it is due to confusion with aurum, but also in ausculdtur (Bacch. 897, &c.). Aula i,or aulla as in the
palimpsest) of Plautus became olla, as Paulla, Paula became Polla. It is perhaps

confined to derivatives of os (see Georges s.vv. oreae, ostium, oscuhim, oscular}, which
seems to have had two parallel stems in early Latin, aus- and us- (cf.jecurnnd
so this gives no evidence on the pronunciation of Lat.
In the Lex
Metalli Vipascensis of the first cent. A. D. (Eph. Epigr. iii. p. 180; we have scaurict
for the Greek atcupia, which the Romance
languages show us to have been
scoria in Vulgar Latin.
Rustic or dialectal o for au is found in the name
M. Lornti ( = M.Laurent i), on a jar in the old Esquiliiie cemetery (c. 200 B. c.
(Ann. Inst. 1880, p. 260), while on plebeian inscriptions we have such forms
as Oli (for Auli) on the tombstone of a praeco (Eph. Epigr. iv. p. 297),
In Greek inscriptions we have 'HAos from the
Olipor (C. I. L. xi. 1973), &c.
time of Augustus, but always IlauAAos (though often IIcuAAa and IIoAAa, like
Lat. Polla}.
In cauda (Lith. kudas) the original vowel
(See Eckinger, p. 13.)
may be o, and the spelling au be due to the similarity of sound between o and
jocur)
~>.
au.
(See K. Z. xxviii. 157 for this
and other doubtful
instances.)
[For other
examples of au-o, see Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 301 sqq., and Georges, Lex. Wortf.
s.vv. caupo, auspicor (Diom. 383. 10 K. Claudius octavo Historiarum 'Flacco
ospicatur
'),
caulis, cauliculus, caurus,
raudus (also
ru-dus),
pausea, lauretum, plaudo,
K. sorix vel saurix, C. (?. L.

v. 242. 33), codex.]
(See Diomedes, pp. 382-3 K., Probus Inst. 118-9 K
Suetonius (Vesp. viii. 22) tells us an anecdote of the homely Vespasian
Mestrium Florum consularem, admonitus ab eo plaustra potius quam plostra
'
dicenda, postero die Flaurum salutavit [cf. the glosses plostrum dicimus
claudus,
daustrum, sorix
(cf.
Mar. Viet.
26.
'
magis
and
quam
'
'
plaustrum
(C. G. L.
v.
93. 13),
and
'
:
odit
'
audit (ibid. 89. 7
125. 26).]
38. a for au.
(Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 305 sqq.) Agustus for Augustus, e. g.

1365 (411 A. D.) (cf. Greek 'AyovaraXios, Mitt. Inst. xiii. p. 236 n. 5
Eckinger, p. 12). The Romance name of the month points to Vulg. Lat.
Agustus, e. g. Ital. agosto, Span, agosto, Fr. aout, and shows that the a was
C. I. L. ix.
not merely a conventional symbol for o. Asculto was the Vulg. Lat. form
of ausculto (cf. Caper 108. 6 ausculta non asculta ), as we see from the
'
Romance forms,
(Raet.
far
e. g.
Ital.
ascoltare,
agur, to consider,
Ital.
'
Span, ascuchar
sciagurato,
from
*agurium of augurium
*exaguratus,
unlucky,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
42
[Chap. II.
Span, jauro). Cladius often occurs for Claudius on inscriptions i.e. g. C.I.L.
ii. 4638, of 275 A. D.) (cf. Greek
Macros, C. I. A. iii. 10, of 209-210 A. D.
of
Butt. viii. p. 247,

'
'
from Eumenia).
1 1 A. D.,
sanctae
For similar spellings in Glossaries

In
&c.), see Lo'we, Prodr. p. 421.
fastus for faustus,

find Anmci for Aurunci (Ribbeck, Ind. p. 388, cf.
ArunceiOj C.I.L. vi. 13416); and modern Italian place-names like Metaro,
(e. g.
agustae
MSS. of
Virgil,
we
&c.,
Pesaro show a similar change.

39.
Greek transcriptions of
In Greek inscriptions we find usually
au.
but also ao, e. g. Qaoanvi, C.I.L. ix. 6229 and 6230 $aoffTivfs
6209 (the form ITaoAo? does not occur till the fourth or fifth cent. A. D.)
also aov, e.g. IIaouAA.ii/a, C.l.G. 6665; AouAou (2656 b add.} (see Eckinger,
av for Latin au
P- 13)-
Ae
40. ae for au.

maeso(leum},
C. I. L.
41. e for ae.
i.
is
Fast.
found now and then on inscriptions for

min. ix of i A.D. Paelinus, &c.
an,
e. g.
(Brambach,
Orthogr. p.
205
Schuchardt,
Volt.
i.
p.
224 sqq.)
Umbrian language, e. g. pre (Lat. prae), and is

found on Latin inscriptions in the Umbrian territory, e. g. Cesula, C. I. L.
168 (Pisaurum), and elsewhere (see Sittl, Lok. Verschied. p. 4). It was
i.
a feature too of rustic Latin, as we see from Varro, L. L. vii. 96 rustici pappum
Mesium,' non Maesium v. 97 in Latio rure edus
qui in urbe, ut in
multis, a addito aedus and from Lucilius' ridicule of a praetor who called
for ae (ai) is a feature of the
'
'
himself
Cf.
instead of Caecilius
Cecilius
Diom.
452.
17 K.).
(ix.
10 M. Cecilius pretor ne rusticus fiat.

of e and ae found its way into
The same variation
ordinary pronunciation in the case of country-terms, e. g.faenisicia &ndfenisicia,

the hay-harvest. The Romance forms point to sepes, not saepes septum, not
saeptum (e. g. Port, sebe. Span, seto; (Grober, A. L. L. v. 465). From Varro's
remark that scaena (and scaeptrum ?) represented the pronunciation of Greek
;
(TKTJwTpov at his time, we should infer that this ae had a sound

approaching to long open e, for Greek 77 probably still had at this period the
open sound (Varro, L. L. vii. 96 obscaenum dictum ab scaena earn ut Graeci
Accius scribit scena.' In pluribus verbis a ante e alii ponunt, alii non, ut
quod partim dicunt 'scaeptrum,' partim sceptrum,' alii Plauti 'Faenerasic 'faenisicia' ac 'fenisicia').
This spelling
tricem,' alii Feneratricem
of the title of a play of Plautus, Feneratrix, for Faenvratrix, the Usuress, agrees
with another remark of Varro that/enws, notfaenus, was the pronunciation of
Old Latin, used by Cato and others (Non. 54 M. Varro lib. iii de sermone
Latino: 'faenus autem dictum a fetu, et quasi fetura quadam pecuniae.'
Nam et Catonem et ceteros antiquiores sine a littera fenus pronuntiasse
atcrjv.'i,
'
'
'
'
'
'
How thoroughly ae (through cee ?) became

contendit, ut fetus et fecunditas).
identified with the long sound of open e at a later time, we see from the
remark of a fifth century grammarian, that Sqini-s, when the first syllable,
through being accented, was unduly lengthened in pronunciation, became
aequus (Pompeius 285. 6 K. plerumque male pronuntiamus, et facimus vitium
ut brevis syllaba longo tractu sonet ... si (quis) velit dicere 'aequus' pro eo
quod est equus). (Cf. prehendo, with shortening of prae before a vowel, as
deamo of de, and Marius Victorinus' use of -aeus to express the disyllabic
pronunciation of Gk. -6us (67 K. \) Another grammarian of the same century
of
gives a caution against the confusion of vae and ve (Agroecius 114. 21 K.
while he speaks of the first syllable of
quaeritur and queritur (id. 116. 18 K.)
,
DIPHTHONGS.
PRONUNCIATION.
39-43.]
43
precor, as if they were distinguished in writing only, not in

pronunciation (id. 115 K. praemium cum diphthongo scribendum
pretium,
precor sine diphthongo. Veteres enim majoris rei sermones cum diphthongo,
et quadam dignitate scribi voluerunt).
Even in the fourth cent. Servius, in
a note on Virgil, Aen. i. 344:-
praemium, pretium,
huic conjux Sychaeus

et
Phoenicum,
thinks
it
ditissimus agri
dilectus amore,
necessary to point out that miserae is the Adjective, not the Adverb
of Bede and Alcuin (the latter served as
Orthographies
The
misere.
erat,
magno miserae
'
a text-book for Carlovingian scribes of MSS.) abound in similar distinctions

(e. g. quaeritw and queritur, Alcuin 308. 16 K. Bede 287 8 K. quaestus and questus,
Alcuin 308. 17 K. saevit&nd sei'it, Alcuin 310. 5 K. Bede 289. 30 K.; caelo and celo,
Alcuin 299. 6 K. Bede 268. 27 K.), some of which may have been taken from
.
98 K. on the spelling erumna

K. on the spelling cesaries
for caesaries]. Philargyrius, the Virgil Scholiast, on Ed. iii. 39, defends the ae
ofhaedera (for hedera) by connecting the word with haereo (cf. Paul. Fest. 71. 26
Th. hedera dicta, quod haereat, sive quod edita petat, vel quia id, cui
adhaeserit, edit.). With all this it is no wonder that it is often difficult to
decide whether the proper spelling of a word is with ae or e. [For the rival
claims of e and ae in some words, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.vv. meles, nenia,
earlier grammarians
for
aerumna
gleba,
[ci.
Charisius (fourth cent.\
Marius Victorinus (fourth
maena, muraena, paelex,
On Greek
inscriptions
feles, cetra,
we
find
for
p.
cent.), p. 25
ne (the Interjection), gaesum.~]

ae from the middle of the second
Latin
Instances of Latin
never 77. (Eckinger, p. 78.)
in inscriptions and MSS. are given by Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 227
sqq., a very frequent case being that Genitive ending of female names in -aes
(Greek -775) from the last century of the Kepublic, e. g. Laudicaes (C. I. L. i. 1212",
cent. A.D., e.g. KerciXios, but
ae for
Greek
which
is
77
discussed in ch.
vi.
18.
42. ai for ae. The old spelling ai is found on Imperial inscriptions,

especially in the reign of the grammarian-emperor Claudius (e. g. C. L L. vi.
but we have the express testimony of Terentius
353? of 51 A. D., Caisare}
;
Scaurus (second cent.) (16. 7 K. sed magis in illis e novissima sonat), not
to speak of Quintilian (first cent.) (i. 7. 18 cujus secundam nunc e litteram
ponimus), that the second element, as pronounced, was e, not i. The change
of the earlier ai to the classical form of the diphthong, ae, took place in the
second cent. B.C. (e.g. aedem, beside aiquom, tabelai, datai, &c., on the S. C.
Bacch. of 186 B. c., (7. /. L. i. 196). The spelling aei, found once or twice
towards the end of the second cent. B.C., e.g. conquaeisivei, Caeidlius, Caeician[us],
may mark the transition (see ch. iv. 29). In ain for aisne, aibat (disyll.) the
diphthong must have had the sound of 0. Lat. ai.
Greek
ei.
Before a consonant Greek et is always I in Latin, e. g.
Before a vowel it is e till the first cent. A. D., then I. Thus
Alexandria, Dareus, &c., are the earlier spellings Alexandria, Darius the later.
43.
Atrides.
(See Brambach, Hulfsbuchlein,

e.g. balneum (Gk. 0a\avfiov}
p. 4.)
(cf.
The
Prise,
was often shortened (cf. 143).

71 H. and p. 73 H. on Alpheus,
-e-, -ii.
p.
The Greek diphthong which probably passed
into the S-sound

about 100 B. c. is a common expression of Latin I, e. g. 'Avrcavfivos, but of
Latin i only in hiatus, e. g. arpetov (for atrium), UovirKfios (for Publius] (see
Hectoreus, &c.).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
44
Latin
Eckinger, p. 42).
the first century
44. oe
and
distinction of
and
oe
e.
and
ei
we
A. D.
in words like Pompeius
find also
e. g.
is
[Chap. II.
in Greek
Alcuin and Bede give almost as

as for the distinction of ae
e,
rji
but from
Hovirtios Êckinger, p. 81).
and
rules for the
many
e [e. g. cepit
and
coepit,
Alcuin vii. 299. 18 K. Bede vii. 269. 14 K. fedus (quod est

cf.
Bede vii. 273. 4 K.
deformis) and foedus, Alcuin vii. 301-302. 2 K.
Bede
Orthogr. Bern. 293. 9 K. pene, penes, and poena, Alcuin vii. 306. 35 K.
vii. 286. i K.], some of which may come from earlier grammarians.
[For
variations in spelling between oe, e, ae see Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 288 sqq.,
coepta
incepta,
and consult Georges and Brambach

amoenus, fenus,
s.
vv. cena, caenum, faeteo
maereo, paene, proelium,
caelebs,
caelum,
(cf.
caecus,
Span, hiede),
oboedio,
foedus.
fecundus, obscenus, pomoerium. femina, fetus, &c.] Greek <a is in classical Latin
e. g. melodia, but earlier oe, e. g. comoeds (cf. Thraex and Thrax, Blass, p. 43).
45. oe in
Komance.
*penct,
for poena is indicated
o,
by the Komance forms
pena, Span, pena, Fr. peine), and probably *fedus for foedus, foul
Cena (e. g. Ital. cena, Span, cena) is thought to have
(e. g. Span, hedo, feo).
been the correct spelling (cf. Osc. kersna-), though the spelling with oe (due
(e. g.
Ital.
to confusion with Greek KOIVOS, as coelum, for caelum, confused with KofAos)
very old (COEN- on a Praenestine cista. Mel. Arch. 1890, p. 303).
46. Greek u. Marius Victorinus

Orpheus in metro, ut
vi.
is
66-67 K. consimili ratione quaeritur,
non me carminibus vincat nee Thracius Orpheus,

sit, an idem nomen duplici enuntiatione
promatur, aut sine a littera, ut Peleus Pentheus, aut cum a, ut ita declinetur
Orphaeus, ut Aristaeus. visum est tamen hoc posse discerni, ut ilia sine a
littera graeca sit enuntiatio, haec latina, quae per diphthongon effertur. The
proper spelling is euhoe, Euhius, euhan, not evoe, Emus, evan (see Brambach,
For a corruption of Greek ev in vulgar pronunciation,
Hulfsbuchlein s. vv.).
see App. Probi 199. 6 hermeneumata non 'erminomata.'
On an old mirror
of Praeneste we have Taseos (Tasei, Gen.) for @aaevs (Eph. Epigr. i. 23).
utrum trisyllabum an disyllabum
47. ui of cui.
Quint, i. 7. 27 illud nunc melius, quod 'cui' tribus quas
posui litteris enotamus, in quo pueris nobis ad pinguem sane sonum qu et oi
utebantur, tantum ut ab illo 'qui' distingueretur. Ter. Scaur. 28. i K. c
autem in dativo ponimus, ut
sit differentia cui et qui, id est dativi [et

Annaeus Cornutus
vocativi] singularis et nominativi et vocativi pluralis.
scribitur
si dividitur, ut sit
ap. Cassiod. 149. 8 K. qui' syllaba per
cui et huic, per c.
'
qui
48. J, V. That Latin j and v had some sound like our y, w,

and not like our j. v, there can be no doubt whatever. We see
this from the close relation that exists between i andy, u and v
same word in Latin, e. g. jam and

and tenvia (3 syll.), as well as from the
The signs j and v, which
express testimony of grammarians.
suggest to us a difference between the sound of these letters and
in different forms of the
nunciam (3
syll.),
tennis
PRONUNCIATION.
44-48.]
of the corresponding vowels, are, as
In the
late date.
Roman
45
we saw
and
period jus
(ch.
i.
7),
of quite a
were written with
vos
The only
exactly like plus and tuos (ch. i.
i).
question is whether j and v were actual consonants (^, w) or half'
vowels (i, u). Our y, for example, in you is a spirant consonant,
and
u,
uos,
iits,
'
but
is
often in pronunciation weakened into a half -vowel (Sweet,

p. 37). The distinction is so slight a one that it seems im-
Handb.
possible to determine the exact pronunciation of j and v in a dead

language like Latin ; and probably the pronunciation varied at
different times
we
but
certainly have one or
two
clear testi-
monies to the consonantal character of these sounds.
Thus a
century grammarian remarks on the difficulty experienced

by the Greeks of his day (as by the Greeks of our own time) in
pronouncing this y-sound in such a word as jus. They make the
fifth (?)
word, he says, almost a disyllabic (Consentius v. 394 K.). And

the same writer in another passage mentions a corresponding
mispronunciation of the w-sound in veni
litterarn aliqui
pinguius ecferunt, ut,
(v.
cum
395. 15 K. u quoque
dicunt veni,' putes
'
And much earlier, in the first cent. A. D.

trisyllabum incipere).
we have a distinction drawn between v of valente, primitivoj
&c.,
and the u of
The former
is
said to sound
'
cum
aliqua
aspiratione' (Velius Longus vii. 58. 17 K.), much as Varro, the
contemporary of Cicero, says that v- had a strong thick sound
quis.
(crassum et quasi validum) in vqfer, velum, vinum, vomis, vulnus^

&c. (L. L. iii. fr. p. 148 Wilm.). That this consonantal character
of j
and v
we
intensified
and developed
itself as
the centuries went
from the Romance languages, e. g. Italian, where

on,
Latin v has become our v-, Latin j ourj-sound (e.g. vostro, Lat.
vaster, giurare, Lat. jurdre) ; and it is possible that the further
back we go in the history of the Latin language the less consonantal was the sound of j and v l
But there is no evidence of
see
this, unless
we count
as such the scansion ablcio in Plautus
and
Terence, where the j appears to be so entirely sunk in the following i (e), as not to make the first syllable long by position,
e. g.
I.-Eur.
soror
I.-Eur.
swe- became Latin so-,

*sro- ?), but not
(through
we-,
e. g.
vetus,
which may
indicate that the v of
see-
consonantal than ordinary
was more
?:.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. II.
whereas in dbicio of the classical poets the
first syllable is so
46
lengthened (A. L. L. iv. 560) (but see ch. iii. 25). This merging
of j in a following i has been compared with the merging of the
u of
qit,
which Velius Longus
tells
us was more vocalic than the
v of valente, &c., in a following ?/, e. g. cum (earlier quoin) for

similar
quum, locuntur (earlier loqnontur) for loquuntur (cf. 93).
unconsonantal character for v in early Latin has been inferred

from the reduction of Ivi to I in such Plautine forms as obliscor
dimuus; but in the absence of express

testimony, such as we have for the consonantal character of j
and v at a later time, it is impossible to decide positively so
minute a point. An untrained ear can hardly distinguish between
for obliviscor, dinus for
the spirants y, w, and the half- vowels ?, u nor yet between the
various nuances of the w-sound, such as our wk, e. g. which/ the
unvoiced w, differing from the voiced w of witch as p from b,
t
'
'
'
from
(I,
from
such as in French
g, or
the vowel of French
'
sou/ while our
'
oui/ the consonant of
the consonant of the
is
vowel of English full/ 'put' (Sweet, HandbJc, p. 42). So much

we can say, that the pronunciation of j and v certainly became
more and more removed from the half -vowels in the centuries of
'
the Empire
and
it is
natural to infer a
movement
same
in the
direction in the Republican period.

But when exactly j and v
ceased to be half -vowels and became consonants, or how far their
character varied according to their position in the word
it
is
impossible to determine with precision.
The same tendency to syncopate a short unaccented syllable

that produced calda out of calula affected the vowels i, u when
they preceded other vowels. The word Idrua is a trisyllable in
has become a dissyllable in classical Latin, just as
became Idrdum. The only forms known to
Plautus
Idmdum
of Plautus
it
Plautus are mlluos, reDicnos^ gratils, which in
classical
Latin
are milvos, rdiquos (by the middle of the first cent. A.D. relicus),
In the first cent. A.D. tennis wavered between a dissylgratis.
lable
and a
trisyllable (Caesellius ap. Cassiod. vii.
This reduction of the vowel

(
90, 94),
to
after
the assibilation of
t,
205
c led, as
these
we
K.).
shall see
consonants.
Titius
'
became *Tityus and then something like *Tifous (cf our orchard
for
ort-yard '), as we learn from the remark of a fifth cent.
'
PRONUNCIATION.
49.]
grammarian, quoted below

et perdit
sonum suum
si
dicas
J,
f
V.
Titius
47
}
(i)
pinguius sonat
et accipit sibilum.
As to the pronunciation of words like Maia, Pompeius, ejus,

where the diphthong is followed by a vowel, we have very clear
information from the grammarians that the i- sound was shared
both by the first and the second syllable, Mai-ia or Mai-ya, not
To express this sound Cicero proposed to write
Ma-ia, Ma-ya.
with two ^''s (Velius Longus vii. 54. 16 K. ; Quint,
on inscriptions we find spellings like MAI!OREM
and
n);
where the long form
L. ii. 1964, col. iii. 10) (see ch. i.
/),
Jfaiia, Aiiax
i.
4.
(C. I.
of I
may
express the consonantal or half -vocalic sound j 3 as in
Whether it was this

&c.) (ch. i.
i).
of
writing long I for /, which made
already existing practice
Claudius abstain from proposing a new letter for j when he
GONlvNX (C.I.L.
vii.
8,
introduced the inverted F-sign for v, or whether he followed the

Greek alphabet which had a sign for w (the digamma), but none
for y we cannot say.
Possibly the reason is to be found in the
t
more rapid development of the w-sound (Latin

y-sound (Latin
V and
v)
than of the
j).
(which had by this time become between vowels the
bilabial spirant) were, as early as the third cent. A. D.,
hardly
seen from the frequent warnings given by

the grammarians against confusion of lalat and lavat (Probi
Appendix 199. 22 K.), libido and limdo (ib. 201. 4 K.), &c., &c.
distinguishable, as
Indeed
one
is
the
fifth
Adamantii
sive
treatise
century) is
Martyrii de
vocali et V vocali.
It was summarized by Cassiodorus for
the book on Orthography which he compiled for the use of
grammatical
devoted to this very subject
(of
Benedictine copyists of MSS. (Keil. Grammatici Latini, vol. vii).

At some time before the fifth cent. A.D., when precisely we
cannot say, initial v, and possibly v in other positions

to have passed from the bilabial spirant (Spanish
labio-dental spirant (our
sound of the voiced mute
49.
v).
After
ly
r it
too,
seems
d) to
the
assumed in time the
b.
Testimony of grammarians.
Quintilian
i.
4. 10, TI,
after saying that
wanting to the Latin alphabet to express the sound of v in servus,

vulgusj the Aeolic digamma, goes on to speak of the consonantal (pro consonanOf conficit
tibus) character of the vowels i, u, e. g. iam but etiam, uos but tuos.
he says, littera i sibi insidit, and so with u in vulgus, servus. In another passage
a letter
is
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
48
[Chap. II.
tells us that seruos was the spelling of his teachers, seruus that of
time, but that neither spelling quite expressed the sound, so that
the emperor Claudius had good reason to introduce a new letter like the
7.
(i.
his
he
26)
own
Aeolic
for j
digamma
and
Victorin. vi.
is
5.
(cf. xii. 10. 29).

'
(i,
18 K.
u) transeunt
;
Donat.
iv.
The usual expression
of the
grammarians
in consonantium potestatem
Charisius i. 8. i
367. 12 K.
:
'
Mar.
(e. g.
cf.
Diom.
i.
'
Ter. Maur. vi. 341. 536 K.). Later they talk of the pinguis sonus
422. 14 K.
as opposed to the exilis or ' tenuis (vocalic), the first to use this term being
i
'
'
'
Servius (fourth cent.) (iv. 422. i K.), e.g. Pompeius (fifth cent.) (v. 103 K.
vanus quando dico pinguior sonus est. numquid dicis u a nus ? ergo vides
'
ponantur solae, tenuem sonum habent, si jungantur ad alias litteras,

si dicas
itur,' ecce tenuius sonat
pingues sonant, similiter et i sic patitur.
'Titius,' pinguius sonat et perdit sonum suum et accipit sibilum).
Finally
Priscian (sixth cent.) speaks of the 'di versus sonus' of j and v from i and u,
and questions the soundness of Censorinus' (third cent.) contrary opinion
(i. p. 13 H. nou suiit in eisdem, meo judicio, elementis accipiendae
quamvis
et Censorino, doctissimo art is grammaticae, idem placuit) (cf. Nigidius
In another passage Priscian talks of r and b as quite
ap. Gell. xix. 14. 6).
similar in sound (i. 18. 10 H.), where he says that caelebs should be written
*cdelevs, the word being derived from caelum and vita, and meaning literally
caelestium vitam due-ens (!), were it not that v is never allowed to stand before
a consonant. He goes on to say that b had this sound in very early Latin,
because Quintilian quotes Helena for Helena (feA-cVa) (cf. Serv. in Don. 422. 2 K.,
and C. 1. L. i. 1501) from early literature. This remark is interesting as
showing how early MS. corruptions showed themselves. When we turn to
the passage in Quintilian (i. 4. 15 we find that he is discussing the use of b
for Greek -n and $ in early Latin. His examples are Burrus (for Uvppos), Bruges
The whole passage is taken from
(for &pvyf$) and balaena (for </>dA Ami/a).
Verrius Flaccus, who used these same examples. In our MSS. of Quintilian
there is the corruption Bekna for balaena, a corruption which must have also
existed in the MS. used by Priscian, and which led him to make this mistake
We notice that Consentius (fifth cent. ?) happens
(Fleck. Jahrb. 1889, p. 394).
to use pinguis in precisely the opposite sense when he speaks of that mispronunciation of veni which made the word almost like a trisyllable (v. 395.
15 K.), unless indeed he is referring to the bilabial (M?) as opposed to the
labiodental spirant sound (v} (see below).
Other barbarisms which he
quia,
si
'
;,
mentions as
for
'
in usu cotidie loquentium
'
are
induruit â trisyllable) (v. 392. 35 K.
mam,
so-lu-it
for disyllabic
solvit,
uam
and v in early Latin.
Priscian (i. p. 17. 3 K.) is certainly wrong in

mridia of Terence (Andr. 66) by the vocalic character of v
(see ch. iii.
34) ; Accius' augura (Trag. 624 K.)
pro certo arbitrabor sortis,
oracla, aditus, augura, may be a byform, and not a case of suppression ofi (y)
50.
explaining the
sine
mi
on a hexameter
line of a Scipio epitaph of c. 130 B. c. (C. I. L.

i. 38) is
perhaps a graver's error for progeniem genui ; the use of -i, not -U, in
the Gen. Sing, of lO-stems in the older writers has nothing to do with the
progenie
genui
(see ch. vi.

20), nor have the Plautine forms ain (always), aibat
(occasional) (see ch. viii.
35) ; peiero, where the r of the preposition has been
dropped, owing to the.consonarital nature of the i, seems to be a later spelling
than periero (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) ; and the true account of puleium
sound of j
fleabane (also pulegium, see Georges)
is
a matter of
doubt
(see ch. iv.
116).
PRONUNCIATION.
50-52.]
49
J,V.
Between i and another i,
v disappears at a very eai'ly time, e. g. obliscor, dinus in

Plautus (see Rhein. Mus. xxxv. 627) and Plautus' trisyllabic avonculus (aunculus
or aonculus) seems to be a suppression of pretonic v like the later Noembris
The vocalic nature of v in cave (pronounced with
for Novembris (see below).
e, ch. iii.
44) is seen from Cicero's story (Div. ii. 84) of the confusion of Cauneas
(sc. ficns vendo] with cave ne eas, as well as from the spelling causis for cave sis
in Juvenal ix. 120 of v in ave (pronounced with -e, Quint, i. 6. 21) from
Phaedrus' fable (App. 21) of the man who mistook the caw of a crow for
;
this word (famila for familia on an inscr. of Ameria in Umbria, C. I. L. xi.

'
4488, may be a dialectal variety, like the Oscan famelo familia of Bantia, Zv.
LI. L 231). Our w is similarly suppressed in 'Ha(w)arden,' 'Main(w)aring,' &c.
i
With Latin j (our y} were merged in

51. in late Latin and Romance.
Vulgar Latin g before e, i, and d before i followed by a vowel (see below), for
these three Latin sounds are indistinguishable in the Eomance languages.
Spellings therefore on late inscriptions like Diuliali (Kossi 1118, of 568 A. D.
Madias (Eossi 172), Giove (I.R.N. 6951, Gianuaria (Fabr. x. 632, Interamna,
of 503 A. D.) do not indicate that j had passed from the ?/-sound (see A.L.L.
i.
220), but that -din-, -dia-, gio-, gia- were pronounced like -yu, -ya, yo- &c.
The occasional spelling with Lat. z, Greek
e.g. Zanuario (C.l.L. x. 2466),
ouAeia (I. I. S. 826. 22, Naples), KOOVS (Lat. co(n)jux, C. I.L. x. 719, Surrentum)
is probably nothing but an attempt to indicate the spirant sound of j (our y}
had at this time the
as opposed to the vocalic sound of i
for Lat. z, Greek
soft or voiced s- sound of our verb Ho use,' and not ourj-sound, nor the sound
,
120).
(For other examples see Schuchardt, Fofc. i.
This Vulgar Latin y-sound of triple origin is y in Spanish (in
most situations^, in Sardinian, and (by Greek influence ?) in South Italian,
but in ordinary Italian (except when pretonic, e.g. rione from Lat. regionem,
ajuta, pronounced ayuta, from Lat. adjutat) it has become the sound of ourj
while in French (in most situations) it has assumed the sound which we
Thus Latin jugum is Span, yugo, Ital.
azure.'
write s in 'pleasure,' z in
of -dz~ in 'adze' (see

pp. 66 sqq.)
Lat. majus is Span, mayo, Sicilian mayu, Ital. maggio Vulg.

giogo, Fr. joug
In loanwords in
Lat. Jenuarius is Sicil. yennaru, Ital. gennajo, Fr. Janvier.
;
Welsh Latin j has the
y- sound, e.g. lonawr (Lat. Januarius), dydd lau (Lat.

In Greek inscriptions, besides the usual i, e. g. 'louAios, IIoi/Tmo?,
we have sometimes
and ei, e.g. 'HouAios, EtofXto?, Faetos and Tarjos (see
dies Jovis}.
77
Eckinger, p. 80).
The barred d of the Pelignian dialect (PetiefZu, uifZadu, UibcZu, afc?ed in the
same inscription, Zvetaieff, Inscr. Ital. Inf. 13) expresses some sound into which
consonantal i (?/) and di in hiatus had developed (Latin Pettiedia, *viam-do, Vibidia,
abiif) (Rhein.
Mus.
xliii.
348
Class. Rev. vii. 104),
and seems
to be a dialectal
anticipation of the coincidence of di in hiatus and j in Vulgar and late Latin.

After a short accented vowel y suffered some similar change in Teutonic,
witness Goth, iddja I went, from the root El to go.
Latin and Romance. From the beginning

begin to find b and v interchanged on inscripi. 131 and iii. 67
Brambach, Orth. p. 238), and by
the third century the confusion is complete. The &-symbol is, as is natural,
used for the v-sound more frequently than the vowel symbol (capital V, uncial
U, see i. 7) for b. Latin 6 had probably by this time become, when between
52.
v confused with, b in
of the second century A. D.

tions (see Schuchardt, Vok.
late
we
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
50
[Chap. II.
to the
vowels, a spirant (see
78), so that the tendency is to restrict V,
vowel- (w), B to the spirant-sounds (&, TJ\ (For examples of the interchange
In Greek inscriptions ov is the earliest spelling
see the Indices to the Corpus.)
for Lat.
v,
and continues
to be the usual spelling
throughout the Imperial
period, e.g. apova\is Mon. Ancyr., Obeairaffiavos (never BeaTr-), oixrepavos and
But we find
occasionally even in the first cent. A. D., the
overpavos, &c.
examples being <Aa/3ioy, A.fi@tos ^the usual spelling), 2tA/toi/os, Ba\epios.

This use of )3 may have been stimulated by the preference of a single to
a double symbol. AetjSios is more pleasing to the eye than Ae tovios and in this
way we may explain why Latin ov is more often o/3 than oov. (It is often ou,
Little light however is thrown on the
e. g. Novios) (see Eckinger, pp. 82 sqq.)
pronunciation of Latin v by this Greek use of j8 for in the first place, the
pronunciation of & itself in the Imperial age is uncertain (Blass supposes it
to have become a spirant, as in modern Greek, in the second cent. A. D.
Aussprache d. Griech.* p. 91), and in the second, the use of /3 followed in all
probability the use of b in the Latin spelling. (Thus on the Edict of Diocletian
vulva is spelt bulba in the Latin inscription, @ov\@r) in the Greek.)
We sometimes find ov and
on the same inscription, e.g. Nc/jova and Nep/3a (second
cent.\ &\aoviavos and 3?\al3iavos on an inscr. of Gyrene, 117-125 A. D. (see
Eckinger). The remarks however of the Grammarians point, as we have
seen, to v having retained its connexion with the vowel u till a later time in
correct pronunciation and the same thing is indicated by the loss of intervocalic v in paimentum, &c., for pavimentum (see below).
At what time the
bilabial spirant v (our w) became the labiodental spirant v (our v) is not easy to
It would be rash to conclude from spellings like convivium, convivio
say.
(where the m of com is changed to ri) on the Lex Municipalis of Julius Caesar
(C.I.L. i. 206), and still more from invitei, inviteis( where the not in is retained)
on the Sententia Minuciorum of 117 B.C. (i. 199 that the change had taken
place in the Republican period for as early as 189 B.C. we have inpeirator
(Wilm. 2837), and in the Sen. Cons, de Bacchanalibus of 186 B.C. conpromesise
The facts certainly
i. 196), clear instances of n before an undoubted bilabial.
64), e.g.
point .to com-, im- being the oldest spellings before v- (and/-, see
earliest
">,
comvovise
coventionid) i. 196 ; comvalem, comjluont (but also conflouont} i. 199 ;

uita of the Palimpsest of Plautus (Merc. 471), comuiuas (Men. 224),
(and
and the im
upon old tradition but the substitution of -n for -m of a preposition

compound is no certain evidence for the nature of
the consonant (see 65). More weight may be attached to Cicero's deliberate
preference of the spelling com before v, mentioned by Marius Victorinus
may
rest
before a consonant in a
(fourth cent. A. D.) (18. 14 K.) item consonantes inter se, sed proprie sunt
cognatae, quae simili figuratione oris dicuntur, ut est b, f, m, p, quibus Cicero
adicit u, non earn quae accipitur pro vocali, sed earn quae consonantis obtinet
vicem, et anteposita vocali fit, ut aliae quoque consonantes. quotiens igitur
:
praepositionem sequetur vox cujus prima syllaba incipit a supradictis litteris,

id est b, f, m, p, v, quae vox conjuncta praepositioni significationem ejus
confundat, vos quoque praepositionis litteram mutate, ut est 'combibit,'
comburit,' comfert,' comfundit,' commemorat,' comminuit,' 'comparat,'
'
'
'
'
comvocat,' non conbibit,' conburit,' et similia.

sic etiam praepositio juncta vocibus quae incipiunt a supradictis litteris n commutat in m, ut imbibit,' imbuit,' imfert,' 'imficit,' immemor,' immitis,'
'
'
'
'
compellit,' 'comvalescit,'
'
'impius/ 'impotens.'
'
'
The ordinary
'
rule that com-, im- are used before p,
6,
PRONUNCIATION.
52.]
51
J,V.
m is quoted by
Priscian (i. p. 31. 2 H.) from Pliny, Papirian, and Probus (cf.
Papir. ap. Cassiod. 162. 6 K. ; Prob. 150. 6 K.) with no mention either of
/(which Mar. Viet, must have taken from some older grammarian), or of v.
It is true that Cicero's spelling, comuocat, &c., might equally well be taken as
a proof of the more vocalic nature of v in his time ; for before a vowel com
is often the form in use, e. g. comedo, comitor, &c.
[Caesellius Vindex (end of
first cent. A.D.) (ap.
Cassiod. 206. 17 K.
recommends
com- before a vowel, con-
littera n litterae sonum decentius effetune pro

remus]. But the Latin and Teutonic loanwords give a similar indication of
a change in the pronunciation of v (at any rate of initial v), during the period
The early Latin loanwords in Teutonic languages
of the Western Empire.
show invariably w for Latin v-, e.g. Goth, wins, our 'wine,' 'wall,' '-wick'
But Teutonic loanwords in Italian &c., which
(Latin vlnum, vallum, vlcus}.
date from the Gothic occupation in the fifth cent. A. D., showgw- for Gothic wguisa, our -wise '), an indication that the
(e. g. guarire from Gothic warjan
An examination of the
initial w- sound had passed out of use in Latin.
Romance languages does indeed suggest that the change from the bilabial to
the labiodental spirant was not completed in the Vulgar Latin of all the
provinces but on the other hand the close connexion of the w- and the
^-sounds, and the frequent passage of a language from either sound to the other,
weaken the force of the evidence. In Vulgar Latin intervocalic had been
merged in v. This v, of double origin, has the labiodental sound in Italian
and French but is bilabial in Spain, and (possibly through Greek influence)
in South Italy.
Spanish and South Italian also merge initial b and v. Thus,
while initial and intervocalic b of Latin bibo receive a different treatment in
Italian bevere, they have the same spirant sound in Spanish beber, Sicilian
viviri, Calabrian vivere. The identification of Latin v and intervocalic b in all
the Romance languages, and therefore in Vulgar Latin, shows that it was in this
position, in the middle of a word between vowels, that b first became a spirant
sound (see below). Confusions of spelling between b and v are usually of
this sort, e. g. Ddnuvius, the spelling of the classical period, later Danubius (see
Georges, Lex. Wortf.s.v., and for other examples, s.vv. abellana, gabata, viduvium,
That the development also of v differed accordSuebi, sebum, Vesuvius, sevir).
ing to its position in a word is a natural inference, and is confirmed by the
evidence. Initial accented v would, owing to the stress with which a consonant was pronounced in this position, develop its consonantal character
more rapidly than intervocalic v, especially than pretonic intervocalic v (see
below). A good instance of a confusion of spelling due to this is the word
veneficus, which so often assumed the form beneficus, that it produced in late
Latin a new word for a sorcerer, maleflcus (A.L.L. i. 79) (cf. Probi App.
200. 9 K. inter beneficum et veneficum hoc interest, quod beneficum bene
facientem significat, veneficum autem veneni datorem esse demonstrat).
Vdtillum is the correct spelling, not bdtillum (Nettleship, Contributions to Lat.
before a consonant or v
'
"b
Lexic. s.v.).
the same thing seems to have happened cf. late Lat. albeus
19), Vulg. Lat. corbus, curbus (Fr. corbeau, courbe,
Pliny's example of preconsonantal j, is the word silva ( 99) and the
&c.).
classical spelling of the Perfect offerveo, where rv is followed by u isferbui not
Probi App.
fervui (feruui) (cf. Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. w. vulva, ervum, gilvus
After r and
Agrim.
82. 24), arba (75.
198. 7 alveus
non
'albeus.'
Albeus occurs often on inscrr., e.g. C.l.L. x.
i.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
52
[Chap.
II.
1695, 1696, 4752, 6850, Eph. Epigr. iii. 48). The only (?) early example of rb, Ib
becoming rt', Iv is acervissimam (I. N. 1951, of 155 A. D.), a misspelling due to confusion of two similar words acerbusand acerrus, and not to be taken as evidence
of a change of the sound rb to the sound rr.
But rb, Ib for rv, Iv is common on
inscrr., e.g. coserba, Helbius, salbus, serbat, serbus, balbis (see index to C.LL. xiv,\
Assimilation also often played a part in the development of v and b
e.g.
rervex- is in Vulg. Lat. *berbix (Fr. brebis, Ital. berbice)
vervactum is *barbactum
(Span, barbecho, Sard, barvatu, Port, barbeito), and the only change of rb to rr
that is common to all the Komance languages, viz. morvus for morbus, seems to
;
show the influence
of the initial
m (Span,
muermo, Port, mormo,
Fr. morve, Sicil. morvu. See ^4. L. L. iv. 121).

IT i. 2 K.) is due to confusion with primus.
vi.
judicafid
(C.LL.
Narbonne).
We
6592), Mafortio (le Blant, I.G. 612 A, of 527 A.D.
53. Intervocalic
a vocalic character
Prov. vorma,
Primilegium for prMlegium (Caper,

have /for v in the spellings
from
v dropped. Between vowels v seems to have retained

It was dropped before t of the Nom. Sing., thus
much longer.
(Ttru-s (older deiv-) became *deius,

70), but
dens, Gnaevus became Gnaeus, &c. (ch. iv.
was usually restored from the other cases, e.g. rivus from rivo, &c., but Vulg.
Lat. had rius, &c. (Ital. rio, Prov. rius, O.Fr. riu)
between similar vowels it
is very prone to
vis, obttscor, dmus (Plaut.), just as
disappear, e. g. l-i, sis, for
;
s~i
in
Mod. Tuscan between
e-e,
bee for beve
late spellings like noicius, for novicius,
Noe(m)bris for Novembris, &c., are very frequent, especially when v stands before
the accent. (For examples see Schuchardt, Vok. ii. pp. 471 sqq., e. g. Flaus
C.LL. i. 277, viii. 9422, ao E. E. v. 777; cf. the remarks of grammarians
like Probus, Inst. 113. 17 K. hoc ovum et non hoc ' oum ; Probi
'
'
'
flaus
rius ; ib. 198. 8
ib. 199. 2 K. rivus non
5. K. flavus non
'
App. 198
K. favilla
non 'failla'; ib. 199. 2 K. pavor 11011 'paor' ib. 197. 28 avus non <aus'
similarly on Greek inscriptions Noepfipios is the usual form (as early as 73
B. c. in S. C. of
Oropus) cf. 'O/muo? (time of Augustus) 'Ai'avos (C. L L 4750)
l
&c. (Eckinger, p. 92) (see also Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv. longao, boa,
Ribbeck, Index, p. 448 for spellings in Virgil MSS. likefluius, exuiae, iuenis,
2e?7/3oy,
boo,
beside
which we
find fluventa, bovum, fluvidus, fluvitantem, ingruvit, tenuvia).
54. Postconsonantal v dropped. Vulg. Lat. v (in classical Latin the vowel u)
dropped after consonants not only before u (for examples see Schuchardt,
is also
Vok. ii. pp. 464 sqq.), e. g. mortus for mortuus, cardus for carduus (cf. cardelis
Petron 46. 4) (Ital. morto, cardo Span, muerto, cardo Fr. mort, chardon
from *cardo, -onis\ just as -quu- became -cu- in the beginning of the first cent.
A. D. e. g. ecus, locuntur, locutus (see
93), but also when pretonic in words like
;
batt(u)ere, cows(w)e're, contin(u}ari (see Georges and

for contin(u)ari, A. L. L. viii. 129, 136.
Examples of this
spelling in Inscriptions and MSS. have been collected by Schuchardt, Vok. ii.
Jdn(ii)drius,
Brambach
pp.
Feb>-(u}arius,
s.
467 sqq.
vv.
and
Compare the Romance forms,
e. g.
Ital.
gennajo, febbrajo,
In the App. Probi we have 199. 12

Februarius non 'Febrarius'
197. 23 vacua non vaqua,' vacui non 'vaqui'
xiv.
(cf. Febrarius in various Latin inscriptions, such as C. L L. ix. 3160
58. 2795). Pltmta must have had in ordinary speech the trisyllabic pronunciation which Horace gives it (Epp. i. i. 108 nisi cum pituita molesta est), and not
the quadrisyllabic of Catullus (xxiii. 17 mucusque et mala pituita nasi). For
Aelius Stilo's derivation of the word was quia petit vitam (ap. Quint, i. 6.
battere, cucire, &c.) (see ch.
iii.
15).
'
'
PRONUNCIATION.
53-56.J
H.
53
37), and the Vulgar Latin form was *p-ipUa or *pipplta (Ital. pipita, Span,
cf. Mid. Engl. pippe, Swiss pfiffis).
On the other hand
pepita, Fr. pepie
sudvis seems to have heen a trisyllable in Vulg. Lat. (as in Sedulius, e. g.
i.
Servius fad
274, and later poets), e. g. Ital. soave, O.Fr. so-ef, Prov. soau.
;
Aen. i. 357) tells us that

a trisyllable.
many
persons in his day considered
sudclet
to be
55. ai, ei before a vowel. Velius Longus says that Cicero wrote Maiia, &c.,
because he thought these words should be written as they were pronounced
so cojwit might be written coiiicit to express the
(auditu emensus scriptionem}
;
and the second and third syllables licit (Vel.

in plerisque Cicero videtur auditu emensus scriptionem,
Long. vii. 54. 16 K. )
qui et Aiiacem et Maiiam per duo i scribenda existimavit quidam unuin
esse animadvertunt, siquidem potest et per unum i eiiuntiari, ut scriptum
unde illud quod pressius et plenius sonet per duo i scribi oportere exisest.
timat, sic et Troiiam,' et siqua talia sunt. inde crescit ista geminatio, et
sound of the
first syllable col

:
'
'
'
'
'
incipit per tria i scribi coiiicit,' ut

at qui Troiam et Maiam per
prima syllaba
unum
sit coi,
sequentes duae
licit.
onerandam pluribus
litteris scriptionem, cum sonus ipse sufficiat. hanc enim naturam esse quarundam litterarum, ut morentur et enuntiatione sonum detineant, quod accidit
et in eo quod dicimus hoc est [pronounced hoccest p. 54. 12], cum ipsa
'
scribunt, negant
'
'
'
vastitas litterae in enuntiatione pinguescat.
atque ipsa natura
litterae est
ut interjecta vocalibus latinis enuntietur, dum et prior illam adserit et

sequens sibi vindicat. So Priscian (x. i. 494) says that aio was spelt aiio
'
and is still pronounced ayyo (i loco consonantis habet duplicls).

Our ordinary pronunciation Tro-ja, e-jus is wrong. The first vowel of the
diphthong retained its natural quantity, rjero, Gains, but ejus, aio, major (see
Arch. Glott. ItaL x), as we see from Eomance forms like Ital. peggio (with open
e) for Latin pejor, and from the remark ofTerentianusMaurus (p. 343 K.;, that
in former times,
'
in Troja, Maia, pejor, jejunium the vowel preceding j is short in each of these
words, though the syllable is long. Similarly ejnlo, to utter the cry ei (Plaut.
Cur eiulas ?) must have been pronounced ei-iulo. In
Aul. 796 ei mini
unaccented syllables j, i seem to have been dropped after a short vowel in
Latin, e.g. the Adj. suffix -ens for *-eyos (Eiv. Filolog. 1891 p. 18) (ch. v.).
!
Spellings like aiio are sometimes found in MSS. of classical authors, e. g. aio in
the archetype of Hor. Epp. i. 15. 45 was written aiio, whence the corruption
eiius in the Ambrosian Palimpsest of
aiio in several MSS (Class. Rer. v. 296)
Plautus, Most. 981 &c. piiaculum (in the Vetus Codex pilaculum) True. 223.
;
H. Latin
GH
the representative of Indo-European

(e.g.
hostis,
guest ') must in prehistoric times have had some
sound like German ch in ' ach/ Scotch cli in loch/ but by the
56.
our
h,
'
literary period had been reduced to the mere spiritus fortis, our
h.
We have no reason to doubt that the sound was dropped in
Vulgar Latin as early as the middle of the third cent. B. c. for

we have not a trace of initial or medial h in any of the Romance
languages, not even the oldest ; and one of the earliest tasks of
}
grammarians at Rome was to draw up
rules for the correct use of
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
54
[Chap.
II.
their usual practice being to appeal to the Sabine dialect

//,
'
where I.-Eur. gh- had become/* (e. g. fastis), as gh in our enough
121). The Greek aspirated consonants 6, x, <#>(t-h, k-h,
(ch. iv.
initial
'
'
p-h, as in
'
an-êap/ in-oni/
simple tenues ^,
time of Cicero
'
up-Mll
')
were expressed by the
c, p in the Latin of the Republic, until at the

it was felt necessary to express them more
accurately by th, ch,ph (ch. i.

n); and this pronunciation was
in
followed
circles.
The struggle to attain the
polite
carefully
new shibboleth of fashion led to ludicrous misapplications of the
/^-sound
by the uneducated
classes,
which have been
Catullus in his famous epigram on Arrius (84)

1
Chommoda
'
dicebat siquando
dicere et insidias Arrius
'
commoda
Ixinsidias
satirized
by
vellet
'
;
and the dropping of k seems to have been even in the time of

St. Augustine an unpardonable breach of manners.
(On rh rrk
for Greek p-, -pp- see ch. i.
n.)
Between vowels the omission of h was sanctioned by current
usage in a number of words such as nemo (for *ne-kemo) debeo
y
praebeo (praehibeo), praeda (for *prae-heda, *praelmld).

the first cent, prendo and nil had established themselves in
(de/iibeo),
By
pronunciation, also deprendo, through reprehensus was heard as

well as reprensus.
In the Umbrian language the length of a vowel was often

indicated by writing it before and after an /i, e. g. comohota (Lat.
commota) and it has been suggested that this usage may have
been adopted in Latin in a few words like vehement, just as the
Oscan habit of doubling a vowel to express its length (e. g. tristaamentud, Latin testdmento abl.) was adopted by Accius (ch. i.
9).
;
Vehemens, according to this theory, is derived from ve and mens,

from ve and sanus (Etym. Lat. p. 113).
have
We
like vesanus
NAHAETIS (C.l.L.
4213, time
of
Augustus), as well as
NART(is) (ib. 4201, 240 A.D.), &c., in Latin inscriptions from the
Umbrian territory, and Cicero (Orat. xlv. 153) speaks of the
name Ala
Dositheus,
in
1
modern
steel
stal.
xi.
(Ahala) as representing Axilla (but cf. Diorn. p. 424,

find Ji put to the same use
p. 38 3
K.).
We
German, through analogy
(with h for I.-Eur.
Tc ;
cf.
of
words
like
stahel
O. Pruss. stakla) which became
PRONUNCIATION.
57-]
H.
55
57. Testimony of grammarians Quint, i. 5. 19 quamquam per adspirationem, sive adicitur vitiose sive detrahitur, apud nos potest quaeri, an in
cujus quidem ratio mutata cum
scripto sit vitium, si h littera est, non nota.
:
temporibus est saepius. parcissime ea veteres usi etiam in vocalibus, cum

aedos ircosque' dicebant. diudeindeservatum, ne consonantibus adspirarent,
ut in Graccis et triumpis.' erupit brevi tempo re nimius usus, ut choronae
chenturiones praechones adhuc quibusdam inscriptionibus maneant, qua de
re Catulli nobile epigramma est.
inde durat ad nos usque vehementer et
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
et
mihi
'
nam mehe quoque

'
'
me
'
mi
pro
comprehendere
?] apud
[leg.
antiques tragoediarum praecipue scriptores in veteribus libris invenimus.
Similarly Gellius ii. 3. 1-4: h litteram sive illam spiritum magis quam
litteram dici oportet, inserebant earn veteres nostri plerisque vocibus verborum firmandis roborandisque, ut sonus earum esset viridior vegetiorque
atque id videntur fecisse studio et exemplo linguae Atticae. satis notum
est, Attieos i~xQvv et i pronomen et multa itidem alia, contra morem gentium
Graeciae ceterarum, inspirantis primae litterae dixisse. sic lachrumas/ sic
:
'
'
sepulchrum,'
sic
'
ahenum,'
sic
sic 'halucinari,' sic 'honera,' sic
omnibus
'vehemens,'
sic 'incohare,'
'honustum' dixerunt.
sic
'helluari,'
In his enim verbis
litterae seu spiritus istius nulla ratio visa est, nisi ut firmitas et
vigor vocis, quasi quibusdam nervis additis, intenderetur. Then he goes on

to tell of a bookhunting friend of his who had bought for twenty gold
'
a MS. of the second Aeneid, mirandae vetustatis,' which was
sigillarii
'
reputed to have belonged to Virgil himself. In v. 469 telis et luce coruscus

aena, the last word had been corrected to ahena, just as ahem, not aeni, was
the reading of the optimi libri in Georg. i. 296. This account of h as (like
the Greek spiritus asper), a mere 'nota adspirationis,' not properly called
a littera is a commonplace of the grammarians, e. g. Mar. Victor, vi. 5.
Priscian i. 47, &c. The only conib. vi. 3
Charisius i. 265. 20 K.
27 K.
tradiction is the absurd remark of Pompeius (v. 117. 14 K.\ that in Virgil's
line (Aen. ix. 610) terga fatigamus hasta, the h causes length by position,
a remark often repeated by the later writers on metre and followed in practice
'
'
'
'
by the Christian poets.

Terentianus Maurus in his description of the sound of h discusses
to stand in the alphabet (vi. 331. 213) (Cf. Quint,
nulli
dubium
est faucibus emicet
i.
4.
9)
quod
its
claims
ipsis
quae spiret anhelum.

quin hanc etiam grammatici volunt vacare,
quia non adicit litterulis novum sonorem,
littera, sive est nota,
sed graecula quaedam scholicae nitela vocis

vocalibus apte sedet ante posta cunctis,
hastas 'hederas' cum loquor 'Hister' 'hospes' 'hujus.'
'
Marius Victorinus says (vi. 34. 7 K.) profundo spiritu, anhelis faucibus,
contractis [conexploso ore fundetur and Martianus Capella (iii. 261)
rasis Eyss.~\ paululum faucibus ventus exhalat. Cf. Priscian i. 24
Alcuin vii.
303. 1 8 K.
Rules for the use and omission of initial h are very frequent in the grammarians. Nigidius (first cent. B.C.) emphasized the importance of correctness
in the use of this letter rusticus fit sermo si adspires perperam, a dictum
quoted by Gellius (xiii. 6. 3), who explains that by rusticism Nigidius
:
'
meant what grammarians
of a later date called barbarismus.
'
Velius Longus
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
56
[Chap. II.
quotes Varro's argument for the pronunciation harena, viz. that the Sabine
form of the word isfasena. Similarly haedus is supported by faedus, hircus by
fircus (Vel. Long. vii. 69. 4-10 K.).
Quite a number of dialectal forms have
been preserved for us through the grammarians' practice of using dialectal /
as a criterion for Latin h, e. g. fordeum (with fasena, firci, faedi) (Vel. Long,
the doubtful fariolus (Ter. Scaur,
vii. 8 1 K.)
K.) (with faedus, fordeum, and
Faliscan haba (id. 13 K.) flbra (=*herba) (Nigidius ap. 'Serv.'
p. 13 fircus)
ad Georg. i. 120) forda bos, a cow in calf, Fordicidia (Paul. Test. 59 73 Th.
hanulum, a shrine (id. 73)
horctus, good (id. 73)
folus, fostis, fostia (id. 59)
fuma (= humus}, Haunii ( = Faunif) (glosses ap. Lowe, Prodr. 426) and a large
number of etymologies were made on the strength of this relation between
;
/"and h, such as Formiae velut Hormiae' from Greek op/jios (Paul Fest. 59)
horreum from far (id. 73) firmus from Greek ZPIM (id. 64). So Servius (ad
Faliscos Halesus condidit. hi autem, inmutato h in f, Falisci
Aen. vii. 695)
l
sicut febris dicitur
dicti sunt,
quae ante
'
hebris
'
dicebatur, Formiae quae
Hormiae' fuerunt, diroTrjs 6p/x?}s nam posteritas in multis nominibus f pro

h posuit. These dialectal words are often loosely called old Latin
haba,
for example, which Terentius Scaurus expressly declares to have been
a Faliscan word (13 K.), is referred by Velius Longus (69 K.) to the
and Quintilian (i. 4. 13), amongst other genuine instances of old
antiqui
quin fordeum
faedosque
Latin, such as Valesii, Fusii, mertare, says
There is however no
[dicebant], pro adspiratione f ut simili littera utentes.
reason to believe that in Latin itself these forms were used, though they may
have been heard in the country districts about Kome, where dialectal
influence often strongly asserted itself. At other times grammarians defend
the use or omission of h by more or less ingenious etymologies, e. g. Servius
dicta est enim [harena] quod harida sit terra
in Don. iv. 444. 28, 29 K.
Charisius i. 103. 21, 22 K. harena dicitur quod haereat, et arena quod areat
Yelius Longus (vii. 68. 18, 19 K.)
gratius tamen cum adspiratione sonat.
1
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
cum ab alendo possit alica dici, et aliculam existiment dictam,

nobis injecta contineat, and ortus
quod ibi herbae oriantur.
Charisius says of this word alica that Verrius Flaccus approved of the form
defends
quod
altca
without
(i.
alas
h,
whereas a line of Lucilius ran nemo

Caper's dictum is alica non halica
:
96. 9 K.).
est halicarius posterior te

(vii. 107.
Another
12 K.).
doubtful case was the salutation ave. Quintilian (i. 6. 21) tells us that though
the proper form was ave, the verb being avere and not havere, yet no one, except
a precisian, thought of saying anything else than have multum enim litteratus, qui sine adspiratione et producta secunda syllaba salutarit (' avere
recta est haec via quis negat ? sed adjacet alia et mollior et
est enim),
:
'
magis trita, &c.

and Brambach,
hedera, helluor,
Halaesa,
holus,
Illyria.}
The
Henna,
heia,
eiulo,
Hamilcar,
Hilotae, Aedui,
Hammon,
Hadrumetum, haedus, hamus,
see Georges
alica,
allec,
halucinor, Hadria,
Hannibal, Hanno, elleborum,
ercisco,
hinnuleus,
hircus,
hariolus,
hibiscum,
onustus. umeo, umerus, ulcus, Hisier, Hirpini, onero, Herda,

'
App. 199. 17 K. adhuc non aduc' (aduc in C. L. v. 6244).
holitor,
Cf. Probi
right
h-,
vv. Hiberus, harena, haurio, exaurio, harundo, haruspex, hebenus,
Halicarnassus,
erctum, erus,
hostia,
(For examples of uncertainty in the use of

s.
handbook
and St.
n, 13 and 19; 306. 2)
18) playfully remarks that the dropping of an h was
a more heinous sin than an offence against the law of
employment
of Orthography
(vii.
Augustine (Confess, i.
generally regarded as
300.
of h
27
a leading
is
K.
303.
subject in Alcuin's
PRONUNCIATION.
58-60.]
Christian charity:
contra disciplinam
si
primae syllabae 'ominem'

contra tua praecepta
58.
hendere,
dixerit,
hominem
H.
grammaticam
57
sine adspiratione
magis hominibus, quam

sit
homo.'
si
displiceat
h between vowels. Quintilian

was the form in use in his time.
'
quum
oderit,
59) says that deprendere, not depreGellius (second cent.) (ii. 3) speaks of
ix. 4.
ahenum (cf. aheneam, Comm. Lud. Saec. A 60, &c.), vehemens, incohare (along
with lachrumae, sepukhrum, helluari, halucinari, honera and honustus) as oldfashioned forms now obsolete. A fourth century grammarian, called Probus,
says that traho retains the h in spelling merely to indicate that the a and o are
pronounced separately, the word being spoken trao (iv. 185. 5 K.). On the
other hand in the second century Terentius Scaurus while declaring that
sine dubio
prendo, never prehendo, was the form in use, says that reho
aspiratur/ and speaks of vemens and vehemens, reprensus, and reprehensus as
'
'
(vii. 19. 14 K.) [cf. Velius Longus ^second cent.), vii. 68. 15 K.,
gives vemens and reprendo as the usage of the 'elegantiores,' prendo as
universal, and Annaeus Cornutus (first cent. }, the friend of Persius, who
optional
who
mentions prendo, vemens, nil as the pronunciation of his day (ap. Cassiodor. vii.
153. 7 K.) (see also Alcuin vii. 311. 26, 27 K.
Papirian vii. 159. 18-21 K. ;
Eutyches vii. 200. 8 K. Caper vii 98. 12 K.)]. (For examples of confusion
;
in spelling, see Georges

Dahae, Phraates,
coerceo,
and Brambach
s.
vv. cohors, incoho, aeneus, Ahenobarbus,
euhan, prooemium, periodus.
For Greek compounds with
aspirate initial of second member following a consonant, see exedra, exodus,

On the interjections alia, ehem cf. Eichter in Studesynodus, Panhormus, &c.
mund's
Studien,
i.
ii.)
59. h in Old Latin.

H was dropped earliest between vowels (e.g. nemo);
and the disuse of initial h would no doubt begin with words which were
preceded in the sentence by a word ending in a vowel. Teutonic loanwords
with h- in Komance lost their h rapidly in Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese,
but retained it for some time in French, which in the Middle Ages abounded
in consonantal terminations. This was doubtless the principle of elision of
a final vowel before initial h in Latin poetry, whether the vowel was actually
5 153, 61).
after- sound/ m (see
final, or was followed by the vague nasal
There is no reason to suppose that initial h was in Early Roman poetry more
resistive of elision, than in the classical period.
The Plautine flagitium hominis
formed really a single word (ch. iii. 12), and the hiatus is to be compared to
hiatus in compounds like circuit from circum it. The weak nature of early h
l
is seen in compounds like cohonesto (co- before a vowel as in coeo, coorior, &c.)
which in Accius, Trag. 445 R. appears as conesto (see
Nihil is always
149).
a monosyllable in Plautus apparently. But the dropping of initial h on the
older inscriptions is hardly known.
(See Sittl. Lok. V&rschied. p. 39.)
Greek aspirates in Latin. The Greek aspirates lost their aspiration

by the early writers, e. g. Plautus, as we gather from the
MSS. (see the statistics given in Fleck. Jahrb. 1891, p. 658 n.), from puns like
those on Chrysalus (Crusalus) and crucisalus, on Charinus (Carinus) and careo
Pseud. 736, non Charinus mihi quidemst sed copia, on Thales and talentum Capt.
274, and from the statements of later grammarians (cf. the pun on excalciaverat
cum adspiratione secundae syllabae (robbed of one's money, x a^ os), and
60.
in loanwords used
'
'
tf
excakeaverat,
i.
e.
taken
off one's boots, cakei) in
Porphyr. ad Hor.
S.
i.
8. 39).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
58
[Chap. II.
Quintilian for example (i. 5. 20) says diu deinde servatum ne consonautibus [veteres] adspirarent, ut in Graccis et in triumpis.' There are not
wanting in Plautus indications that the vulgar Greek pronunciation of x as
k-kh (see Blass, p. 86) influenced some loanwords in popular use so as to
lengthen (by position) the previous vowel.
Acc(h}eruns, Accîlês, like
bracc(ti)ium seem to be required by the metre (Baier, Philologische Abhandlungeti
zu Hertz. 1888;. Similarly the word tncae, whose origin has been traced to
S. Italy, where the word was applied to hair-shackles put on the legs of fowls
to prevent their straying, seems to be nothing but the Greek T/M'XM in
a Latinized form (trlcae and *triccae, like brdchium and bracchium, &c.). The
proverb 'dpmae tncaeque,' used of trifles (Mart. xiv. i. 7")
:
'
'
sunt apinae tricaeque et siquid vilius
istis,
has likewise been referred to S. Italy, where d<pavcu (Latinized apinae), the
unseen realms,' was in popular story the name of an imaginary country
of bliss, like Aristophanes'
Cloud-cuckoo-land (Kibbeck, Leipziger Studien,
The Vulg. Latin muttus, a word, from which Fr. mot is derived (mutus,
1887).
Non. 9. 1 6 M.?) seems to be similarly Greek pvOos (muttus for mutus), as trlcae
for *triccae', also stitippus a rope is Gk. arpoQos (Festus, 452. 21 Th., says that at
Tusculum the word had the sense of a wreath, and that a Faliscan Garlandfestival was called Struppearia
the Romance forms point to stroppus, a form
found in this passage of Festus).
Gk. <p was in early Latin transcription
p, e.g. Pilipus on a denarius of the time of the Gracchi (C.I.L. i. 354),
though sometimes (like Gk. TT in Burrus, Uvppos} &, e. g. Bruges for &ptiyfs,
balaena for <pd\\cuva (Quint, i. 4. 15, from Verrius Flaccus) (see
F was
49).
not regularly used till the middle of the fourth cent. A. D. (seech, i. n\ Blass,
Griech. Aussprache 2 p. 85, dates the change of Greek <p from the p-h to the
and the language of Diomede (fourth cent.) seems
/-sound at about 400 A.D.
to imply that the difference between Lat./and Gk. <p was in his time very
et hoc scire debemus quod f littera turn scribitur, cum
slight (423. 28 K.
l
'
'
'
'
latina dictio scribitur, ut 'felix,' nam si peregrina fuerit, p et h scribimus,

ut 'Phoebus,' Phaeton'). The difference between the two sounds in Cicero's
'
seen from Quintilian's story of Cicero ridiculing a Greek witness

could not pronounce the first letter of Fundanius (Quint, i. 4. 14).
time
is
who
*
is
natural, the Greek transcription of Latin / (Eckinger, p. 97) ;

e. g. QovSavios is the Greek transcription of this very name on an inscription
of 81 B. c. (Bull. ix. p. 457, from Lagina in Caria). The old spelling persisted
however, as
is
in a few words like tus v Gk. 0vos), &c. (see ch. i.

curious interchange
n).
and th is occasionally seen in the Notae Tironianae, e. g. agatho for
<
of s
agdsoj
Apollopisius for Pythius (Schmitz, Beitr.
109 \
With the
introduction
however of Greek grammatical studies at Rome a more exact transcription

came into fashion (see ch. i. n), and it is to this tendency that we must refer
the aspiration of some consonants even in Latin words about this time, not
merely in words which were supposed to be borrowed from Greek, e.g. pulcher
(ch. i. n) (referred to iro\vxpovs, Ter. Scaur, vii. 20. 4-8), and sepulchrum (seand
Charis. i. 73 17
cf. C.I.L. i. 1007 heic est sepulcrum hau pulcrum
pulcher
pulcrai feminae), lachryma (to Gk. 8dpD//a), &c., but to others which could
In the Orator xlviii. 160,
hardly be so misunderstood, e.g. praecho, lurcho.
Cicero tells us that he was forced in spite of his convictions to yield so far to
!
popular usage as to pronounce
pulcher, Cetkegus, triumphus, Karthdgo,
though he
PRONUNCIATION.
60.]
still
adhered to
H.
59
Orcivius, Mato, Oto, Caepio, sepulcrum, corona, lacrima
quin ego ipse,

in vocali aspiratione ute'
rentur, loquebarsic, ut pulcros,' 'Cetegos,' 'triumpos,' Kartaginem dicerem.
sero
convicio
aurium
cum
extorta
mihi
veritas
aliquando idque
esset, usum
cum scirem
majores locutos
ita
ut
esse,
nusquam nisi
'
'
Orcivios tamen et
loquendi populo concessi, scientiam mihi reservavi.
Matones,' Otones/ 'Caepiones,' sepulcra,' 'coronas,'
lacrimas,' dicimus,
quia per aurium judicium licet. Similarly Quintilian, in a passage already
mentioned (i. 5. 20), says diu deinde servatum, ne consonantibus [veteres]
adspirarent, ut in 'Graccis'et in triumpis.' erupit brevi tempore nimius
usus, ut 'choronae,' 'chenturiones,' 'praechones,' adhuc quibusdam in inscriptionibus maneant. qua de re Catulli nobile epigramma est. In the second
cent. A. D. pulcher was the current pronunciation (Ter. Scaur, vii. 20. 4-8 K.
'
'
'
Vel. Long. vii. 69. 13-17 K.), also Carthago, Gracchus, Otho, Bocchus
unaspirated
were cllo, coclea, cocledre (Vel. Long. 1. c.). In the fourth cent. Orcus, Vulcdnus,
;
vi. 21. 20 K.
Serv. ad Georg. iii. 223,
but Gracchus (Charis. i. 82.
K.), pulcher
Pulcher held its ground most persistently
(Serv. 1. c.) were the forms in use.
in spite of the rule, first apparently stated by Varro (Charis. i. 73. 17 K.),
and often repeated by the Grammarians ^Ter. Scaur, vii. 20. 4-8 Probus
Cath. iv. 10. 19 K. Ter. Maur. vi. 332. 219-221 K.
Mar. Viet. vi. 34. 5-6 K.
cf. Vel. Long. vii. 69. 13-17
K.) that no consonant should be aspirated in
a native Latin word. On the other hand thus (Gk. 6vos\ chorona (from Gk.
\opos, Etym. Lat. p. 23), with lurcho, scpulchrum, Orchus, &c., were only adopted
by imitators of the Ciceronian age (Probus Cath. iv. 10. 19 K., Serv. ad
Aen. vi. 4 Mar. Victor, vi. 21. 20 K.
Of corona
cf. Ter. Scaur, vii. 14 K.).
Festus (26 Th.), quoting probably from Verrius Flaccus (time of Augustus),
For
corona cum videatur a choro dici, caret tamen aspiratione.
says
examples of these varieties of spelling on inscriptions, see Brandis, De consonantium aspiratione apud Romanos (in Curtius, Studien, ii. 1869). Conseiitius
For
(v. 392. 19, 27) censures the mispronunciations Tracia, Trachia, Chartago.
The use of rh for Gk. initial
(f>0 we have pth in pthoibus in the Comm. Lud. Saec.
p- was not approved by Varro (L.L. iii. fr. 58, p. 182 Wilm.) (see ch i.
n).
[For examples of this confusion of spelling, see Georges and Brambach, s.vv.
corona, ancora, sepulcrum
but for ancora
cf.
(Mar. Victorinus
Serv. ad Aen.
vi.
4"!,
ancora, area, tropaeum, baccar, Cethegus, Gracchus, murra, Orcus, Otho, pulcher, Regium,
rhombus,
talasio, letum,
simulacrum, charta, Bosporus (Bosphorus not
fourth cent. A.D.), chlamys, chorda,
clatri, cochlea,
till
third or
concha, cothurnus, cyathus, lurco,
lumpa, schema, schola, sepulcrum, raeda, Raelia, Ramnes, Rhodope,
Rhodus,
rhus,
Riphaeus,romphaea, theatrum, Viriathus, triumphus, racana, ciniphes (KVITTS), triclinium

On the spellings
(Abl. Plur. trichilinis, C.I.L. ix. 4971; xiv. 375, 17).
Calphurnius and Calfurnius, see Schuch. Vok. i. p. 18, and for the confusion of
ph, p, f, see ibid, on the spelling phidelis, and Georges on phaseolus, sifo, sulfur
Late Latin culfus see A. L. L. vii. 443) is the precursor of the Komance forms
of Gk. fc6\-nos (Ital. Span, golfo, &c.).
In the Probi App. we have (199. 7 K.)
(
non 'stropa' (199. 17) amforanon 'ampora' (197. 19) porphyreticum

marmor, non purpureticum marmur/ and perhaps (199. 8) zizifus [zizibus
MS.] non 'zizupus.'
The Komance forms show that Vulgar Latin retained the old equivalence
of the Latin tenues to the Greek aspirates e. g. Gk. Ko\a(f)os is Ital. colpo, O.Fr.
strofa
'
colp, Fr.
[Cf.
coup
xa
^v
is Ital.
calare
Od\\os
is Ital. tallo,
the cautions given in Prob. Appendix against
Span, tallo, Fr. talle.

ampora (see above).]
stropa.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
60
[Chap. II.
So that misspellings like ch for c, th for t, ph for p on plebeian inscriptions

cannot have implied a different pronunciation. The aspirated forms were to
the uneducated Romans mere equivalents of the tenues. Ch, the equivalent
of c, was in Italian utilized to distinguish the guttural from the palatalized
sound, e. g. chi (Lat. quf), chiave (Lat. Claris') (see Schuch. Vok. i. p. 74).
Similarly h is written, but not pronounced, in Italian to distinguish a few
synonyms
ho
like
(Lat. M&eo),
and
o (Lat. aut\ &c.
M, N. The pronunciation of the nasals varied according

At the beginning of a word or a syllable m
to their position.
and n had their normal sound. What this was for m there can
be little doubt.
M, the lip-nasal, has in all Romance languages
61.
word the same sound, that namely of

The N-sounds on the other hand vary considerably. There
at the beginning of a
our m.
*
is
dental n'
as
Sweet
calls
it,
the point-nasal, with
many
the tongue touches the teeth (the true

n as in French, Italian, &c.), or the gums a little
varieties according as
'
dental
'
'
'
behind the teeth, as in English, and so on. There is palatal

n, Sweet's front-nasal, as in Fr. Boulogne, vigne, Italian ogni,
Spanish senor, canon (something like our vineyard '). There is
*
'
velar
'
or
German
'
'
guttural
singen.
n,
And n
landic knif, hnut, a
Sweet's back-nasal, of English
like
lost all trace of the initial k.

'
hm
jection
Italian n
'
!
sing/
may
sound common in England 200
(like m),
words beginning with kn
in
'
be unvoiced, as in Ice-
'
know/
Voiceless
'
knife,'
is
years ago
which have now
heard
Normal Latin n was not the
true
in the inter'
dental
'
(as
The tongue
according to the Latin phoneticians.
touched not the teeth but the palate ; what precise part of the
Before
palate, we are not told (Nigidius ap. Gell. xix. 14, 7).
is)
'
'
a guttural, n was
velar
or
guttural n, like Greek y in
ayyeAos, ayKaArj, a sound called the Agma by Greek phoneticians
'
'
and by their Latin imitators (Nigidius 1. c. ; Priscian i. 39 ;

Mart. Viet. vi. 19. 11 K.), to express which Accius proposed to
follow the
Greeks and write
g,
e.
g.
aggulus, aggens, agguila,
At
the end of a syllable, before a consonant, Latin

n had again a parallel in Greek, and accordingly have received
iggerunt.
The sound is
attention at the hands of the Latin grammarians.
described as something that is neither m nor n,' as in Greek
'
o-a/m/3i>f
to the
(Mar. Viet. vi. 16. 4 K.), a description that would apply

sound of n in our own 'unpractical/ 'unmerciful' in
PRONUNCIATION.
61.]
NASALS.
6l
careless utterance, as well as to the preposition in Ital. impero,

intacco.
There was however one sound of Latin
which had no
parallel in
Greek
much
us so
and here the Latin grammarians do not give
information as
we
could wish.
The
curious usage
of Latin poetry, by which a word ending with -m elides its

final syllable before an initial vowel or //, just as though it ended
with a vowel, has nothing like it in Greek. Quintilian (ix. 4. 40)

us that final m before an initial vowel was hardly pro-
tells
nounced, and had a sound
not represented in the alphabet

sed
obscuratur, et tantum in hoc aliqua
neque enim eximitur,
inter duas vocales velut nota est, ne ipsae coeant. Cato, he adds,
:
wrote 'dicae' 'faciae' for dicam fac'iam (cf. Quint, i. 7. 23;

Paul. Test. 20. 6 and 51. 10), although this spelling was often
changed by ignorant persons quae in veteribus libris reperta
t
dum libra-riorum insectari volunt

suam confitentur. And according' to Velius Longus
mutare imperiti
inscientiam,
(80.
solent,
et
20 K.), Verrius Flaccus, in the time of Augustus, proposed
new
final
letter,
the
half of the ordinary letter
first
before an initial vowel
Priscian
(i.
dictionum
M,
to express
ut appareret exprimi non debere.

obscurum in extremitate
p. 29. 15 H.) says
'
'
ut
sonat,
templum
apertum in principio, ut
:
mediocre in mediis, ut umbra/ What the exact

sound of -m was, is not easy to determine. From Latin poetry
'
'
magnus
'
see that a word ending in -m, e.g. finem, is, when the next
word begins with a vowel, treated like a word ending in a vowel,
In both cases the final syllable suffers what is called
e. g.fine.
Final -m
elision,' finJ(em) onerat and fin(e) onerat (see
153).
therefore lacks the weight of an ordinary consonant, the power
we
'
to prevent
two vowels from
a par with initial

fine,
finem suffers
But
'
we
and in this respect is on

honorat
the final syllable of
g.
in exactly the same way as before
coalescing,
Before
h-.
elision
'
e.
say that in finem the em became a nasal

vowel, an e spoken
through the nose/ or in stricter terms,
spoken with the passage into the nose not covered by the uvula ?
In this case em would have a sound like that of our exclamation
onerat.
are
to
'
eh ', spoken with something of a nasal twang and to give this

sound to the Latin interjection hem (expressing surprise, sorrow,
'
indignation, &c.,
e.
g. Ter. Anclr.
435
quid Davos narrat
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
62
[Chap.
II.
hem ? Nil prorsus), would not be unnatural. Or should

we say that e had its ordinary sound, and that this sound was
followed by some reduced form of m, probably some adumbration
nilne
of unvoiced or whispered m, at any rate something of as slight

a consonantal character as k ? A very probable account is that
-m was reduced through the lips not being closed to pronounce
If instead of closing the lips, all that were done were to drop
it.
the uvula, a nasal sound would be given to the following initial
vowel, so that/wm onerat would be pronounced finewonerat with
a nasalized o (Grober, Commentationes Woelfflinianae,^. iji sqq.).

When the next word began with a consonant, final m seems to
have had more weight in ordinary Latin, if not in Vulgar Latin,

make its vowel long by position in poetry
of all periods, whereas final s in the earlier poetry usually does so
'
'
for it never fails to
Plautus, for example, could not end an iambic line with

nullum fert, though he does with nullus fort (which we often
But that it had not the definite ^-character
write nullu'fert).
fail.
of initial m, that
continet
we
see
of viam continet did not sound like
from the remark
of mira
of a first century
grammarian,
that in the phrase etiam mmc, although m was written, something
else (like etiannunc), was pronounced (Vel. Longus vii. 78. 19 K.
etiam nunc,' quamvis per m scribam, nescioquomodo
tamen exprimere non possum). How far this differed from that
cum
dico
'
sound of the nasal before a consonant in the middle of the word,

which is described as something that is neither m nor nj it is
'
difficult to say.
Compounds with
prepositions at
any
rate, like
contmet seem quite on a level with etiam

co(n)necto, compwmit,
nunc (or etiamnunc ?). In both these cases Latin m is treated like
Greek v in o-uyKaAeco, o-wretz^co, o-u/x/3aAAco, and the spellings found

on inscriptions ey KVK\U>, e/x npuraêto), rr)y ywaiKa, rrjfj, {3ov\rjv,
which has led in the Rhodian dialect of the present day to
a complete assimilation of the nasal to the consonant,
e.
g. ti\ ydri
As close
yapiv) (G. Meyer, Griechische Grammatik?
274).
a parallel is offered by Sanscrit final m which is described as f a nasal
(TT\V
of a servile character always to be assimilated to a following

consonant of whatever nature that may be (Whitney, Sanscrit
'
Grammar,
1
71).
This Sanscrit -m before
initial y, v
becomes
a nasal semivowel, the counterpart of each respectively/
If
PRONUNCIATION.
61.]
NASALS.
63
the same happened in Latin, if coniunctus, coniux were pronounced

coiiunctus, coiiux, with the first i nasalized, and conuentio were
*couuentio with the
first
u nasalized,
that, in spelling, the nasal
is
it would explain
why
often omitted, coventionid (C.
it is
I.
L.
196), coiuffi (id. 1064) (cf. Sweet Primer, p. 104).

Final n had not this weak sound.
Priscian tells us (i. p. 30)
n quoque plenior in primis sonat et in ultimis partibus sylla'
'
stamen ' exilior in mediis ut ' amnis,'
barum, ut nomen/
i.
damnum/
In the Umbrian language however it seems to

have been on the same footing as Latin final m for it is some(
g. nome (Lat. nomen), and sometimes written m,

e. g. numem.
Both in Umbrian and Oscan final m shows the
same character as in Latin, e. g. Umbr. ku and kum (Lat. cum),
Osc. via and viam (Lat. viam), con preivatucl (Lat. cum private)
times omitted,
and cum atrud
e.
and in both languages a nasal is often omitted

before a consonant in the middle of a word, e. g. Umbr. iveka
and ivenga (Lat. jnvenca), uzo- and onso- (Lat. hnmero-) ; Osc.
;
aragetud (Lat. argento) and praesentul (Lat. praesenti) Umbr.

apentu and ampentu (Lat. impendito) ; Osc. ActTioinj (Lat. Lam:
ponius).
This omission occurs on Latin inscriptions
too,
e.g.
DECEBRIS (C.I.L. i. 930), MEKETI (iii. 2702, &c.), but was a tendency not allowed to develop, as we see from the fact that in
Romance n and m are always retained, e.g. Ital. Dicembre, Span.
The Plautine
Diciembre, Fr. Decembre.
such a line as Cas. 599
scansion of nempe in
quin tu suspondis
te ?
Nempe
tu te dixeras,
has often been quoted as an instance of such a suppression of the

But the true scansion is nemp(e)
nasal (nepe) in ordinary speech.
with the same syncope of
final -e as in tun and tune, ac (for *atc)

and
nasal is only dropped before certain
nee
atque,
neque.
consonants in Latin according to fixed laws and never without
doubling the consonant or lengthening the vowel (Skutsch,
and
i.
Before *, for example, this was the case;
2).
was pronounced mesa, with the ordinary close sound of
the long vowel, to judge from the Romance forms, e.g. Ital.
mesa (with close e) in consules the n, though written, was not
sounded (Quint, i. 7. 28, 29). Whether this e, o were at any
Forschungen,
so mensa
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
64
period of the language nasal vowels
n was dropped before th (of thin/
we
[Chap. II.
In O.Engl.
and
are not told.
'
&c.),
s,
f with nasalization
mouth' (Germ.
Mund), gos, goose (Germ. Gans),
(Germ, fiinf).
Another internal group that calls for notice is mn. In most
Romance languages this has become nn, e. g. Ital. danno (Lat.
damnum), donna (Lat. domna and domino), colonna (Lat. columna),
but in French the n has yielded to the m, e. g. dame (Lat. damnum
and dom(i)na) (colonne is a book word). That in the Latin pronunciation the n had here a weak sound seems to follow from
lengthening of the preceding vowel, e.g. muj>,
'
'
Priscian's
f If ,
remark
(i.
p. 30)
'
five
'
'
exilior in mediis [sonat] ut
'
amnis/
'damnum' (where
the syllable begins with m, a-mnis, da-mnum,

while in etiamnunc the syllable begins with w), as well as from
many centuries earlier

quam enuntiantur
Quintiliair's
scribuntur aliter
sules'
exempta n
Romance languages.
paths in the
ft-sound,
e.
dinian nn.
28,
7.
29)
quid quae
columnam
'
et
con-
gn likewise takes different
becomes a palatal
legno (Lat. lignum], Span, len'o, but in SarThere is no evidence to show that the
linna.
Usually
it
g.
id
and
was merely ordinary g followed by n.
g in this position in Latin took the velar guttural sound

probably the pronunciation
net
'
Ital.
g.
e.
littera legimus.
(i.
?..'.*
was pronounced at
least in
Vulg. Latin nt (probably not with
velar #), with suppression of the c, e. g. qulntus (Ital. quinto,

nd shows a tendency to nn (as in
with close i) (see
144).
Oscan and Umbrian) in forms like Plautus' dispennite, distennite ;
but this assimilation was not carried out in literary or Vulgar

Latin (e. g. Ital. risponde, Lat. responded).
'
(vypai) in Greek, because they readily comBut in

bine (like A, p) in one syllable with a preceding mute.
was
was
with
it
not
with
this
the
case
I,
r,
Latin, though
M,
w,
n.
v are
'
liquids
Greek loanwords
in Latin
which presented
this
com-
bination, tended to be pronounced with a parasitic vowel, e. g.

Tecnmessa for Greek TeK/uô-o-a and this is the form in which
:
they appeared
in
the earlier literature.
At
the
end of the
Republic, when it was considered a requisite of polite speech

to express with greater exactness the Greek sound of these loanwords, this spelling was generally abandoned; though even in
the literary language
it
persisted in
some forms, such as
mma
PRONUNCIATION.
62-64.]
(Greek
fjiva),
and
65
Vulgar Latin, as the Romance languages

up (e. g. ctwmts, Ital. cecero, for
in
never was given
it
testify,
NASALS.
154).
K.VKVOS) (see

at tertia
[_sc.
littera
normal m,
m]
n.
Ter. Maur. vi. 332. 235
clause quasi niugit intus ore
quartae [n] sonitus figitur usque sub palato,

quo spiritus anceps coeat naris et oris.
Mar. Viet.
vi.
34.
12,
13 K.
impressis invicem labiis niugit um quendam

n vero sub convexo palati lingua
specum attractis naribus dabit

inhae rente gemino naris et oris spiritu
intra oris
explicabitur.
Martianus Capella
imprimitur N" lingua dentibus appulsa collidit. Priscian

i.
29, 30 H. m obscurum in extremitate dictiomun soiiat ut 'templum,' apertum in principio ut 'magnus,' mediocre in mediis ut 'umbra.'
n quoque
(iii.
261),
labris
plenior in primis sonat et in ultimis partibus syllabarum ut 'nomen/

'stamen/ exilior in mediis ut 'amnis,' 'damnum.' Nigidius (ap. Gell. xix.
speaking of the Agma, says si ea littera [n] esset. lingua palatum

Ter. Scaurus mentions the exertion necessary to produce the
labial m (as also &, #), vii. 14. 3 K. non sine labore conjuncto ore.
14. 7),
tangeret.
63.
words
The Agma.
Nigidius
(I.
c.),
in Augustus' time, speaks of the n in

sound 'between n and g,' a spurious
like anguis, increpat, ingenuus as a
n (adutterinum), in which the tongue does not touch the palate, as in normal n.
Varro (ap. Priscian i. p. 30) says it is a sound common to Greek and Latin,
written g in Greek, and by the poet Accius in Latin, e. g. aggulus, agceps (cf.
Mar. Viet. vi. 19. n). Marius Victorinus (fourth cent.), vi. 16. 4. K., declares
that this was the sound of the nasal before qu in nunquam, numquam, quanquam,
quamquam, which is a sound between n and g, though, he says, it is usually
spoken of by grammarians as if it were the sound between m and n of Greek
<rd/iu. Spellings on late inscriptions like NUNCQVAM (C.I.L. v. 154) NVNC-QVAM
1837),
(iv.
IVNCXI
VNCQVAM
(viii.
(x.
may indicate this pronunciation, though

may be merely the common symbol for X as
8192)
8692), &c., ex
VCXOR (ii. 3330), a spelling which has led to the corruption

Plautus (Class. Rev. v. 293).
64. m,
quam,
voxor in
in
in
MSS. of
n before consonant. Marius Victorinus, speaking of nunquam, num-
Sec. (vi. 16.
scripserunt,
4 K.) says
omnes
clari in studiis viri, qui aliquid de orthographia

et n litteras mediam vocem, quae non
fere aiunt inter
abhorreat ab utraque littera, sed neutram proprie exprimat, tarn nobis deesse
quam Graecis nam cum illi <rd/j.Qv scribant, nee
exprimere iiec n. sed
haec ambiguitas in his fortasse vocabulis sit, ut in 'Ampelo,' 'Lycambe.'
nam
in nostris supra dictis
non
est.
The word
aap.&v, apparently the stock
example of Greek phoneticians for this 'sound which is neither m nor n,' is
an unfortunate instance. It is not a native Greek word, but a loanword from
another language, and in its original form seems not to have had a nasal
[Aramaic sabb'ka (Daniel iii. 5), Greek aaftftvmj]. [Is the word connected with
the Latin sambucus, elderwood, where we have a similar variety of spelling
between sambucus and sdbucus (sab- in Komance) ? On Lat. labrusca, in Vulg. Lat.
lambrusca (a MS. reading in Virg. Ed. v. 7;, Ital. lambrusca, Fr. lambruche,
Span, lambrusca, see below.] We might be inclined from this to believe that
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
66
[Chap. II.
the Greek phoneticians were speaking of a sound that is not a native Greek
sound, were it not for spellings on Greek inscriptions like irovrrrjs, 'OAwn-fy, Cret.
This Greek sound was appealed to by Latin grammarians to
dvQoTapos, &c.
explain varieties of spelling like eorumdem and eorundem, quamtus and quantus,
where m was required hy the etymology, true or false (eorum, quam) (Cornutus
ap. Cassiod. vii. 152. 3), but n by the pronunciation, and even, as
to explain numquam and nunquam, tamquam and tanquam, &c.
we have seen,
Here again a
doubt suggests itself whether the reference of this sound 'between m and n'
to the Latin language is not based on mere varieties of spelling which were
not varieties of pronunciation but an appeal to the inscriptions tends to
remove it. SENTEMTIAM (C.I.L. i. 206), DECENBER (ii. 4587, &c.) (see Indices
to C. /. L.) can most easily be explained on the supposition that this sound
really existed in Latin, unless indeed they are due to the general confusion
between mt and nt, nb and nib caused by the co-existence of etymological and
;
phonetic spellings like comtero and contero, inbutus and imbutus. (The spelling
sentemtiam is that of the Lex Julia Municipals and may be due to some orthographical theory of Julius Caesar for on the same inscription we have damdum,
damdam, faciumdei, tuemdam, tuemdarum, quamta, quamtum, tamtae, tamtam.} The
spelling of these verbs compounded with the prepositions in, cum (com] is
;
frequently discussed by the grammarians (see the passages collected by

p. 279) (cf. jandudum for jamdudum in Virgil MSS., Eibbeck, Index
s. v.).
To the ordinary consonants before which n becomes m, viz. b, p,
Seelmann,
from the elder Pliny), Marius Victorinus

(fourth cent.) adds /(probably from some earlier grammarian \ and on Cicero's
authority v, e. g. comfert, comvocat. Whether the change in the fashion of
spelling compounds of com, in with verbs beginning with /, v, is a proof that
these spirants passed from a bilabial to a labiodental pronunciation is discussed in
It is possible that the nasal was not sounded before /, v or
52.
only slightly sounded âs before h, or a vowel initial), so that the variation of
m, n in the spelling would not indicate a change in pronunciation (cf. the
suppression of Latin n before/, v in Provencal see below). The form co- often
appears on inscriptions before j, v in compounds as before a vowel or h (coorior,
coeo, cohortor, cohaereo, but also contest, and in the older spelling comauditum, &c.).
Before v only on early inscriptions, e. g. COVENVMIS (C. /. L. i. 532), COVENTIONID
before.?' also on later, e.g. COICITO (C.I.L. ii. 1964, col. ii. 51), COIVGI
(i. 196)
by Priscian,
(cited
i.
p.
31. 2 H.,
i. 1064,
1413, vi. 2516, &c.) (see Indices to C. I. L.}. The nasal is also
often dropped in simple words before mutes,
before Labials, e. g. Novebris, n
before Dentals and Gutturals, e.g. eudem, provicia (Mon. Ancyr.} (see Schuchardt,
(C. I. L.
Greek inscriptions treat the Latin nasals in the same way, e. g.

on the one hand Notvfipios, Hoviruvios, on the other (Eckinger,
pp. 109 sqq.).
Occasionally a nasal is wrongly inserted in plebeian and late
inscriptions, m before Labials, n before Dentals and Gutturals, e. g. semptem,
singnifer. (Examples from inscriptions and MSS. are given by Schuchardt, Vok.
see ch. ix.
i.
p. 113 sqq.)
(Co may be an original byform of com in cogo, &c.
Vok.
i.
p. 105).
Noffip., Tlonowios,
32.)
In Romance, however, there
is
no trace of any variety of sound in these
classical spelling is invariably reproduced, e. g. Ital. immobile

(Lat. immobUis^, lanto ',Lat. tantus} ; and this fact strengthens the doubt
cases.
The
expressed above regarding the existence of this sound between m and n in

Latin. Vulg. Lat. *rendo (Ital. rendo, with open e, Span, rendir, Fr. rendre, &c.)
follows the analogy of prenclo and Jnmbrusca, just quoted, for labrusca, should
'
'
PRONUNCIATION.
65.]
NASALS.
67
probably be explained in the same way. But the dropping of the nasal in
such a form as infatibus, quoted (perhaps from some older grammarian) as a
'barbarismus by Julian, Bishop of Toledo (end of seventh cent.) (Exc. in Don.
v. 324. 9 K.) is not reflected in the Komance forms (Ital. infante, Span,
Before s, where we know that in Latin the nasal
infante, Fr. enfant, &c.).
'
was dropped in pronunciation with lengthening of the preceding vowel, e. g.

mensa, the pronounced form, mesa, is the form reflected in the Romance
languages, e. g. Ital. mesa, with close e. Before/, the same thing seems to have
happened in Latin, but almost the only instances of Latin words with nf in
Romance are compounds with the preposition or particle in, e. g. infans. These
show n, except in Proverâl, where n is dropped, e. g. effas, eferms, efranher
(Lat. infringere), efern, afra (Lat. infra), cofes, cofondre [as n before v in evers,
eveja (Lat. invidia), covens (Lat. conventus), covertir] ; but this n of Vulgar
Latin may be due to what is called Recomposition (see ch. iii.
i8\
'
'
In the only other Indo-European language which has not

-m into n we are confronted with a curiously similar difficulty
to that in Latin.
The native grammarians of India, who at an early time
devoted themselves to a minute and exhaustive analysis of the phonetics
and accidence of Sanscrit, the sacred language of India, have left conflictingaccounts of the sound of m at the end of a word. Some hold that in a word
like Sanscr. tarn (Greek TOI-), the sound was that of a nasalized (anundsika)
vowel; others teach the 'intervention after the vowel of a distinct nasal
element called the anusvdra, or after- tone' ^Whitney, Sanscrit Grammar'2
71).
The Romance languages do not help us to decide whether one or any of these
processes took place in Latin, for they offer no indication that in Vulgar
Latin finem differed at all from fine. The only cases where Latin final m is
preserved are a few monosyllables and in these m has been changed to n
The Latin nasals in the middle of
(rem, French rien, quern. Span, quien).
a word have passed into nasal vowels in countries under Celtic influence, viz.
France and North Italy, and also in Portugal, where Latin n between vowels
65. Final m.
changed
final
',
has passed into a nasal vowel,
e, g.
Romao,
Lat. Romdnus,
mao, Lat. mdnus,
laa (contracted to la), Lat. Idna.

The Portuguese suppression of intervocalic
n is not a complete parallel to the Latin usage ; for it is in the middle of
a word that the nasal is so treated, and m is never suppressed like n, e. g.

fumo, Lat. fumus, fama, Lat. fdma. The n is described as having first
nasalized the previous vowel, *mano (with nasal a), and then having been
dropped (Meyer-Liibke, Rom. Gram. i. p. 314). Nor is the suppression of intervocalic m in Irish in such a word as fearail, manly. This word is a compound
man
and amhail, like (cf. Lat. simiUs). Between two

and this v often combines with
passed into a u-sound
a preceding vowel into a nasal diphthong like German au nasalized.
In an
unaccented syllable, as in fearamhail, this diphthong is so far reduced, as to
allow the last two syllables to coalesce into one. In Latin, m never had this
tendency to become v and so the elision in such a phrase as/eram illud cannot
be explained by the Irish reduction of fearamhail tofearail. A better parallel
to the latter would be the reduction of comuentio, couentio to contio.
(But
of fear,
see ch. ix.
Lat. mr],
(cf.
vowels in Irish
22).
(On Port, tam with
sounded
like nasal w, see
Sweet
Phil. Soc. xvii. 203.)
Final -m
is
omitted very frequently on the oldest inscriptions

and again on late plebeian inscriptions (see
or thereabouts,
F 2
till
130
137).
B. c..
Still
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
68
[Chap.
II.
no evidence that -m was more easily dropped in early Latin poetry than
Indeed Priscian (i. p. 30 K.") speaking of final -m says
vetustissimi tamen non semper earn subtrahebant, and quotes a hexameter
of Ennius (A. 354 M.) ending with milia mili-turn octo (cf. Enn. A. 322 M.
but this remark need not drive us to the
beginning dum quidem unus)
opposite extreme, of believing that -m was more sounded in early than in
classical times. To the Eoman ear at all periods a syllable ending in -m seems
to have been the equivalent in hiatus of a syllable ending in a long vowel.
there
is
in the classical age.
This appears to be the rule in Saturnian versification (see Amer. Jour. Phil. xiv.
and Plautus, with the older poets, Horace, with the classical poets,
309)
allow prosodical hiatus in the one case as much as in the other. Lucilius,
for example, scans as a short syllable without eliding, quam (i. 32 M. irritata
canes quam homo quam planius dicat. He is speaking of the letter r), exactly
as he shortens quo (xxx. 24 M. quid seruas quo earn, quid agam ? quid id
attinet ad te ?).
Horace's mini adest is on a par with his si me amas and the
prosodical hiatus quoted from Ennms by Priscian may be equated with the
;
instance quoted by Cicero (Or. xlv. 152) from the same poet Scipio inuicte (A.
Nor was this a mere usage of poetry. The same thing is seen in
compounds, such as earnest, coire (the spelling with com probably was the older
345 M.).
usage before a vowel,

G-l.
comegit
cf.
Plac. xiv. 39 G.
comauditum, and oomangustatum, Paul. Fest. 46 Th.-:
on
cogro,
see above),
The compound of
short, like praeire, praeeunt.
which have the first syllable

circum and it is a trisyllable
and it a dissyllable, anteit. (On flagitium-hominis in Plautus, see

But the disregard of -m in metre before an initial consonant
except under the law of Breves Breviantes, like Plautus' almost invariable
tlmm) is unknown until late plebeian verse, e. g. umbra(m) levem (along with
circuit
of ante
above,
59.)
amid) on the epitaph of a praeco (C. I. L. vi. 1951), mo-riente(in) riderent

Even in the careless hexameters of the dedicatory inscription
(vi. 7578), &c.
of Mummius (i. 542
of 146 B. c.), which contain facilia occupying the place of
a dactyl, pace need not represent pacem (as in i. 1290 pacem petit), but may
be the Abl. (as in Plant. End. 698 tua pace)
tales
tua pace rogans te

cogendei dissoluendei tu ut facilia faxseis.
The dropping
of final -m in vulgar pronunciation is attested by the remarks

non triclinu ' (199. 14) passim non
in Probi App. (198. 27) triclinium

'passi'
numquam non
17) idem non
ide,'
pridem non
and by the spellings on
numqua
'
'oli'; (199.
'
'
'pride,' olim non

late and plebeian
inscriptions (see
i37\ Consentius (fifth cent.?), p. 394 K., alludes under
name of Mytacismus to a practice of joining -m to the initial vowel of
the next word sicut plerumque passim loquuntur dixeram illis.' Similarly
the
'
'
quotes from Melissus (second cent.) the

rule for the correct pronunciation of a phrase like hominem amicum as a mean
between the two extremes, 'homine mamicum' and 'homine amicum.'
Velius Longus (54. K.) says cum dicitur 'ilium ego 'et omnium optimum,'
ilium et omnium aeque
terminat, nee tamen in enuntiatione apparet
Pompeius
(fifth cent.), p. 287. 7 K.,
'
'
with Quintilian
445. 14 K.
1
Cf.
'
'
(ix.
4.
39 \ quoted above,
cf.
Diom. 453. 9 K.
Serv. in Dun.
Enn. A. 287 non enim rumores ponebat ante salutem (with non enim
in all MSS.).
NASALS
PRONUNCIATION.
66-68.]
69
Before n the pronunciation alluded to by Velius Longus is found expressed

MSS. of Virgil (see Ribbeck, Index, p. 430) so etwmnunc on
the Here. Papyri (Class. Rev. iv. 443).
Tanne for tamne is quoted by Festus (p. 542 Th.) from Afranius tanne
arcula tua plena est aranearum ? Cf. Quint, viii. 3. 45 on the sound of cum
before a word beginning with n- (cf. Cic. Orat. xlv. 154 Fam. ix. 22. 2). Final
-n of the preposition in is sometimes changed to -m before an initial labial
consonant (see Ribbeck, Ind. p. 433 for instances in Virgil MSS. like im burim,
in writing, in
'
'
imflammam,immare, impuppibus). Soforsam and forsitam in MSS. (see Ribbeck,

Ind. p. 420, and Georges, Lex. Wortf., and for other examples of the confusion
of -m and -n, Schuchardt, Vok. i. pp. 117 sqq.).
66. ns. (See
In Greek inscriptions we find n dropped before s in Latin

and in all localities. The nasal is usually dropped
144.)
words frequently,
at all dates
in the terminations -ans and -ens, also in -ensis, e. g. K\rjfj.7]s, KaffTprjaia. But
Latin census and its derivatives visually retain n, e. g. Kijvffos, Krjvacapivos (Mon.
Anc.}, also the combination -nst- (Eckinger, pp. 114, 115). [For the variation of
s with ns in Latin spelling, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv. centies, decies, Consent-id
(modern Cosenza), pinso, mensis, mensor, &c. Cf. Probi App. 198. 9 ansa non
'
asa
'
198. 2 Capsesis
non
'
Capsessis.']
The pronunciation
of ns as
lengthening of the preceding vowel, led to the use of ns for
s,
with
after a long
Other examples, e. g.
thensaurus for thesaurus [see Georges s.v.
Mus. xvi. 160), in Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 112]. The Appendix
Probi gives cautions against the use of occansio' for occasio (198. 21 K.), of
Herculens' for Hercules (197. 25 K.). Velius Longus (p. 79. i K. says that
e. g.
vowel,
occansio (cf. Ehein.
'
Cicero
160. 14
hortesia, and Papirian (ap. Cassiod.

were the older spellings, but that the
libenter dicebat foresia, Megalesia,
K. ) says that
tos-us,
tusus, prasus
was to retain n in the P. P. P., not in Adjectives, e. g. formosus

Probi App. 198. 14 K. formosus non forrnunsus
Caper 95. 18 K.
Ter. Scaur. 21. 10 K.
we have formonsae, C. I. L. vi. 2738) in the P. P. P. the
n seems to have been restored from the other part of the verb. Charisius (58.
rule of his time
'
(cf.
'
1 7 K.) says
sed auctores
:
mensam sine n littera dictam Varro ait quod media poneretur

cum n littera protulerunt, Vergilius saepe, &c. (cf. Varro L. L.
v. 118).
On quotiens (the better spelling) and on vicensumus, &c., see Georges,
Lex. Wortf. s. vv., and Brambach, Lat. Orth. p. 269.
67. nx. Of the spellings conjux and conjunx (statistics in Georges, s.v.).
Velius Longus (first cent. A. D. ) says (p. 78 K. ) that the spelling without n is
due to the analogy of the other cases, conjugis, conjugi, &c. In actual pronun-
he declares, the n is heard for subtracta n littera, et difficilius

enuntiabitur et asperius auribus accidet.' The comparison of other I.-Eur.
languages, e. g. Greek ffv-v, Sanscr. sam-yuj-, shows that the form without
n must have been the original form of the Nom. too, and that the n has been
introduced by the analogy ofjungo (cf. Ter. Scaur, p. 20. 10 K.).
;
ciation,
68.
columa
mn. In the
(cf.
fifth cent.
the Diminutive
(p. 283. 1 1 K.) mentions as a barbarism

for cdlumna, which looks very like the
Quintilian as normal in his day (columnam
Pompeius
coliimella)
pronunciation mentioned by
exempta n legimus). This colum(n}a seems to have become *culoma, as coluber
became colober, by assimilation of unaccented u to accented o (see ch. iii. 33),
whence colomna (Probi App. 197. 25) with open accented o, the origin of the
Romance words for pillar, as *colobra (open o) of the Romance words for snake.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
70
[Chap. II.
But the analogy of columen may have had something to do with the pronunciaSee Georges s. v.). Sollennis is
(cf. scamellum and scamnum.
byform of sollemnis (from *amno-, around, Osc. amno-), due to
a supposed connexion with annus (Etym. Lat. p. 97).
(On confusions of mn
and nn, n, see Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 147, and Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv. antenna,
Portunus, lamna.} The insertion of p between m and n occurs in late plebeian
spellings like calumpnia, dampnum, sollempnis (see Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 149, and
tion column}a
explained as a
On mpt see below. Hiemps (cf. consumpsi, &c.), is the

s. v. damnuwi).
regular spelling of the Codex Mediceus of Virgil, and is accepted by Ribbeck
though this form is condemned by the grammarians, e. g. Caesellius ap. Cassiod.
Georges,
161. 17
K.
Ter. Scaur. 21. 6
and
27. 3
K.
Alcuin 303. 8 K.
69. gn. Spellings on inscriptions like ingnominiae (C. I. L. i. 206, 45 B. c.),

congnato (x. 1220) seem to be mere etymological spellings like inpello, &c.
Singnifer, on a soldier's grave (C. I. L. vi. 3637", has been explained above in
Nor are we
entitled to conclude that g passed into a nasal

spellings like subtemen and subtegmen, exdmen, and perhaps
exagmen (Class. Bev. 1891, p. 294) (see ch. iv.
116).
(For instances of the
spelling of gn- } consult Georges and Brambach s.w. coniveo, conitor, dinosco,
On
cognosce, navus, natus, narus, aprugnus, and see Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 115.
64
144).
(cf.
sound before
m from
but
conitor, &c.,
cognosco, &c., see ch. iv.
119.)
70. net. The suppression of the guttural in quintus is something like the
dropping of -g of going in the mispronunciation goin' to.' Quinctus is
the spelling of the Republic, Quintus of the Empire, according to Brambach.
So on Greek inscriptions of the beginning of the second cent. B. c. Koiyferos,
but also KOIVTOS (Eckinger p. 122). For the byforms nanctus and nactus (see
Brambach) we have a parallel in sactus (reflected in Welsh saith) beside
The -ct- is not
sanctus, while Vulgar santus (see Georges) is Welsh sant.
a development of -net- but a byform (see ch. viii.
10).
'
'
nd. In all S. and Central Italy nd has followed the course taken in
is mm. In ordinary
Italian, Latin nd has become nn (n) in the pretonic syllable, as is shown by ne
for Lat. inde, manucare for Lat. manducdre.
Similarly we have mm for mb in
71.
Umbrian and Oscan and become nn and similarly Latin mb

;
ambidue (Lat. ambo duo\ the same assimilation as we have

lamb (nn for nd is seen in Lunnon town for London
(For Latin confusions of nd and nn, see Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 146.
town,' &c.).
Nt competes with mpt in
e. g. Secunnus, and consult Georges s. v. grundio).
lanterna (better laterna) apparently from Greek \a/z:rT^p, and tempto (not tento),
Pomptinus (not Pontinus), pedetentim, &c. (see Georges and Brambach). Thus
voluntas and voluptas are sometimes confused in MSS. through the intermediary
form volumptas (Schuchardt, Vok. i. 5). But emplum, redemptum, consumptum are
the established spellings, though Marius Victorinus (21. 12 K.) demands on
amendue
beside
in English,
e. g.
'
'
'
'
'
etymological grounds cmtum, redemtum, consumtum, as also redemsi, consumsi,

&c. (ch.
iv.
76).
72. Parasitic vowel in Greek loanwords. The Early Latin instances have
been discussed by Ritschl, Opusc. ii. 469 sqq., who on the strength of MSS.
spelling, and the requirements of prosody, restored to Plautus such forms as
drachuma,
techina,
Alcumena,^ Alcumeus^ Cucinus,
gummasium, Procma.
Marius
PRONUNCIATION.
69-73.]
MUTES.
71
Victorinus (8. 6 K.) tells us that the form Tecmessa was first used by Julius
Caesar Vopiscus (an older contemporary of Cicero) in the title of his tragedy
of that name, and was so pronounced, at his orders, by the actors juxta
autem non ponebant cm inde nee Alcmenam dicebant nee Tecmessam, sed
:
'
Alcumenam ; inde Alcumeo et Alcumena tragoediae, donee Julius

Caesar, qui Vopiscus et Strabo et Sesquiculus dictus est, primus Tecmessam
inscripsit illam, et in scena pronuntiari jussit (cf. Prise, i. p. 29 H. [u]
saepe interponitur inter el vel cm in Graecis nominibus, ut 'Hpa/cA???
*
'
'
'
'
'
'
'Hercules/
i
'A\KfMiojv
'KaKXrjmos
et
antiqui 'AXK^rji/rj 'Alcumena,'
Similarly the Sardinian mouflon was called in
applied to a much-prized breed of diminutive horses
Alcumaeon
Latin musmio
name
(a
'Aesculapius,'
').
15 M.
praedium emit, qui vendit equum musimonem), but in

Gk. fjLovafj.(av (Strabo). (On the parasitic vowel between a mute and in Latin
words, like pencû)lum, see ch. iii. 13.) The difference of Greek and Latin in
this respect is seen in the fact that Aftf/xoy is the earliest and most usual form of
the name Decimus, older Decumus, on Gk. inscriptions, just as awkward combinations with I, e. g. Aei/rAo?, 'Ap/3ou<7tfAa, MafftfAo?, narep/cAos, YlovpfcXa (Lat.
Porcula) are commoner on Greek inscriptions than on Latin (Eckinger, pp. 47,
The parasitic vowel is really the visible expression of a voice-glide
75).
e
(Sweet, Handl.p. 84), as in Germ. Knie pronounced k nie' cf. Fr. canif from
Low Germ. knif. (For examples on inscriptions, e. g. Himmis, C. I. L. i. 982.
see Seelmann, p. 251, and cf. below
154.)
cf.
Lucilius
vi.
'
'
'
73.
Tenues and Mediae.
In pronouncing p,
1
t,
the vocal
same position as in pronouncing b, d, g, but the

breath comes through the open glottis, as the space between the
two vocal chords which stretch across the larynx is called.
organs are in the
With
6,
d,
g we close the
by drawing these vocal chords
glottis,
B\ d, g are
together, and produce what phoneticians call voice/
now therefore usually termed voiced mutes as opposed to p, t, c,
An older designation was
the unvoiced or 'breaths-mutes.
'
'
'
tenues and mediae.

and mediae do not
In some languages what are called tenues

really differ by the absence and presence of
In
voice/ but merely by energy and weakness of articulation.
one German-Swiss dialect, for example, German k and g are really
the same consonant pronounced strongly and pronounced weakly.
'
For such languages the terms fortes ' and lenes ' are more
suitable than breath-mutes' and 'voice-mutes/ In investigating
the sound of the Latin mutes we have accordingly to consider
whether the tenues differed from the mediae in being uttered
'
'
'
with the glottis open, or merely in being articulated with greater

Another point to be ta~ken into consideration is that
energy.
mutes, especially voiceless mutes, have in many languages
a breath-glide,' what we roughly call /, after them. In Danish
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
72
every
initial
t is
[Chap. II.
and the same

That Latin p, t, c
pronounced with this h following
peculiarity in Irish-English
is
well known.
were not so pronounced we can infer from the fact that for the
more exact expression of the Greek aspirates, ph. th, clt were
brought into use in the last century of the Republic, which

shows that p, t, c had not, at least at that period, the sound of
'
The other
anêap/ inMorn ').
question, whether the Latin tenues and mediae are more properly
distinguished as breath- and voice-mutes, or as fortes and lenes,
The Latin phoneticians, who, as we
is more difficult to settle.
</>,
0,
(like
have seen
our
(p. 28),
'
ujoîll,'
are not very safe guides on
any point of Latin
pronunciation, are especially at fault here; for neither they nor

their Greek masters seem to have carried their analysis of sounds
as far as the phoneticians of India, who had at an early time
discovered the distinction between unvoiced (aghosa) and voiced
(gkosavant) consonants, and its dependence on the opening (vivdra)

or closure (samvdra) of the glottis. The Latin phoneticians talk of
p and
#,
of
and d, of
produced by
and g as
entirely different types of sounds,

different positions of the vocal organs.
Seelmann
c
professes to find in their descriptions evidence that p,
t,
had
a more energetic articulation than b, d, g. This is certainly true

of their account of c and g but it is doubtful how far it is true
;
were, how much authority should be

better reason for believing that
allowed to these descriptions.
the Latin tenues were pronounced with more energy of articulaof the others,
and even
if it
tion than the mediae has been found in the fact that the
Greek
this
which
must
have
lacked
are
often
tenues,
energy,
represented
in Latin as mediae, e. g. Greek Koo/Sto'?, Lat. gobius.
This is, as
is
natural, especially the case in the initial accented
syllable,
which seems in Latin to have been uttered with a strong stress.

It must be added, however, that an examination of the instances
shows that they are almost wholly confined to Greek K, especially
certain sounds ; and that the same tendency is
when preceding
shown by Latin
c to be weakened in the same position to

Vulgar Latin *gavia for cavea (Ital. gabbia).
g, e. g.
On the other hand, when we consider the Latin loanwords in

Welsh and the Teutonic languages, we are led to believe that this
energy of articulation was not the only thing which distinguished
PRONUNCIATION.
73.]
MUTES.
Had
the tenues from the mediae in Latin.
it
73
been,
we should
probably have found the two classes of mute confused in their

Welsh and Teutonic forms. But this is not the case; cf. Welsh
pdcem ; Welsh bendith, Lat.
poc, Lat.
cocina
And
our
len(e)dictio
Lat. coqmna,
kitchen/ Lat. gemma our gem/

in Italian of the present day p, t, c are unvoiced,
is
b, d y
So we have grounds for believing the Latin tenues to
have been unvoiced, the Latin mediae to have been voiced and
}
voiced.
the guttural mutes,
not
if
all
three classes, to have been also
distinguishable as fortes and lenes.

In native Latin words the tenues and mediae are not confused
to
The same tendency that turned
any great extent.
I.-Eur.
1
before r in atro- &c. (ch. iv.
13) is seen in the old spellings
mentioned by Quintilian (i. 4. 16) Alexanter and Cassantra (cf.
into
C.I.L. i. 59, ALIXENTROM j 1501, ALIXENTE(l') CASENTER(a),

both inscriptions from Praeneste, and in Ital. Otranto for Greek
'Tbpovs -OVVTOS, Lat. Hydruntum). In very early times the single
letter c (Greek y) was used for the 6'-sound and for the ^-sound ;
we saw
two sounds must have been throughout

though not in spelling.
It is perhaps only at the end of a word that we find a real
variation between tenuis and media.
Final syllables were pronounced as weakly in Latin as initial syllables were pronounced
strongly and we might expect to find the tenuis fortis at the
end of a word replaced by the media lenis.
but, as
before, the
this period distinguished in pronunciation,,
Roman preference of
in
sub
to
ob,
ap (as
ap-eno), op (as in op-erio,
in
actual
utterance
these words were no
op), *s-up ; though
This
is
apparently the explanation of the
the spelling ad,
Oscan
doubt sounded with -p when followed by a word beginning with

a tenuis, e. g. ab templo, ob templum (like obtineo, pronounced
The
spelling was not so established in the case of

similar subordinate or proclitic words ending in a dental, e. g.
op-tineo).
at,
but the change on plebeian and
often written ad;
inscriptions of final
-t
of verbs to -d,
due to this weakening.
On
reduced to a
sound
e.
the other hand, a final

in
late
g. reliquid-, is probably
is
often
languages, and a voiced
whispered
consonant, if whispered, sounds more like an unvoiced.
In the Romance languages the Latin tenues and mediae,
when
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
74
and when the
[Chap. II.
which they belong, has

the accent, retain their identity with wonderful persistence, e. g.
duro
Ital. puro (Lat. purus), bene (Lat.
bene), tale (Lat. tdlis),
initial,
initial
syllable, to
(Lat. durus)', but in the middle of a word, and when in the

unaccented syllable (though not after the Latin diphthong au,
e.
g. Span, poco), the tendency is almost universal to turn the
tenuis into a media, the media into a spirant. In one language,

however, Roumanian, the tenuis is usually preserved, e. g. mica
(Lat. mica), laptuca (Lat. lactuca), muta (Lat. mutare),

in Italian the reduction of the tenuis is of limited extent,
and
e.
g.
amico (Lat. amicus, Span, amigo), uopo (Lat. opus, Span, huebos),
vite (Lat. vltis, Span, vide), fuoco (Lat. focus, Span, fuego), &c.,
though before a we have the media in miga (Lat. mica), strada
and when the vowel

siguro (Lat. securus), mudare
(Lat. strata), lattuga (Lat. lactuca], &c.,
following has the accent,
e.
g.
Misspellings on plebeian inscriptions like Amada

(le Blant, /. G. 576 a], iradam (Or. 2541, of 142 A. D.), Segundae
(Mur. 2076. 10) are precursors of these changes. That they
obtruded themselves into the recognized Latin pronunciation is
(Lat. mutare).
One tendency
more than doubtful.
indeed of the
Romance
languages, to turn pr, tr, cr into br dr, gr, e. g. Span, padre (Lat.
pater), sobra (Lat. supra], magro (Lat. macer), lagrima (Lat.
lacnma, cf C. I. L. ix. 648 LAGKEMAS), is directly contrary to that
,
treatment of d before r in early Latin (atro- for *ddro-, &c.),

which we have just mentioned. In Italian tr remains after any
vowel except
a,
e.
(Lat. paler], and
g. vetro (Lat. vitrum, Span, vedro),
pr
is
retained
when
it
but padre
follows the accented
vowel, e.g. sopra (Lat. supra), capra (Lat. caprd), but cavriuolo
(Lat. capreolus), obbrobrio (Lat. opprobrium; cf. Or. Henz.
6086
ii).
(For the phonetic descriptions of the Latin tenues and mediae by
grammarians
see
Koman
79, 86, 92.)
The most frequent instance of the

74. Greek tenues in loanwords.
change of a Gk. tenuis to a Lat. media, is the change of Gk. K to Lat. g,
Thus gummi for OJM/XI, gobius for Kcufitos,
especially before the vowels a, o, 11.
guberndre for Kv0epvdv, Sdguntum for Zdw0os, &c., have always, or usually,
in Lat. (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.vv.).
(xiv. 9,
and
The
spelling varies in conger
and
cammarus and gammarus i^see Georges). Ter. Scaurus

i o)
says that some pronounced gaunace, some caunace so gamellus and
ganger, gorytus
corytus,
PRONUNCIATION.
74, 75.]
MUTES.
75
camettus [cf. Probi App. 198. 9 calathus non 'galatus'; Gloss, ap. Mai, Cl.
Auct. vi. 578 corax per c non per g ; and see Georges and Brambach s. vv.
(now Gaeta), Agrigentum, grdbatum\ In the modern Milanese dialect, the

French cabriolet has similarly become gabriole. Before n, c became g in Latin
Caieta
(ch. iv.
116), so that the spellings cygnus, Gnosus, Gnidus are only natural (see
Georges and Brambach). Of the final -ca of dmurca (Gk. dôpyrj), Serving (ad
G. i. 194) says that it was written with c, but pronounced with g.
(A similar
interchange of -ca, -ga, is seen in leuga and leuca, raca, and raga, &c.) For Gk.
TT
we
word
find Latin b in the initial accented syllable before the vowel u in the
buxus, and in the Old Latin name of King Pyrrhus, Burrus (the form
used by Ennius in his Annals, according to Cicero Or. xlviii. 160 Burrum
cf.
semper Ennius, numquam Pyrrhum
ipsius antiqui declarant libri
Quint, i. 4. 15, and Ter. Scaur. 14 K., who adds Byrria as the equivalent of
Gk. Uvpptai). The form burrus was retained in rustic and colloquial Latin
burra was a name for a cow, burrus for a red-faced man, as we learn from
Paul. Fest. (p. 22. 32 Th. burrum dicebant antiqui quod nunc dicimus
rufum
unde rustici burram appellant bnculam, quae rostrum habet
;
'
'
rufum.
modo rubens
cibo ac potione ex prandio
burrus' appellatur),
sapa, a rufo colore (p. 26. 19
Th.), and burranicum genus vasis (p. 26. 7\ Quintilian (i. 5. 13) quotes Cicero's
phrase Canopitarum exercitum with the remark, ipsi Canobon dicunt. (On Latin
who
pari
mentions burranica potio
also
lacte
'
mixtum
Gk. Kavufios see Brambach s. v.) In Probi Append. (199. 5 K.)

have, plasta non blasta.' Gk. fiardviov for iraraviov is quoted by Hesychius
as belonging to the Sicilian dialect (Tra.Ta.via
rives 8e Sid TOV (3
iTorrjpia.
8 \egis St/ceXt/n?).
So carptitmae
Pardvia \fyovaiv, and fiardvia.' rd \oird8ia.
77
Cdnopus,
we
'
Old Lat. Telis

4 are in Gk. tcapPdrivai and Kapnanvai.
on a Praenestine mirror) (cf. Varro, L. L. vii. 87
lymphata dicta a lympha lympha a Nympha, ut quod apud Graecos Qtris,
apud Ennium Thelis illi mater, and E. R. iii. 9. 19 antiqui ut Thetim
crepulae of Catull. xcviii
for
xiv.
eris (C. I. L.
4102,
'
'
Thelim dicebant, sic Medicam Melicam vocabant) perhaps implies an

intermediary form with d for Gk. r. The relation of cotonea, the origin of the
Romance words for quince CItal. cotogna, Fr. coing) to Gk. KvScavia is not clear
(cf. Macrob. vii. 6. 13 mala cydonia quae cotonia Cato vocat
Pliny, N. H. xv.
In Vulg. Lat. we find additional examples of g for Gk. K, such as *grupta
10).
'
*garofulum (from Kapv6(pv\\ov*), *gontus not to mention *gattusfor

(Teutonic?) cattus, and probably gamba. Of spellings on Gk. inscriptions may be
instanced tca\irccav for cdligarum, vapayapov (from serrdcum), aya\rj all on the Edict
(Ital. grotto^,
also Favrtos for Cantius, and KavStroy for Candidus (Eckinger, pp. 98,
The same interchange of tenues and mediae is seen in Gk., e. g. TTJKOJ
and rrjyavov, especially in loanwords, e. g. rairrjs, rairis and SaTns, 'ApirpaKiuTT]?
and 'AfjippaKiuTis in dialects we have, e. g. KXdyos' ya\a, Kp^re?, Hesych., and in
later Vulg. Gk. r often becomes 8 between two vowels. It is thus often possible
that the Roman word represents a Greek byform.
[Other examples of the
of Diocletian
100, 102).
'
variety in Latin loanwords are carbdsus, Gk. redpnaaos, crumlna, Gk. ypv/jita
a bag, galbdnum, Gk. x a ^/3dj/?;, spelunca, Gk. fftrfjXvyya, not to mention incitega,
Gk.
fyyvO-fjfer].
(also cedrus\
Cf. also Idtices
and Gk.
on old Praenestine cistae
for
On
citrus
Crisida
occur
with Gk. \drayes, pldga with Gk. Tr\d.
KcSpos, see ch. iv.

l
Chryseis'
113.
Both
(C. I. L. xiv.
Creisita
4109
and
i.
1501)].
Confusion of mediae and tenues in Latin words. A large number

of seeming instances are not due to any Latin, or even Italic, law of sound,
75.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
76
[Chap. II.
but are survivals of that interchange of media and tenuis, which shows
itself
and sugo. Many are dialectal variawas used where the Latin form had
in modern Italian the Neapolitan dialect
occasionally in I.-Eur. roots, e. g. siicus

tions ; for in parts of Italy the tenuis
the media and vice versa, just as

has t corresponding to the d of lapidi (Lat.
affects grosta, gautela, &c.,
with
a certain Tinea of Placentia used
'
'
precula
&c.
IdpuJes^,
Thus Quint,
g- for o.
the
i.
5.
Koman
dialect
12 tells us that
for pergula (see K. Z. xxx. 345).
Of
the misspellings of this kind in inscriptions and MSS. (collected by Schuchardt,

Vok. i. pp. 124 sqq.), not a few are due to the similar appearance of the letters
But there is a residuum of undoubted instances of variation
G, C, B, P.
between the tenuis and the media, at least for c and g. For p and b we have
the (dialectal ?) word ropio, a red mullet, given as nickname to Pompey, who had
a florid complexion Mar. Sacerd. 462 K. quotes a lampoon, perhaps a Fescennine line sung by soldiers at his triumph, quern non pudet et rubet, non est
homo sed ropio). The word, which should probably be read in Catull. xxxvii. 10
(see Sacerd. 1. c.), is evidently connected with robusand rufus, forSacerdos adds,
ropio autem est minium aut piscis robeus aut penis [cf. Ter. Scaur. 14 K. on
the doubtful examples ofPalatium and Balatium (by analogy of 6aZo) PuUicola
'
'
and
propom on early coins for probum,

C. I. L. i. 19
For t and d, probably not
aduocapit in the Carmen Arvale].
petiolus, 'a little foot' (?) .Afranius ap. Non. 160 M. atque adeo nolo nudo
petiolo esse plus [MSS. es pus", for this is better explained as peciolo- (Ital.
But the most examples are of g for c, as we
picciuolo, O. Fr. pe9uel, &c.).
found to be the case with Greek loanwords and this perhaps throws some
light on the early use in the Latin alphabet of the Greek Gamma-symbol as
the symbol for Latin c as well as for g. In Vulgar Latin -cit- and -cer- in the
O. Lat. Poplicola
by analogy of populus]
proparoxytone syllable seem to have become -git-, -ger-, e. g. *plagitum, *fager,

to judge from the Komance forms (see Arch. Glottol. ix. 104).
(Is digltus
a similar transformation of dicitus ? Dicitus is censured in Probi App. 198. 10,
and occurs in MSS. See Schuchardt, Vok. ii. 413) initial era- may have become
Ital. grata, Span,
gra, e. g. Ital. grasso, Span, graso, Fr. gras from Latin crassus
grada from Lat. crdtis Meyer Liibke, Rom. Gram. i. p. 353) Lat. gavia for cavea
;
is reflected in Ital. gabbia, Span, gavia, Prov. gabia so *gonfldre in Ital. gonfiare,
&c. [For other examples of g-c, see Georges and Brambach s. vv. vicesimus, viceni,
triceni, tricies, nongenti, cremia, neglego, graculus, gurgulio, &c. ; on the change of
;
113, of c before n to g,
(cf. odium), see ch. iv.
119; bibo (I.-Eur. *pibo) is due to the Latin tendency to
assimilate adjacent syllables (ch.iv. 163) cf. also Quint, i. 6. 30 nonnumquam
etiam barbara ab emendatis conatur discern ere, ut cum Triquetram dici
d before r to
e. g.
t,
e. g.
dtrox for *adrox
dignus, see ch. iv.
Sicilian!
an
'
Triquedram,' meridiem an 'medidiem
'
oporteat, quaeritur.]
Quintilian, who includes

among the points of inferiority of Latin to Greek the use of -b, -d at the end
of syllables (xii. 10. 32 quid quod syllabae nostrae in b litteram et d innituntur
76.
Mediae and Tenues
at
end of word.
adeo aspere, ut plerique, non antiquissimorum quidem, sed tamen veterum,

mollire temptaverint, non solum aversa pro abversis dicendo, sed et in
praepositione b litterae absonarn et ipsam f [s edd.~] subiciendo), mentions (i. 7.
5) with disapproval the practice of distinguishing ad, the preposition, from at,
the conjunction. The right use of -t and -d in words like at and dd, sed, quit (from
queo^, and quid (fromquis), quot and quod, &c., is a subject of frequent remark in the
grammarians, e. g. Ter. Scaurus (12. 8 K approves sed on the ground that the
'
'
'
PRONUNCIATION.
76, 77.]
was sedum
MUTES.
77
n. 8 K. Vel. Long. 69-70 K. Probi App. 202,

Alcuin 308. 8 K.. and (on haut and hand'} 303. 3 K. on
Charisius (229 K.) quotes ad for at from
caput and apud Bede 264. 35 K., &c.].
a speech of Licinius Calvus and Vel. Long. 70 K. says that sed in sed enim
d litteram sonat.' Instances of the confusion or suppression of final -d and -t
in inscriptions and MSS. have been collected by Schuchardt, Vok. i. pp. 118 sqq.
and Seelmann, pp. 366 sqq. They include, beside the cases just mentioned,
the use of -d for -t, or the suppression of -t, in verbal forms, like rogad, C. I. L.
iv. 2388 (but on 0. Lat./eced, &c., for fecit, &c., see ch. viii.
69), peria (forpereaf)
also the loss of -t in the combination -nt, fecenm vi. 3251, just as -t
iv. 1173
is lost in the combination -ct, lac from lact from older lacte, an I-stem
The
preposition is spelt at in the Lex Col. Jul. Genetivae Urbanorum of 44 B.C.,
except when the next word begins with d-, e. g. at it judicium atsint, i. 2. 13
ad decuriones, iii. 8. 7 (Eph. Epigr. ii. p. 122 \ but always ad (even in
ateo
old form
37 K.
ib.
[cf.
Cassiod. 212. 5 K.
'
adtributionem, &c.), beside aput in the
Lex Julia Municipals of 45 B
c.
(C.
L.
This uncertainty of usage has been taken as evidence of the final

dental having been uttered faintly, or having been a sound intermediate
between d and t, like the final dental of German, written dt, in Stadt, &c.
i.
206).
The instances, however, mentioned by grammarians are all words which

would be closely joined in utterance with a following word, quid tibi ?, quid
dicis,
ad templum, ad
deos,
&c.
so that it is
most natural to
believe, as
was
suggested of the confusion between -m and -n, that the sounds adapted themselves to the initial of the following word.
Quid tibi would be pronounced as
The spellings quid tibi,
quit tibi, and ad templum as at templum (like at-tineo, &c.).
ad templum would be historical (like ad-tineo not phonetic
The weakness of
,
shown by
suppression after a long vowel. Thus the

Abl. Sg. ceased to be pronounced with -d about the end of the third cent. B. c.
137), though d remained till later in the monosyllables med, ted,
(see
final d is better
its
while haud was retained before words beginning with vowels (Ritschl, Opusc. ii.
and the affection of -t by the spellings on plebeian and late
591, &c., v. 352)
inscriptions of verb-forms like rehquid, &c. In Vulgar Latin -t cannot have
;
been dropped till after the conquest of Gaul (A.L.L. i. 212".

P is not found at the end of any Latin word, if we except rolup, for vuliipe,
the Neuter of an adj. *vdupis but it is common in Oscan, e. g. op (Lat. o&),
8o\ On the other
ip 'there.'.
(On the spellings optineo, obtineo, &c., see
hand final g never appears in Latin, though we have c in ac (for atqu[e~\ \ nee
but nee is written neg(for nequ[e~] ), lac (for lact[e] ), HHc for illl-c\e], &c.
;
in variably in negotium,
and usually in
neglego (see
Georges,
s.v.j.
(Cf. ch. x.
18.)
There is a good deal of inter77. Mediae and tenues in the Dialects.

change of tenues and mediae in Umbrian and Oscan (e. g. Osc. deketasiiii and
degetasius), which has led some to the theory that the Umbro Oscan mediae
were not voiced (Conway, Amer. Journ. Phil. xi. 306^ while others refer the
variation to the defects of the Umbrian and Oscan alphabets, which being
derived from the Etruscan had not originally the means of distinguishing
fully the tenues from the mediae (the Umbrian alphabet, for example, uses
the tf-sign for both t and d, the fc-sign for both k and g, &c., see von Planta,
Gramm. Osk.-Umbr. Dial. i. p. 547). In a Falisco-Latin inscr. (Zvet. I. I.I. 72"
we have gondecorant, gonlegium, beside communia.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
78
[Chap.
II.
Latin b,p were labial mutes, apparently with the
78. B, P.
same sound as #, p in Ital., e. g. bene (Lat. bene), pino (Lat.

pmm\ and English #, p, Between vowels b became in course
of time a labial spirant, and by the third cent. A. D. became
In Spanish, b has
identified with Latin v (w) (see
52).
from
in
our
that
the back of the
which
differs
a w-sound,
w,
nor
the
cheeks
It
is the same as
narrowed.
tongue is not raised,
of South German wie, wein.

was often written, though p was pronounced, before *, t, in
such words as urbs, obtineo. It was a frequent subject of discussion among Latin grammarians whether these words should not
the
with p, so that the spelling might agree with the

The b was defended in urbs, &c., on the ground
pronunciation.
that it would be unreasonable to spell a nominative case with
be
spelt
the other cases with
p and
If,
urbis, nrbi, &c.,
because the form of the preposition

composition, had the b, ob, obduco, &c.
when
The
and
Latin
stem
and often in
-b of the preposition
similarly assimilated itself in pronunciation to

In omitto all traces
like submittO) summitto.
disappeared (see ch.
in obtineo, &c.,
alone,
in
of
compounds
this
have
iii.).
an I.-Eur. aspirate in words like ruber,

Greek e-pi>0po'y. In these cases
b represents
rubro-, I.-Eur. *rudk-ro,
Italy corresponded to Latin b, e. g. Umbrian

This dialectaljf for b is seen informs like slftlus^ beside
genuine Latin sibUus, forms which do not prove anything about
the pronunciation of Latin #, but are merely corresponding words
f in various parts of
rufro-.
to the Latin,
which have come from some dialect or other.
of these dialectal y-forms have found their
many
way
A good
into the
Romance languages.
79.
Maur.
Phonetic
vi.
descriptions
331. 186-193 K.
To the usual phoneticians,
of b, p.
b littera vel p quasi syllabae videntur

junguntque sonos de gemina sede profectos
nam muta jubet portio comprimi labella,
vocalis at intus locus exitum ministrat.
compressio porro est in utraque dissonora
nam prima per oras etiam labella figit,
ast altera contra
velut intus agatur sonus
pellit sonitum de mediis foras labellis
;
Ter.
PRONUNCIATION.
78-81.]
LABIALS.
79
Mar. Viet. vi. 33. 15 K. (whose 6 seems to be the p of Ter. Maur.) b et p

litterae conjunctione vocalium quasi syllabae (nam muta portio penitus latet
neque enini labiis hiscere ullumve meatum vocis exprimere nisus valet, nisi
:
vocales exitum dederint atque ora reserarint) dispari inter se oris officio
exprimuntur, nam prinia exploso e mediis labiis sono, sequens compresso ore
velut introrsum attracto vocis ictu explicatur
Martianus Capella iii. 261
B labris per spiritus impetum reclusis edicimus
P labris spiritus [spiritu
we may add the remark of Terentius Scaurus vii. 14. 3 K.
EyssJ] erumpit
;
cum p
et
m consentit,
quoniam
origo
earum
noil sine labore conjuncto ore
respondet.
Vel. Long. vii. 61 K.), and
80. bs, bt. Latin 6s had the sound of Greek
of the sounds for which the Emperor Claudius proposed a new letter,
'
if/
was one
on the ground that a separate sign for cs (x) justified a separate sign for ps.
The general opinion however pronounced this new letter unnecessary. Some
even went so far as to question the necessity of x (Quint, i. 4. 9 nostrarum
ultima [sc. x], qua tarn carere potuimus, quam psi non quaerimus). The
spelling abs is defended on the strength of ab by Velius Longus (vii. 61 K.),
also tells us that some authorities always spelt opstitit, absorpsi, urps, nupsi,
who
64 and 73-4 K.) (cf. Mar. Viet. vi. 21. loK. Ter. Scaur, vii. 14. 7
8 K.). It was Varro who laid down the rule that nouns with -p- in the
Genitive should have -ps in the Nominative, nouns with -6- should have -6s,
K. cf.
e.g. Pelops, Pelopis, but plebs, plebis, urbs, urbis (Ter. Scaur, vii. 27.
pleps (id. vii.
21.
Appendix Probi (198. 4 K. and 199. 4) celebs

non 'celeps'; (199. 3] plebs non 'pleps'; (199. nl labsus non lapsus. 'J
That obtmuit was pronounced optinuit, we are told by Quintilian (i. 7 7)
secundam enim b litteram ratio poscit, aures magis audiunt p. The
spellings ps, pt are common enough in MSS. and inscriptions (see Indices to
C.I.L.) [cf. Obscus, Opscus and Opicus, old forms of Oscus (as supscribo, subscribo
of suscribd), Test. 212 and 234 Th.
and see Georges, Lex. Wortf., s.v. cambsi,
Varro, L.L. x. 56).
[So in the
Curtius Valerianus (ap. Cassiod. 157 K.) saysps belong to the same,
6s to different syllables.
In the Lex Col. Jul. Genetivae Urbanorum of 44 B. c.
op- is used in opsaepire, optemperare, opturare, optimre, but always ab-, never ap(Mmpsi\
(Eph. Epigr. ii. pp. 122 and 221). Absinthium (vulgar absentium), absida late Lat.
for apsis follow the analogy of a6s.
81. ps, pt. In Romance the sounds of Latinp^ and ps have been retained in
Roumanian, but in other languages have passed into tt, ss, e. g. Ital. sette (Lat.
septem^, cassa (Lat. capsa), esso (Lat. ipse"), medesimo (,Vulg. Lat. *met ipsimus,
0. Fr. medesme, Fr. meme). Isse for ipse found its way into colloquial Latin
though, if the story mentioned, but discredited,

be true, the use of issi (or ixi ?) for ipsi by a legatus
consularis led to his being cashiered by Augustus as rudis et indoctus.' Cf.
(see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.),
by Suetonius (Aug.
'
sussilio
'
88),
for supsilio, subsilio
and
for
some examples
of ss for ps in
MSS. and
late
148 for tt, t forpt, ib. i. 143, and

see Georges s. w. scratta, Septimus.
The lap-dog, the subject of one of Martial's
prettiest epigrams (i. 109) was called Issa (i. e. ipsa in the sense of domino],
plebeian inscriptions, see Schuchardt, Vok.
M'lady.'
Issam,
Ut
Its
i.
master had made a painting of

nee ipsa.
it
in
qua tarn similem videbis
sit tarn similis sibi
Plautus puns on
opsecro
and mox
seco, Mil.
1406.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
80
[Chap.
II.
82. bm, mb. Ommentans was the spelling in a line of Livius Aiidronicus'
translation of the Odyssey (ap. Test. 218. 14 Th. aut in Pylum deuenies aut
ibi ommentans.
Cf. Grl. Plac. ommentat
AmnSgo occurs on
expectat
:
(On
amitto, submitto,
On mb becoming
amnuo in Glosses (LOwe, Prodromus, p. 421).

3
pronounced summitto, &c., see Brambach, Hiilfsb. pp. 16-18.
inscriptions (C.I. L. vi. 14672)

dialectally
mm,
see
71.
and dialectal f. Alflus was the dialectal, Albius the Latin form of
the name. The two forms are found, for example, on Interamna inscriptions
So with other proper names like Orbttius
(Albius, C. I. L. xi. 4240, Alfia, 4242).
and Orfilius. Sifilus, a mispronunciation of sibilus, censured in the Appendix
Probi (199. 3 K. cf. Non. 531. 2), was a dialectal variety; similarly scrofa
a sow has been connected with scrobis. In glosses we find crefrare with cribrare,
bufus with bubo (Lowe, Proclr. p. 421), and in modern Italian sufilare (cf. Fr.
83. b
beside sibilare (Lat.
siffler)
in Arch.
Glott.
ItaL x.
sibflare),
tafano (Lat. tabanus}, &c. (other examples
i).
84. b and m. B became m in Latin before m, n (cf. summitto, amnego, above).

But glomus and globiis (cf. Probi App. 198. 8 globus non 'glomus') are two
different stems, globus, -i and glomus, -ens (see Rom. Forsck. vii. 217).
We
85. D, T.
have clear evidence that Latin
nasal, was, like our n, not a pure dental (see
n,
61).
the dental
The
dental
the voiced dental, t the unvoiced, cannot then have been

mutes,
either. The Latin phoneticians speak of Latin d and
dentals
pure
t as
differing in more respects than the mere presence or absence
cl
what is technically called voice ' though the suspicion under

which they stand of being unduly influenced by their Greek
In Italian, I, e. g. tu
authorities makes them uncertain guides.
(Lat. lu), d, e. g. dono (Lat. clono] are both pure dentals, differing
But there is on
like any other unvoiced and voiced mute.
c
of
Italian soil a curious sound, a cacuminal
cavaddu (Lat.
caballns),
(I
',
exemplified
on which see Meyer-Liibke,
by
Sicilian
Ital.
Gram.
264.
Both
and
sounds closely related to d, the position of the

tongue, &c., being very similar in the formation of all three
In d there is a complete closure of the mouth passage
sounds.
I
r are
the middle of the passage is closed, but the sides are left
open in r there is an opening in front at the tip of the tongue.
Through neglect of the side closure cl has passed into / in words
in
like lacruma (older dacmma )(see ch. iv.

of the front closure it passed into r in
in)
through neglect
Old Latin in words like

de Bacchanalibus
on
Consultum
the
Senatus
adfuisse)
arfuise (later
of
i.
1 86 B.C.) before the bilabial spirants / and v
L.
196,
(C.I.
PRONUNCIATION.
82-85.]
(see ch. iv.
112).
fifth
DENTALS.
8l
century grammarian speaks of the
(?)
mispronunciation peres for pedes as one specially affected by the

poorer classes at Rome in his time (Consentius v. 392. 15 K.) ;
and the same change of sound

In Naples, for example, pere
Before
very day.
dter,
r, cl
still
is
dialects of Italy.
'
foot' to this
seems to have been changed to
stem afro- for *ddro
found on Praenestine cistae
(see
t,
e.
g.
113), a tendency seen in
(see ch. iv.
spellings like Alexanter, Cassantra,

had noticed on old inscriptions at
*
found in
the word used for
is
which Quintilian tells us he

Rome (i. 4. 16), and which is
Of
73).
dr, dl, &c.
we
are told
modo
nullo
Before
/,
sonare d littera potest' (Cassiod. 151 K. ; 207 K.).

could not be pronounced, but passed into the sound of
'
'
at least
often takes with us the sound
c, just as the phrase
a cleast/ The I.-Eur. suffix -tlo had on this account become -do in
*
Latin words like perldum (ch. v. 25) ; and when at a late period
the Latin suffix -tulus became contracted by the syncope of the
was changed to -dm, vetuhts, for example, becoming

vedus (Ital. vecchio). Another change of rl namely its tendency
penult,
it
by a preceding n in words like distenno for

discussed in
71, and its assimilation in compounds
to be assimilated
distendo
is
like adtmeo,
pronounced
attineo,
adsum, pronounced assum, in ch.
iv.
The most important changes of d, t, however, are those

which these letters experienced when they were followed by i
before another vowel.
The same syncope that reduced vetulm to
'
calula
to
made
calda,
veclus,
Tityus out of Titius, hodye out
1 60.
'
'
of hodie.
Through
consonant
in
unknown
this
unaccented
'
combination of y with a preceding

syllables,
in Latin, has arisen in
new
Romance.
series
of
sounds,
Latin slmia has
become French singe (through *simya\ Latin opium Fr. ache

[*apyum) Lat. rabies Fr. rage (*rabyet), Lat. cambiare Fr. changer
Dy, as we saw before (51), became identified with
(*cambyare).
}
gif ge,
and Latin j (our
y), and,
has assumed in Italian the sound
e.g. Ital. giorno from Lat. diurnus; while ty has

developed in Italian into the sound of ts } a sound reduced in
'
French to an s-sound, in Spanish to a sound like our ih in thin
of our j,
'
(written in Spanish
z),
e.
g.
Ital. piazza, Fr. place,
Span, plaza,
from Latin platea, *platya. The grammarians of the later

Empire have fortunately left us a good many remarks on the
all
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
82
palatalization of
of
t,
so that
we can
II.
trace pretty clearly the course

from their accounts to
It seems
in Latin.
its
[Chap.
development
have begun in the fourth cent. A.D., and to have been fairly
established by the fifth
and this is confirmed by other evidence,
;
such as the fact that in the Latin loanwords in Welsh (borrowed

during the Roman occupation of Britain which ceased in the fifth
has not become an s-sound. About the same time cy
became assibilated ; and so confusions of -ci- and -ti- before
a vowel are common in late inscriptions and in MSS.
cent.), ty
86. Phonetic descriptions of d,
Terentianus Maurus makes the back
t.
of the tongue come into play in the formation of d, which would make Latin
d to have been what phoneticians call dorsal d (from Lat. dorsum, the back),
like the d of Central and S. Germany.
Seelmann understands t,-l, r, and n
'
also to
have been dorsal sounds.
Ter. Maur. vi. 331. 199-203 K.
at portio dentes quotiens
suprema linguae
summos,
explicatque vocem
pulsaverit imos modiceque curva
tune d sonitum perficit

qua superis dentibus intima est origo,
t,
summa
satis est
ad sonitum
ferire lingua.
Similarly Marius Victorinus speaks of the two sounds as having marked

difference in their formation (vi. 33. 24 K.)
d autem et t, quibus, ut ita
dixerim, vocis vicinitas quaedam est, linguae sublatione ac positione distinguuntur. nam cum summos atque imos conjunction dentes suprema sui parte
:
d litteram exprimit.
quotiens autem sublimata partem, qua
superis dentibus est origo contigerit, t sonore vocis explicabit.
They represent the formation of /, in conformity with what we have already learned about
pulsaverit,
n, as the contact of the tongue with the alveolars, or gums of the upper teeth,
whereas in uttering d both the lower and the upper teeth are touched by
the tongue, which is so bent down as to touch the lower teeth with its tip,
and the upper with its blade. Martianus Capella (iii. 261) D appulsu linguae
:
circa superiores dentes innascitur.
extunditur [extruditur
87.
d and 1. In some
the stem ends in a

tiepolo.
Eyss.,
Vok.
i.
T appulsu linguae dentibusque
impulsis
extuditur MSS.~\.
Italian dialects d in the Latin suffix -idus becomes
labial.
Some examples
by Schuchardt,
of
if
Thus
Lat. tepidus is in the Neapolitan dialect

for d in MSS. and late inscriptions are collected
142.
88. d and r. In the Abruzzi (the ancient country of Oscan and Sabellian
'
tribes) we find d (English th in there ') and r for Latin d, e. g. dlcere and
ricere (Lat. dlcere), da and ra (Lat. dat). The close connexion of d with r, as
phases of d, we see from Spanish, where in the literary language d has assumed
Madrid"/ while in the Andalusian dialect this ft has

sometimes developed into r, e. g. soleares, sometimes been dropped e. g. naa,
and
for *nada. Final (t is weakly pronounced in Spanish, and often dropped
the same is true of the Galician dialect of Portuguese, e. g. bonda (Lat.
the &-sound in words like
'
DENTALS.
PRONUNCIATION.
86-90.]
83
bonMtem). In Proven9al too Latin d became (tand was dropped when final.
All this throws light on the Umbrian treatment of I.-Eur. d, which in the
middle of a word is expressed by a peculiar sign in the Umbrian alphabet
(conventionally written (for r), a sign rendered in Latin characters by rs, e.g.
kapide, capirse (Lat. capidi, Dat. of capis, a bowl), and which seems to interchange with r, e. g. tertu and tedtu (Lat. clato, or rather *dedato), but which at
the end of a word is often dropped, e. g. asam-a and asam-ad" (Lat. ad dram, or
rather *aram ad), always when a long vowel precedes, e. g. pihaclu (Lat.
Not unlike is the Latin treatment of d, with the
piaculo, older piacolod, Abl.).
occasional change to r on the one hand, and the loss of final d after a long
vowel [e. g. piacolo(d\ but quod] on the other. In Italian d is always dropped in
words like fe (Lat. fides), and in the other Eomance languages d between any
two vowels is liable to the same thing e. g. Latin medulla is in Spanish
meollo, in French moelle, though in Italian it is midolla Italian preda (Lat.
praeda) is in Sardinian prea, &c.
;
89.
tl.
Veclus for vetulus, vidus
for vitidus,' capiclum
mispronunciations in vulgar speech (Probi App.
p. 197.
for capitulum,
were
20 and 198. 34 K.).
the old form of Its (Quint, i. 4. 16) is spelled sclis on inscriptions (e. g. C. I. L.
211 and 1249). Caper censures the use of sclataris for stldtdris, a pirate ship,
marculus for martulus, a priest of Mars (vii. 107. i
105. 21 K.).
(For examples
of d for tl in MSS. and late inscriptions see Schuchardt, Vok. i. 160.)
Stlis
x.
90. Assibilation of ty, dy. In the fourth cent, we have an indication that
vowel were in process of change. Servius (in Don. iv. 445.
8-12 K.) tells us that they often pass into a sibilus (which need not imply
it,
di before a
an s-sound) when in the middle of a word, though often they retain

a pronunciation in accord with their spelling (etiam sic positae sicut dicuntur ita etiam sonandae sunt, ut 'dies' 'tiaras'). The same grammarian,
in a note on Virgil, Georg. ii. 126, remarks that the Greek word Media must be
pronounced in Greek fashion sine sibilo, that is to say without that consonantal
2/-sound which Latin medius, media had in the time of Servius, that pinguis
sonus' of i which the grammarians, as we saw before ( 14), declared to be
particularly alien to Greek pronunciation. In the early part of the fifth cent.
l
Papirian (MS.
'
Papirius
')
is
more
explicit.
The
letters
ti
before a vowel, in
words like Tatius, otia, justitia, have, he says, a sound as if z (i. e. Greek
which had at this time the soft or voiced s-sound) were inserted between
,
justitia' cum scribitur, tertia syllaba

(ap. Cassiodor. vii. 216. 8 K.)
sonat quasi constet ex tribus litteris t, z, i. This, he points out, is the
case only when ti is followed by a vowel, and not always even then, not, for
them
sic
example, in Genitives like otii nor when s precedes ti, e. g. justius, castius. In
the same century Pompeius censures as a fault the very pronunciation allowed
in the preceding century by Servius, whereby ti, di were pronounced as spelled.
He lays down the rule. (v. 286. 10 K.) quotienscumque post ti vel di
ergo si
syllabam sequitur vocalis, illud ti vel di in sibilum vertendum est
:
volueris dicere ti vel di, noli, quern ad modum scribitur, sic proferre, sed sibilo
He goes on to say that this pronunciation is not found with initial
profer.
nor with the combination sli for here 'ipsa syllaba a litteris accepit
remark which shows pretty clearly that Pompeius understands
by sibilus an s-sound, cf. v. 104. 6 K. si dicas 'Titius,' pinguius sonat [i] et
A grammarian of the fifth cent.(?),
perdit sonum suum et accipit sibilum.
ti,
di;
sibilum,' a
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
84
[Chap.
II.
Consentius (395. 3), describes the new sound of ti in etiam as breaking something off the middle syllable (de media syllaba infringant).
He, like
Pompeius, declares the old pronunciation to be a vitium,' and tells us that the
Greeks in their anxiety to correct this fault were apt to go to the extreme of
giving the new sound to ti even when not followed by a vowel, e. g. in optimus
(mediam syllabam ita sonent quasi post t, z graecum ammisceant). Finally
Isidore in the seventh cent, tells us (Orig. i. 26. 28) that justitia sonum z
litterae exprimit,' and (xx. 9. 4") that the Italians of his time pronounced
hodie as ozie.
The spellings on inscriptions confirm this account of the
grammarians, though, as was to be expected, the assibilation shows itself
on plebeian inscriptions even earlier than the fourth cent., e.g. Crescentsian(us)
(Gruter, p. 127, vii. i, of 140 A. D.), and even in the case of accented ti, di
Isidore's statement about the pronunciation of hodie (now oggi) is perhaps
'
'
z ( = zes, for dies} (C.I. L. v. 1667), &c.,

supported by OZE (C.LL. viii. 8424)
this z being pronounced like our z in amaze.'
But dy- first passed through
the stage of i/, unlike ty- (see ch. iv. 62), and this z may be merely an attempt
to express the ?/-sound. Seelmann, p. 323, gives a list of these spellings. Some
may be dialectal, for in Oscan we have on the Bantia tablet (Zv. 231) Bansa:
'
and in Etruria the

(Lat. Bantia), zicolo- (Lat. diecula) (pronounce z as above ]
assibilation of iy seems also to have been known (see Sittl, Lok. Verschiedenheiten,
;
p.
n)
Mars-us
(cf.
Martses Abl. PI.
The rationale
on a Marsic
inscr.)
was the native name
change of sound is easy. While forming

the ^-sound the tongue unconsciously adapted itself to the position for the
//-sound, so that the interval between the two letters was bridged over by
a glide-sound which the Latin grammarians compare to Greek
like the
connecting jo in the group mpt, from original mt, in words like emptus. (For
for Martins.
of the
a full account of the process see

interchange of ti- and ci-, see 94.)
Z. xxix. i sqq., especially p. 48.
On
the
What we call Guttural Consonants

91. K, C, G-, QTJ, GU.
are more properly divided into (i) Gutturals proper, or Velar
'
Gutturals, or simply Velars/ formed by the back of the convex
the tongue against the soft palate or velum, and
(a) Palatals, formed by the middle of the convex surface of the
tongue against the hard palate ; and these two classes, which are
surface of
back gutturals and front gutturals, might be still

further subdivided according as the sound is made more to the
back, or more to the front of the mouth. The Velars and Palatals
also called
German ch, for

be found side by side in a language.
example, with a broad vowel like 0, a, is a velar, e.g. ach,' but
may
'
with a narrow vowel like i, in such a word as ich/ it is

a palatal, being spoken more in the front of the mouth, so that
Italian ch of chi, chiesa, is
it often sounds like English s/i.
spoken more in the front of the mouth than c of casa, and the
'
same is true of Engl. Jc of ' key compared with c of caw.' The
'
PRONUNCIATION.
91.]
distinct lines of
GUTTURALS.
85
development which the Latin gutturals,
(/), g,
took before broad and before narrow vowels, makes it possible, or

even probable, that in Latin, as in Italian, c in centum had a more
palatal sound than c in cantus, contus, &c., although this distinction is not mentioned by any of the Roman grammarians.
The
only guttural of which they give us a clear account is qu, in

which the ^-element seems to have been more of a vowel than
Latin v (our w).

vii.
58.
sounded
makes the
7 K.)
cum
'
first
century grammarian (Vel. Long,

difference to consist in the latter being
as a consonantal spirant,
in the fourth century u of
nee vocalis nee consonans (Donat.
aliqua aspiratione/
not as a half -vowel, like u of

quoniam, quulem
iv. 367. 1 6 K.).
is
said to be
i.
'
e.
and
quis,
'
Priscian (seventh cent.) says the same of the

sanguis, lingua (i. 37), so that Latin qu, gu must have had
a sound very like their sound in Italian quattro, &c.
The
u of
palatalization
of
c,
g before a narrow vowel
Romance languages, with the exception

of Sardinia.
It
was
also a feature of the
that we should expect

But all the
at least.
it
to
is
found in
all
of a dialect in the island
Umbrian language,
so
have appeared early in Vulgar Latin
evidence points to as late a period as the

sixth and seventh centuries A. D. as the time when the change of
sound took place. No grammarian hints at a difference of sound

in c, g before a broad and before a narrow vowel, although the
assibilation of
ti
before a vowel
Greek transcriptions
it
by
K,
crescens ;
of Latin
in cases like
is
KHN2ON
invariably reproduce
for censum,
Latin loanwords in Welsh
that Latin c was hard in
mentioned again and again.
words with
KPH2KHN2
to fifth centuries)
(first
for
show
e.g. Welsh cwyr (Lat.

and similarly German Keller
all positions,
ciwdawd (Lat. civitdtem),

the seventh
(Lat. celldrium), Kiste (Lat. cista) ; it is not till
century that spellings like paze for pace (Muratori, 1915. 3) assert
cera),
themselves on inscriptions.
At an
earlier period, it is true, ci (cy)
before a vowel in unaccented syllables, and ti (ty) in the same

in words
position, had been confused, so that ci was written ti
and expressed
like
like
solatium,
But
this proves nothing for c in
before
e, i
became
(like dy) the
genuine ti a sibilant sound.

G
words like centum, cUra.
y-sound, and
is
languages indistinguishable from Latin j (our y)
in the
(see
Romance
51). The
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
86
[Chap. II.
group ct has become tt in Italian, e.g. Ottobre, Lat. Octobris,

and had assumed the sound in late Latin, to judge from spellings
on inscriptions like lattnca in the Edict of Diocletian, Otobris
(Rossi 288, of 380 A.D.) and
aut-or.
92. Phonetic descriptions of the Gutturals. Ter. Maur.

utrumque latus deiitibus applicare linguam
vi.
331. 194-205 K.
c pressius urget
dein hinc et hinc remittit.
quo vocis adhaerens sonus explicetur ore.
:
g porro retrors\im coit et sonuni prioris

obtusius ipsi prope sufficit palato.
.
et
Mar. Viet.
k perspicuum est littera quod vacare possit

nanique eadem vis in utraque est.
similis
20 K.
etiam
molimine nisuque dissentiunt.
vi. 33.
et g, ut supra scriptae, sono proximae oris

nani c reducta introrsum lingua hinc atque
hinc molares urgens haerenteni intra os sonuni vocis excludit g vim prioris
pari linguae habitu palato suggerens lenius reddit
[q, k] quarum utramque exprimi faucibus, alteram distento, alteram producto rictu manifestum est.
:
Mart. Cap.
formatur
261
iii.
.
cognata est
spiritus [facit] cum palato

palati ore restricto. Ter. Scaur,
.
Q appulsu
cum
faucibus palatoque
vii.-
14. i
K. x littera
quod lingua sublata paulum hae dicuntur. Bede

Donatus' remark, quoted above, on the pronunciation
c et g,
(228. 21), in criticizing
of u in qu, explains
him
to
mean
that
'
tarn leviter turn effertur ut vix sentiri

'
the u a 'pars litterae praecedentis.

contra ctus sonus' of normal u:
(i. 6) seems to speak of
but the passage is corrupt and the meaning uncertain. The statement of the
phoneticians that Latin c was uttered with more energy of articulation than
g, is confirmed by certain phenomena of the language, as has been shown
queat.'
Pompeius
(v. 104.
25 K.)
Priscian
in
calls
it
as the
'
73-
In Oscan and Umbrian, where I.-Eur. gu had become p, Latin

expressed in loanwords by kv (Osc. kvaisstur, Umbr. kvestretie [Lat.
In Faliscan the gw-sound is written cv (CM or ci?) e. g. cuanclo.
quaesturae]*).
Greek transcriptions have normally KOV-, e. g. KovaSparos but KOI- is the
93. qu, gu.
qu
is
earliest expression of qui-, e.g. KOIVKTIOS (C.I.G.
770, of 196-4 B.C., see

o before a final consonant
ii.
In the Augustan age when

i; u (ch. iv.
20), qu, gu became before this u
reduced to c, g, which points to their being more like cu, gu than cw, gw, relicus
from reliquos (in the time of Plautus relicuos, of four syllables), locuntur, secuntur,
The grammarians of the first cent. A. D. were puzzled by the want
extingunt.
of correspondence between Nom. Sing, ecus, Nom. PI. equi, and reconstituted
the Nom. Sing, as equus (in the time of Trajan) (Vel. Long. 59. 3 K. auribus
quidem sufficiebat ut equus per unum u scriberetur, ratio tamen duo exigit)
guu in extinguunt, &c., followed somewhat later. In the fifth cent, we find
co definitely ousting quo, and go, guo, though quo seems to have been pronounced co as early as the beginning of the second cent. B. c. (see ch. iv.
X 37)Grammarians find great difficulty in deciding which verbs should be
written with -guo and which with -go. The rule they usually follow is
to write -go when the Perfect has -xi, ungo, tingo (see Bersu Die Gutturalen].
(A Vulg. Lat. *laceus for Idqueus is the original of Romance words for noose
Eckinger,
p.
120 sqq.).
was weakened
to u even after
'
'
PRONUNCIATION.
92-94.]
like Ital. laccio, Fr. lacs;
GUTTURALS.
87
Probi App. 197. 27 K. exequiae non 'execiae'
cf.
The spelling of the Pronoun qui in its

Cassiod. 158. 15 K. on 'reliciae').
various forms was also matter of discussion as early as the time of Quintilian.
He
tells us (i. 7. 27; that in his younger days the Dative Singular used to
be written quoi to distinguish it from the Nom. qui, but that the fashion had
since come in of spelling it cui illud nunc melius, quod cui tribus quam
'
'
posui litteris enotamus, in quo pueris nobis ad pinguem sane sonum qu et

oi utebantur, tantum ut ab illo
qui distingueretur. Annaeus Cornutus,
Persius' teacher, tells us that at a much earlier period Lucilius laid down
'
'
the rule that qu should be used when a vowel followed in the same syllable,
otherwise cu, and this rule he himself accepts. His comments on it seem to
show that there was not much difference in the sound. 'Some/ he goes on
to say, think we should spell as we pronounce, but I do not go so far as that
(ego non omnia auribus dederim). Then he adds, qui syllaba per qui scribitur si dividitur, ut sit cui ut huic, per c (ap. Cassiod. 149. i K.).
So Ter.
Scaurus (first cent.}, 27. 18 K. quis quidem per 'cuis' scribunt, quoniam
supervacuam esse q litteram putant. sed nos cum ilia u litteram, si quando
'
'
'
'
c autem in
tertia ab ea vocalis poriitur, consentire jam demonstravimus.
dativo ponimus, ut sit differentia cui et qui. Velius Longus (first cent.)
(75..
10 K.) thinks
necessary to point out the distinction between aquam
it
Noun and acuam Verb. Another tendency that appears in late Latin is to
make a short vowel before qu long by position, as indeed any consonant
followed by u (w), e. g. Ital. Gennaio with double n from *Jenwarius ; aqua
is scanned with the first syllable long by the Christian poets, and appears in
Probi App. 198. 18 K. aqua non 'acqua').

sixth cent,
to give this quantity to the word in a line of Lucretius,
vi. 868 quae calidum faciunt aquae tactum atque vaporem, where, however,
the MSS. read laticis. Lachmann proposed to read aquae of three syllables, but
was not able to prove that this form (like Horace's siluae) existed in Old Latin
In Plautus and the older
(see Schroeder in Studemund, Studien, ii. 20).
dramatists, where the short syllable of a word like pati, loci has a shortening
influence on the following long syllable, so that the words may be occasionally
Ital.
as acqua
(cf.
grammarian ventures
scannedp<M, loci (see ch. iii. 42). a short vowel before qu seems hardly to have
this shortening power, e. g. rarely (if ever) loqui. So to the ear of Plautus
qu almost made a preceding vowel long by position, unless we say that loquij
At any rate qu can
&c., sounded to Plautus something like a trisyllable.
hardly have had merely the rounded fc-sound of Russian.
had
'
That c, g remained hard before e,

94. c, g before narrow vowels.
(when a vowel did not follow), down to the sixth and.se venth centuries A.
i,
D.
&c.
we
For the earlier period we may point to the

fact that in Umbrian, where c (k) before a narrow vowel became a sibilant,
expressed by a peculiar sign in the native alphabet, the Latin c was not used
for this sound in inscriptions (from the time of the Gracchi) written in Latin
characters, but a modification of s, namely s with a stroke like a grave accent
above it, e. g. desen (Lat. deceni), sesna (Lat. cena). That Plautus (who by the
way was an Umbrian) makes a play on the words Sosia and socius, proves
have a superabundance of proof.
nothing (Amph. 383)
Amphitruonis
te esse aiebas Sosiam.
nam Amphitruonis
'
socium
'
Peccaueram
dudum me
e"sse
volui dicere.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
88
[Chap. II.
He makes a play on arcem and arcam in Bacch. 943 atque hie equos non in
arcem verum in arcam faciet impetum.
At Cicero's time the spelling pulcher, Gracchi with ch for supposed Greek x
evidence that in declension of nouns and adjectives (acer, acris, &c.) the c did
not change to a sibilant when it came to stand before an e or an i, as it
does in Italian (amico with hard c, amici with sibilant c). Varro (ap. Prise.
i.
39) quotes agceps (another spelling of anceps) as one of the words where the
Agma-sound (the ng of 'thing') was found in Latin before c (therefore presumably hard c). In the first cent. A. D. Plutarch and Strabo render Latin c
None of the grammarians of
before a narrow vowel by Greek K, Kircfpav, &c.
the Empire hint at a variety of pronunciation for c, g, not even Priscian in
the sixth cent.
and all through this period we have Greek K for Latin c in
all positions (on documents of the sixth cent. SfKip, ocavarpiiei, &c.), and on
Latin inscriptions an interchange of c, k, q (e. g. pake, C. I. L. x. 7173 cesquel
:
1091) (see Seelmann, pp. 342 sqq.). This interchange is not

do not find k used for hard c,' c for ' soft c
any principle.
forquiescit, viii.
regulated by
We
'
'
would have been the case had there been a
real difference of pronunciation. All the examples quoted for interchange of c before a narrow
vowel (not in hiatus) with a sibilant earlier than the sixth cent, in S. Italy,
the seventh cent, in Gaul, are illusory (see G. Paris in Acad. Inscr. 1893, Comptes
&c., as
Rendus, xxi. p. 81).
The evidence that Latin

a,
was what we
thus overwhelmingly strong.
late period is
call
hard
before
e,
down
to
But while holding to this fact

before e, i was probably more of
we may make two concessions. First, that c

a palatal (like Italian ch in chiesa) than a velar (like Italian c in casa). This
palatal character was more and more developed in the Romance languages till
Since however this assibilation is not known in the
c became a sibilant.
Sardinian dialect of Logudoru, it may be that at the time of the occupation
of Sardinia (c. 250 B. c.) Latin c had still a velar character before narrow as
Second, that
before broad vowels.
ci (ce)
before a vowel
underwent the same
process of assibilation, &sti before a vowel did in the fifth cent. A. D., although
interchange of spelling between prevocalic ci and ti before that time means
merely that cy, ty were confused, as cl, tl were confused (cf. Quint, i. 11. 6),
not that both
cy
and
ty
expressed a sibilant sound.
(For instances of the con-
fusion see Schuchardt, Vok. i. pp. 154 sq., and consult Georges and Brambach
s. vv.
Hucius, mundities, negotium, otium, nuntius, Porcius, propitius, provincial
spatium, Sulpicius, indutiae, infitiae, condicio, contio, convicium, dido, fetialis, solatium,
suspicio, uncia, &c. The earliest examples date from the second cent. A. D.) On
Greek inscriptions Latin

being
ci
and
'Apov/tiavos ('AOrjv. iv. p.
ti
are similarly confused, the earliest example

In a Pisidian inscription
104) of 131 A. D.
with Mapaiavos, the a (written C) is no

doubt merely a confusion with the Latin letter c.
Q before e, i may have been a palatal, rather than a velar, even earlier than
c
for in Sardinian hard g is not preserved as hard c is in this position.
At
what precise period it was developed to y we do not know. The Appendix
Probi mentions as a mispronunciation calcosteis/ for calcostegis, though this
may be a case of that spirant pronunciation of Greek 7, like Tarentine 6\ios
for oXiyos, Boeotian l&v for 70;. In the Romance languages it is treated exactly
like Latin j (y\ e.g. Ital. genero, Span, yerno (Lat. gener), like Ital. giace,
Span, yace (Lat. jacef). It is dropped between two vowels in spellings like
(Journ. Hell. Stud. iv. p. 26), of 225 A. D.,
PRONUNCIATION.
95, 06.]
LIQUIDS.
89
so trienta,
8573), the precursor of Ital. venti, &c.
See the list in Schuchardt. Vok. ii. 461). Vulg.
5399), &c. (A.L.L. vi5. 69.
Lat. *mais is seen in Fr. mais, Ital. mai, &c. But this dropping of intervocalic
vinti for mginti (C. I. L. viii.
(xii.
g is found also before other vowels in late inscriptions and MSS., e. g. frualitas
for frugalitas (see Schuchardt's list, Vok. i. 129), as in Vulg. Lat. eo (Ital. io,
&c.) for ego, just as in Italian and other Romance languages, every intervocalic
g
when pretonic is dropped, e. g.

may have become a spirant
(like g of
became a w>sound in the third
cent.
tion
6
95.
Ital. reale
from Lat.
German
regalis.
So g in this posi-
Tage), just as intervocalic
78).
For examples see Schuchardt, Vok.
i.
134 Rhein. Mus. xlv. p. 493,
vv. cottana, coturnix, setius (?), vettonica,
So nictio, to give tongue,' of a dog who has
pittacium, brattea, salapitta, virecta.
picked up the scent, is spelled nitlio in the lemma of Festus (p. 188. 1. 16 Th.),
ct, tt.
and consult Georges and Brambach
s.
'
where he quotes the
spirited line of Ennius, Ann. 374 M.
nare sagaci
Sensit voce sua nictit ululatque ibi acuta.
Autor, with antoritas, is censured in the Appendix Probi (198. 30 K.), and is
found on late inscriptions (C.I.L. viii. 1423 cf. xii. 2058, of 491 A. D.). For
So mulcta became multa
70.
net, which became nt by loss of the guttural, see
;
(Georges
s.
v.).
gm
In
or at least Greek y(* seem to have tended, like Im, to the sound urn.
Vulg. Lat. sagma was *sauma (Prov. sauma, Fr. somme), Isid. Orig. xx. 16. 5
sagma quae corrupte vulgo 'sauma' dicitur (v.l. salma cf. Span, salma, Ital.
;
salma and somaX
Probi App. 198.

examples, see Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 499.)
96. L,B.
Cf.
The
liquids
/,
pegma non
For
r are, as
gn, see
we have
connected with the voiced dental mute
d.
'
(For other
peuma.'
144.
seen
85), closely
The tongue has
a similar position with each of the three sounds ; but while with
d the mouth passage is completely closed by pressure o the
point of the tongue against the front, and of the edges of the
tongue against the sides of the mouth, with / the sides are left
The connexion of the three sounds
open, and with r the front.
in Latin is seen, as
d with
was before remarked,
in the interchange of
in lingua, older dingna, &c., of d with r in arfuisse for

adfuisse, &c., and, as we may now add, of r with I in words like
caeruleus for *caeluleus, not to mention occasional occurrences of
I
the dental nasal for r or
/,
like
Vulgar Latin menetris for
meretrix,
cuntdlum for cultellum.
The grammarians give us a good

the pronunciation of
deal of information about
in different parts of the word.

a 'pinguis sonus/ or 'plenus sonus/ in two cases, (i)
I
It had
when
it
ended a word, or syllable followed by another consonant, e.g.

sol, silva, albus-, (2) in combinations like^, cl, e.g.Jldvtts, darns.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
90
In contrast with this
'
pinguis sonus'
[Chap. II.
has what
it
called
is
an
'sonus' (presumably its normal sound) in other

two cases, viz. (i) at the beginning of a word, e.g. lectits, lana,
lupus, and especially (2) when it ends one syllable and begins the
'exilis' (or
'tenuis')
Metel-lus, al-lia [pronounced with two /'s as in

mill-lade/ hotel-landlord (see 127) ]. When we examine
the development of Latin / in the Romance languages we find
next, e.g.
our
il-le,
'
'
'
In
the explanation of this distinction.
Latin
e.
when
/,
initial, or
Italian, for example,

has
the normal /-sound,
repeated,
pelle (Lat. pellis), but after a con-
when
g. lana, valle (Lat. vallis),
now
sonant
has become an /^-sound,
vowel),
e.
g. chiaro (Lat. clams), pieno (Lat. plenns),
At the end of a syllable before

most Romance languages been reduced
fltimen).
reduced to
(the half-
fiume (Lat.
a consonant, it has in
to a ^-sound, e.g. Fr.
autre, Prov. autre, Span, otro (Lat. alter), and so in parts of Italy,
e.g. Sicil. autru, while in other parts it is represented by an
All this points to

^-sound, e.g. aitro in the Florentine dialect.
and / in alter, &c., having been pronounced with
/ in cldrus, &c.,
what phoneticians call an off-glide ' and an on-glide }

a lter, which glides have been more and more developed
c
Romance languages,
till
guished, the /-sound.

type of Vulgar Latin,
cliarus,
in the
they reduced, or even completely extinIn Sardinian, which reflects the oldest
remains unaffected after a consonant to
a large extent, e.g. klaru, plenu, flumen, so that this affection

of / may not have been begun in Vulgar Latin till about 200 B.C.
With regard to r, we should expect from the analogy of the

Romance languages that Latin r was trilled (i.e. formed with
the tip of the tongue vibrating), like the German and Scotch r,
not like English r in
name
'
red.'
This
is
confirmed by the
Roman
canina/ the growling letter, Pers. i. 109

hirrio
must
have
expressed the sound better than English
(Latin
J
and
Lucilius'
growl ),
description of it as like the growl of
by
for
r,
littera
'
a lazy dog, or as he puts
guage
(ix.
r
si
29, 30
M.)
it,
like
what
care I ?
Mn
dogs' lan-
non multum
abest hoc cacosyntheton atque canina

lingua dico 'nihil ad me.'
This rough sound of Latin r explains the reluctance of the

Romans to begin two successive syllables with a consonant
PRONUNCIATION.
97, 98.]
followed by
LIQUIDS.
91
a reluctance seen in forms like praestigiae for

and in spellings on inscriptions
r,
praestrigiae, increbui for inerebrui,
Before *, r was assimilated, e.g russus,

\\kepropius for proprius.
rusus for rursus, as we see from Plautus' pun on Persa and
It was assimilated
pessnm (Pers. 740 Persa me pessum dedit).
1
too before
e.
/,
pronounced, and often spelled, pet lido.

was as common in bad Latin as in bad
g. perfficio,
Metathesis of r (and
I)
English, as interpertor (? interpetror) for interpreter, coacla for

cloaca testify, and other mispronunciations censured by the
grammarians. Dr became tr in Latin, e.g. atrox (cf. odium) (ch. iv.

Neither r nor / remained unaffected by the palatalizing
113).
influence of y, that later sound of # in words tikeJanndrinSifacio,
hodie, which worked so great a transformation of the language
in the later period of Roman history.
The palatalization of
r led to its disappearance in Italian, e.g. Gennajo (Vulg. Lat.
*Jen(u)aryus) a process exemplified in earlier times by the form

peiuro foxperiuro, while ly has become the I mouillee, written gl\\\
t
figlia,
some
sunk
miglia
(cf.
dialects,
e.
our
million
'
'),
bigliardo (our
billiards
'),
and
in
Rome and
the neighbourhood, has

on
late
Latin
inscriptions seem to be
spellings
g. the patois of
Some
to y.
'
precursors of these changes of ry,

8 5 .)
1.
(On Umbrian
ly.
1-,
see ch. iv.
Ter. Maur. vi. 332. 230-234 K.
adversa palati supera premendo parte

obstansque sono queni ciet ipsa lingua nitens
validum penitus nescio quid sonare cogit,
quo littera ad aures veniat secunda nostras,
ex ordine fulgens cui dat locum synopsis
;
Mar. Viet.
sequetur 1 quae validum nesci.oquid partem palati,

qua primordium dentibus superis est, lingua trudente, diducto ore personabit
Mart. Cap. iii. 261 1 lingua palatoque dulcescit.
10 K.
vi. 34.
98. of
r.
Ter. Maur. vi. 332. 238, 239 K.
vibrat tremulis ictibus aridum sonorem
has quae sequitur littera

Mar. Viet.
15 K. sequetur r quae vibrato fvocis palatum linguae fastigio

fragorem tremulis ictibus reddit ; Mart. Cap. iii. 261 K spiritum lingua crispante corraditur. Ter. Scaurus (13. 10 K. mentions the connexion of rand I
vi. 34.
with d
item
maximum
dieunt aut
fratellus.
et r et s [inter se nrutuis vicibus funguntur], cujus rei

argumentum est, quod balbi, qui r exprimere non possunt, aut 1
s,
et
nee minus quod capra per diminutionem capella dicitur et frater
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
92
[Chap. II.
The grammarians on the pronunciation of 1. The earlies taccount

i. p. 29
H.) is that of Pliny the Elder, who gives three varieties of
99.
(ap. Prise,
sound
quando geminatur secundo loco posita ut ille' 'Metellus ';

(2) plenus
quando finit nomina vel syllabas et quando aliquam habet ante se
in eadem syllaba consonantem ut sol
flavus
clarus '; (3) medius, in
silva
'
(i) exilis
'
'
other positions
'
'
'
'
'
'lectum.' Similarly in the fifth (?) cent. Consentius

only two divisions (i) pinguia cum vel b sequitur, ut in
ut
pulchro/ vel f ut in adelfis/ vel g ut in alga/ vel
ut 'lectus
394 K.) makes

albo/ vel c ut in
in
pulmone.' vel p ut in scalpro (2) exilis
ubicumque ab ea verbum
lana' lupo,' vel ubi in eodem verbo et prior syllaba
incipit, ut in lepore'
in hac finitur, et sequens ab ea incipit, ut il-le et Al-lia.' Not so clear is
(v.
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
two mispronunciations to which ille was liable. The Greeks,

he says, pronounce ille mihi dixit subtilius as if ille had only one
others
pronounce ille meum comitatus est iter,' or ilium ego per fiammas eripui
ut aliquid illic soni etiam consonantis ammiscere videantur.'
pinguius,
into one as we
Possibly this means that the Greeks made the double
do in pronouncing Italian (see 127), and that others (e. g. Spaniards) gave
it the Zz/-sound that it now has in Spain, e. g. villa (Ital. villa), which is pronounced like Italian viglia. Diomede (i. 453. 3 K.) remarks on the fault of
pronouncing in lucem or almam nimium plene.' Servius in Don. iv. 445.
12-13 K. calls it a labdacismus' (mispronunciation of Z) to make a single
e. g. Lucius, too 'tenuis/ or a double I, e. g. Metellus, too 'pinguis.'
Pompeius
debemus
(v. 286-287 K.) makes the same remark, and explains it thus
dicere largus ut pingue sonet
et si dicas 'lex/ non 'lex/ vitiosa sunt per
his account of the
'
'
'
'
'
I,
'
'
item in gemino 1, si volueris pinguius sonare, si dicamus

'Metellus' 'Catullus/ in his etiam agnoscimus gentium vitia labdacismis
scateiit Afri, raro est ut aliquis dicat 1
per geminum 1 sic locuntur Romani,
omnes Latini sic locuntur
His explanation would
Catullus
Metellus.'
doubtless be intelligible to his auditors when accompanied by his oral examples
of the different sounds to us, who have to infer these, it is not so clear. All
that seems certain is that initial I had some distinction of sound from the I of
Metellus, Catullus, &c., but whether this distinction consisted merely in the
labdacismum.
'
'
more emphatic articulation which every initial consonant received in Latin

or in some other modification, such as the slight on-glide, which initial has
in the Gaelic language, and which makes a word like long, a ship (Lat. longa
I
sc. navis),
the
sound almost
The sound
149).
of
but as
Metellus,
like 'along/ it is impossible to say (cf.

117 ; ch. iv.
is described as 'pinguis/ in comparison with
of the initial
'
exilis
'
in comparison with the
of clarus,
alter,
&c.
In 0. Engl. also there were three different

(See also Isid. Orig. i. 31. 8).
kinds of Z, (i) deep gutteral Z, as in 'chalk/ (2) ordinary Z, as in 'field/ (3)
'
The fact that e could
palatal I, as in whi^l)ch (Paul's Grundr. i. p. 860).
'
become
Latin
was deeper,
before
Z,
but not before
II,
in Latin (ch.
or less palatal, than
iv.
10) suggests that
normal
ZZ.
100. of r. Varro (L. L. iii. fr. p. 146 Wilm.) mentions the rough sound
('asperum') of crux, acre, vSpres (also crura), beside voluptas, mel, Una.
101. Interchange of r and 1. On the confusion of flagro aiid/ragrro, and
In Probi App. 201. 19
the misspelling of both as fraglo, see A. L. L. iv. 8.
the distinction between the two words is carefully pointed out (cf. ib. 198. 9
Pliny gave the rule for the
flagellum non 'fragellum') (Ital. fragello).
PRONUNCIATION.
99-102.]
employment
of the suffixes -Us
stem contained an
r,
Charis. 135. 13
Prise,
do-,
became
cf.
-ris
and
it
The
I, e. g. lavacrum, fulcrum, simulacrum.
to dissimilation is seen in Vulgar Latin forms like veltrahus,
-cro-
same tendency
after a
stem with
beside vertragus (see Georges

pelegrinus (C.I.L.
p.
93
-n's, that -Us should be used when the

contained an 7, e. g. augurale, moldre (ap.
132 H.% So too the I.-Eur. suffix -tlo-, Latin
when
i.
LIQUIDS.
iii.
4222, &c.),
s. v., and cf. Prov. veltres, O. Fr. viautre), and

from which come the Romance words. Ital. pelle-
grino, Fr. pelerin, our 'pilgrim/ &c. in the mi sp renunciations telebra (see Georges
in the spellings of MSS. and late
s.v.), censured in Probi App. 198. 21 K.
;
Latin inscriptions, collected by Schuchardt, Vok.

202. 13
in spellings
i.
136 sqq.
(cf. meletrix,
Non.
on Greek inscriptions
like Ba/>#tAAem, Bap/3i\Xos,

beside BaA/3tAAeta and Ba\@i\\os, $@\apios, Me\tcovpiavos, &c. (see Eckinger,
p. 107) ; in Romance forms like Ital. albero (from Lat. arbor), reclutare (our
;
318. 6)
Mercoledi (from Mercurii dies}, urlare (from ululare), which show

is going on in modern, as in ancient, times on Italian
The town Cagliari in Sardinia was in Latin called Carales plur. or Caralis
soil.
but we find byforms Calaris and Cararis.
From Crustumeria, or
sing.
Crustumium, we have the adjective-forms Crustummus and Clustuminus (Greek
'
recruit
'),
that the same process
and
KAouoTov/ieti/a,
102. Parasitic
Eckinger,
Vowel with
1, r.
p. 107).
The sounds
7,
were called
'
'
liquidae
by Latin phoneticians, A, p, v, p, vypai by Greek), because they united easily

with a preceding consonant. Cf. Mar. Viet. vi. 20 eaedem autem liquidae
dicuntur, quando hae solae [he includes m, w] inter consonantem et vocalem
immissae non asperurn sonum faciunt, ut clamor
Tmolus
Cnosus' [MSS.
consul] 'Africa.' But in Latin, especially after the time of Plautus, there
i
'
'
'
'
'
was a tendency
to facilitate the pronunciation of a mute followed by 7, particularly when post-tonic by the insertion of a vowel, written on early inscriptions o, later u.
Thus po-clum, which is formed with the I.-Eur. suffix -tlo(ch. v.
These forms with the parasitic vowel

25), became po-colom, po-culum.
at a later time the same process of syncope that reduced calida to
underwent
(from the stem porco- with the suffix -7o-) toporclus,

resumed their earlier appearance poclum, &c. Traces are not wanting
of the same parasitic vowel-sound showing itself between a consonant and r.
The development in Romance of a word like palrem, suggests that it must in
e
Vulgar Latin have sounded almost like a trisyllable, *pat rem (Meyer-Liibke,
Rom. Gram. i. p. 251) and the same is indicated perhaps by Varro's derivation
of Gracchus, or, as he spelt it, Graccus (quasi *Geraccus}, from gero, 'quod mater
ejus duodecim mensibus utero eum gestaverit (ap. Charis. 82. 7 K. ), certainly
by spellings on inscriptions like Terebuni for Trebon- (Eph. Epigr. i. 116), though
a good many of these may be dialectal.
For this parasitic vowel was
a marked feature of the Oscan language, and its kindred dialects, e. g. Oscan
aragetud (Lat. argento Abl.), Pelignian Alafis (Lat. AlUus). Bede cannot be
calda, Tttius to Tityus, porculus
and
so
'
right in explaining spondaic hexameters, like

illi
continue statuunt ter dena argenti,
last two words being pronounced 'denarigenti

for it is not the case that all, or most, spondaic lines
end in a word in which r is combined with a consonant. But his description
of the sound is interesting, though of course he is not to be regarded as an
authority on Latin pronunciation, except when he is quoting from some older
as ending really
with a dactyl and spondee, the

'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
94
[Chap. II.
He says (p. 250. u K.), after instancing some spondaic

grammarian.
hexameters ending with argent i, incremental, respergebat. interfectae, intercepto,
neque enim in quinta regione versus heroic! spondeum ponere moris
tamen versus hujus modi scandere voluisse reor, ut addita in
sono vocali, quam non scribebant, dactylus potius quam spondeus existeret,
incerementa
interefectae
verbi gratia, intericepto
resperigebat et per
synalipham 'denarigenti.' quod ideo magis r littera quam ceterae consonantes patitur, quia quae durius naturaliter sonat durior efficitur, cum ab
erat, sed ita
'
'
aliis
'
'
consonantibus excipitur
'
atque ideo sonus
'
'
ei vocalis
apponitur, cujus
temperamento ejus levigetur asperitas and he goes on to say that this use
of a parasitic vowel between r and a consonant was much affected by monks,
when chanting the responses at divine service. At the same time it is
;
possible that the existence of this parasitic vowel may explain another feature
of Latin poetry, namely the optional treatment of a short vowel before a mute
followed by r as long by position. Plautus, who, as we have seen, avoided
the parasitic vowel with I, as alien to the conversational Latin of his time?
also refuses to allow the first syllable of a word like patri, dgri to be scanned
42) such a syllable is not so short as the first syllable
long, though (see ch. iii.
of patij dgi, &c., for it cannot exercise a shortening influence (by the law of
Breves Breviantes) on the following syllable. Plautus scans pdti, dgi, but
only pdtri, dgri. In the same way he always scans vehidum (the invariable
form), cubidum (though this last word is an exception to the rule in being
usually quadrisyllable, cubiculum^, and never vehidum, cubidum. And this is
the usage in all the dramatic poetry of the Republic. But Ennius in his
Epic, Lucilius in his Satires, allow themselves such scansions as nigrum, latrat,
fjbras, tridini and this suggests that in poetry, where the words were sounded
with more deliberation than the rapid conversational utterance of the drama
allowed, the presence of this parasitic vowel was felt to add another unit of
time, another mora to these syllables, so that they might on occasion be
treated as long. Lucilius' scansion tridini (Inc. 145 M.\ for example, reminds
us of the form used by Varro, tricilinium (R. R. iii. 13. 2. So the MSS.), and
the forms found on inscriptions trichilinis (C.I.L. ix. 4971 xiv. 375, 17, &c.),
In the time of
should perhaps be replaced by the quadrisyllable form.
Servius the accent rested on the second syllable of maniplus, so that the word
was regarded in ordinary conversation, either as being almost a quadrisyllable, or as having a penult equivalent to a long syllable (Serv. ad Am.
in hoc sermone ut secunda a fine habeat accentum usus
xi. 463 maniplis
obtinuit) and the Vulgar Latin shifting of the accent from the first to the
second syllable of words like tenebrae, &c. (see ch. iii.
n), is no doubt to be
though in Servius' time it was not allowed in
justified in the same way
correct pronunciation (Serv. ad Aen. i. 384 peragro
per-' habet accentum
;
'
'
'
ponuntur, metrum
juvant, non accentum).

This explanation of the optional scansion pdtri, fdbrum competes with another
(
142), according to which the consonant before the r was doubled in pro.
muta enim
et liquida, quotiens
it is in modern Italian
was doubled in later Latin
nunciation, as
a consonant
(Ital.
acqua),and before consonantal
(?/),
fabbro, &c. (beside fabro), just as

before consonantal u (w) in acqua
the development of
Z,
in Ital. occhio
(Vulg. Lat. oc(u}lus), &c. It is quite possible that the shifting of the accent to
e
the second syllable of words like tene'b rae, may have had the effect of
strengthening the sound of the mute.
The doubling
of the consonant in the
PRONUNCIATION.
103.]
is
proparoxytone syllable
(
LIQUIDS.
95
a feature of Italian, e.g. femmina, collera, legittimo
i3i).
The parasitic vowel between a mute and

is generally wanting on
Greek inscriptions, perhaps because the Greeks were more conversant with
combinations like fA, T\, &c. than the Romans, e.g. Aej/rAoj, BiyXevria (Lat.
Vigilantia\ and the syncopated forms of -ulu-s (as inporcu-lus, &c.) are usual in the
I
instances quoted by Eckinger (p. 75), 'Ap@ovoK\a, Maa\os, narep/cAoj, HovpteXa.

it must be added that they mostly date from a time when Syncope
though
had taken a strong hold of the Latin language itself. The Appendix Probi
condemns several of these syncopated words (as he condemns calda, &c.),
including with them some whose vowel in the classical spelling is not
original but parasitic
speclum,
masclus,
leclus,
viclus
(for wtulus),
-rernadus,
He also
capidum.
mentions mascel, figel, which may be South Italian, for the Oscaii equivalent
of famulus was famel (Paul. Fest. 62. i Th.).
The early date of the parasitic
artidus,
badus, juglus,
vowel with
oclus,
tabla,
stablum,
tribla,
vaplo,
seen in the old Latin form piacolom, quoted by Mar. Viet.

pocolom^ the usual spelling on the Praenestine vases (C.I.L.
Plautus seems to regard the use of these lengthened forms as
I
is
and
p.
12 K.,
i.
43 sqq.).
a licence, only to be resorted to in cases of metrical necessity

found, especially when a long vowel precedes the syllable with
end of a
lin^ or hemistich,
periclum vitae
e. g. Capt.
meae tuo
they are
only at the
for
Z,
740,
stat periculo (see ch.
iii.
13).
(For the parasitic vowel in Greek loanwords with m, n preceded by a consonant, see
154.)
Calicare, from calx, lime (Paul. Fest. 33. 8 Th. calicata
aedificia, calce polita
ib. 41.
21 calicatis, calce politis
ib. 53.
16 decalica-
tum, calce litum Gl. Cyrill. Kovica, decalico, calce albo C.I.L. i. 1166 basilicam calecandam), apparently the normal spelling, and to be read probably
in the Placidus Glossary (60. 19 G.), (where the MSS. have decalcatis, de calce
albatis), is not a case of parasitic vowel between and a following consonant
(like Gk. KaXtiropvtos}, (Dittenb. Syll. 240 of 1383.0.), and (on the edict of
in its
Diocletian) /caXiicios. It merely retains the Greek loanword x<*^
dissyllabic form, instead of syncopating it to its usual form in Latin, calx,
(For examples of the parasitic vowel in misspellings on inscriptions, see
;
Seelmann,
p. 251.)
103. Avoidance of two r's. (See A. L. L, iv. i sqq.) The changes of r to

in Vulg. Lat. pelegrmus, &c., and the doubtful cases of n for r, e. g. low Latin
menetrix, may be considered as examples of this avoidance. The use of gndritior
I
for gndrior (not before Augustine), ferocior, for */m'or, mdgis vents beside verior,
vnagis mlris modis (Plaut. Mil, 539) for mirioribus modis, diicentior for decorior in
and Tacitus, sanctior for sdcrior, all exhibit the same tendency.
Pompeius (283. 13 K.) mentions mamor as a mispronunciation of marmor
and the form Mamers, Mamertinl beside Mannar of the Carmen Saliare, also
Fabaris, the Latin name of the Sabine river Farfarus, perhaps show the same
dropping of r in the reduplicationsyllable. So too the form porrigo was
On praestlgiae, from praestringo, to dazzle, crebresco and its
preferred to *prorigo.
compounds (rubesco, is like piltesco, from a stem without r), see Georges, Lex.
On inscriptions, de propio (Ital. propio and proprio) for de proprio
Wortf. s. vv.
Quintilian
occurs (Not. Scav. 1890, p. 170), propietas

Schuchardt, i. p. 21, for other instances).
ix. 2827 of 19 A.D.), &c. (see

Vulg. Lat. *trono, to thunder, for tono
(C. 1. L.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
96
[Chap. II.
has inserted r for

(Ital. tronare and tonare, Span. O. Port. Prov. tronar),
onomatopoeic effect frustrum (Probus 199. 3 K. frustum non frustrum '),
found, with crustrum and pristris, in MSS. of Virgil (see Eibbeck's Index) and
aplustrum (aplustre) for Greek atyXaarov cretdrias (Caper. 108. 13 K. cetariae
*
tabei-nae,
quae nunc
Schuchardt,
i.
'
cretariae
'
non
21 for other examples
recte dicuntur) by false analogy (see

and cf. Fr. tresor from Lat. thesaurus,
Span, estrella from Lat. stella beside Ital. stella and (dial,
In Italian we find the same tendency e. g. Federico, Certosa (Fr.
strella.
Chartreuse), arato (Lat. aratrum\ frate (Lat. frdtrem), deretano (Vulg. Lat.
*deretranus from retro}, &c.
gomitolo, a ball of thread, from Lat. gloinus, shows
the same suppression of one of two Z's.
beside Ital. tesoro
104. rs. Velius Longus 79. 4 says sic et dossum per duo s quam per r
dorsum quidam ut lenius enuntiaverunt, ac tota littera r sublata est in eo
quod est rusum et retrosum. Cf. Probi App. 198. 29 persica non 'pessica' (a
:
[For other examples, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. w. controversies (and

peach).
other compounds of -versus, e. g. prosa^, Marspiter, Sassina, Thyrsagetes, assa, &c.]
In the Sententia Minuciorum of 117 B.C. (C.I.L. i. 199) we have controvorsieis,
controwsias, suso vorsum, sursuorsum, and sursumuorsum, deorsum and dorsum side
Since double consonants are usually written single on this inscription

probably represents the
pronunciation controuossias. (On these spellings in Plautine MSS. ,*see Kitschl,
by
(
side.
posidebunt, posedeit, &c. , beside possiderent) controuosias
Prolegg. p. civ.)
105. r-n.
Menetris, a byform of meretrix (see A. L. L. iii. 539 and cf. Probi
App. 198. 28 K. meretrix non menetris ') may have been influenced by
mdnere or Greek fitVcu (cf. Non. 423. 1 1 M. menetrices a manendo dictae sunt).
Nor is cancer a clear case of Dissimilation for ^career 'Greek Kapn-ivoi), seeing
i
'
'
that a nasal in the reduplication-syllable
is
not
unknown
in other I.-Eur.
languages, e. g. Greek yoy-yv\\ca, rov-Oopvfa, 0. Ind. can-curyate, cf. gin-grire.

In the Gaelic language n when following c, g becomes r, such a word as cnu,
Some see this change in groma.

a nut, being pronounced cru (with nasal u\
a land-measuring instrument, which they consider to be the Greek yvufj-cav.
But other instances are wanting and gn- in Latin became n, not gr, e. g. nosco,
;
natus.
Probi App. 197. 32 pancarpus non 'parcarpus') (see ch.
(Cf.
106. 1-n.
21 Th.),
and
byforms of
'
Leptis,
iv.
80).
'
Nuscitiosus, qui plus videret vesperi quam meridie (Fest. 180.

nusciosus, 'qui plus vespere videt' (Lo*we, Prodromus, p. 17), are
i
luscitiosus
filia fratris
'
and
lusciosus,
which may be due
to the analogy of nox.
340) seems to be a byform ofneptis. The Diminutive

in Vulg. Lat. *conuc(u)la (Ital. conocchia, Fr. que-
(ib. p.
a spindle, was
more certain example of n for I is the mispronunciation censured
App. 197. 24 K. cultellum non 'cuntellum' (see below) (see also
Seelmann, p. 327 ; Schuchardt, Vok. i. p. 143). When Latin n follows n in
of
colus,
nouille).
in Probi
successive syllables we find l-n in Ital. veleno and veneno (O. Fr. velin) from
Latin vSnenum, Bologna from Bononia, Palestrina from Praeneste, Praenestinus,
calonaco and canonico (cf. Ital. gonfalone, a banner, Fr. gonfalon, Span,
confalon, O. Fr. gonfanon, Prov. gonfanons from 0. H.
107.
before consonant.
some instances
calculus in MSS.
collected
(cf.
For the w-affection of
Germ, grand-fano).
before a consonant, see
by Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 493 sqq., e.

In the Edict of Diocletian ',301
Georges).
g. cauculus for
A.D.)
we have
PRONUNCIATION.
104-111.]
Blant.
(le
97
The letters L and
ttavKovXaropi for calculator!.
SAITEM
LIQUIDS.
I are so similar that spellings like

be nothing but a graver's error. On the other
form of the Latin Volsienus was certainly Voisienus and in
J. G. i.)
may
hand the Umbrian

= i. 1412) we have epitaphs of a father in Umbrian,
C. LL. xi. 5389 and 5390
(
and a son in Latin, with the father's name Voisieno- and the son's Volsieno-.
In Probi Appendix 197. 24 K. the mispronunciation cuntellum for cultellmn is
;
mentioned.
This treatment of I before a consonant is found in Central Italy

(Latium, Sabina, la Marche, and Umbria) in modern Italian, e. g. untimo for
ultimo in a fourteenth cent, text (see Wien. Stud. xiv. 315 n.). Cf. muntufrom.
Pompeii
(C. I. L. iv.
1593).
K. per vero praepositio omnibus integra

1
litteram, adfinem consonantem, quam
elegantioris sermonis viri geminare malunt quam r litteram exprimere, ut
cum pellabor' malunt dicere quam perlabor. nee aliter apud Lucilium legitur
108.
rl.
Velius Lorigus 65.
cum
praeponitur, nisi
incidit in
'
in praeposito per,
'pelliciendo,'
'
hoc est inducendo, geminato
malunt quam
(Lucil. ix. 32
M.
unde
et apud Virgilium non aliter legimus

In the Probi Appendix 198, 14 K. we have
supellex non 'superlex,' with the (marginal?) note utrumque dicitur. (On
the late spelling superlex, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) The only example of
'
pellicere
'
pellacis Ulixi
rl
'
perlicere,
160).
(see ch. iv.
in the Indices of the Corpus isperlegere (vol.
i).
R is sometimes dropped before a consonant on

Koara (Lat. Quarto} (C. I. G. add. 43151), ârajvi\os (Brit. Hus.
ii. 341, from
and in Latin plebeian inscrr., we have misspellings like
Cos)
Fotunate (C. L L. vi. 2236) for Fortunatae (sometimes Fort-, i. e. Fort- with close
o, see
145 ).
[Cf. the rude Faliscan inscr. Zvetaieff, Inscr. Ital. Inf. 63 with
109. r before consonants.
Greek
inscrr.,
e. g.
Mad
But
Acacelini (as Votilia for Voltilid) for the usual Hard Acarcelini of n 62, &c.]
would be unsafe to rely on these as evidence that Latin r ever became
it
the mere voice-glide which English r always becomes when not followed by
a vowel, e.g. in 'here,' 'hark' as opposed to herein,' 'harass.'
i
110. final r.
All final consonants were, as we have seen, weakly pronounced in Latin. Some instances of the omission of -r in spellings of
inscriptions and MSS. have been collected by Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 390.
Trasumennum
'
pro Tarsumenno, multi

uno nomine faciebat barbarismos Tinga Placen5.
tinus, si reprehendenti Hortensio credimus, preculam pro pergula dicens.
Examples from Plautus are Phyrgio, Aul. 508, corcotarii, Aul. 521. Consentius
(392. 23 K.) censures perlum for prelum, reilquum for reliquum, interpertor for
111.
Metathesis.
auctores
i.
Quint,
'
i.
5.
13
12 duos in
'
interpreter,
coada for
Diomedes
(452.
cloaca, displicina (a
'
schoolboy's joke surely) for disciplina
(and tanpister for

tantisper}
Julian, in Don. v. p. 324. i8K. intrepellaforinterpella; Probi Appendix
has (199. 12 K.) glatri [leg. clatri ?] non cracli.' This late Latin cracli (cf.
Probi App. 195. 23 K.) comes from *cratli as veclus (ib. 197. 20) from *vetlus for
vetulus. Clustrum for crustlum is found on
inscriptions of the Empire (e. g. dv,strum
etmulsum, Not. Scav. 1877, p. 246 of second cent. A.D., cf. K\ov<rTpoir\aKovs, Athen.
xiv. p. 647 c, d). Colurnus is the adjective from corulus.
(On the confusion of
In Italian nothing is
fragro, flagro and the form fraglo, see A. L. L. iv. 8.)
30 K.),
leriquiae for reliquiae, lerigio for religio
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
98
[Chap. II.
this Metathesis with r.

Thus in S. Italy crapa is used for
capra (Lat. capra), which reminds us of the statement of Paul. Fest. that the
old Latin word for capra was crepa (33. 36 Th. caprae dictae, quod omne
commoner than
virgultum carpant, sive a crepitu crurum.
Unde
et
'crepas' eas prisci
The Luperci, who wore goatskins and ran about

with goatskin thongs, were called crepi, ib. 39. 34 K. crepos,
dixerunt.
striking people
id est lupercos,
dicebant a crepitu pellicularum, quern faciunt verberantes) so interpetre for

and preta
interprete (should we read interpetror in Consentius 392. 23 K. ?)
for petra is used in various parts of Italy formento is I&t.frumentum, farnetico
Lat. phreneticus, &c., &c. For I we have padule, a marsh (Lat. pdludem) falliva
;
beside favilla, fiaba, a fable, for Lat. fabla, ffibula. Paduan requilia for reliquia
(should we read requilum in Consentius 392. 23 K. ?) is in Venetian leriquia
in many parts of Italy, grolia is used
(cf. leriquias of Diomedes 452. 30 K.)
;
[For some instances of Metathesis in late inscriptions and in MSS.

spellings, see Schuchardt, Vdk. i. p. 29 on Prancatius for Pancratius, padules for
paludes (cf. Ital. padule), and Seelmann, p. 330 on Procobera for Porcobera, &c.
and for examples in Latin byforms, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv. pristis,
crocodilus, Trasumenus, trapezita, and Wolfflin, A. L. L. viii. 279 on accerso and
for gloria.
The Latin
arcesso.~\
proserpo
Proserpina (C.
L.
i.
57 PROSEPKAI dat. case) for Greek

may be due to the analogy of
(Pelignian Perseponas gen. case)
Hcpffetyovr]
but Vulg. Lat. *alenare for anhelare
(Ital.
alenare, Fr. haleiner),

plop, Catal. clop) are
Koum.
*plopus for poplus, populus, poplar-tree (Ital. pioppo,

dear cases of metathesis of L
112. ly. For misspellings on late inscriptions and in MSS. likeflus forfilius,
see Schuchardt, Vok. ii. pp. 486 sqq. Some of them may be due to the confusion
of the L and I (see above).
Ital. giglio, a lily, seems to come from a form
Servius ad Aen. ii. 195 appro ves pejuro for the Verb, but perjurus
in verbo r non habet nam pejuro dicimus, corrupta natura
praepositionis
quae res facit errorem, ut aliqui male dicant pejurus ut
113. ry.
for the Adjective
'
pejuro.
114. P.
influence
The Latin
from Greek
phoneticians cannot be suspected of any

sources in their account of f\ a sound
unknown
to the Greek alphabet; so their description may be

at their time,
taken as a true account of the pronunciation of
or possibly even at an earlier, the date, namely, of the treatise on
Latin phonetics from which they seem to have borrowed. That

time was probably the Augustan age. Their words leave no
doubt whatever that / was a labiodental spirant, as it is in
and most languages, formed by the upper teeth pressed

against the lower lip, not a bilabial spirant, formed by the upper
and lower lips pressed against each other
Italian
imum
superis dentibus adprimens labellum

spiramine leni (Terentianus Maurus, second cent.
A. D.).
PRONUNCIATION.
112-114.]
F.
99
The spiramen lene was more a feature of the normal /-sound

when a vowel followed, than in combinations with consonants
like/r, J?, as we learn from Quintilian. who, when discussing the
more musical nature of the Greek language than the Latin, speaks
of Latin/i especially in words \\kefrangit (to a less extent when
followed by a vowel), as rough and harsh compared with the
sounds of Greek.
softer
This more vehement articulation of
before a consonant explains the different treatment of the Latin
spirant in Spanish, in words like haba (Lat. faba), humo (Lat.

Quintilian' s account
fumits), but fraga (Lat. frdgum} *fraga).
does not mention the labiodental character of the sound
(xii.
10.
29 paene non humana voce vel omnino non voce potius inter
discrimina dentium efflanda est), but is quite consistent with it.
It is, in fact, very like the account given by phoneticians of our
formed with a strong hiss, by pressing the lower lip firmly

against the tipper teeth, and thus driving the breath between
/, as
'
the teeth'' (Sweet, Handb. p. 41).

But it is highly probable that Latin
bilabial, as it
is
to this
day
in Spanish,
was at some time
where v
(b)
is
bilabial
naturally tends to become labiodental, because

into play it is possible to give a stronger
the
teeth
by bringing
and more distinct sound than can be produced by the lips alone.
too.
Bilabial
The voiced bilabial spirant v has, as we saw before ( 48), become

And we
labiodental v in Italian and other Romance languages.
have some evidence of
/ being
still
bilabial in the last centuries
of the Republic from spellings like im. front e (C.I.L. i. 1104),

not to speak of comflnont beside conflouont on the Sententia
Minuciorum of 117
B.C. (C.I.L.
i.
199),
and possibly from the
with a word beginning with f (or

in
became
v, b, &c.)
Republican Latin ar e.g. arfuise on the S. C.
de Bacchanalibus of 186 B.C. (C. I. L. i. 196). Another passage of
fact that ad, in composition
Quintilian tells us of the difficulty felt by Greeks in pronouncing

thoroughly Roman letter (i. 4. 14 Graeci adspirare f ut
this
solent).
a Greek
<
He illustrates it by the story of Cicero's ridicule of

witness who could not pronounce the first letter of
Funddnius.
By
had become a
the fifth cent. A.D., however, the Greek aspirate

from Latin
only in being
spirant, differing
bilabial.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
100
sound
[Chap. II.
off. Quiiitilian (xii. 10. 29)
nam ilia,
quae
nostrarum, paene non humana voce, vel omnino non voce potius,
inter discrimina dentium efflanda est
quae, etiam cum vocalem proximo
est sexta
quassa quodammodo, utique quotiens aliquam consonantem frangit,

ut in hoc ipso frangit, multo fit horridior Terent. Maur. 332. 227 K.
accipit,
'
inium superis dentibus adprimens labellum,

spiramine
leni,
velut hirta Graia
[i. e.
(f>,
p-h] vites,
hanc ore sonabis, modo quae locata prima
est
34. 9 K. f litteram imum labium superis imprimentes

dentibus, reflexa ad palati fastigium lingua, leni spiramine proferemus Mart.
Cap. iii. 261 F dentes [faciunt] labrum inferius deprimentes. In the sixth
cent. A. D., Priscian mentions as the only difference between Latin/and Greek
hoc tamen
4>, that the former was not pronoun ced./m's labris (i. p. n. 27 H.
Marius Victorin.
scire
debemus, quod non
fixis labris est
pronuntianda
f,
et
quomodo p
2
atque hoc solum interest) [Blass, Griech. Aussprache
p. 85 dates the change
of Greek <p (written in Latin ph, or as Priscian puts it 'p et h'), from the
Two centuries earlier than
aspirate to the spirant sound at about 400 A. D.].
Priscian, the difference between Latin /and Greek (p seems to have been very
,
slight, for Diomedes (fourth cent. A. D.), from whom, or from whose original
et hoc scire debemus
authority, Priscian may be quoting, says (423. 28 K.)
quod f littera turn scribitur, cum Latina dictio scribitur, ut felix.' nam si
:
et
Phoebus,' Phaeton.' F is the normal

in Greek loanwords from the middle or end of the
scribimus, ut
peregrina fuerit, p
equivalent of Greek
fourth century onwards,
The remark
to
e. g. strofa,
'
'
Greek
arpo^rj (see ch.
n).
i.
17 H.) that F, the Aeolic digamma, used

of consonantal v (w\ probably refers to a fashion of some
of Priscian
have the sound
(i.
p. 35.
early grammarians of writing Fotum,' 'Firgo,' &c., alluded to by Cornutus

7).
ap. Cassiodor. 148. 8 K. and by Donatus ad Ter. Andr. i. 2. 2 (see ch. i.
'
116. mf. Mar. Victorinus (18. 14 K.) : item consonantes inter se [invicem
sibi succedunt], sed proprie sunt cognatae, quae simili figuratione oris dicuntur,
ut est b, f, [s], m, p, quibus Cicero adicit v, non earn quae accipitur pro vocali,
sed earn quae consonantis obtinet vicem, et anteposita vocali fit ut aliae
quoque consonantes. quotiens igitur praepositionem sequetur vox cujus
prima syllaba incipit a supradictis litteris, id est b, f, [s], m, p, v, quae vox
conjuncta praepositioni significationem ejus confundat, vos quoque praecomburit
comfert
compositionis litteram mutate, ut est combibit
fundit
commemorat
comvalescit
comminuit
comparat
compellit
comvocat non conbibit
conburit et similia.
sic etiam praepositio
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
juncta vocibus quae incipiunt a supradictis litteris n commutat in m, ut

'
imbibit
imbuit
imfert
immemor
immitis
imficit
impius
impotens.' He must be quoting from some grammarian of the Republic in
his rule about/; for the usual teaching of the grammarians of the Empire is
that the consonants before which m is used are b, p, m and Priscian, i. p. 31.
2 H. quotes as early an authority as the elder Pliny to this effect (cf. Prise,
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
<
'
'
i.
'
p.
29.
am
'
ancisus
'
18 H.
anfractus
'
'
n mutat m
But the spelling with m before/ (and v)
of which such MS. spellings as comferre, Poen.
praepositio f vel c vel q sequentibus in

'
anquiro ').
was undoubtedly an old
usage,
1048, comfragosas, Men. 591 in the Plautus Palimpsest,
cow/ten, Aen. iv. 116 in Virgil
MSS. may be
relics.
imjlammam, Aen.
On
xii. 214,
the other hand since
PRONUNCIATION.
116-117.]
inperdtor is
nasal
S,
X,
1OI
Z.
found both in early and later times beside imperator, and since the
in pronunciation dropped before/(cf. coftsse, covenere in
may have been
Virgil MSS., Kibbeck, Ind. p. 393), the evidence of these early spellings
conclusive.
'
is
not
X, Z. In the noun use and the verb to use' the

'
s has two different sounds, which we often call
hard s
Hard s is more scientifically termed unvoiced/
soft s/
117.
'
'
S,
'
letter
'
and
'
'
soft voiced
s, the two sounds differing exactly as the unvoiced
and voiced mutes,, p and b t and d, c and g. The Latin s in
a word like urlis was hard or unvoiced s, we know from the
'
statements of the grammarians, that the

spelling urps expressed the pronunciation; while the spelling
with b was justified only by the analogy of other cases, nrbis,
frequently repeated
nrdi nrbem, &c. (see

80) ; and p in sumpsi, hiemps tells the same
Initial *, whether in the accented or unaccented syllable,
t
tale.
may
also be put
agree in giving
si;
Ital.
similarly
down
it
as unvoiced
sound
sy
since the
Romance languages
Span, si for Lat.

sudare
for
Lat.
suer, Span,
sudare), and
the initial of the second member of a com-
this
(e.g. Ital. si, Fr. si,
sudare, Fr.
when
s is
pound, in words like
Ital. risalire, Fr. resilier,
Span,
resalir
from
Lat. rewlire, later resalire.

None of the Latin grammarians
ever suggest that Latin s had anything but one and the same
sound ; and their silence is evidence of some weight that the soft or
unvoiced variety of s was unknown in Latin. This voiced s-sound
seems to have been the sound of Greek f in and after the Macedo-
nian period
for (T/xapaySoj, Z^ypva for Sjjivpva),

(cf. (jutapaySos
which corresponds to
which explains why Oscan voiced
Umbrian and Latin r, is in those inscriptions which are written
<?,
in Latin characters,
expressed by z e. g. eizac (Umbr. erak),

eizazunc egmazum (in Lat. earum rerum) on the Bantia Tablet
c.
130 B.C. Between vowels s had at an early time in Latin
(c.
B.C. according to Cicero, Fain. ix.
350
did in
Umbrian ; and
this earlier s
2,1.
2)
become
r,
as
it
very well have had in

in the
146). Intervocalic s
may
sound (ch. iv.

and Imperial period is only found as a rule where there
had been formerly some consonant combined with s, e.g.formosm
this position the voiced

classical
e&rMer formonsus, causa earlier caussa, tisus earlier ussus (see ch. iv.
In such words s has become voiced in many Romance
148).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
102
[Chap.
II.
e. g. Fr. epouse
(Lat. sponsa), but only in those in
which every Latin unvoiced consonant becomes voiced in this
In Italian intervocalic * is unvoiced, except in the
position.
languages,
few
where Latin unvoiced mutes also become voiced, e.g.

mudare ( 73). There is hardly any evidence, therethat 8 in classical Latin was in any circumstances pronounced
cases
sposare, like
fore,
'
and the opinion, a widely spread one,

that the change of spelling from caussa to causa, &c., indicated
a change from hard to soft s is utterly wrong.
The pronunciation of double -ss- is discussed in 131. Here
we need only mention the curious practice that grew up in the
like our $ in 'to use
later
Empire
of prefixing
to initial
si, sp, go,
seen in spellings on
inscriptions like istatuam (Orelli 1120, of 375 A.D), igpose (i.e.

sponsae C. I. L. viii. 3485), and in Romance forms like Fr.
These last show that this spelling does not indicate an

epouse.
5/^-sound of s before a mute like German stehen (pronounced
'
shtehen
'),
but that there was an actual f-sound before the
an e-sound which developed from a vowel-glide, due to

beginning the word before the vocal-organs were properly in
s -sound,
'
These initial on -glides/ as

position for the initial consonant.
phoneticians would term them, are a feature of Romance lanbut not of Teutonic.
We have
some indication of initial / having had
'
an on-glide in Latin ( 99)
and spellings on inscriptions
the
same
for
initial
Can this have
other
consonants.
suggest
'
been the circa s litteram deliciae which elocution teachers had to
guages
(cf.
Greek
ZpvOpos),
already seen that there
is
'
'
correct
in their pupils
taught nowadays
an initial vowel ?
i.
(Quint,
to avoid the
n.
6),
'
'
breathy
as
singers are
gradual beginning of
just
had, as the grammarians repeatedly tell us, the sound of

c followed by the sound of s.
The c (as the c of cf,
95),
tended to be dropped after a consonant, whence the spelling

mers in Plautus for merx'y and in careless pronunciation x in
any position tended to ss (so ct became tt

95), as we see
from forms like cossim for coxim, used in the farces of Pomponius
There are traces, too, of the substitution of sc
(ap. Non. 40 M.).
In Italian
for cs, e.g. ascella is the Late-Latin form of axilla.
we have g* [as in ancient Pelignian, e.g. usur (Lat. uxores], and
t
PRONUNCIATION.
119.]
S X, Z.
103
other dialects], for example, sasso (Lat. saawm), but before

a consonant (as probably in Vulgar Latin), #, e.g. destro (Lat.
Umbriaii destra^ &c.). Latin loanwords in
dexter) (as in ancient
indicate cs e.g. O.W. Saes for Latin Saaso, croes for Latin
$ before a consonant, e.g. estron (Lat. extraneus), estynn
Welsh
crftsD,
but
(Lat. eoBtendo),
Z of Old Latin
had perhaps the
soft or voiced
sound of
#,
which
passed into the r-sound about the time of Appius Claudius, the
famous censor, when z was discarded from the alphabet (see ch. i.
Greek ( differed from
it
in causing length
by position/
short vowel was weakly pronounced at all
periods of the Latin language, and in the early poetry often did
not constitute 'position' before an initial consonant, though by
5).
Final -* after a
Cicero's time
it
was regarded
nunciation to give
118.
vicina
quidem
its full
of correct prosound.
Tcr. Main*, vi. 332. 239-243 K.
inox duae supremae

dentibus repressis
tamen
promptus in ore
sic levis et
s,
essential
word
sibila
miscere videntur
et
an
as
at the end of a
unum
ictus ut priori
agiturque pone dentes,

ciet auribus susurrum.
est,
16 K. dehinc duae supremae, s et x, jure jungentur. nam

vicino inter se son ore attracto sibilant rictu, ita tamen, si prioris ictus pone
dentes excitatus ad medium lenis agitetur. Mart. Cap. iii. 261 S sibilum facit
dentibus verberatis. ... X quicquid C atque S formavit exsibilat. Cledonius,
Mar. Viet.
v. 28. i
K.
vi. 34.
sibilus
magis
est
quam
consonaiis.
119. Latin s in Romance. Initial s- becomes our sh (cf. Ital. sciminia) in

Venice and some other parts (similarly intervocalic s becomes the voiced
form of this sound, as in our pleasure '}, and was possibly voiced s in ancient
'
On a late inscription of
Tibur we have ZABINA (C. I. L. vi. 12236). Intervocalic -s- between the accented
and unaccented vowels is unvoiced in Spanish (where however all sibilants
Italic dialects (e. g. Faliscan Zexto- for Sextus (?)).
are unvoiced"), Koumanian and Italian, e. g. Italian mese (Latin mensis)

[MHZES on a Naples' inscription (C. I. L. x. 719), if it represent actual pro-
nunciation, must have been a dialectal variety]. Italian sposa (with voiced
s and
open o) is influenced by sposare (Latin spo(n)sare). where the o and the
s precede the accent ; the voiced s of rosa is anomalous, but may represent
or rosa may be a bookword and not a direct descendant of the Latin,
French and Spanish forms too are irregular (Grober's Grundr. p. 522).
It is voiced in the other Komance languages, in which also (as in Spanish)
unvoiced mutes between vowels become voiced, e. g. Fr. epouse (Lat. spo(ri)sa),
chose (Lat. causa) with voiced s, like O.Fr. ruede (Lat. rota, Span, ruede), vide
Intervocalic -sIt is voiced also in North Italian.
(Lat. vita, Span. vida).
Greek
for its
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
104
before the accented vowel is voiced in Italian,
e. g.
II.
[Chap.
sposare (Latin spo(w)sare),
any Latin unvoiced mute becomes voiced in this position e. g.

mudare (Latin mutare), pagare (Lat. pacare}. So does any s which by Syncope,
&c. has come to stand before a voiced consonant, e. g. sdegno (Vulg. Lat.
precisely as
while in Spanish
disdigno)j
it
has developed to
ct,
(though written
s), e. g-
desden.
Latin z. The letter 2, the Greek letter

was, as we saw
brought into use at Kome in the transcription of Greek words (and
of those only) about the close of the Eepublic. Previously to that time ss had
been used, e. g. massa (Greek A*aa), which at the beginning of a word was s,
s- alliterate
e.g. Setus (C.I.L. i. 1047, 1299, Greek ZrjOos) (Plautus makes this
with ordinary s-, e. g. sonam sustuli Merc. 925, solve sonam True. 954), and,
if we are to believe the grammarians, rf, e. g. Medentius for Mezentius.
[But
120.
(ch.
i.
Greek
i),
Septidonium a mispronunciation of Septizonium, a building at Rome (Probi App.

(Prise, i. 49 y etz
197. 23), seems to be a popular etymology from donum."]
in graecis tantummodo ponuntur dictionibus, quamvis in multis veteres
s vel ss vel d
haec quoque mutasse inveniantur, et pro v u, pro vero
Sethus pro
Saguntum,' massa pro ZfavvOos, ftaa,
posuisse, ut
Blass, in his book on Greek
ZrjOos dicentes, et 'Medentius' pro Mezentius.)
Pronunciation, gives the history of the Greek sound as follows. The combination zd in words like ob? (Germ. Ast), i'fa (Lat. sldo for *sisdo), 'A0^?oc
(the Semitic letter Sain, a symbol in
('AOfivas-St) was expressed by the letter
the Semitic alphabet of voiced s\ as the combination ks by (the Semitic
.
'
'
'
'
Samech). This was the original use of

combination dz (from c?i/), e. g. trtfa (for
It
came
to be applied to the
{airXovros (for SidnXovros) ;

the transference of the Greek alphabet to Italy, with
iredyos),
at this period came

the result that in the Italic alphabets, Umbrian, Oscan, &c., the z-symbol
had the sound of dz or ts. In course of time dz came round to the sound of
This ed-sound further
sound of
zd, so that TreCo? and iw had now the same
developed into the sound of zz or 2, apparently in the Macedonian period
and so we find the town Gaza, whose Semitic name has voiced s or Sain,
written in Greek characters Tafa. This then was the sound which the
Romans had to express in Greek loanwords, voiced s, not the earlier sound
and
reason to believe, was a sound unknown in

which explains Quintilian's remark (xii. 10. 28
and
cf. Maxim. Victorinus, vi. 196. 3 K.) about the beauty of the sound of
To express it, double or single s (the
its absence from the Latin alphabet.
unvoiced s-symbol) was used by the early Republican writers and occasionally
zd.
Voiced
s,
as
we have found
Latin words since 350
B. c.,
later authors (e. g. saplutus, Petron. 37, for a7rAot/ros), perhaps even d (with
the sound of th in this ?), until a later age felt the necessity of employing,
for the sake of exactness, the Greek letter itself, as they did also in the case
by
'
'
of Greek
v, <>,
The history
x> 0.
of
is
common
point of discussion
among
Greek grammarians .who remark on its origin from the combinations aS and
their remarks are repeated by their Latin imitators, but need not be
8<r, and
taken to imply that f had at the time of the Empire any other sound than
that of voiced s (Mar. Viet. vi. 6. 6 K. Maxim. Viet. vi. 196. 3 K. Audacis
Thus Velius Longus (vii. 50. 9 K.), in criticizing the remark
exc. vii. 327 K.).
sciant z litteram per sd scribi ab iis qui putant illam
of Verrius Flaccus
had not the sound of a double
ex s et d constare/ states positively that
and
letter, unlike
denique siquis secundum naturam vult excutere hanc
:
'
PRONUNCIATION.
120-123.]
S,
X, Z.
105
litteram, inveniet duplicem non esse, si modo illam aure sinceriore exploet plane siquid supervenerit, me dicente sonum hujus litterae,
raverit
invenies eundem tenorem, a quo coeperit. The interchange of dy and z on
.
late inscriptions, e. g. baptidiata, Kossi i. 805, of 459 A. D., and in spellings like
zabulusfor diabolus (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.) implies merely that the spirant
//-sound which dy had come to take in Latin ( 51, cf. Madia for Maid} was
felt
to resemble the sibilant sound of voiced
in alphabets derived
from Latin,
e. g.
s.
O. Engl.
has however the

Bathsheba.'
Bezabe
fe-
sound
Roman z, found in the Carmen Saliare (Velius Longus, vii. 51. 5

and according to tradition discarded through the influence of Appius
Claudius, one would naturally suppose to have had the same sound as that of z
in the Umbrian, Oscan, and other Italic alphabets, viz. dz or ts so that Claudius
121. Old
K.),
might, like Papirius, Ruga, and other traditional reformers of spelling, have
exemplified the new orthography in his own family-name by writing Claudius
This would harmonize well with the fantastic
for an earlier *Clausus.
remark of Martianus Capella, that Claudius objected
to the letter because it

gave the teeth the appearance of a death's-head (iii. 261 Z vero idcirco
Appius Claudius detestatur, quod dentes mortui, dum exprimitur, imitatur),
which happily describes the appearance of the mouth in uttering the dzsound of our adze.' But this description will also suit for the voiced
and the contemporary change of intervocalic s (voiced s to r,
s-sound
exemplified in the new spelling of Papisius as Papmus, as well as the use of
z for voiced s on a very early coin of Cosa, suggests that this rather was
the sound of early Eoman z (see ch. i.
5
though the matter is uncertain.
'
Old Roman
s (z), later r.
The change of intervocalic s to r is
one in various languages, and is generally taken to imply that the
s first became voiced s, then passed into r (cf. Span, desden, see above). That
Old Roman s of Fusius, &c. took this course is indicated by the fact that the
Oscan sibilant, corresponding to Latin and Umbrian r, is in the inscriptions
in Latin characters written z, and not s.
122.
common
For instances of the prosthetic

123. Prosthetic vowel with st, &c.
vowel in MSS. and late inscriptions, see the list given by Schuchardt in Vok.
ii. pp. 338 sqq., who refers the earliest traces of its use to the second cent. A. D.
It is written i or e, e.g. istudium, estudium, sometimes hi-, he-, e.g. histudiis
(often misread in MSS. as hisstudiis\ rarely y, ae, and is often confused with
the prepositions in, ex. Thus iscribere, escribere may represent either scribere or
or exscribere.
In late Latin where ab is used before an initial vowel,
a before an initial consonant, we find ab normally before an initial sp-, sc-, st-,
inscribere
even though the prosthetic vowel is not expressed in writing (A.L.L. iii. 149).
Along with the dropping of this prosthetic vowel, and the restoration of the
original form scribere, &c., went the dropping of the initial i-, e- of i(n}scribere,
e(x)scribere, so that we get spellings like splorator for explordtor (Cagnat, Ann.
Epigr. 1889, no. 55), Spania for Hispania (see Schuchardt's list, Vok. ii. pp. 365
In Italian, a language in which almost every word ends in a vowel,
sqq.).
the prosthetic vowel has been dropped, 'e-. g. studio, and with it the genuine
1
Initial Z, however, in Umbro-Osc.

zefef 'sedens' i^von Planta, i. p. 71).
may have been a variety of s,
e. g.
Umbr.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
106
initial
vowels of words like Lat.
historia,
[Chap. II.
Hispania, instrumentum, Ital. storia.
Spagna, stromento or strumento. But after words like con, in, noil (all ending
in a consonant), both vowels are restored in pronunciation, so that the
spelling con estudio, non estoria represents the actual sound. These forms
studio
and estudio
(istudio), storia
and
estoria (istoria) are
what are
called
doublets,' the one being used after a final vowel, the other after a (rare) final
consonant and that is, no doubt, the explanation of these double forms
'
&c. on late inscriptions.

In French, where consonant
endings were far more preserved than in Italian, the prosthetic vowel
remains, e. g. etude, ecrire. It is before st-, sc-, sp-, &c., for the most part, that
the prosthetic vowel asserted itself sufficiently to require expression in spelling but its presence before other consonantal initials may be inferred from
splorator,
esplorator,
occasional spellings like Hocus, iredclere, imerito (misread in MSS. as immerito), &c.
(seethe list of examples in Schuchardt, Vok. ii. pp. 360 sqq. some in MSS. are
;
merely misreadings of critical signs). In Italian, where, as we have said,

almost every word ends in a vowel, we could hardly expect this Latin pros
thetic vowel to show signs of itself. Indeed the tendency is rather for a genuine
initial vowel to be suppressed under the influence of a preceding final vowel.
Thus la apecchia, the bee (Lat. apfciila) has become la pecchia, Lat. ecclesia has
become chiesa, immicus, nemico, and so on. Whether the same Procope is the
explanation of the mispronunciation rabo for arrabo, which Plautus puts into
the mouth of the slave in the Truculentus, for the sake of poking fun at the
it is
Praenestines,
impossible to say
STR. tene
tibi
rabonem habeto
AST. Perii, rabonem.'- quam esse dicam hanc beluam
Quin tu arrabonem dicis?
STR. 'a' facio lucri,
Ut Praenestinis 'conea' est ciconia.
.
We
do not find mention of the prosthetic vowel by Latin grammarians till

which shows that however far it had developed in Vulgar
Latin, it did not threaten to encroach on the speech of the educated classes.
Thus Isidore (seventh cent.) derives escarus (i.e. scams) from esca (Orig. xii. 6. 30
escarus dictus eo, quod escam solus ruminare perhibetur), and iscurra (i.e.
scurra), somewhat comically, from the same word (ib. x. 152 [under I not E]
quite late times,
iscurra vocatur, quia causa escae quempiam consectetur

cf. ib. xx. 4. 9
'
discus antea iscus vocabatur a specie scuti).
He warns his readers against
the mispronunciations yspissa, yscena, ystimulus, (4. 509, App. 3. 40. Ar. spissa.
Similar warnings are given in the
scena, stimulus et cetera similia y carent).
Glosses ap. Mai, Cl. Auct. against iscena-, iscandalum, iscapha, iscribtura (\i. 580),
;
'
and
directions to write
'
per solam
'
sceda (vii.
578
b), stimulus, spissa,
and
(Theophilus non izofilus/ Probi App. 198. i, should

(vi. 581).
perhaps read <T. non ziofilus,' and in 199. 10, stabilitus non 'istabilitus,' is
a mere conjecture.) It is not found in the early Latin loanwords in Teutonic,
splendor
e.g. O.
H. Germ, scriban
(Lat. scn'&o),
or Celtic languages, e.g. 0. Ir. scol,
Bret, skol (Lat. sc(k)ola). But Welsh, which has the same tendency as late
Latin to use a prosthetic vowel (written y, pronounced like u of our but '),
<
followed by a consonant has subsequently added this y- to these

Latin loanwards, e.g. ysgol, ysgrifo. as it has done to other words of a similar
before initial
PRONUNCIATION.
124, 125.]
S,
X, Z.
107
ysgub, a sheaf. That Procope had shown itself in Vulgar Latin

from the Romance forms, Ital. bottega, Span, botica, Fr. boutique,
which point to Vulg. Lat. *poteca for apotheca, and Ital. morchia, Span, morga
from Vulg. Lat. *murca for amurca, both Greek words. (On ste for iste, see
form,
we
e. g.
see
ch. vii.
17.)
word like scribo with a compound,

was that some words beginning with so, up-, st-, &c. were
regarded as compounds with the prepositions ex, in, and were deprived of
their initial s.
This, at any rate, seems to be the explanation of forms like
Vulg. Lat. *pasmusfor spasmus (Span, pasmo, Port, pasmo, and the French verb
further result of the confusion of a
exscribo,
inscribe,
pamer, to swoon) (see the
Another
list
of examples in Schuchardt, Vok. ii. pp. 354 sqq.).

form as sponere for exponere being
result possibly was that such a

regarded as the equivalent of ponere, the
prefixed at random to words beginning in
(Schuchardt,
I.e.,
where the s- was
letter
c-,
t-,
s-
p-,
might occasionally be
&c., e.g. spiclus for pictus
mentions a few doubtful examples;
original,
e. g.
but includes cases

See ch. iv.
146.)
0. Lat. stritavus, later tritavus.
124. s before a consonant.
I.-Eur. s before m, n, &c.
was dropped
in Latin
primus (Pelignian Prismu for Lat. Prima),

comis (on the very ancient Dvenos inscription cosmis'), dumus older clummus
So tra(n)s became tra- before.?', d, and optionally before m, p,
(cf. Dusmus).
according to Velius Longus, 66. 9 K., e. g. transtulit, but trajccit, trdduxit transor rather assimilated
(iv. 159), e. g.
Spellings on late plebeian inscriptions

in MSS., such as prebeteri for presbyteri (Rossi, i. 731, of 445 A. D.), have
been collected by Schuchardt, Vok. ii. pp. 355 sq. But though s is suppressed in
misit or trdmisit, transposuit or traposuit.
and
some Romance languages, notably in French, e. g. chateau

Span, castillo) from Lat. castellum blamer (Ital. biasmare,
Catal. blasmar, Prov. blasmar) from Vulg. Lat. *blas(i)mare for blasphemare,
this suppression is by no means universal, and was unknown in French itself
at an earlier stage, e. g. blasmer
so that these spellings cannot convince us
that Latin s in the middle of a word had at all the same weak sound that it
had at the end of a word. (Schuchardt's examples of the assimilation of c or
this position in
(Ital.
castello,
to s, with ss for sc and st, e. g. Crissana, Vok. i. pp. 145 sq., are perhaps better
explained as cases of palatalization of c, t.}
A vowel before st, &c. is not shortened under the influence of a preceding
short syllable in Plautine versification any more readily than a vowel before
any other consonant group, e. g. voluptdtem, beside potestdtem, mimsterium. (See
t
ch.
iii.
34.)
125. x.
On the spellings cs,
ex, xs,
and (with consonant)
&c. see ch.
i.
4,
and for the interchange of
see Geoi'ges and Brambach s. vv. mixtus,

Ulixes, sesoenti, Esquiliae, Xerxes, Sestius, &c. Schuchardt, Vok. ii. p. 351, and i. 133,
gives some instances of es- for ex- before c, t, p in late Latin inscriptions and in
x with
ss
s,
'
MSS. (Cf. Placidus' Glossary, 67. 18 G. exspes, sine spe

espes vero sine
x nihil est), and of -ss-, -s- for -x-, e. g. vissit for vixit, Alesander for Alexander.
Vissit for vixit is common on late Christian inscriptions (e. g. C. I. L. x. 4546).
but the earliest instance of ss for x is probably on an epitaph of a cavalry
soldier at Cologne, which cannot be later than Nero's reign \ye\ssillo (A. L. L.
viii. 589.) On mers for merx
in MSS. of Plautus,
(wier(c)s, like pars for par(t)s)
see Ritschl, Opvsc. ii. p. 656.
Caper 98. 10 K. allows both cals and calx cals
dicendum, ubi materia est, per s at cum pedis e.st, calx per x. In late Latin
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
108
final -s
and
(originally
-x are often
ss)
Thus x
interchanged.
of miles, dries, poples,
[Chap. II.
is written for the final s

All these are forms censured in
locuples.
the Appendix Probi (197. 28 K.

and on inscriptions we
198. 29
199. 4, 5)
have milex, milix, pregnax, &c. (see Seelmann, p. 353). The similarity of the
sound of this -s with -x may be inferred from Probus, Inst. 126. 36 K. quae;
qua de causa miles per s et non per x litteram scribatur, &c. Similarly
was made opstitris (Probi App. 198. 34 K., cf. 198. 28 meretrix non
menetris ') and on inscriptions we have CONIVS and coivs (Greek KOZOYC,
C.I.L. x. 719), subornatris, &c. (see Seelmann, p. 353). The felatris (iv. 1388
and 2292) on inscriptions of Pompeii reminds us of -s, -ss for x, cs, on Oscan
inscriptions of the same town, e. g. meddiss (for *meddices Nom. PI.) Zv. 1. 1. 1.
ritur
obstetrix
'
140
(cf.
Osc. Santia for SavOias).
126. Final
1891
constitute
;
s.
'
'
Havet on
'
1'S latin caduc in Etudes dedie'es & G. Paris.

the rule, and not the exception, that -s does not
in the older poetry cf. Plautine endings of lines like
(See
he shows that
'
it is
position
Cicero (Orator, xlviii. 161)
quinetiam quod jam subrusticum videtur,

olim autem politius, eorum verborum, quorum eaedem erant postremae duae
litterae, quae sunt in optimus/ postremam litteram detrahebant, nisivocalis
insequebatur ita non erat ea offensio in versibus, quam nuncfugiunt poetae
novi ita enim loquebamur
qui est omnibu' princeps,
non omnibus princeps,' et
estis ros).
'
'
uita ilia dignu' locoque,
non dignus. quod si indocta consuetudo tarn est

ipsa tandem arte et doQtrina postulari putamus ?
artifex suavitatis, quid ab

;
Quint, ix. 4. 38 quae fuit
causa et Servio, ut dixit, subtrahendae s litterae, quotiens ultima esset aliaque

consonante susciperetur, quod reprehendit Luranius, Messala defendit. nam
neque Lucilium putat uti eadem ultima, cum dicit 'Aeserninus fuit' et
dignus locoque/ et Cicero in Oratore plures antiquorum tradit sic locutos.
1
(On the dropping of
-s
on inscrr. see
137.)
No point of Latin pronunciation

127. Double Consonants.
more certain than that a double consonant in such a word as
Imcca was really pronounced as a double, and not as a single
consonant, with 'the first syllable ending in one c, and the
is
second syllable beginning with another c' as the Latin grammarians put it, or in more scientific language, with a new forceimpulse beginning in the second half of tjie consonant. The
uttered, not, as we are accustomed to pronounce
with one <?-sound, but with the double osound of our ' bookcase/
The statements of the grammarians are so clear on this
word would be
it,
matter as to leave no room for doubt ; and even without their

help,
we might have inferred the Latin usage from the evidence

Romance languages. For although it is only the Italian
of the
which has entirely preserved to
this
day the double pronunciation
126, 127.]
PRONUNCIATION.
DOUBLE CONSONANTS.
109
but Span, boca, Fr. bouche), there are traces in

Latin ss is hard s, where
previous existence.
has become soft, or voiced s.
Latin rr nn, II have
(e.g. Ital. boc-ca,
the others of
Latin
its
developed into different sounds in Spanish from Latin r, n, I ;

and in French a Latin vowel before a double consonant has been
from one before a single consonant

tdlis
val
manus
becomes
but
vallis,
;
main,
annus, an.
differently treated
becomes
tel,
but
The only thing open
to question is whether the spelling with two

consonants did not sometimes indicate a lengthened rather than
a doubled consonant, a consonant on which the voice dwelt for

a time, without dividing it between two syllables.
This distinction between a long and a double consonant is more clearly
marked in the case of a mute (e. g. long c and double c), than of
I and double I,
long n and
(e. g. long
The
and
double
force
and
n, long
greater
abruptness
s).
of the mute as compared with the liquid would make the syllabledivision in bucca more readily caught by the ear than in milk.
This lengthened pronunciation may have been given to m, &c.,
a liquid, nasal, or sibilant
double
ammissam in the Medicean MS. of Virgil,

was probably a stage in the development of
in dmitto for ammitto (cf.
A.
ii.
741)
and
it
words like milia older
millia, causa older
causm, casus older cassus.

the grammarians, and from the
spelling of Inscriptions and the oldest MSS., we see that the
orthography, and presumably the pronunciation, of the Empire
From
the
statements
of
did not allow ss after a diphthong, nor (with possible exceptions)
between a long i and another i.

missi, millia of an earlier time were
after a long vowel, nor yet
The
caussa, cdssus, glossa,
II
reduced to causa, cdsm, glosa^ misi, milia, and show in Italian

to-day the single letter in spelling and pronunciation (cosa,
Seelmann's explanation is that the length of
chiosa, misi, &c.).
the diphthong would detract from the length of the consonant
in cau-ssa, and make it no longer than a single consonant causa,
while in milia the similarity of the articulation of i and / was the

reason why the vowel organs passed so quickly over the intervening /-position back to the 2-position, as to prevent the voice
from dwelling for the due period of time on the
we can
I itself.
How-
at least be positive that the spelling ss

may be,
did not, as Corssen suggests, merely indicate the hard or unvoiced
ever that
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
110
[Chap. II.
quality of the s-sound (e.g. Engl. 'ass' with hard

soft
s,
'as' with
s).
The practice of writing the consonants double was not adopted,

But there is no
as we saw (ch. i.
until the time of Ennius.
8),
this
show
that
the
from
to
evidence, apart
fact,
pronunciation of
bucca, penna. &c., in earlier times was not the same as the later
pronunciation (like our 'bookcase/ 'penknife').
have written these words with a single letter;
Plautus
may
he always
still
by position ; so that it would be

as rash to infer that the older spelling was anything more than
a mere usage of orthography, as to regard the temporary use of
treats the first syllable as long
osa (C. I. L. x.
the sicilicus in the Augustan age (ch. i.
8), e. g.
had
at that time
as
an
indication
that
consonant
the
3743),
a lengthened rather than a doubled pronunciation.

128. Testimony of the grammarians. The grammarians' rule is Write
two consonants, when two consonants are pronounced': ubi duarum consonantum sonus percutiet aures, Mar. Victorinus vi. 9-10 K. who quotes
;
sab-batis, sac-cts, ef-fert,
Pal-las,
an-num,
ef-fugit, fal-lit,
gal-lus,
ap-paratum,
Cin-nam,
macel-lum, nul-lus, pal-lium
val-lus,
lap-pam,
Ar-runtium,
bar-rum,
and adds
fer-rum, as-siduum, Cas-sium, fes-sum, At-tius, Vet-tius,
nam
cur-rit,
ut color
oculorum judicio, sapor palati, odor narium dinoscitur, ita sonus aurium
arbitrio subjectus est. Similarly Papirian (ap. Cassiodor. vii. 162. loK.) says
sono internoscemus, quoting

So Vel. Longus vii. 61-62 K.
ac-cedo, at-Mi,
as-siduus, ap-pareo, an-nuo, al-ligo.
Pliny (ap. Priscian,

one syllable ending with the
consonant, and the next syllable beginning with the same consonant (prior
syllaba in hac finitur, et sequens ab ea incipit, Consentius, v. 394. 35 K.,
who quotes il-le, Al-lia). Similarly Priscian. i. p. 45. 5 of il-le, p. 46. 8 of
i.
p. 29. 8)
il-le,
Metel-lus.
ac-cipio, ac-currere, ag-gerat,
They speak
also of
sub-bibo, p. 47. 5 of vacca
Sab-burra, sab-bata, gib-bus, gib-berosus, gib-ber, ob-ba,
(MSS.
9 of abad-dir,
6acca), buc-ca, soc-cus, ec-quis, quic-quam, p. 47.
red-do, red-duco
('
quod etiam reduce dicitur ',)
p. 48.
5 of
abad-dier, ad-do,
of-ficio, suf-ficio, af-fectus,
dif-fundo, p. 49. 29 of lip-pus, ap-paret, p. 50. 25 of mit-to, Cot-ta,

Velius Longus' remarks on the pronunciation of reduco and reddo must
be understood in the same way (vii. 66. 3 K.).
ef-ficio, dif-fidlis,
at-tinet.
129. Reduction of
Some grammarians
11
to
1,
ss to s, after a
diphthong or long vowel.

any
ascribe this reduction to a diphthong, others to
long vowel. Quintilian (i. 7. 20-21) tells us that caussae, cassus, divissionesvras
the spelling of Cicero's time, and that the double s was found in autograph
MSS. both of Cicero and of Virgil, and adds that in still earlier times (i. e.
before the introduction of double letters), jussi was spelt with a single s.
Velius Longus (vii. 79. 20 K.) censures the proposal of Nisus (first cent. A. D.)
to write comese, consuese,
and his argument
geminata consonans progredi
11011
soleat,'
'
quia juxta productam vocalem

and declares positively that
'geminari consonantes productis vocalibus junctas usus ostendit,' quoting
128,129.]
DOUBLE CONSONANTS.
PRONUNCIATION.
Ill
as examples errasse, scdtasse, abisse, calcasse. He inclines however to the spelling

paulum on the ground that paullum repetito eodem elemento [sc. 1] ... enuni
modo
potest/ and declares the true rule to be that the presence of

a diphthong, not of any long vowel, forbids the doubling of a consonant (cf.
Still he contrasts dossum (for dorsum}, with rusum,
Prise, i. p. 109. 22 H.).
and in another passage (72. n K.) he approves of the spelling and
retrosum
pronunciation accusdtor, as of comisdtor. Annaeus Cornutus (ap. Cassiodor.
tiari
nullo
149. 12-15 K. }, speaking apparently of the old spelling caussa, says: in qua
enuntiatione quomodo duarum consonantium sonus exaudiatur, non invenio.
Terentius Scaurus (21 22 K.) declares that neither s nor r are doubled, unless
the preceding vowel is short when it is long, the syllable ends with the
vowel, and the consonant begins the next syllable, e. g. plau-sus, lu-sus. The
spelling caussa he makes etymological (due to cavissa), not phonetic
apparet
;
'
causam
'
geminatum
non
recipere,
quoniam neque in
fine praecedentis
The remarks of
alterum potest poni, neque a gemino sequens incipere.

Velius Longus (72. 19 K. s vero geminata vocis sonum exasperat), and of
Marius Victorinus (viii. 5 6 K. iidem [sc. antiqui] voces quae pressiore sono
eduntur, ausus,' 'causa/ fusus/ 'odiosus/ per duo s scribebant 'aussus'),
must be regarded in the light of the previously quoted statements though
the latter may imply that the sound of an -s-, which represented a former -sswas not quite the same as the sound of ordinary s. That this was probably
the case with final -s (e. g. miles for *miless) we shall see below ( 133). Elsewhere Terentius Scaurus defends the spelling pauUum on etymological grounds,
'
'
and Annaeus Cornutus (first cent. A.D.,

(20. 15 K.)
ap. Cassiodor. 149. 19 K.) speaks of some grammarians who wrote mallo (the
older spelling, as we shall see) for mcilo, because they connected the word with
comparing pullum, pusillum
Greek na\\ov. Another reason apparently alleged for this spelling mallo, nollo,
was the analogy of the Infinitive matte, nolle, to judge from Papirian's dictum ap.
Cassiodor. 159. i K.
malo per unum 1, quod est magis volo malle per duo
nolo per unum 1, est enim non volo, nolle per duo 1,
1, quod est magis velle
quod est non velle (cf. Probi App. 201. 33 K. inter velit et vellithoc interest
:
further
quod, &c.) (cf. vellint, C. I. L. v. 2090 vii. 80 nollis, vii. 140).
instance of the influence of an etymological theory on spelling is furnished
by Alcuin (310. 32 K.), who defends the spelling solemnis by referring the
;
word to soleo. But if we overlook spellings warped by etymological theories,

and here and there a traditional spelling retained, we may lay down the rule
that after a diphthong, and s after a long vowel or diphthong, v\ ere not
T
written, or pronounced double in the period of the Empire, so that it is

unlikely, for example, that cessi (though from cedo), jussi [though the spelling
1
on old inscriptions (see C. I. L. i Index p. 583), and cf. jussus

(along with Annius!\ vi. 77], ussi (though from tiro; cf. A.L.L. ii. 607), had
a long vowel in the Imperial age.
(Cessi, ussi, according to Priscian, i.
jous- occurs
H.)
p. 466. 6, 7
The use
of
II
after a long vowel, but not after a diphthong,
shows that the diphthongs still retained their diphthongal sound.

The statements of the grammarians about the older spelling are borne out
by a reference to the Republican inscriptions. On the Lex Rubria of 49 B. c.
we have promeisserit, remeisserit, repromeisserit, and on other inscriptions
1
caussa, accussasse, missit, paullum, millia, milliarium (see the Index to C.I. L. vol. i
on the Comm. Lud. Saec. both caussa and causa, but always quaeso
pp. 601-2)
on the Mon. Anc. millia, clausum and claussum, caussa, caesae, occasio.
.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. II.
Pauttus is the usual form even on later inscriptions, also Pollio and Polio (see
cf. Polla with apex on o, C.I.L. xi. 4572, &c.).
Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.vv.
Aulla, the oldest spelling, preserved in the Ambrosian MS. of Plautus (see
;
below), similarly
became
pp.
criso (ib.)
sqq.)
became
aula
and
and
otta
(see Georges)
became
crisso
(with
I,
cf.
cnspus)
glosema (L5we, Prodromus,

nassiterna is the old spelling^ of this old word, like nassum (later
;
glossa
glossema
glosa,
Georges). Thus absclsio (from caedo\ and abscissio (from scindo]

were not distinguished in spelling till Tiberius' reign.
In the best and oldest MSS. of Republican writers, and (archaistic) writers
of the Augustan age, such as Plautus and Virgil, we have a good many spellings
with II, ss, where the later orthography used the single letter. Thus in
Virgil MSS. we have examples of the old spelling, with double s, of the Perfect
ndsus)
and
(see
Perf. Part. Pass, of verbs like edo (adessus, ambessus, exessus, obessus, peressus,
also the verb invisso~), audeo
i. e.
adessus, &c.), video (provissa, &c.
semessus,
(cmssa\
and other verbs in
hausserat)
mitto
missere)
(missi,
-deo;
-do,
;
we have
-nss-
and
-ss-
Crinisso
haurio (haussere,
for later
-MS-,
-s-
in
and compressa, emenssi, &c., lapidossa, undossi, &c. similarly caussa,

and in foreign words cassia (Gk. ftaacria, a misspelling of rcaa'to),
&c.
(A. v. 38), gessa (A. viii. 662), Passiphae, Rhessus though some of these
conprenssa
incusso,
and
haereo (haessif)
spelling (e.g. gessa should be gaesa, for O. Ir gae, 0. H.

Germ, gaizon- point to gaiso-, with g for I.-Eur. gh-, cf. Sanscr. heas). And
in the Ambrosian Palimpsest of Plautus we have essum, essurire, essitabunt,
last
maybe
wrong
exsclssus (Most. 826), ussus, ussura, incusses, uisso, ueisse, dimissero, quaesso, caussa,
also nassum, uassa, and even

(perhaps rightly, for *sed-se(d')\ Merc. 249, Stick. 365, and noss, Stick. 536
and in Greek words paussam, Alcessimarche, and (perversely) bdssilice, Poen.
577 (cf. bassim, C.I.L. i. 1181). For U we have in Virgil MSS. some words
where s, x, &c. have been dropped before I with lengthening of the vowel, or
rather have been assimilated, like qiiallus, G. ii. 241 (cf. quasillus), anhellitus and
anhellus, tellum, vellum, along with some of doubtful origin, collum, a strainer,
G. ii. 242 (probably first *cavillum, then caulum or collum, then colum, like
Paullus, Paulus, Pollio and Polio), illex, A. vi. 180, mallim, G. iii. 69 and A. iv. 108,
as well as -ella, -ellus in loquella, querella (the normal
paullatim, millia, opillio
spelling), Philomella, faselhts.
(On olli Dat., olim Adv., see ch. vii.) And in the
Plautus Palimpsest, aulla, a jar (later aula and olla}, mittia, paullum (see
Ribbeck's Index, and the Index to Studemund's Apograph of the Codex
Ambrosianus). In the Palatine MSS. of Plautus we have also nollo (see
Goetz, preface to the Stichus, p. xiv).
Of these, we know that millia, &c., where long I precedes and i follows the
double I, became milia, &c. in the Imperial age. Pompeius (185. 16 K.)
quotes the rule of the elder Pliny Plinius Secundus in libris dubii sermonis
ita expressit, mille non debemus aliter dicere nisi per geminum 1, in numero
-ossus (Idboriossi, odiossae, negotiossam, radiossus)
sesse
'
plurali unum 1 ponere debemus et dicere milia' (cf. ibid. 172. 13 K.). Milia,
vilicus are the normal spellings on inscriptions, beside milk, villa, from the
reign of Tiberius ; but in earlier inscriptions (excepting in very early ones
where no consonant
is
written double)
we have
II.
In the
Monumentum
Ancyranum, that valuable evidence of the orthography of the Augustan age,

we have millia, milliens. (On stilicidium from stllla, Diminutive of *stira, stiria,
see Lachmann ad Lucr. i. 313.) In other circumstances double II was retained
after a long vowel, e.g. vitta, stella, which show the long vowel and double
I,
PRONUNCIATION.
130.]
DOUBLE CONSONANTS.
113
Romance languages, e.g. Ital. villa, stella (with close e).

Welsh loanword ystwyll, Epiphany. So mllle, rdllum, stllla, vlllum
or its traces, in the

as in the
(Dim. of vlnum))
(Priscian
C.I.L.
ii.
i.
trulla,
1473
vi.
ulli,
(Dim. of
corolla
10230
corona), ullus (from unus), nullus, &c.

ullus
and on inscrr.
have ulla
and
21 H. attests vlllum,
p. 109.
we
nullum, x. 4787
we have
mllarit, ix.
348, &c.)
But in
in the older, I in the Imperial

spelling, viz. words where there has been what is called
compensatory
lengthening,' e. g. qualus for *quas-lus (cf. qudsillus), velum for vex-lum (cf.
a group of words, as before remarked,
II
'
Of these words Cicero says (Orat. xlv. 153), quin etiam verba saepe
contrahuntur non usus causa, sed aurium quo modo enim vester 'Axilla
Ala factus est nisi fuga litterae vastioris ? quam litteram etiam e maxillis
et 'taxillis' et 'paxillo' et 'vexillo' et 'pauxillo consuetude elegans Latini
sermonis evellit.
That the suppression of the s- sound was in the earlier period expressed by
rexillum}.
'
'
'
doubling the letter,
we may
infer
from these spellings in Virgil MSS. and
autta
The change to the single

(for aux-la, cf. auxilla} in the Palimpsest of Plautus.
I seems to have been made after the
reign of Augustus, simultaneously with
the adoption of
for
II
in paulum, milia, &c., of
in causa, fusus, &c., and,
s for ss
mm
we
in a similar case of
for
shall see, of
dumus from *dus-mus. Anhellus, if for *anhenslus
as
'
compensatory lengthening,'
from stem *an-anslo~, must
have had long e. Thus loquella for *logues-la, querella for *queres-la may have
been the older forms, which were banished for a time, and were restored in
(For statistics, see Brambach, Orth. p. 259.)

Mallo, nollo are
attacked by the grammarians of the Empire, along with millia, caussa, fussus,
&c., and represent with these the older fashion of spelling and pronunciation.
later Latin.
Diomedes (p. 386. 13 K.) blames those qui gemiriaiit 1 litteram et enuntiant'
in these two verbs. (Does Velius Longus allude to the verb in p. 80. 5 K.,
where he says quis autem nescit 'malum'una 1 littera scriptam multum
;
mallo eodem elemento geminate ?) How far other consonants

were doubled after a long vowel is discussed below.
distare a
'
'
130. Confusion of single
and double
letter in Latin.
In the misspellings
of inscriptions and MSS. we find a double written for a single consonant,

especially in the case of (i) mute before r, e. g. frattre (C. I. L. viii. in), suppra
and suppremus in Virgil MSS. (Ribbeck, Ind.) ; (2) before consonantal u (w),
MSS., strennuior in MSS. of Lucil. xvi. 19 M. (cf. Probi App.

K. aqua non acqua ') (3) s before mute, e. g. disscente (C. L L. iv. 1278).
We find the same doubling of a consonant in the first two cases in Italian in
and in classical Latin we have perhaps traces
labbro, acqua, &c. (see below)
e. g.
tennuis in Virgil
198. 18
them in the normal
The third type of misspelling

The
probably reflects the attraction of s to the first syllable (see
139).
opposite error, of writing a single consonant for a double, appears especially
(i) after a long vowel, e.g. nula, Eph. Epigr. iv. no. 557 (Consentius warns
against mispronunciations like mile, vila, 392. 7 K.)
(2) in syllables before
the accent, usually in words compounded with prepositions, where the final
consonant of the preposition has been assimilated to the initial of the verb or
noun, e. g. acepi, comunis, but also in other cases, such as Diminutives, e. g.
sacellus (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.).
There are in the classical language
a few traces of the reduction of a long syllable to a short in the pretonic
syllable, possibly in Diminutives like ofella (from offct), mdmilla (from mamma')
Thus ommitto
(cf. Ital. vanello), but certainly in prepositional compounds.
of
spellings, quattuor, battuo.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
14
[Chap. II.
has become omitto (Prisciani. p. 46. 18 H. omitto dicimus pro

in redduco the preposition was changed, perhaps by the analogy
of other compounds, to re, but not in reddo, where it is accented (unless the
from ob and
ommitto ')
mitto
'
true explanation here

of the verb found in
is
that reddo represents *re-dido with a reduplicated form
Umbro-Oscan, ch.
viii.
9).
(Velius Longus 66. 3 interdum
geminatur, quotiens ab eadem littera sequens vox incipit nee

tamen semper, siquidem reddere dicimus geminata d,
unde adnotanda
imperitia eorum qui sic redducere geminata d littera volunt enuntiare,
quasi 'reddere,' tamquam necesse sit totiens earn duplicem esse, quotiens
sequens vox ab eadem littera incipit.) The versification of Plautus shows us
that after a short syllable the preposition in the pretonic syllable of a compound was especially liable to be so slurred in pronunciation, that it might
optionally be scanned as a short syllable, e. g. quid dccepit? (see ch. iii. 34). How
far the weakness incident to the first syllable of accepit after a short syllable
adhered to it in other circumstances, and tended to reduce the ace- to the
haec d
littera
'
to say.
it is difficult
ac-,
'
sound of
We
have
in Lucil.
ore corupto
ix.
i.
M.,
and there seems no reason for

expressly attested by Consentius (400. 8 K.)
setting aside the reading of the MSS. in Lucr. vi. 1135 an caelum nobis ultro
natura corumptum Deferat, a reading confirmed by Isidore, Nat. Eer. 39.
;
The usual
letter in
practice,
some
where the preposition
is
assimilated,
cases, e.g. corruptus, ommentans (Liv.
is
Andron.
) ;
to write a double
in others to write
and lengthen the vowel, e. g. amitto. It is not always easy to

and fast line between these two practices. A scansion like
Plautus' quid dmittis suggests that the second word was pronounced rather
ammittis (cf. ammissam in Virgil MSS., Ribbeck, Ind.) than dmittis for Plautus
does not shorten the first syllable of the compound in quid insanis, &c., where
we know the i to have been a long vowel before the group ns (see ch. iii. 34).
The a of amittis could then hardly be on precisely the same footing as a vowel
long by nature. Adm-, though written amm- was not written dm-. (Amentum,
beside ammentum and admentum, is probably non-existent. See Nettleship, Cona single letter
draw a hard
tributions s.v.
ligo,
is
and
necto
always
con-
Again, Gellius says of the preposition com, compounded with

17. 8) coligatus et conexus producte dicitur.
(Com before nin the best spelling, e.g. conubium, but not before gn, e.g. cognatus,
(ii.
unless gn has previously become n, e. g. conitor.}

Georges^ may be due to the analogy of oportet
often have
o>,
instead of the usual
m being sometimes omitted,
o,
The
late spelling oportunus (see
but on Greek inscriptions we

in compounds with com, the assimilated
e.g. K<u/*o5os,
sometimes expressed,
e.g. KtupptttTcap
(Eckinger pp. 51-2). It is therefore an open question how far these late
spellings, such as corigia in the Edict of Diocletian, indicate a real reduction
of the double consonant to a single, corigia, or a transference to the vowel of
the extra length of the consonant, corigia. Greek spellings of Latin words are
very uncertain guides for Consentius mentions as a fault of the Greeks their
inability to pronounce the double consonant in words likejussit, ille, 395. 13 K.
s litteram Graeci exiliter ecferunt adeo, ut cum dicunt jussit,' per unum s
dicere existimes 394. 25 K. ubi enim [Graeci] dicunt 'ille mihi dixit,' sic
sonant duae 11 primae syllabae, quasi per unum 1 sermo ipse consistat * and
on Greek inscriptions we find double confused withjsingle, single with double
consonant in Latin words to a very great extent, especially I and U, but not
;
'
In Martial
ii.
6opuer Hylle has assonance with
puerile.
PRONUNCIATION.
130.]
DOUBLE CONSONANTS.
115
s and ss (see Eckinger).

Similarly in Latin inscriptions we find Greek
words misspelt in this particular, e. g. tesera, eclesia (so in Vulg. Lat. cf. Ital.
So Probi App. (199. 9 K.)
c.
chiesa, &c.), bassilica (e.g. C.I.L. iv. 1779),
censures 'bassilica'
(198. n) 'cammera' (cf. Sicil. Neap, cammara)
(198.
(198. 27) 'fassiolus.'
(In each case the vowel is a, the quality
17) 'dracco'
of which was the same, whether short or long.) On a Kepublican inscription
(C.I.L. i. 1181) we have bassim, and in the Palimpsest of Plautus bassilice.
The Plautine form of the name 'l\\vpta is Htturia. In other foreign words we
have a like confusion, e. g. Eritanni and (later) Brittanni (see Georges s.v.), as
we have a confusion in the quantity of the vowel of Bataw, &c. Very often
often
e. g.
or wrong association, is the cause of a misspelling
a late spelling ofpaelex (see Georges), was due to connexion with pellicio
and the established spelling accipiter for *acupeter [probably with a, weak grade
wrong etymology,
pellex,
of 6 of Greek wKv-irtTrjs (epithet of hawk in Hesiod, Op. 210), Sanscr. aûpatvan-,

54] to connexion with accipio ; cf. the vulgar form acceptor (Caper 107.
ch. iv.
non 'acceptor') used by Lucilius (inc. 123 M.) exta acceptoi'is

The misspelling commus for commimis (see Georges) is due to the
analogy ofemtmis and the analogy of Diminutive terminations -ellus, -iUus, -idlus
8 K. accipiter
et unguis.
generally believed to be responsible for the later spellings camellus, anguilla,

The corrupt form cdmellus instead of camelus (Greek Kd^Kos}
cucullus, &c.
is indicated by the spelling in the Itala (see Roiisch, Itala, p. 460), and in
is
the Edict of Diocletian (n. 6, &c.), as by the Italian cammello (with open e),
Span, camello, Fr. chameau (cf. phasellus for phaselus in Virgil MSS.) angwla,
the spelling of good MSS. of Latin authors, is reflected by Span, anguila
;
(A. L. L.
vili.
442)
same explanation
on
is
cuculus
and
cucuMus, see
generally given of
-etta
Brambach,
Hulfsbilchlein,
s.
The
v.
for -ela of loquela, querela, suadela,
The
tutela, medela, &c. (on which see Brambach, Orthographic, p. 258 sq.).
grammarians approve of the single I in these words (Ter. Scaur. 1 1. i K. on
Mar. Viet. 17. 9 K. on loquela, querela, suadela, tutela^ also camelus Caper
querela
;
but by the time of Papirian, the latter part of the

fourth cent. A.D., quereUa was the usual spelling (see Papir. ap. Cassiod. 159. 4 K.
Alcuin 299. 6 K.
Cf. Bede 287. 6 K.
Quaest. Gram. Cod. Bern. 83. Suppl-.
on
96. 6 K.
querela, loqueki)
At the same time we have seen that queretta (for *queres-la'), loquella,
&c. were probably the older spellings, and stand beside quallus for *quas-lus in
175. 7 K.).
so that their use in Vulgar Latin may be really a case of

adherence to the older form, just as we find vulgar spellings like ussus, vissus,
messor, fressus, allium (on these see Georges), and Vulg. Lat. *vessica, attested
by Ital. vescica, &c. (cf. Capsesis non 'Capsessis,' Probi App. 198. 2). Pila
was in late Latin *pttla, pillula (see Georges s. v. pihda, and cf. the Romance
forms). Pono, for po-s(i)no^ a compound with the preposition po, for *apo, a byform of ab, was treated in vulgar speech as if *por-s(i}no, a compound with
Hence the double s (for rs, as dossum from dorsum) in possitus (quasi
por-.
vii.
'por-situs'), possui on plebeian inscriptions (e.g. possuit, C.I. L. v. 5623
In the Appendix Probi 202.
47. 137. 246
dipossitus, Rossi, i. 103, of 348 A. D.).
12 K. one is warned against the confusion of sera, a bolt, with serra, a saw,
a confusion seen in Ital. serrare, Span, cerrar (cf. 201. 33 on velit and
Other misspellings depend merely on the substitution of a single
vettit).
consonant with long vowel for a double consonant with short vowel, and
vice versa, e. g. Probi App. 199. 4 K. garrulus, non garulus (probably
This substitution was allowed, as
garulus)
198. 21 K. caligo, non 'calligo.'
Virgil MSS.,
'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
Il6
[Chap. II.
we have seen, in prepositional compounds, like dmitto, to which we may add

stlpendium for sttp[_i]pendium (slupendiormn, C. I.L. vi. 2496, 2787, 2795 stependiorinn
60) for
3069, of 221 A. D. point to I in vulgar pronunciation), tricae (see
;
*tricc\h\ae (cf. Ital. treccare,
beside Neapolitan tricare).
consistently carried out in a group of words, cupa
(cf.
It appears
be
to
Sanscr. kupas}
and
and stuppa (Greek arvirrj and arvinTr]}, mucus and tnuccus, pupa
PVVPAE, C. I. L. x. 4315 PVPIVS, PVPIA, vi. 6021) and #%$), gilt-its and guttus,
mutus (Greek p,v9os, see Class. Rev. v. 10) and muttus, *bfttis (Greek POVTIS} and
*buttis (cf. Ital. botte, bottiglia).
The forms with short vowel and double
cuppa, stupa
(cf.
consonant seem to be those of late Latin and Komance (e. g. cuppa, Ulp. Dig.
i and xxxiii. 7, 8 M.
Augustine, Con/, ix. 8. 18 Not. Tir. 156:
puppa, Acron, in Hor. 8. i. 5. 65 Ital. coppa, Span, copa, &c., while cupa is reflected in Ital. cupola, Span, cuba and in the Welsh cib), so that the variety in
form has arisen through the consonant being allowed to assert itself before the
articulation of the vowel had been completed, and thus to take away from
the vowel some of its force. [Similarly Middle High German muoter (I.-Eur.
*
mater}, with long vowel and single consonant has become n modern German
mutter.] Strena seems in the same way to have become strenna at the end of
xxxiii. 6, 3
the Republican period for strena is indicated by Span, estrena, &c., strtnna
by Ital. strenna (with open e), FT. etreniie, though the byform strenua (see
Georges) may indicate confusion with strenuus, later strennuus (see above). In
Italian the same thing is very common, e. g. venni for veni, leggi for legi,
;
and this may be the explanation of the puzzling form tutto

Latin totus (see Korting, Lat. -Roman. Worterb. s. v. and cf. Consent. 392. i K.
tottum pro toto. cottidie pro cotidie), as of Lstin Juppiter (the usual spelling.
see Georges) for Jupiter 1 (ch. vi.
Sucus however retains this form in
32).
Vulgar Latin, and similarly brdca while both classical and Vulgar Latin show
l>dca (see Georges, and cf. Ital. bag-ola, Fr. baie), which, if the ordinary derivation be correct (see Etyma Latina s. v.), should be bacca for *bat-ca.
Latin ciccu-s
seems to have been in Vulg. Latin *clcus, to judge from Ital. cica, cigolo, &c.
Scribes of Irish nationality were specially liable to miswrite a double for
a single consonant in a Latin word
for in the orthography of their own
language the double letter often indicated merely that the consonant had not
degenerated into a spirant. Thus a repeated substitution of double for
single consonants in a Latin MS. is frequently an indication that the MS.
has been written in an Irish monastery (see Zimmer, Glossae Hibernicae, proll.
xi).
Again the confusion of single with double consonants in inscriptions
may often be due to local influence. Thus the Greeks, as we have seen, had
a difficulty in pronouncing the Latin double consonants the Oscaii dialect
often shows a double letter, where a single is etymologically correct, especially
brutto for bruto
for
'
'
'
before a ?/-sound, e.g. Vitelliu (Lat. Italia}, before a w-sound, e.g. dekkviarim
(cf. Lat. decem}, before an r, e.g. alttrei (Lat. alteri], and similarly ss before t,
e.g. kvaisstur (Lat. quaestor}, which remind us of Latin misspellings like acqua,
disscente
in the Umbrian inscriptions a double consonant is never
found in those written in the native alphabet, and very seldom (sometimes
frattre,
perversely, e. g. ennom,
Latin characters.
of
cf.
Juppiter, quippe (ch. ix.
Lat. enim
avvei, cf.
7), ipsippe (ch. vii.
p was a usage in the literary language.
Lat. avis} in those written in
20) suggest that this doubling
130.]
DOUBLE CONSONANTS.
PRONUNCIATION.
IIJ
But in spite of all these facts, it still remains true that there is usually
a sufficient consensus between inscriptions and the best MSS. to enable us t<>
decide with certainty on the single, or on the double letter, as the classical
spelling of the word, a spelling with which the Komance forms, as well as
the loanwords in Celtic and Teutonic languages, show a remarkable agreement.
The
classical form generally agrees with the form postulated by the etymology of the word, though there are some exceptions, e.g. Mca (see above)
instead of bacca, damma (but in the proper name. Dilma see Georges) instead
of ddma.
This implies that a sharp line was drawn in Latin between the
;
single
and double consonant 1
mitlus
(e.g.
and
a fact
miillus),
which should
make
us suspicious of etymologies which ignore this distinction, such as the

identification of annus, a year (with
Terent. Maurus v. 1239), cf. perennis),
,
with anulus, a ring.
For examples of this kind of uncertainty in Latin

spellings, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. and Brambach, Hiilfsbmhlein s.vv. lammina
and lamina (syncopated lamna), vdcillo and vaccillo, mdmilla rarely mammilla,
buccella and b'iicetta, disicio and dissicio (cf. porricio), cotidie and cottidie (see Etyma
Latina s.v.), mutonium and muttonium, muttio and mutio, glutto and gluto, murgiso
and murgisso, mantisa and mantissa, favisae and favissae, favisor and farissor,
comissor and comisor, Masinissa and Massinissa, phaseolus and passeolus, Tissaphernes
and Tisaphernes, Porsenna and Porsena [cf. Pompeius, p. 284 K., who also
censures (a suppositions?) Catilinna~\, meddix and medix (Oscan meddis Norn.,
medikeis, Gen.}, Apuleius and Appideius (but Apulia better than App-}, Marcomani
and (later) Marcomanni.
(Panus and pannus may be different words. See
Berl. Phil. Woch. 1887, p.
214.) The double consonant is declared by them to be
the better spelling of bracchium (with cch for x f Gk. fipaxlov see
60), littera
[cf. Komance, e.g. Fr. lettre, and Welsh llythyr. In the Lex Repet. (C. /. L. i.
:
198) of 123-122 B.C., once LEITERAS, but the spelling of a single for a double
consonant is usual on this inscription, and ei is used for i in seine], futtilis.
caccdbus, ciilleus, trulleum, cuppes, cuppedo (for cup-}, lottlgo (Fritsche, ad Hor. S. i.
4. ioo),fello (for/e-Zo), hettuor, sollers, sollemnis, sollidto,pappare (Plaut. Epid. Goetz,
pref. p. xxx), cippus, Uppus, caperro (see Nettleship in Class. Rev. 1892, p. 168).
Messalla (cf. Hispdllus with II on C.I.L. i. 39), Sallustius, barrltus, Arruns, Arretiwu
(now Arezzo), allec, Attecto, All'ifae, Sarddndpattus, ballaena (Gk. <pa\\- rather than
</>a\-), ballista, Sallentini,
covinnus, petorritum, Trasumennus,
nummus, immo, bissextum

lito
and
lido),
the single of
Appennmus (and Ap-\
Vulg. Lat., e.g. Ital.

bucina, alucinor, besalis, belua, sario, muriola (cf. Paul. Fest. 125.
;
balbutio, litus (so
13 Th. murrina, genus potionis, quae Graece dicitur nectar. Hanc mulieres
TOcabant muriolam), Erinys, Apulia, Sufes, tdpete, Larisa, sarisa, Gnosus, Parnasus,
the double consonant appears to be the older spelling,
talasio, pedisequus, ilico
;
the single the later in mantellum (Plaut.) and mantele, stellio and stelio, pilleus
see Friedlander's edition, i. p. 117), and
(so, for example, in MSS. of Martial
plleus (pill- in Romance, K.Z. xxxiii. 308), marsuppium and marsilpium, Marpessos
and Marpesius, and possibly the legal parret andparet (Fest. 292. 25 Th., parret,
quod est in formulis, debuit et producta priore syllaba pronuntiari et non
gemino r scribi, ut fieret 'paret,' quod est invenitur, ut comparet, apparet).
The spelling paricida for parricida belongs to a period before the doubling of
;
and
Plautus, however, puns on miltis

mltis in Mil. 1424, when the
soldier is getting a thrashing
Verberon etiam, an iam mittis

Mitis
sum equidem
fustibus.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
Il8
[Chap. II.
consonants was practised. Of Greek loanwords we have 0. Lat. creterra (Gk.

perhaps grammosus (from Gk. 7X77/^7) in Caecil. Comm. 268 K. (but gramae
Plant. Cure. 318, Biich. Rh. Mus. xxxv. 72), grabattus (Gk. */xi/3aTos\ &c.
A.L.L. viii. 367) *. (See also Ellis Catullus p. 338 on Varu-s and Farro.)
KprjTTip),
Double consonants in Italian. These are not known in the dialects

and of North Italy and their use varies a good deal in different
parts.
They form one of the greatest difficulties to English learners for
a double consonant is unknown in our language, except in compound words
131.
of Uinbria
as they proved a stumbling-block in old times

like bookcase,' 'penknife'
to Greeks (cf.
99 and 117 on the Greek mispronunciation of II, ss). Double
consonants have replaced Latin single consonants before y, e. g. occhio (Lat.
'
vendemmia (Lat. rindemia) before the w-sound of Latin aqua (Ital.

acqua) before r, e. g. fabbro (Lat. faber}.
(Compare the doubling of a consonant in these positions in Oscan orthography, and similar misspellings in
late Latin inscriptions.)
Doubling is very common under the accent of
a paroxytone word, e.g. femmina (Lat. feimnci), legittimo (Lat. legitimus), and
on the first syllable, when it has a secondary accent, e. g. pellegrino, tollerare
oc(u)lus)j
(cf.
late
Latin
suppellecttlis,
see Georges).
Forms
like allodola (Lat. alauda),
(Lat. comoedia) seem to be due to the analogy of

like
Latin allildo, commodus (cf.
prepositions,
commedia
with
words compounded
Osc.
Appelluneis
'Apollinis'?).
132.
the
Double consonant (not
s)
1,
after long vowel.
We know
that
was long but we cannot tell whether

the change from dummetum to dumetum (see Georges)
offressus, forfrensusj later fresus,
the true explanation of

is to make it similarly a reduction of a double to a single consonant after
a long vowel, or merely a substitution of a vowel length (urn) for consonant
length (umm), like amissam for ammissam (in MSS. of Virg. A. ii. 741), as the
amm- offlammen, a blast, in Virg. MSS. (see Eibbeck) seems to represent the
usual -dm- of fla-men. A spelling like ruppes for rupes in Virgil. MSS. (see
Ribbeck) suggests rather the alternation of cuppa with cupa, puppa with
pupa (see above) and the quantity of the vowel before the double consonant of lammma (see Georges), i-accinnia (see Ribbeck, Index) is quite uncer;
tain.
Clear cases of a long vowel before nn are mercennarius (the correct
Brambach, HulfsbuchL s. v., later mercenarius), tinnire (for

by Port, tinir, Sard, tinnire), and perhaps hinnuleus (also
innuleus, inuleus, see Georges) (cf. Agroecius 115. 14 K. hinnuleus, ut i acutum
sit, quia nomen a sono vocis accipit), and Vinnius (also Vinius; see C.I.L.
spelling, according to
I
and nn are
attested
28978 sqq. Long i is indicated for Flnm'a, 28986) but before other double
consonants they are difficult to establish. NARREM on the carefully written
inscription of the Emperor Claudius (48 A. D.) at Lyons (Allmer et Dissard
Boissieu p. 136) may be due to the analogy of gnarus, ndrus,
vol. i. p. 7oa
which made the spelling naro (proposed by Varro, if we are to believe Papirian
vi.
single
Lat. Acca Larentia, Gk. 'AKKW (a name

of Demeter), O. Ind. akka Gk. acvvw,
In pet-names we often find a double
&c.
Sometimes the interchange of

and double consonant is I-Eur.
consonant
e.g.
Gk. vavva beside O.
Ind. nana; Lat. mammas atque tatas (ch.

81) beside Gk. OTTO, 0. Ind. atta
v.
The double consonant
Seppius,
of Eppius,
so explained,
others refer it to a dialectal
&c. has been
though
doubling before y like Osc. Vitelliu.
FINAL CONSONANTS.
PRONUNCIATION.
131-134.]
ap. Cassiodor. 159. 8
cf.
Varro. L.L.
vi.
51) approved
119
by some grammarians
Velius Longus 80. 9 K.), though never accepted in popular usage (see
Georges) (cf. varus and Varro],. (On *trlppa, the original of Ital. trippa, our
certain instance of the reduction
tripe,' &c., see Korting's Lexicon s. v.)
of it to t after a diphthong is the late form autor (censured, with autoritas, in
(e.g.
'
Probi Appendix 198. 30 K., and found on late inscriptions, e.g. C.I.L. viii.
1423 cf. xii. 2058, of 491 A. D.), where the represents it for original ct (see 95).
Ital. freddo, Fr. froid point to *fnddus, from frigdus, a vulgar form of fngidus
0. Span, frido to *frldus or *friddus.
(Probi App. 198. 3 frigida non 'frigda')
final double consonant was not allowed
133. Final double consonant.
in Latin orthography, but was written single, e. g. miles for *mi1ess, from
;
But that
*milit-s.
it
we may
consonant,
from an ordinary final single

from the forms censured in the Appendix Probi,
differed in pronunciation
infer
where -x is wrongly substituted for this -s (originally -ss) (197. 28 K. miles

non 'milex'; 198. 29 aries non 'ariex'
199. 4-5 poples non 'poplex,'
locuples non locuplex'), forms which are found on inscriptions (e.g. milex,
We may infer also that there was a change in
C. I. L. vi. 37, 2457, 2549, &c.).
;
'
pronunciation in course of time for in Plautus miles has the last syllable
long (Aid. 528), while in Ennius, Lucilius, &c., its last syllable is short (Ann.
277 M. so miles, Lucil. xi. 8 M.), though never shortened before an initial
consonant like ordinary -us,-is. Plautus also scans ter for *terr (cf. ternmcius,
its
see Rhein. Mus. xlvi. p. 236) from *ters, *tris (Greek rpis}. as
;
a long syllable (Bacch. 1127), as he scans es (2 Sg. Pres. Ind. of sum), prodes, &c.
like *ess, *prodess (contrast cor, Lucil. xv. 9 M. ; prodes, id. inc. 128).
relic
the true spelling
of this usage remains in the scansion of hoc for *hocc from *hod-(c)e as
a long syllable by the classical poets and the remarks of the grammarians
;
on this scansion explain the reason of the change and uncertainty in the
quantity of these final syllables. Thus Velius Longus (54. 6 K.), commenting
on Virgil's hoc erat, alma parens says ergo scribendum per duo c, hoc-cerat alma parens,' aut confitendum quaedam aliter scribi, aliter enuntiari
Pompeius (119. 13) item clittera aliquando pro duabus consonantibus est
ut
hoc erat alma parens
hoc,' collide c, ut sit pro duabus consonantibus.
'
'
<
'
'
sic lubrice et leniter

exemplo brevis est, solus hie inflexit sensus
currit.
(Velius Longus also fails to make this proper distinction between hocc
for *hod-c and M-c.) They show us that in pronunciation *hocc (and presumably
*ess) were actually sounded with double consonant when the next
*corr,
word began with a vowel, at least if the accent fell on them, while before
a consonant initial, and probably when unaccented, the double consonant
would be reduced to a single, hocfuit but hocc erat. The unaccented nature of
the Substantive Verb *ess, and of the final syllable of *miless, prodess, &c.
in illo alio
'
explains their speedy reduction in Latin prosody (see ch.
134. Final consonants.

to
liable
weakening than an
final
iii).
is
always more
of
the general
consonant
initial,
because
tendency of languages to pronounce with diminishing stress.

Thus in the
It is especially so in English after a long vowel.
word
same
'
cat
'
the
final after
t is
uttered with less force than the
a long vowel, as in
cart,' is still
c,
while the
weaker.
It
is
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
120
a,
rule of our
language that a
final
consonant
[Chap. II.
is
always short
after a long vowel, as we may see, if we contrast a word like

'
with a word like hill/ The weakness of Latin final
heel
*
'
consonants has been already mentioned. Final -d was dropped

in pronunciation after a long vowel about the end of the third
cent. B.C.; final s does not constitute position before
an
initial
consonant in that species of poetry which most closely imitated

ordinary pronunciation. Dramatic Poetry ; final -m offers but
slight resistance to the elision of the vowel which precedes it ;
the tenues fortes seem to have been replaced when final in pro-
nunciation by the mediae lenes, e.g.
negotium?) (see
ab,
mb,
reliquid, &c. (cf.
73)-
In considering the pronunciation of final consonants it is

necessary to regard not isolated words, but words as they stand
in the sentence.
The accent of a word, when standing alone, is
something different from its accentuation in the sentence; e.g.
Greek Trpo's, but Trpos iroAii; fj\0. And the same is true of its
The Greek orthography indicates the first disbut rarely the second ; though we find it to some extent
on inscriptions rrjjot iroXiv, ey di/cr^s, &c., especially in Cretan inscrip-
pronunciation.
tinction,
But in writing Sanscrit the principles

tions (see ch. iii.
41).
'
of Sandhi (i. e. putting together, synthesis), to use the native
'
The
term, were carefully followed by the grammarians of India.
neuter Demonstrative, for example, tad (Lat. is-tud) had its final
d changed according to the following initial consonant in tat
tapas, that heat (Lat. is-tud *tepus) tal lihati (Lat. is-tud lingify
tan nahyati (Lat. is-tud nectit), &c. There was something like
t
this in Latin.
Traces of
it
appear occasionally in inscriptions
and MSS., e.g. im burim in MSS. of Virgil, G. i. 170; and we

'
have doublets like neque, atque before vowels, nee, ac before
consonants but for the most part it is not indicated in spelling.
'
Final consonants lingered longest in monosyllables, especially

accented monosyllables, and before being entirely discarded in
spelling, passed
through the
'
doublet
'
stage;
that
is
to say,
they were retained in pronunciation in certain positions in the

sentence, before an initial vowel usually, and dropped in others
;
but hand habeo, just as the r-sound is found in

before
an initial vowel following without any pause,
English only
e.
g.
hau
scio
PRONUNCIATION.
$ 135.]
'
e.
The same
here he is/
g.
FINAL CONSONANTS.
process
went on
121
in the
Romance
languages, of which French was the most retentive of final

consonants till comparatively modern times; though now, for
example, final
vient-il ? with
1
Sandhi
'
-t, -g,
i
'
only in pre-vocalic
-r exist
sounded, but
il
An
vien(t).
doublets/ e.g.
English example of
the different vowel-sound of the article
is
'
the
'
before
a vowel and before a consonant, and an example of the abandonment of one f doublet ' and the exclusive use of another is the
with/ which now ends only in the /^-sound of thin,

but which in early modern English had in certain collocations
'
preposition
the ^-sound of
and mine/
'
'
'
one
Both
this/
'
The treatment
and
'
'
doublet
'
an/
a,'
'
forms remain in
'
'
naught
and
'
'
my
'
not/ &c.
most naturally
considered in connexion with the changes produced by the accent ;
for they are affected much in the same way as the vowels in
post-tonic syllables (see ch.
135.
'
in Latin
of final vowels
'
Sandhi in Latin
iii.
is
40).
Verrius Flaccus proposed a
new symbol
for
final M, when the next word in the sentence began with a vowel, n symbol
while Cato the Elder wrote dicae for
like the half of the ordinary letter
;
The tendency of final -m, -n to adapt

61).
dicam, faciae for faciam (see
themselves to a following consonant-initial, is seen in spellings on inscriptions, like ini balneum, C.l.L. iv. 2410, imbeUo, iii. 4835, hn pace, viii. 10542
(for
examples see Indices to C.l.L.} and in MS. spellings like im mare, im

im pyppim in Virgil MSS. (see Ribbeck, 2nd. p. 433), im praeda,
Plautus Palimpsest (see Ind. to Studemund's Apograph.). Caper
mediOj impace,
im uita in the
17 K.) says: in Sicilian! dicendum, non is Sicilian!,' Kara TO v, noil

non is.' ?).
v, quia nunquam sine n pronuntiatur (leg. insicia
eliannunc in the Herculanean papyri (Class. Rev. iv. 443), and etiannum,
'
(106.
Kara,
have
We
'
rb
jandudum, &c. in MSS. of Virgil (see Ribbeck), spellings which agree with the
statement of Velius Longus (78. 19 K. cum dico etiam nunc,' quamvis per
scribam, nescio quomodo tamen exprimere non possum), and Cicero's remarks
on the sound of cum followed by n- (Or. xlv. 154

Diom. 450. 34 K. Pompeius 293. 17 K.
3. 45
&c.).
Est
was
Fam.
ix. 22.
Prise,
cf.
Quint,
i.
'
'he's,' &c., audiendust, audiendast, aiidiendumst, &c., a spelling
viii.
H.
's,'
recommended by
in Virgil MSS. acerbist,

ventumst, amantemst, cupidost, suprast,&c. (see Ribbeck's Index, p. 419), in
Mar. Victorinus (22. 14 K.), and found in MSS.,

locutast,
2;
372. Sand 594. 21

curtailed in writing, as in pronunciation, like our is,' in it
;
'
'
e. g.
copiast, aegrest, homost, olimst, palamst, meliust, &c., and

dignus, iturus (generally printed by editors irata's, &c.
Imperat., viz. molestus, Most. 955) (see Studemund's Index,
the Plautus Palimpsest

similarly with
once with
es
es, iratas,
P 55)- C> n e may perhaps see the beginnings of the suppression of final
consonants in the tendency of pronunciation mentioned by Consentius
its
(fifth cent. ? A. D.) (395. 7 K.), the tendency to detach a final consonant from
word, and join
it
to a following initial,
'
si
cludit
'
for sic ludit, 'si(c) custodit'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
132
[Chap. II.
item litteram c quidam in quibusdam dictionibus non latine

non discernas, quid dicant ut puta siquis dicat
sic ludit,' ita hoc loquitur, ut putes eum in secunda parte orationis cludere
et item si contra dicat illud, contrarium putabis.
alii
dixisse, non ludere
contra ita subtiliter hoc ecferunt, ut cum duo c habeant, quasi uno c utrumque explicent, ut dicunt multi sic custodit.' [Cf. his remarks (394. 7 K.)
on the pronunciation dixera millis for dixeram illis.~]
lor sic custodit
ecferunt, sed ita crasse, ut
'
'
'
'
136. Latin 'Doublets.'

nee, neu, seu,
sonant.
replaced
By pretonic Syncope
atque, neque, neve, sive
In Dramatic poetry the
(see ch.
before a
13" ac (for* ate),
iii.
word beginning with
a con-
always suppressed, in similar

circumstances, of nempe, arid often of unde, inde, quippe, ille, and perhaps iste.
Similarly proin, dein seem to have developed from proinde, deinde, when
a consonantal initial followed. Final -d. after it had been dropped after
a long vowel in the pronunciation of most words, remained in monosyllables
like hand, med, ted kaud being the form used before a vowel, hau before a consonant (Caper. 96. 4 K. <hau dolo' [leg. haud uolo ?] per d recte scribitur,
etenim d inter duas vocales esse debet. quod si consonans sequitur, d addi
non debet, ut 'hauscio'; Mar. Viet. 15. 21 K. So in Plautus, Kitschl Opusc.
final
-e
is
ii. 591 n. and v.

the same probably being true of med, ted. (On qui(n)e,
352)
quandoc and quandoque, see ch. x.
15, ch. ix.
10.)
Preposition 'doublets'
12 and 29.
a, abj dbs ; e, ec, ex, &c., on which see ch. ix.
;
137. Dropping of final consonant in Latin.

It was a rule of Latin,
pointed out by Julius Caesar, in criticizing Varro's spelling lad, that no
word could end in two mutes (Pompeius 199 K. Caper 95 K. On lacte, loot,
lac, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.). Nor was a double consonant allowed to end
a word. Plautus gives to miles, es, &c. the scansion of miless (for *milit-s\ ess,
&c. (see ch. viii. 2) but almost the only trace (a doubtful one) of spelling with
;
Ambrosian Palimpsest in Stick. 536 though Velius Longus

^54. 6 K.), commenting on Virgil's hoc erat, alma parens,' half proposes to
write hoccerat ergo scribendum per duo c, hoccerat alma parens aut conntendum quaedam aliter scribi, aliter enuntiari (cf. Pompeius 1 19. 13 K.
-ss is
noss in the
'
Prise,
ii.
p. 6. i
H.
So
hoccine for *Jiocce-ne, *hod-ce-ne, Prise,
Mel (for *mell, *meld}, cor (for
i.
p. 592.
22 H.).
*corr, *cord), ter (for terr, cf. terr-uncius, *ters, *tris}
are short in Ovid, &c., though long (neither mSl nor mel are found) in Plautus ;
but the difference between -s (from original -ss) and ordinary -s is shown even
at a late period by spellings like milex, praegnax (see
125).
Final -d after a long vowel

of 186 B.
found
is
written throughout the
S. C.
de Bacchanalibus
196, sententiad, exstrad, facilumed, &c.), though it is not

in the decree of Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus of 189 B.C. (&. ii. 5041,
c.
(C.I.L.
i.
and probably does not appear in Plautus,

excepting in the Pronouns (Abl. and Ace.) med, ted, sed. Even these Pronoun
forms are out of use by Terence's time. The retention of haud along with
hau shows the course which this final d must have taken. Before vowels it
in turri Lascutana, ea tempestate],
would remain pronounced until the preconsonantal form had driven the full
form from the field (so in post- Augustan poetry we find nee more and more
supplanting neque] before consonants it would probably be first assimilated,
e. g. haud Kyo, pronounced haulligo, like altigo, haud scio, pronounced hausscio
like a(s^'sco, then dropped.
After a short vowel, it is often written -t on
late inscriptions (and indeed from the end of the Republican period), but is
not dropped (see Seelmann's list, p. 366).
;
136,137.]
PRONUNCIATION.
FINAL CONSONANTS.
123
Final -m
is dropped in early inscriptions before a consonant or a vowelwith equal frequency, in the earliest inscriptions more after o of the
Gen. Plur. (perhaps not yet shortened before -m), than after o of the Ace. Sg.
Masc. and Nom. Ace. Sg. Neut. On the older Scipio epitaphs it is usually
dropped, e. g. oino (Ace. Sg.), duonoro (Gen. PI.) (C. I. L. i. 32". But from c. 130 it
is regularly retained in spelling
[as also on State inscriptions like the S. C.
Bacch. of 186 B. c., the (restored) Columna Rostrata, &c.], until the plebeian
On these it is not merely dropped
inscriptions of a later date (see
65).
but also is written -n, as final -n is occasionally written -m (see Seelmann's
It never fails, as final -s may fail, to constitute
lists, p. 364).
position
before an initial consonant in early poetry
though the frequency of the
scansion enim before a consonant in Plautus (where the final syllable is
shortened by the law of Breves Breviantes) suggests that this represents the
usual pronunciation of the word. Final m before an initial vowel seems to
have been equally adapted with a final long vowel or diphthong for what is
called 'Prosodical Hiatus,' i. e. for being scanned as a short syllable, instead
of being elided. Ennius, for example, ends a line with millia militum octo, as
he begins another with Scipio invicte. (Cf. circu(m)ire, septu(rri)ennis, septu(m}aginta, but septumus, &c.)
65 and
(On the treatment of -m in poetry, see
on its weak pronunciation in ordinary speech,
The course it took is
61.)
perhaps indicated by Consentius (394. 7 K.), who says that the common way
of pronouncing a phrase like 'dixeram illis' was to detach the -m from the
first word, and join it to the initial of the second.
(Cf. Pompeius 287. 7 K.)
initial
'
'
(see
61.)
Final
-s is
dropped on early inscriptions especially in the Nona. Sing, of
l
I0-stems, written -io, or -i (see Index to C. I. L. i p. 602). That bothao and -i
the
is
same
sound
vi.
represent
-l(s) (ch.
quite possible.
2)
(Cf. Cornelio on
one Scipio epitaph, C.I. L. i. 31, c. 250 B. c., Cornell on another, i. 35, c. 160
B. c.)
But as a rule -s is dropped only after a short vowel, except in the
.
dialect of Pisaurum,
than dropped.
e. g.
matrona(s)
(ib. i.
167 sqq.),
and
is
more often retained
Cicero speaks of its failure to prevent elision of a preceding I in the phrase

argenteis ; and some have thought that it is occasionally elided before an
initial vowel in Plautus, e. g. com (is) incommodus, Bacch. 401, amatu(s) es written
in the MSS. amatus. But all the instances admit of other explanations
vets'
amatu's
rather a case of prodelision, like our 'it's' for 'it is' (the length of
the u is due to the double s with which es ended in Plautus' time, ch. viii.
2)
plur(is) existumo of Plaut. Pers. 353 may easily be a mistake for plure, which
Charisius tell us was used in O. Lat., and soon. Whether aequdnimiias implies
a pronunciation aequ(us) animus is doubtful it seems rather to come from the
is
Compound
(ch. v.
80) aequ-animus
'
(cf.
the gloss
Animus aequus duae

'
partes
animaequus ipse homo,

(On final s not
constituting 'position* before an initial consonant in the older poetry, see
The Latin loanwords in Teutonic seem to have still possessed -us
126.)
(e. g. Goth, sakkus, a U-stem, Germ, kurz, from Lat. saccus, curtus], but to
have lost the final consonant of -um (Zeitschr. Roman. Philologiej xvii. 559).
Final -t is often written -d on late "inscriptions, e. g. reliquid, fetid (see
Seelmann's list, p. 366), which probably indicates change to the media lenis
in pronunciation. It is dropped with great frequency in the graffiti of Pompeii,
e. g. raZaa, ama (see Index to C. I. L. iv.).
orationis
'
C. G.
L. v. 266. 11-12).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
24
[Chap. II.
Final -nt loses the dental, and is written -n, or -m, on late inscriptions, e. g.
fecerun (see the Indices to the Corpus), though, no doubt, the -t was heard
before an initial vowel, like the -t of Fr. vient in vient-il ? Dedro (C.I.L. i.
177 Matre Matuta dono dedro matrona 'Matri Matutae donum dederunt
matronae ') is a form belonging to the dialect of Pisaurum in Picenum. The
dropping of
is
138.
consonants
final
a feature of
Umbrian
Dropping of
(see
(-tn, -d, -r,
/;
von Planta
i.
-t,
-n, -s)
in this order of frequency
568).
consonants in Romance.
final
Lat. final consonants
are better preserved in monosyllables than in other words,

in O. Fr. and Prov. e and ed ; in Span, y
e, before vowels ed
;
fit is
and
in Italian
aut is in
od Fr. ou, Span, o ad in Ital., Prov. and 0. Fr. is a before consonants, ad before vowels, &c. -M remains in the monosyllables, Fr. rien
-Mn a monosyllable like mel, Fr.
(Lat. reni), Span, quien (Lat. quern"), &c.
in the monosyllable cor, Fr. cueur, 0. Span,
miel, Span, miel, Ital. miele
In longer words,
-n remains in non (Ital. no and non).
cuer, Ital. cuore
-m is dropped, e. g. Ital. dieci from Lat. decem, amava from Lat. dmdbam -t is
retained in Fr., e. g. O. Fr. aimet, but Ital. ama, Span. ama. In Sardinian the
form used in pausa (at the end of a sentence, &c.) is amat, before a vowel
amad, e.g. amad issu, before a consonant ama, e. g. ama su padre -I and -r
are lost in Italian, e. g. frate, tribuna, insieme (cf. Span, ensieme, but Fr.
Italian
o,
>
'
'
lost in Ital. (though in monosyllables it leaves an i, e g. noi,

absorbed in a preceding e, e. g. tre), but it is retained in Fr.
and Span., e. g. Ital. tempo, Fr. temps from Lat. tempus, and from Lat. cantos,
-d is lost in Ital. che, Span, que from
ISgis, Fr. chantes, lis, Span cantas, lees
-c has disappeared in Ital. di (Lat.
Lat. quid, but remains in 0. Fr. qued
-nt is -n in Ital., Span. e.g. Ital. aman-o, Span, aman, but
die), si (Lat. sic)
remains in Fr., e. g. aiment -x remains in Fr. six, Span, seis, but not in Ital.
It thus appears that French has been far more retentive of final consei.
sonants than Italian or Spanish. In the Sardinian dialect of Italian (Sardinia
was the earliest province, and its dialect is a descendant of the earliest stage
ensemble)
crai,
which
-s is
is
of Vulgar Latin), all final consonants remain, except -m, e. g. tenipus, amas,
ses, amant, nomen, but adapt themselves to the following initial, e. g.
est bennidu (pronounced es b-') (see Meyer-Liibke Ital. Gramm. p. 156). But
amat,
'
in standard Italian there are
still
traces of these lost final consonants of
monosyllables, e.g. ebbene for ebene (Lat. et bene), ovverofor o vero (Lat. aut
vero), dimmi for di mi (Lat. die mihi), checcosa for che cosa (Lat. quid causa),
where the double consonant

the following
is due to the final having assimilated itself to

Latin a arose from a collocation like ab-bonis, *am-me
initial, as
In French we see Sandhi carried to far

greater lengths than Italian, where almost every word ends in a vowel.
Before an initial vowel, French -s, -t, -r are heard in pronunciation, and
a nasal vowel resolves itself into an oral vowel followed by n. And, more
curious still, -I of words closely joined to a following word beginning with
a consonant suffers the same change as I before a consonant in the middle of
a word and becomes u e.g. du pere, au pere, beau, like autre, &c. In S.
Spain -s becomes h, or is dropped, e. g. Cadl(h) (Storm. Engl. Phil? i. p. 71).
'
(for ab me), *ap-patre (for abpdtre).
'
'
'
The Romance languages show

Division.
a remarkable agreement in their division of the word into
139. Syllable
PRONUNCIATION.
138-140.]
SYLLABLE-DIVISION.
syllables, their principle of division being- to
make
1^5
the syllable
end with a vowel, and begin with a consonant, or combination of

consonants.
Any combination of consonants, that is pronounceable at the beginning of a word is made to begin the syllable,
with the one occasional exception of combinations beginning
with s, where the s is in some languages allowed to end the
1
An Italian
preceding syllable.
says o-bli-quo, te-cni-co, e-ni-gma,

a pronunciation which often offers con-
a-tle-ta, no-stro, be-ne,
siderable difficulty to Englishmen,
naturally pronounce the
last
says ha-blar, bu-llir,
Spaniard
who
would, for example, more
any/
but nues-tro, attaching the
s to
word
as
ben-e, like
The Roman division of syllables was that

Romance languages, not of the English, as is proved
the
first syllable.
the
of
to
certainty by the very precise and unmistakable statements of

the grammarians on the subject.
Their rule is Never let a syl'
lable
end in
a consonant
the
if
consonant can possibly be
pronounced at the beginning of the next syllable

give
like
examples
The same method
pote-stas,
no-ster,
a-mnis,
'
and they
ma-gno, a-gmen.
followed in those inscriptions which indicate

by dots, e.g. C.I.L.vi. 77 T-AN-NI-VS-HE-DY-PNVS,
11682 vi-xiT'AN-Nis, as well as by contractions, where the initial
is
the syllables
MG (magnus), OMB (omnibus),

pp (propler) ; though on inscriptions we often find s taken with
the preceding syllable in words like CAE-LES-TI (vi. 77), SES-
letters of the syllables are used, like
we may compare misspellings

Occasionally a grammarian urges
the advisability of regarding the etymological formation of compounds like abs-temiiis, ob-lwiscor ; but such remarks only show
TV-LE-IVS
like
(ix.
4028), with which
dissccnte (vide
130).
that the natural pronunciation of these words was ab-stemius, oMiviscor, just as we in natural utterance disregard the formation
of phrases like
140.
'
at all/
'
at
home/ and pronounce
Testimony of grammarians.
a-tall/ 'a-tome/
Servius, in Don. iv. 427. 20 K., states
quotienscumque quaerimus, quae consonantes in

scribendo sibi cohaereant vel cui syllabae imputentur, utrum priori an
sequenti, similitude aliorum nominum hunc solvit errorem. ut puta aspice'
the
rule
as
follows
'
consonantes sequenti tantummodo dare nos

intelligimus
p
debere, eo quod invenitur sermo qui a duabus istis consonantibus inchoetur,
ut spica/
similiter
amnis
debemus in et n sequenti syllabae dare in
scribendo, quoniam invenitur sermo qui ab his consonantibus inchoetur, ut
.
'
s et
'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
t26
[Chap. II.
'
non possumus duo t sequent! syllabae dare, quia

Mnestheus,' attulit
nullus sermo invenitur, qui a duabus t consonantibus inchoetur, et hoc
in ceteris consonantibus observabimus. plane scire debemus, conexiones
quod dico consonantium non eas quae latinis syllabis congruunt, sed
*
'
ea
etiam
scilicet
d,
numquam
quae graecis, excepta

quae in latinum sermonen
quae constat de b et
syllaba
ita transit, ut cohaereat,
ut est
quando enim scribimus abditur,' non possumus a in una syllaba

ponere et b et d in sequenti. He thus testifies to a-spice, a-mnis, at-tulit, ab'
/35eAAa.
ditur. Similarly Caesellius (ap. Cassiod. vii. 205. i K.) to pote-stas, no-ster, ca-pto,
a-stla (for astula),
plo-strum, lu-strant, capi-strum, dau-strum, ra-strum, campe-stre,
pe-sttum (for pestulum), car-po, dor-sum, Por-cius, Pa-ris, la-pis, tu-tus,
but dissyllabic
rol-vo, lar-va,pul-vis, te-nu-is,
mal-va
Terentianus Maurus
(vi.
ten-vis,
be-lu-aand
sol-vo, ner-vus,
bel-va,
and
and (v.
ma-lu-a
351, v. 879 K.) to o-mnis, a-mnis,
904 K.) ma-gnus, cU-gnus, a-gnus, si-gna, pu-gna (v. 941 K.),/a-o, a-xis, ne-xus, u-xor,
Marius Victorinus (vi. 29. 20 K. ) to a-mnis, ar-ma, a-xis (cf. Charisius,
Dositheus vii. 387. 4 K.)
i. ii.
Caper (vii. 96. 9 K.) to no-strum,
19 K.
ve-strum, maje-stas; Dositheus (vii. 385. 5 K.) to a-gmine, ma-gno Priscian (i. p. 42
no-xia
H.) to a-bdomen, My-gdonides, Abo-dlas, A-tlas, Ae-tna,i-pse, nu-psi, scri-psi, scri-ptum,

dra-chma, a-gmen, vi-ctrix, sce-ptrum, thus admitting, unlike Servius, bd into the list
of pronounceable combinations, and (p. 50 H.) pa-scua, lu-scus, Co-smus, pro~spera,
Bede and Alcuin insist on copyists of MSS. breaking up words at
te-stis, &c.
the end of a line according to these rules, ma-gnus, pro-pter, colu-mna, &c.
Etymological division is recommended by Quintilian (i. 7. 9) with the
instances haru-spex, abs-temius (quia ex abstinentia temeti composita vox est)
by Caesellius (ap. Cassiodor.
vii. 206. i K.), ob-liviscor,
and
(205. 18 K.), di-spicio,
by Alcuin
(vii. 306. 4 K.), ob-stipui, ob-sum, ob-strepo,

Priscian similarly says (i. p. 45 H.)
19 K.).
si antecedens syllaba terminat in consonantem, necesse est etiam sequentem
'
*
a consonante incipere, ut 'ar-tus' il-le
ar-duus,' nisi sit compositurn, ut
abs-tulit, trans-tulit, abs-condit}
obs-olevit (cf.
Cassiodor.
vii. 204.
'
'
but adds that Herodian in his treatise on Orthorationabilius sonoriusque to follow the ordinary
and in another passage (i. p.
syllable-division in the case of Compounds too
Terentius Scaurus (vii. 12. i K.)
42) he hesitates between a-bnuo and ab-nuo.
censures ' nes-cio for ne-scio, a mispronunciation which shows the tendency
already mentioned ( 139) to detach s from a following consonant or consonant group, or perhaps rather to divide it between the two syllables, nes-scio.'
The law of Breves Breviantes in Plautine prosody, it may be mentioned,
takes no account of syllable-division. Shortening is allowed (after a short
syllable) of a pretonic syllable long by position in words like guberndbunt,
cavuldtor, voliintdtis, where the consonant group is divided between two
syllables neither more nor less readily than in words like egestdti, venustdti,
where the consonant group is confined to one syllable.
'
ad-eo
graphy declared
'
ab-eo
'
'
per-eo,'
it to be
'
'
'
'
141. Quantity.
two
different things.
The quantity and the
We
quality of a vowel are

are apt to distinguish in our minds
a long and a short vowel (say e and <?) by quality, not by

quantity, thinking of e as an open E-sound, of e as a close
E -sound, whereas the terms ' long ' and e short ' should be
PRONUNCIATION.
141.]
VOWEL-QUANTITY.
127
applied only to the amount of time taken in pronouncing the

vowel, so that there is, properly speaking-, a long and a short
open E and a long and a short close E. It is true that differ-
ence in quantity and in quality often go together ; thus Latin e

was, like our e, open E, Latin e was close E, though the long
E was also known in Latin, and was written

The
Romance languages, which have lost all other
(
distinction of the Latin long and short vowels, distinguish them
sound of open
ae
6).
according to quality (e.g. Lat. bellws is Ital. bello with open E,

Lat. stella is Ital. stella with close E), though this distinction
of quality does not always correspond to distinction of quantity
and the e of Lat. credo are similarly

in
Fr.
vois, crois) ( 6).
Consonants, too, may differ in
represented
their quantity like vowels. For example, English final consonants
(e.g. the # of Lat. video
are long after short, short after long vowels, e. g. hill/ ' heel/
may distinguish at least three degrees of quantity or
'
We
an example of the last

length,
long, short, and half-long,
'
'
'
(
being the vowel of our note,' while node and German Noth
'
have a long vowel. Latin half-longs may be detected by the

metrical scansion of a syllable as either long or short, e.g. in
Plautus' time the final syllables of amat, tenet, abit, dolor
(ch.
iii.
40)*.
The marked distinction between a long and a short vowel in

Latin made it possible for the Romans to imitate the quantitative
metre of the Greeks.
which is represented
Livius Andronicus and the
Their
own
native metre, the Saturc

by the Odyssea of
'
in literature
nian,
'
Bellum Poenicum of Naevius, but

which was banished from the domain of poetry by Ennius, was,
'
1
A poetical scansion may of course
be traditional. Thus Martial (iii. 95. i )
has have, although Quintilian (i. 6. 21 )
tells us that in the ordinary pronunciation of his time the final vowel
was short. Nor is variation in the
scansion of proper names proof of
it is rather to
half-long quantity
be referred to ignorance or careless;
ness.
for
The
first syllable
of Fldenae,
example, was certainly
long, the
vowel being written with ei, or with

the tall form of i (to indicate the long
sound) on inscriptions, and being
but
usually so scanned by poets
Virgil (A. vi. 7 73) has urbemque Fide;
nam.
Scansions like Italia (an imitation of a Greek prosodical usage) are

njere metrical licences, and prove
nothing about actual pronunciation
('
Italiam
prendas.
'
.
extra carmen non de-
Quint,
i.
5.
18).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
128
metre
the
like
of
and
Teutonic
the
1
accentual, not quantitative
not possess this distinction.
[Chap. II.
other
I.-Eur.
stocks,
But the Romance languages do
We are
in the habit of calling
an
accented vowel, such as the second vowel of the Italian word

Toscana/ long but in reality it is pronounced with no more
One of
length than the unaccented vowels of the same word.
'
the chief differences of such a language as Italian from Teutonic

languages is the equal length which it assigns to each vowel,
even a
e
final
unaccented vowel.
of Ital. notte with that of
Contrast, for instance, the final

or the final / of Tivoli
Germ. Gabe,
and in the usual English pronunciation of the

Almost the only really long syllables in Italian are
by position/ e.g. the first syllables of tanto/
syllables long
as
we shall see (ch. iii. 4), have in fact a circumwhich,
tempo/
in the Italian
word.
'
'
'
'
tempo.'
Similarly the Spanish accent
does not impair the quantity as the English accent does and
in French the usual quantity of every vowel is the half-long,
e.g. jeune.
(See Storm on Romance Quantity in the Phonet.
flex accentuation,
tanto,'
All this points to a period of ( Vulgar Latin'

when
vowels were equally short or half -long, and when the
only predominance of one vowel over another would be that conStud.
1888.)
all
ferred
by the
stress of accentuation.
'
this process of
levelling
marians of the fourth and

ties of
And we
detect traces of
in the evident uncertainty of the

fifth centuries A. D.
gram-
about the quanti-
words for which they have not one of the classical poets
2
and above all in the errors in scansion of those
,
to appeal to
1
The Saturnian
line
had three
accents (main or secondary, ch. iii. 7)

in the first hemistich (one always
on the first syllable of the line), and

two in the second, and like Romance
poetry reckoned (with permissible
variations) a definite number of syllables to the line, seven to the first
hemistich, six to the second.
two chief types were
Its
A-type
,
xx(,
xx,
xxx
dabunt malum Metelli NaSuio poStae,
B-type
(less usual)
xxxx, xx
xx(,) xx, xxx
prim(a) inc^dit Ctereris Proserpina piier,
a variety of the second hemistich of
II
the A-type being xxxx, xx adlocutus summi and of theB-type xxx, xx

fuisse uirum.
(See Amer. Journ. Phil
||
II
vol. xiv.)
The passages quoted from the

grammarians by Seelmann, p. 75,
2
are not conclusive
e. g.
Ter. Scaurus'
distinction of facilis Sg. from facileis

PI. is a matter of orthography, not
of pronunciationj and is suggested

'
by Luc ii iu8 proposed distinction of
the symbols
and
ei
(see ch.
i.
9).
PRONUNCIATION.
142]
Christian poets
who
VOWEL-QUANTITY.
the
imitate
verse
quantitative
129
of
the
Augustan poets. Grammarians often censure mispronunciations

due to the overmastering' of quantity by accent, e. g. Ceres (Mar.
Sacerd. 451. 13 K.), pices (Consent. 392. 18 K..), piper and orator
1 1
quod vitium Afrorum speciale est) they frequently
(ib. 392. 3,
;
caution
open
against
the
and aequus
e)
285. 8 K., &c.).
confusion of equus (with accented short

(with accented long open e) (Pompeius,
Cf. the haphazard use of the apex and tall I on

i.
For a discussion of the influence of
i).
late inscriptions (ch.
accentuation on the quantity of the Latin vowels (e.g. late Lat.

idolum for ?5o>\oi'), see ch. iii.
i ; for variations like paciscor
and pdcem, (I.-Eur. pak- and pdk-\ see

'
142.
ch. iv.
51.
In Latin poetry a syllable is scanned long,

have a short vowel, if the vowel precedes any
Position.'
even though
it
consonant-group requiring a certain period of time for pronunA long syllable of this kind is said to be long by
ciation.
and the way
position (positio, e.g. Quint, ix. 4. 86 ; i. 5. 28)
'
'
which a Roman apprehended this length by position may

be seen from a passage of a fifth cent, grammarian (Pompeius,
'
in
H2. 26
K.): ut puta
si
dicas
'
et,'
unum
habet tempus.
sonans dimidium habet tempus
est brevis,
unum
ecce
semis habet.
consonans
'
'
et
unum
e vocalis
omnis con-
est, et
semis habet
longa nee brevis ; plus tamen habet

tempus.
a brevi, minus quidem habet a longa.
adde ad et s, etiam fit
admic non
est nee
'
'
? e brevis unum tempus habet, t dimidium tempus

dimidium tempus habet ecce duo tempora sunt. fecerant duo tempora longam syllabam.
With a naturally long
vowel there would be really extra-length, but there is no account
quare
longa.
habet,
taken in
Roman
poetry of the different length
of, say,
the second
syllables of calesco (with e] and modestus (with e), both being

treated as long syllables.
Plautus, however, seems not to shorten
by the Brevis Brevians
Law (ch. iii.
42) a syllable with naturally
long vowel, scanning quu mcedit ? but not qim msistit ?

mfertur ? (before *-,/- the vowel of in was long,
144).
qms
Consonant groups which admitted of more rapid pronunciation were not necessarily scanned long, viz. groups composed of
a mute and a liquid (r,
Thus in Virgil agntm (with a) may
/).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
130
[Chap. II.
be scanned with the
first syllable long or short as the poet

Plautus and the older dramatists, who follow more
the actual pronunciation of everyday life, never scan such a
chooses.
though in other than dramatic poetry this scansion

e.g. Ennius in his epic has nigrum (Ann. 187 M.) sacru-
syllable long,
is
found ;
233), &c., with first syllable long, whence we may

infer that in rapid unconventional utterance such a syllable was
Jicare
(i(j.
but in measured ceremonious speech the longer dwelling
short,
of the voice on the
That such a
syllable
mute and liquid justified a long scansion.

differed from an ordinary short syllable is
seen in the avoidance
by the dramatists of the shortening of

a vowel after a mute and a liquid by the Brevis Brevians Law ;
e.g. Plautus scans abi readily, but avoids a scansion like agm.
The same pronunciation of a mute with r seems to have prevailed in Imperial times, to judge by Servius' note on Virg. A.
384 Libyae deserta peragro] per habet accentum nam a
'
'
'
i.
'
longa quidem
est,
sed non solida positione
metrum
quotiens ponuntur,
muta enim
juvant, non accentum
et liquida
(cf.
Quint,
but not of a mute with /in the word maniplis,

according to the same authority (Serv. ad A. xi. 463 in hoc sermone,
ut secunda a fine habeat accentum usus obtinuit).
The establishi.
28
5.
ment
short
ix. 4.
86).
of the pronunciation maniplus with long second syllable (but

has been plausibly referred to the longer form manipulm
)
(on the presence and absence of the parasitic or svarabhaktic vowel

in Latin between a mute and /, see
102); but it may be
objected that Plautus scans poplus with first syllable short, as well
and makes the suffix tlo- (ch. v.
25) one
as trisyllabic pfipulus
with preceding vowel scanned short, in veMclum, though

In the Romance lan(normally) two syllables in cvMculum.
syllable,
guages the accent has been shifted to all penultimate vowels

followed by a mute with r, e.g. Ital. allegro (with accent on
second syllable) from Lat. dlacris (Vulg. Lat. *alecro-) (see
ch.
iii.
1),
which shows that
in
Vulgar Latin the combination of
a mute with r came universally to constitute length by position.

This, too, has been explained by the supposition of a parasitic
vowel,
*alec e ro-,
like
the occasional
poetry, however,
second syllable), but
may
spelling
arUterium (in
invariably scanned with short

also be referred to the practice which
arlitrium
is
PRONUNCIATION.
143.]
we
VOWEL-QUANTITY.
J31
most clearly in Italian of lengthening a mute before r,

fabbro
e.g.
(Lat. fabro-), febbre (Lat. febris), and Ital. occliio
from Lat. oculus (Vulg. Lat. oclus, *occlus ?), suggests a similar
account of the Imperial Latin pronunciation of manipln*.
see
We
same doubling in English 'fodder' (from 'food '), 'bitter'

Grober ascribes this consonant lengthenbite
apple.'
'),
(from
ing (Comm. Woelffl. p. 171) to what is called the legato/ as
see the
'
opposed to the
'
'
staccato
pronunciation
that
is
to say, *fabro-
was pronounced with linking of the two syllables fa- and bro-,
not with that marked break of one syllable from another that
we
see in Ital. be-ne
The same
139).
'
legato' pronunciation
two syllables of a word Vfcafactum, omnis (but cf.

139),
he makes the scientific explanation of the scansion of the first
syllable as long (similarly with fac tnnmlum, &c.), and by the
tendency to attach an s in a group like st, so, sp to the preof the
ceding syllable (seen in misspellings like disscente,

130),, he
with
first
the
scansion
esto, uescio, &c.,
explains
syllable long.
On
the other hand,
began with
when
assert itself,
a word ended in a vowel and the next

'
'
legato
pronunciation did not equally
so that Lucretius allows a scansion like libera sponte
st, so, sp,
the
1
The Italian pro79) and the like, though Virgil does not
nunciation of festa, pescare, aspro, &c., lengthens the s, similarly
.
(v.
the
and
in alto, the r in morte, the
n in mondo, the
in campo,
so on.
In early Latin poetry

initial
final -s as a rule does
not before an
consonant constitute length by position, a fact due
the
weak pronunciation of -s at that period ( 1 26). Similarly initial

h- y both in early and classical poetry, has not the weight of an
ordinary consonant. But final -m always has this weight ( 65).
vowel before another vowel.
143. Shortening of long
In
'
the word pius the i was originally long (cf Osc. Piihioi Pio
Dat. Sg.), and the scansion pia (MSS. din. did) has been ascribed
'
Ennius in
to
his Epic (ap. Cic. Rep. i. 41. 64

pectora pia tenet desiderium, simul inter
:
sese sic
1
In A.
xi.
memorant
O Komule, Romule
308
spem siquam
adscitis
Aetolum
habuistis in armis
die),
ponite.
spes sibi quisque, &c.,
a pause in the sentence intervenes
between the two words.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
132
though Plautus
[Chap. II.
in his homelier dramatic poetry recognizes only
The shortening of the i is due to the difficulty found by the

Romans in maintaining the long quantity of a vowel before
another vowel. The same is true of diphthongs
we find, for
/a us.
instance, the
of prae
compound
and
*Jieiido
assuming the form
The amount of length

(and even prenflo,
58).
assigned to a long vowel or diphthong in such a position would
differ at different periods, and even in the pronunciation of the
pre-JiencJo
same
Plautus
period.
699
Cure. 78)
whereas
no doubt using the colloquial pro-
is
own day when he
nunciation of his
utiius
scans CJiins (Adj.) (Poen.

in vogue at Quintilian's
was not
time (extra carmen non deprendas, sed nee in carmine vitia

ducenda sunt, Quint, i. 5. 18), and Servius (ad Virg. A. i. 451)
says that aufllit. and not aufFiit, feulit and not leniit, was the
ordinary pronunciation, the forms with the short penult being
a usage of poetry.
Here the retention of long / in Servius'
pronunciation
audirif,
>,
may
The ful
auflleras.
be ascribed to the presence of the forms with
and similarly we
fenlrit,
of Ennius, e.g.
find
in
Ter. P/torm.
M.
Ann. 431
573
nos sumus Roman! qui fuimus ante Rudini,
sometimes used (especially at the end of a
is
line. i.e.
through
by Plautus, who makes similar use of fieri,

Ennius'
ail unit Perf. &c. see ch. viii.
50 we have
(On
metrical necessity)
flerem.
FVTEIT, C.I. L.
i.
1051.)
The same shortening must have appeared in the pronunciation

of the sentence, when a word ending in a long vowel or diphthong preceded a word beginning with a vowel,
so that the
'
prosodical hiatus' of Latin poetry, e.g. Plant, tii amas, Enn.

Scipio inuicte (cf.
imaginis), Virg. qui amant, &e, was
a native Latin usage and not an imitation of Greek versifica-
Enm
*.
Final long vowels would, therefore, have a short variety
doublet/ which occurred as often as a vowel-initial followed,
and this fact, coupled with the tendency of the accent to weaken
tion
'
or
a long
final, especially in iambic words (ch. iii.

40), explains the
early shortening of final
e.g. terra, and the later shortening of
,
final -0, e. g.
1
It
seems
to
pono in Imperial
Latin
(ch.
iii.
45).
be the rule in Saturnian metre (Amer. Journ.
Phil. xiv. 310".
PRONUNCIATION.
144.]
VOWEL-QUANTITY.
133
On inscriptions we not unfrequently find a short i before

another vowel in the middle of a word written with the tall
form of the
letter,
the usual sign of
(ch.
i.
i), e.g.
D!E, with
10239); and in the Romance languages

the i of dies is represented by the usual representative of Latin
This at first sight
e.g. Ital. di, Prov. dia, Fr. di, Span. dia.
PE!VSQVAM (C.I.L.
vi.
seems to be in direct opposition to the usual law of shortening

a long vowel before another vowel.
But it is unlikely that
a short vowel was lengthened in this position
all that the
Romance forms and the spelling with tall / need imply is that
had the quality (not necessarily the quantity) of long i, in
the
;
/'
other words, had the close and not the open sound ( 14).
is certainly the explanation of Romance *pio with close
5
and
pio, &c.),
we have
for
of the
plvs of inscriptions,
seen reason to believe that a long
Latin retained the quality of long
and
later period
4-sound
14).
short (ch.
e.g. C.
iv.
in K. Z. xxx.
it
I.
L.
This
i
(Ital.
vi.
1058,
shortened in
audit, &c., of the classical
being pronounced with the close, not the open

But the i of dies must have been originally
(The examples from Romance are discussed
63).
337
additional examples of tall I in dies, pins on
inscriptions are given in Christiansen, De apicibus et

'
the before a vowel.)
p. 32.)
(Cf. the sound of Engl.
longis,
'
144.
Change in quantity of vowel before certain consonant-
The quantity of a vowel which stands before a group

groups.
of consonants or a double consonant in Latin is not so easily
determined as the quantity of a vowel followed by a single conIn a word like melUkctaMle the scansion of the word by
sonant.
the Latin poets will fix the quantity of the vowel of every
The u of the third syllable is long by
syllable except the third.
as
it
is called, because it stands before the consonants
position/
'
ct^
but
we cannot
venit
tell
from a
summa
line like
dies et ineluctabile tempus,
To ascertain the
also long by nature or riot.
1
natural quantity of these vowels which are long by position
whether
it
is
we can
refer to
two main sources of information;
For a list of them, see Marx,

used with caution).
1
Hittfsbuchlein
2
,
Berlin,
first,
the
1889 (a book to be
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
134
[Chap. II.
which denote a long
a, e, 0, u by an apex, a mark
of
the
acute
accent
symbol
(and from c. 130 B.C. by
the
a
i
tall form of that letter;
the
doubling
long
by
vowel),
the
Romance
second,
languages which, as we have seen, dis-
inscriptions
like the
tinguish a long from a short e, i, 0, u, when, as seems usually

to have been the case, the long and the short vowel differed in
Vulgar Latin
in quality as well as in quantity.

Neither of these
sources are wholly satisfactory. The apex and tall i seem to be often
used at haphazard, especially on inscriptions later than 150 A.D.,
and the latter has other uses than to express long
such as for
,
1
The Romance lan(oury), and so on
the
and
and
Teutonic
Celtic
loanwords, often indicate
guages,
a quantity different from that which can be inferred for a word
initial
i,
consonantal
in Classical Latin, a very natural thing if we consider how much

the pronunciation of a vowel is liable to be influenced by the
consonant-group next which it stands, and by the analogy of

Some help is occasionally
other words of a similar form.
by the statements of grammarians on the quantity of

though even they sometimes show by their
hesitation that the pronunciation of such vowels was in their
time not always definitely established. Aulus Gellius (second
afforded
this or that vowel,
cent. A.D.), for example, discusses the proper quantity of e in

quiesco
(vii.
15),
nitesco, stnpesco
and decides for
on the analogy of
calesco.
and other Inceptives, as well as of the noun
quies
2553 i), though he adds that a friend of his,

an educated man, invariably pronounced the word with short
In another passage (ix. 6) he recommends the proe, quiesco.
(cf
qnicsco C.
nunciation
actito,
I. L. vi.
dclito,
against a
common
pronunciation of his time,
which was defended by the analogy of the short vowel of
the simple verb ago.
The grammarians
of a later date,
when
the
distinction between long and short quantity was beginning to

disappear, are still more at a loss about those quantities for which
they have not the authority of the classical poets to

upon.
It
when he
1
is
difficult to believe
fall
back
Priscian
(ix. 28) (sixth cent.)

posits a naturally long penult for all perfects with ,
See Christiansen, De apicibus
dissertation).
et
longis inscriptionum latinarum,
1889 (a Kiel
PRONUNCIATION.
144.]
VOWEL-QUANTITY.
135
and for no others, e.g. duxi, nor yet when he makes

the a of mansi long by position only (ix. 27).
Greek transcriptions, too, are often dangerous guides ; for the quality of Greek
e.g. illexi,
and
77,
and
differed, as
co,
we have seen
32,
21),
from that of
the Greek short vowels being, at least in the

Attic period, close and the long vowels open, while the Latin short
vowels had the open, the long the close sound.
Greek ov is no
Latin
e,
e,
o,
o,
indication of the long u of Latin, but merely of the it -sound of

Latin u, as opposed to the aj-sound of Greek v. Greek ei, however, almost
always indicates Latin
I
(see Eckinger).
will
often
indeed
Thus we can infer
help us.
Etymology
a long vowel in the first syllable of Indus, grief (the u is marked
long on inscriptions), from the analogy of Itigeo

though we
should never have guessed that hestermis, unlike h&ri, had a long
vowel, if we had not been informed of the fact by a Latin
grammarian (Mar. Victorin. vi.

dici debet
nemo enim est, qui
:
'
'
modo
latine
quam producta syllaba hesternum

ment
K.
15. 15
hesternum
'
producte
sciat loqui, qui aliter
'
The
dixerit).
metrical treat-
of words
by the early dramatists may also be appealed to,

if it be granted that a vowel
long by nature is seldom or never
shortened by the influence of a preceding short syllable, in words
like vtiluptdtem, or phrases like quid ignoras (see ch.
all
these aids
it is
possible to gain a
iii.
34).
With
good deal of information

'
about the quantity of vowels long by ' position in Latin, quite

enough to prove the irrationableness of our usual method of
pronunciation which ignores
all distinction
of quantity in their
though hardly enough to settle satisfactorily the question

with which this paragraph proposes to deal, namely the extent
case
to which the influence of one consonant-group tended to shorten

a vowel naturally long, of another to lengthen a vowel naturally
To ascertain the limits of our knowledge and of our
short.
ignorance on this subject it will be necessary to make a more

minute examination of the several words involved than is
generally wanted.
Our ordinary pronunciation of

Latin makes no distinction, for ex1
ample, between
<
illex,
alluring,'
and
illex,
'
'lawless.'
illex
'
!
We
pronounce both
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
136
In one case at
we seem
least
Cicero "(Orator^
feet.
[Chap. II.
have safe ground under our

159), tells us that in- and con-
xlviii.
to
lengthened their vowel when compounded with a word beginning with s or/': quid vero hoc elegantius, quod non fit natura
'
indoctus
sed quodam institute,
dicimus brevi prima littera,
1
insanus producta, inhumanus brevi, ' inf elix longa. et, ne
'
'
quibus
multis,
in
'
'
sapiente
breviter.
3
fecit
atque
eae
verbis
Felice/
primae
litterae
quae in
omnibus
sunt,
producte dicitur, in ceteris

'
'
consuevit
concrepuit
'
'
itemque
'
'
'
composuit
con-
consule veritatem, reprehend et refer ad aures, probabunt.

this rule should be extended to all vowels before ns, (/"),
:
That
we
'
'
from such statements

Participles in -ens, -ans had
of
see
grammarians as that Present

Nominative a long vowel
in the
iv. 245. 13 K. ; Pompeius, v. 113. 23

K.), while the
this
e
is indicated by the Romance languages
of
shortness
original
for the other cases (e. g. Ital. -ente with open e in the penult) ;
(Probus
that
-ies
was long
(Probus
iv.
in the termination of
247.
9.
K.)
Nominative Singular of
(cf.
Numeral Adverbs
in -ien,
O. Ind. klyant, &c.), and in the
&c., (Bede vii. 230.

15 K.), while e in the other cases of these nouns is indicated by
the Romance forms (e. g. Ital. dente, gente, with open e, Span,
dens, gens, mens,
Probus, however, seems to inculcate insons,

miente).
imdntis as opposed tofdns} fdntis (iv. 6. 1 2 and 28. 26 K. cf. Prise,
vii. 39).
Inscriptions, too, show the apex in words like CLEMENS
diente,
(C. I. L. ii. 4550), PROCEDENS (vi. 1527 d 28), and a host of

other examples with ns (see a list of them in Christiansen, De
apicibus, &c. p. 41); while Greek inscriptions have -17^9, e.g.
Finally Romance forms like Ital.

from
Latin
the participle of tendo
e)
te(n)sus,
Latin
not
from
tendo,
only indicate a long vowel
(with open e)
in
but
also
to
show that this long e had
seem
before ns
Latin,
the same quality as the usual Latin e (close tf), and was not
Upovbr]vs (Eckinger, p. 115).
teso (with close
a mere protraction of the open

1
The
spellings
t(h}ensaurus
for
Scaptensula for 2/fOTTT^ v\rj

or 2tcaiTTT]av\r), Chersonensus for Xc/>0T)<ravp6s,
06i>r)aos (see
Georges) do not then
offer -ens- as the equivalent of Gk.
tf-sound of short e
1
.
Quintilian
(with long open E,

41), but
are to be compared with the misspelling censured in Probi App. 198.
21 K., occansio for occasio (see
66).
-770--
Long open E was written
ae
41).
PRONUNCIATION.
144.]
29)
7.
(i.
tells
VOWEL-QUANTITY.
137
us that in the word consules the nasal was not
sounded, a fact possibly expressed by the usual abbreviation of

the word on inscriptions, cos.
The dropping of the nasal is also
by spellings like novies beside noviens, and by the

Romance forms, e.g. Ital. teso (Lat. te(n)sus), and Celtic and
Teutonic loanwords, e.g. Welsh dwys (Lat. de(n)sns) O. H.G.
indicated
isila
(Lat.
30 K.)
(cf.
~i()i)sula }
cf.
Diom.
IFEROS, C.I L.
The grammarians who

to in-
and
con- (Gellius,
22; Diomedes,
204. 1 6 K.
i.
i.
409. 3 K.
Serv. in Don.
iv.
442.
vi.
19873).
repeat the rule of Cicero with regard
ii.
17; Probus,
iv.
433. 15 K. ; Serv. ad Aen.

Audacis exc. vii. 354. 21
K. and 253.
149. 33
i.
187
Max.
Viet.
;
K.), often add the
remark that the rule was not strictly followed in the pronunciation of their time.
Thus Diomedes (i. 409. 3 K.) says of
vi.
in-
and
con- before
76. 9 K.)
'
plerumque producuntur (cf Cledonius, v.

and Servius (in Don. iv. 442. 28 K.) intimates that
*,
/,
the rule was often violated in practice,
observantes in barbarismos incurrimus.
plerumque enim non
This probably indicates
a tendency of later Latin to give in- and conin these compounds

the same short vowel-sound that they had in other compounds
like
and this
mcedo, concedo, and in the simple forms m, cum
it
on
that
all
but
the
earliest
is,
inscriptions of
why
;
will explain
the Empire, the instances of apexed vowels before ns are not so

frequent in these compounds, as in other words (see the lists
given by Christiansen), and also why, both on inscriptions and in

Romance forms, instances of a long vowel before nf are rare
For the combination ^/"hardly occurs except in the case of verbs
'
/ compounded with in- and con-. The word

was perhaps not regarded as a compound; for the o is
marked with the apex on inscriptions with great persistency.
In Welsh, too, the Old Welsh form cusil points to a Latin
Serv. in Don. iv. 442. 30 K.).
co(ti)silium (cf. Diom. i. 409. 3 K.
beginning with
consul
compounds, which were realized in popular usage to be

compounds, the pronunciation of Cicero's time must have gone
But, for
1
The tall 1 of INFERI (C. I. L.
y i- 7579X quoted by Christiansen
and Seelmann, is no certain indication of long i.
Every initial t of this
inscription has the tall form,
e. g.
ITA,
always difficult to be
sure whether INS-, INF- on inscriptions
IMPETRA.
It is
indicate long
t,
or merely initial
i.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
138
[Chap. II.
more and more out of fashion under the Empire. Its prevalence
may be inferred from the fact that
in the time of Plautus
Plautus
averse to ins-, inf- being shortened
is
influence
nf in Osc. keenzstur,
Umbr.
by the
In Umbro-Oscan we
of a preceding short syllable (see

142).
see lengthening of a vowel before ns,
aaiifehtaf
'
infectas.'
censor/ (with long open E,
6),
The remark of Priscian (ii. 63), that the terminations -gnus,
-gna, -gnum are always preceded by a long vowel, has been
Marx and
extended by
-gn-
always
others into a rule that the combination
lengthened
vowel.
preceding
Of
Priscian's
examples (regnum, stdgnum, bemgnus, malignus, aliegnns, privignus,

ahiecjnus, regnum, stdgnum had probably originally
a long vowel (cf. abies, regem, stare]
privlgmis gets a certain
amount of confirmation from the spelling PR!V!GNO on a soldier's
Paelignus],
epitaph (C.
L. vi.
I.
Romance forms
3541)
but
Ijenignus,
matigmut receive none from
which are probably

borrowing from Latin, not
like Ital. benigno, maligno,
'
recent
bookwords/ acquired by
naturally transmitted by continuous usage from
The Romance forms
(e.g.
Ital.
(Ital.
segno,
S!GNUM
(C.
Span,
vi.
/. L.
times.
degno, Span, des-den, 'dis-
dain'; possibly 'bookwords/ A.L.L.

Lat. dignus-, but the word has the
D!GNE, and elsewhere.
Roman
viii.
tall
324), point to Vulg.

I in C.I.L. vi. 6314
also to sigmim (cf. sigillum),

but on inscriptions we have
They point
sena,
&c.)
10234, a carefully written inscription of
153 A. D., and elsewhere), S!GNIFICABO (vi. 16664). The grammarian Diomedes (fourth cent.), speaking of the rhythmic
arrangement of some of Cicero's clauses (i. 470. 9 K.), seems
speak of diguitas as an anapaest, just as he calls justam
a trochee; and if this be the right construction of his words,
it suggests that he pronounced (Ugmtds.
Welsh swyn, a charm,
Old Irish sen, blessing, senaim, to bless, to sain, Old High Gerto
man
segan,
charm against
Latin signum in
evil,
blessing, are all
from a
late
Christian sense of 'the sign of the cross';

and their form indicates a form segnum, with close e, a develop-
ment
of
an
its
The Romance
not slgnum (cf.
14).
a short vowel in lignum, pignus, pugnus, and
the lengthening of a vowel before gn was
earlier vignum,
forms indicate,
show us that
too,
if
a tendency of Latin pronunciation at
all,
it
was not one
so
PRONUNCIATION.
144.]
VOWEL-QUANTITY.
marked, and so persistent, as the lengthening before
ns.
[For
further discussion of this question, see Bezz. Beitr. xvi. 189 sqq. ;
Mem. Soc. Ling. vi. 34 note; K. Z. xxx. 337, where it is suggested
that the change in the vowel was one of quantity merely, not of
quality, so that dignus, signum, would have the long open ^-sound.
Before $w, by a phonetic law of Latin, e became i (ch. iv
The
8)].
plaMEN(tum) on an African inscription (C. I. L. viii. 1344)

not evidence enough for a lengthening of the vowel before gm\
nor is the exact relation clear between snbtegmen and sultemen,
spelling
is
exugmen
(?)
and exdmen
p. 126) (see ch. iv.
(Class. Rev. vol. v. p.
294
Etym. Lat.
116).
In the Perfect Participle Passive and kindred formations of

verbs whose Present ends in
we
e.g. lego, ago,
-go,
preceded by a short syllable,
Thus
find a long vowel.
lector, lectnm,
dctum,
(from a third-conjugation form *liyere?) are attested by

Aul. Gellius (xii. 3 and ix. 6). lecto by Porphyrio (ad Hor. S.
lictor
i. 6.
122), while on inscriptions we have lector (C. L L. vi. 9447,
the epitaph of a grammaticus, and so presumably correct in
spelling
(vi.
dct'is
27140),, adlecto, xiv. 376 (second cent. A.D.), &c.,
B.C. 8-2), &c., infrdctd (ix. 60, c. ico A. D.) (while
vi.
1527 d 59,
a for frango
is
proved by
from
effringo, confringo (#
e)
),
recte
factor (vi. 5205), and

(xii. 2494, beginning of first cent. A.D.),
the like (see Christiansen, p. 47, and cf. AryKTo?, 7rp(m}KTo[pos] on
Gk.
inscrr.,,
K. Z.
xxxiii. 402.).
The long vowel
is
also
found in
the Perfect (properly S.-Aorist, see ch. viii.

39) of these verbs,
2
rexi, texi (Prise, ix. 28, who adds illex/ ), rexit (C.I.L. v. 875,
Whether
1793) (see Christiansen, p. 49).
due to the consonant-groups g and t, g and $, or is a
lengthening peculiar to the Perfect and kindred forms of the verb
A.D.), texit (x.
105
it
is
39), it is difficult to say,
(see ch. viii.
but the
latter supposition
The single instance on inscripcertainly the more probable.

tions of a form that is not Verbal, viz. mdx(imo) (vi. 2080, the
is
Acts of the Arval Brotherhood,

So that there was complete assonance between rex and recte in the
1
children's verse
rex eris,
facies,
si
non
recte
eris,
facies
si
non
c.
120 A.D.)
is
not sufficient
alluded to by Hor. (Epp. i. i. 59) rex

aiunt Si recte facies.
8
Plautus puns on iUectus, the Verbal
,eris
Noun from
Micio, andlectus
a bed, Bacch. 55.
(from
lego),
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
140
[Chap. II.
Diomedes (431. 17 K.) says the i of

similar difficulty presents itself in connexion
with the parallel formations from Verbs ending in -ngo. Gellius
and on inscriptions we have
(ix. 6) attests unctus beside ungo ;
evidence for the former.
nix
is
short.
sejunctnm (C.
I.
L.
1527 e 38, B.C. 8-2), &c., deftinctis (v. 1326),

4333, time of Antonines), ea&tmctos (vi. 25617,
vi.
&c., conjuRxit (xii.

A.D. 10), clndus (x. 4104) (see Christiansen, pp. 44 sqq.).
Here
the spelling sdnctus (cf. Osc. saahtum, Umbr. sahata), frequent
on inscriptions, seems to show that the lengthening occurs

before original nc (sacer 1 ), as well as before nc from original ng
;
but the few instances of non-verbal forms, viz. conjunx (vi. 6592.
6593), the numeral quinctus, frequent on inscriptions (Christian46) (cf. quwtqne, quini), are again insufficient evidence to
separate the lengthening from the ordinary lengthening of the
sen, p.
Latin Perfect.
The absence
nanctus), fetus (but jinctus

arid mctissimae (vi.
(ii. 4173),
beside sant,
70),
is
the nasal
of
Ter. "Run.
15511
explained in ch.
v.
viii.
in
nactus
104), plebeian
(beside
defuctm
6580) (cf. Welsh saith

In qulntus it is the
10.
guttural that disappears. All the Romance forms point to qumtus

the earliest forms are
(cf. Greek Kouetrro? and Koeirros, though
see Eckinger, pp. 1 22 sqq.), but declare
Koty/crtoy and KOLVTOS
for the short vowel in pftuctus, unctus, cmclus, tmctns,cmxi,fMtxi.
In the absence of express testimony, such as we have for us,
:
it is impossible to be sure that the combination of g with

}
a consonant, like n, w, t, s, whether preceded or not by a nasal,
had a lengthening effect on a preceding vowel ; though there
nf
It is
certainly are a good many apparent indications of this.
the
influence
whether
to
decide
supposed
equally impossible
exertdd on the vowel may have been a change of quality merely,

and not of quantity, just as the combination ngu had the effect
of changing an o to a u e. g. nngnis for *ongms (ch. iv.
20).
}
145. r with consonant.
Spellings on inscriptions like Fortun(a\ Fortunata

7527) (cf. Fotunate vi. 2236) suggest that the o, which was certainly
92), has been lengthened by
originally short (Lat. or for I.-Eur. y, see ch. iv.
the influence of the following rt. If this be so, it could only have been a local
(C. I. L. vi.
pronunciation, or at least one that never gained a secure footing in the
1
A fresh complication arises from
the fact that beside scro-, we have
a stem sacri- (sdcres, Plautus), pointing to a root sac- beside sac-.
PRONUNCIATION.
145-147.]
language
Romance languages
for the
words
like porcus, cornu,

pernix as a barbarism
;
certus,
&c.
141
testify abundantly to short vowels in

Marius Sacerdos (vi. 451. 5 K.) quotes
and Pompeius
So that the initial
VOWEL-QUANTITY.
126. 5) censures
(v.
the mispronun-
of orno, if long, as attested by inscriptions,

[e.g. ornav(it) C.I.L. x. 6104 (time of Augustus), ornare xii. 4333 (time of
Antonines (for other instances on inscriptions, see Christiansen, p. 53], and
ciation drtna.
by Celtic loanwords (e. g. Welsh addurn, ornament,' addurno, to ornament/

Lat. adorno) must have been originally long and cannot owe its length to the
influence of the following rn.
(Similarly/orma, ordo, orca.) But it is more
likely that the o was not really long, but merely had the quality of long
Latin 6, in other words was close o. Plautus seems to scan orn- after a short
syllable though the instances are so few as to leave a slight doubt (Trin. 840
might possibly be novo cum ornatu, Aid 721 eo ornatus). There are not wanting
indications that r with a nasal tended to modify the quality of a vowel, e. g.
fornus and furnus, formica and fiirmica, turnus (Greek ropvos\ just as in Italian
to-day (though not in the Toscaiia) close e becomes open before r with a con'
e. g. verde, erpice (Meyer-Liibke, Hal. Gram.

How far this may
54).
explain the discrepancy between the firmus of inscriptions (Christiansen,
p. 53), and the Vulg. Lat. firmus, postulated by Romance forms like Ital.
sonant,
fermo, and the Welsh loanword fferf,

a expressly attested by Audacis exc.
it is difficult
to say.
Ar-vum with short
328. 8 K.. originally the neuter of

the adjective aruus, e. g. Plaut. True. 149 non aruos hie sed pascuos ager est,
appears with long a in an inscription of Tiberius' time (arvali, C.I.L. vi. 913).
p.
(For other cases of long vowel before r with consonant on inscriptions, see
and 36 K.
\_Arma, attested by Serv. in Don. 426.
Christiansen, pp. 51 sqq.)
Audacis exc. 328.
proved by inermis, for d is not

weakened to e (ch. iii.) arx Pomp. 130. 7 is proved by coerceo.~]
146. s with consonant. The short vowel before sp, sc, st, &c., attested by
Prise. Ace. 521.
15,
is
6,
the
Romance languages
enough evidence
words
for
like resper,
to disprove the theory that
piscis,
crista,
is
quite strong
an originally short vowel was
lengthened before these combinations, and to show that the long vowel
indicated by inscriptions for pastor, pnscus,
pp. 54 sqq.)
must have been
tr'istis,
originally long.
attests fenestra, cisper; Quintilian (ix.
4.
85 ^
Justus, &c. (see
Diomedes
ayrestis,
Audax
(p. 431,
Christiansen,
31
432, 16.)
(359. 15 K.) campestris,
also the
Hesternus (Mar. Victorin. vi. 15. 15 K.) beside heri is puzzling
discrepancy between criistum of C.I.L. i. 1199 and Vulg. Lat. criista indicated
by the Romance forms, e. g. Ital. crosta. Festus (86. 8 Th.) distinguishes
&c.
lustra,
wallowing-places, from
147.
n with
lustra, purifications.
single consonant.
but Romance
Vendo
(Ital.
vendo with
close e\fontem
of other westerns), prmceps

(Ital. principe, &c.) are enough to disprove the theory that this combination
shortened a preceding long vowel. There are, however, points of difficulty.
(Probus
6.
12 K.
*font-
by analogy
Diomedes 433. 18 contio (by anal,

;
of com-?) (for coventio, and so originally contio, or perhaps *cuntio
French nonce,
annoncer points to a Latin form niintius (for noventius, and so originally niintius,
Servius (in Don. 426. 34 K.) attests prmceps
vi. 12. 18 K.)

Romance words for 'eleven/ like Span, once, Fr.
onze, point to a Vulg. Lat. undecim (properly undecim, from unus and decem)
There are some indications
(sinciput is usually explained as *sem(i)-caput).
Mar. Victorin.
that the quality of a vowel was liable to change before this combination.
-ond- appears as -und- in frundes, a form ascribed to Ennius (see K. Z.
Thus
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
142
[Chap. II.
xxx. 336) unguis seems to be for *onguis (ch. iv.

The remark of a
20).
grammarian (Anon. Bern. Suppl. in H.), that hirundo, arundo have w,
mistake based on a misunderstanding of Priscian i. p. 123. 7 H.
;
late
is
148. 1 with consonant. Vulg. Lat. remulcum (Ital. rimorchio, Span, remolque, Fr. remorque), properly remulcum (from Greek pvp.ov\KfoJ] is not evidence
sufficient to justify us in supposing that this combination had the effect of
shortening a preceding long vowel.
Ultra,
the form attested by the
Romance
languages, was in all probability also the classical form in Varro, L. L. v. 50

read ULS, miswritten in the Archetype uis, as in v. 83, and then changed by
;
ultra, not ultra, is the true reading of the Claudius Tablet at

Lyons, col. i. 1. 40 (Allmer et Dissard, Inscriptions antiques, Muse'e de Lyon, vol. i.
The influence of this combination, however, in changing the
pp. 70 sqq.).
quality of a vowel is seen in culmen beside columen, vult beside volo, &c. (see
scribes to ouis
ch. iv.
20).
The shortening
of a long vowel before certain single final consonants,
like the shortening and change of final vowels, dependent on

the Accent, and so is discussed in the next chapter. (On the Assimilation of
Consonants, e. g. summitto for submiito, see ch. iv.
159.)
-r, -t,
&c.
is,
Two neighbouring
149. Crasis of vowels, Synizesis, &c.
vowels in the middle of a word became a Diphthong if the
second was i or n, e.g. coetns for co-Uus (used literally in Plaut.
Ampk. 657 primo coetu uicimus), suffered Crasis if they were
'
doff
for
suitable vowels, e. g. como from co-emo (cf Engl.
'
if
first
i
u
while
the
was
or
don
for
do-off,
do-on),
(or in
certain cases e or o) Synizesis was a common result, e.g. larva
'
'
from lama
Compounds of a Preposi(a trisyllable in Plautus).

tion ending in a vowel, and a Verb, &c., beginning with a vowel
or It, show vowel- contraction more regularly in the early dramatists
than in the Augustan poets,
e.g. coerce (a dissyllable) Pacuv.,
whether
conestat (for cohonestat) Accius,
it
be that these con-
tracted forms are a relic of the earlier accentuation of the

syllable of every word, coerce,
and the uncontracted the
first
result of
the shifting of the accent, cb'-erce, or that the contracted belong

to the conversational language of everyday life, the uncontracted
to the artificial diction of the higher poetry.
Possibly a trisyllabic coerce
is
'
'
re-composition
like e-neco beside older enico
(with weakening of unaccented vowel), or adcurro beside accurro

(with assimilation of consonants) (see ch. iv. 159). Synizesis went
hand in hand with Syncope \ldrna became larva at the same
and asserted
time that Idridum became lardum
(see ch.
more and more under the Empire
e.g. quefais \*quyetus) for quietus
is
common
iii.)],
spelling on late inscriptions
(cf. Ital.
itself
cheto, Span.
PRONUNCIATION.
149, 150.]
CRASIS, ETC.
143
The palatalization of a consonant under

quedo, Prov. quetz).
the influence of a following- i (become y] before a vowel has
Romance
played a great part in the
languages,, e.g. Fr. bras
from bracchium, *braccyum (see

A final vowel before an
48).
initial vowel suffered elision (see the next
section), and the same
e
of
nein neutlquam^ &c.
have
to
the
thing may
happened
;
short (or should we pronounce nywtiquam, nyullus, nyusquamt), while neater, in which
the accent by the Penultima law fell on the ne-, was pronounced
which
is
scanned with the
first syllable
as a trisyllable.
150. Vowel-contraction in
found in Pacuvius,
(dissyll.) is
compounds
Trag. 47 R.
in the early dramatists.
Coerce
gradere atque atrocem coerce confidentiam

(cf.
1.
345)
and in Plautus
deartuare (Capt. 640, 672), deasciare (Mil. 884)
453, 454, 467) are quadrisyllables.

syllables) stands in contrast to hortari in Poen. 674
deosculari (Gas.
136,
neque vos hortari neque dehortari
But
dehortari (four
decet.
de me hortatur.) The
(Ennius, Ann. 401 has the same verb in Tmesis
phrase coemptionalis senex, used of old, and therefore valueless, slaves who were
bought not singly but in numbers (from coemere, to buy in a lump) is irreverently applied to his master by the cunning slave in the Bacchides, 976
:
nunc Priamo nostro
uendam
quis emptor, coemptionalem sen em
si est
ego,
where the word coemptionalem is scanned with five syllables, as cohonestat appears
in the form conestat in a line of Accius (Trag. 445 R.)
pro se quisque cum corona clarum conestat caput. (MSS. conectai, constat.)
Of the compounds of
always has the contracted form in Plautus

scan as cobeo, and prohibeo as probeo praebeo is sometimes
spelt praehibeo in the MSS., but the scansion may always be trisyllabic, and
must be so in Merc. 1023 and the same holds true of all the older poets. In
Terence we find only prendo and reprendo, not prehendo (unless possibly Andr.
(For other instances, see iClotz,
353)) nor reprehendo (from prae and *hendo).
cohibeo
Jidbeo, debeo
may in all cases
Altrom. Metrik, p. 139.) In the classical literature the full forms of these verbs
are generally restored {but e. g. cogo from *co-ago, cogito from *co- agito (ch. viii.
though Derivative words often retain the shorter form,

from apere, to fasten praeda for *prae-heda (cf. prepraemium from *prae-emo (cf. eximius from ex-emo), &c. (see ch. v.
4).
Perf., with its 0. Lat. Present coepio, comes from an old verb apere
31), debeo, praebeo, &c,],

e. g. copula
hendo')
Coepi
from
*co-apula,
'
'
meaning to fasten (Paul. Test. 14. 2. Th. comprehendere

antiqui vinculo 'apere' dicebant), derivatives of which are aptus, aptare, as
well as copula just mentioned. In the Perfect we should expect coepi like coegi
(cf.
dpiscor)
from
cogo (co-ago],
and
this scansion is occasionally found, as in this
line (usually referred to Ennius' Annals) (536 M.)>
rex ambas intra fossam retinere coepit
hexameter
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
44
(cf.
Lucr.
II.
[Chap.
Like dissyllabic coepi (the usual scansion both in the early

619).
classical poetry) is Terence's trisyll. coemisse (Ad. 225).
iv.
and in the
Late and Vulgar Latin. For a list of spellings from

and from MSS. like quesco (for quiesco}, Febrarius (Ital. Febbrajo,
Span. Febrero, &c.) see Schuchardt, Vok. ii. pp. 444 sqq., and cf. Georges, Lex.
151. Synizesis in
late inscriptions
Wortf. s.w.i'ird(i}arium, sesqn(i} alter, vac(u)efacio, ventr(i}osus, sem(iêrmis, sem(i}-
All these show suppression of ii

vitr(e)arius, alv(e)arium.
before an accented vowel, long by nature or by position.
Similarly
Lat. coactus has become Ital. quatto, Prov. quait, Span, cacho, through Vulg.
ustus, sem(i)ttncia,
(iv), i (y}
Lat. *quattus (from *ctoactt(s), Lat. coagulum, Ital. quaglio, Span, cuajo, and so
Forms with Synizesis occasionally appear in the Latin Poets (classical
on.
as well as ante-classical\ e.g. praemjatores, Naevius, Com. 17 R., injurjatum,
Lucilius
ii.
M.,
9.
malvisti, id. Inc. fr. ix M., genva,
tenvia,
arjete
(with the
first
words scanned long by position) (see Luc. Miiller, De

pp. 249 sqq.).
(On scyo or 'scio,' see Charisius, p. 16. 9 K.)
syllables of these three
Re Metrica,
'
'
NU from nihil (always

152. Other examples of vowel-contraction.
nemo from *ne-hemo
monosyllabic in Plautus")
dissyllabic deinde, proinde
(according to the grammarians these were accented on the first syllable see
next chapter, and cf. the' Plautine scansion perinde, Stick. 520) comburo for
Ifimus for *M-hiinus, of two winters (cf. Engl. twinter,' meaning
*co-amb-uro
;
'
'
two-year old beasts from hiems
*co-6pis- (cf. in-opi-}
antehac (see
copia and O. Lat. copi- Adj. for *co-opia,

58 for other examples of the loss of interloss of intervocalic w, y led to contraction
:
The
vocalic h with contraction).
in words like dltiorfoi- dlritior, dinus a
ch. viii.
form of dimnus, sto for *stayo (Umbr. stahu,

do not coalesce in moneo pleo, &c., nor a and accented
66 and 70. So did the loss of intervocalic
on these see ch. iv.
2) (but e
and
in ahenus)
m in cogo for *c6mago, &c., (unless co was a by-form of com, ch. ix. 22). The
tendency to contraction of vowels appears at all stages of the history of Latin,
and asserted itself in colloquial Latin even more than in the literary language.
(Tor a fuller list of examples see Stolz in Miiller's Handbuch, ii 2

the merging of i in a following /, u in a following M, see 48.)
153. Elision.
p. 275).
(On
Elision of a final vowel, or vowel preceding

vowel (or h with vowel) of a follow-
final -m, before the initial

1
ing
word
is
a feature
practised in speaking
xliv.
150;
xlv.
we
of
That
Latin poetry.
see
from passages
152; Quint,
ix. 4.
Epp. 40 [cf. Cicero's story of Crassus

vendo) for cave ne eas ; Div. ii. 40].
33
it
was
also
like Cicero, Orator,
xi. 3.
33-34; Seneca,
mistaking Cauneas (sc. ficus

Marius Sacerdos (448. 6 K.)
says that in reading a line like VirgiPs monstrum horrewlum, &c.,

the final -urn of monstrum was entirely suppressed, but this does
not quite agree with the statement of Probus (ap. Gell. xiii. 31. 6)
that turrim had a more melodious sound than turrem in the line
turrim in praecipiti stantem, &c.

syllable ending in -m seems to
In the Saturnian Poetry a final

have been not elided but left in
151-154.]
PRONUNCIATION.
prosodical hiatus (see
PARASITIC VOWELS.
65), like the -urn of circum in the
145
com-
pounds circu(m)ago, circu(m)eo, or of suWatum, &c. in the forms

sublatuiri, &c. (ch. viii.
87), and the same treatment is found occa5
sionally in the older poets, e.g. Ennius (Ann.

by Prisician i. p. 30 H.) millia militum octo,
354 M.) (quoted

and even in the
Augustan poets with monosyllables, e.g. num. abest Hor.;

a final long vowel was also shortened, not elided, like any long
vowel before another vowel in the middle of a Latin word,
e.g. pre-hendo,
occasionally in
and
illms^
frequently,
poetry, e.g. quT amant, Virg., Esqui143). This must be a native usage, and not
linae alites, Hor. (see

an imitation of Greek poetry.
may
the older poets
in
so
Augustan
Cicero's remarks on this subject
be quoted (Orat. xlv. 152): nobis, ne
distrahere voces conceditur
si
cupiamus quidem
indicant orationes
illae ipsae horri-
dulae Catonis, indicant omnes poetae praeter eos, qui, ut versum

facerent, saepe hiabant, ut Naevius
:
uos, qui accolitis
ibidem
et
quam numquam
at
Ennius semel
quidem nos
uobis Grai atque barbari
Scipio inuicte
et
Histrum fluuium atque algidam.
hoc motu radiantis Etesiae in uada
poiiti
hoc idem nostri saepius non tulissent, quod Graeci laudare etiam
How far they indicate a change in actual pronunciation
solent.
or in the mere technique of verse-making is doubtful (cf. ch. iii.
4i).
1
154. Parasitic vowels (cf
72, 102, and ch. iii.
3). When
two adjoining consonants are not easily pronounced together a
.
This is called
often inserted to facilitate pronunciation.
'
vowel
or
The inserted
parasitic
(sometimes styled
Anaptyxis.
'
svarabhaktic
in the terminology of the Sanscrit grammarians
vowel
is
'
'
f
vowel, from Sansc. svara-bhakti- partial vowel ') is often seen
in the older Latin loanwords from Greek, when the Greek word
contained a combination of
pronounced by
Roman
lips.
consonants which was not easily

Roman did not begin a word
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
146
[Chap. II.
with the letters mn-, as the Greeks often did, so the Greek fj.va
took in Latin the form m%na, just as in French the Low German
knif became canif ; similarly we find in Plautus techina (e.g. Poen.
817), drackuma and the like. Marius Victorinus (8. 6 K.) says that
the un-Latin character of the combination cm produced the forms
Alcumeo, Alcumena (so on an old Praenestine mirror, C. I. L. xiv.
4102), Tecmnessa, and adds that the tragedian Julius Caesar
Vopiscus (an older contemporary of Cicero) was the first to

conform the third word to the Greek TeK/xrjo-o-a, writing the title
of his tragedy Tecmessa, and ordering the actors to pronounce the
name in this way on the stage (cf. Prise, i. 29. 5 H.). (For
list
of
Greek words
so treated, see Ritsehl, Opusc.
The same thing
523.)
25), for example,
suffix tlo- (ch. v.
with which an action

ance,
is
is
ii.
469The
pp.
found in native Latin words.
is
which indicates the instrument
performed, or the place of
its
perform-
in Lat. -culo-, as well as -do-, e.g. veh&c&lum, 'that
which one
by
'
(in Plautus always veMclum), cubiculum^

In Plautus the -do- form is
the place where one lies down.'
the more usual, especially after a long vowel ; e. g. periculum is
is
carried
a quadrisyllable only at the end of a line (i. e. through metrical

necessity) in his plays, so that in his time the parasitic vowel
between
and
had not quite asserted its claim to rank as

102), though between consonants of
b and I in the ending -bulum, it is normal; he
a separate syllable (see

less affinity, e.g.
uses both populus smdpoplus (the latter only at the end of a line)
Saliare by Festus,
(cf. pilumnoe poploe, quoted from the Carmen
On the
244. 24 Th., a phrase for the javelin-bearing Romans).
we hawepoplo- (e.g. poplus, C.I. L. ii. 5041, of
189 B.C.; poplom on the (restored) Columna Rostrata, pro poplo
oldest inscriptions
Ariminesi, Not. Scav. 1887, p. 120); piaclum (C.I.L. xi. 4766)

may be like cedre caedere due to Umbrian influence but
'
'
pocolom on the early Praenestine vases

(i.
197, 198), &c.
ing, quotes
(Marius Victorinus,
from the
'
itself
impossible to
so
if
L.
i.
we can
sqq.), tabola
43
trust the read'
libri
with populoi Romanoi.)

established
(C.
I.
antiqui f oederum et regum piacolom

At a later time the spelling -cul-
firmly in
discriminate
an
(formed with the diminutive
the language that

original
suffixes ko-
co-lo,
and
e.g.
lo-,
it
became
cor-cu-lum
ch. v.), por-
PRONUNCIATION.
154.]
PARASITIC VOWELS.
147
from an original -do- ; and still later the

which
swept over the language reduced all these
Syncope
forms to the same type, porclus, stablum, eubielum, &c. (see
for *porco-lo- }
wave
ch.
of
iii.
13).
Anaptyxis played a great part in the Oscan language, and its

kindred dialect, the Pelignian. We have in Oscan aragetud for
Lat. argento (Abl.), Helevis for Lat.
'
*terminia
'
ffelvius,
teremenniu for
(Lat. termmi}, with liquid preceding
and with
liquid following, paterei (Lat. patri], Sadiriis (Lat. Satrms), in

Pelignian sacaracirix (Lat. sacmtrlces), pristafalacirix (Lat.
praestabuldt rices),
and
so
on.
The
inserted vowel
takes
the
quality of the vowel in the syllable containing the liquid, e.g.

aragetud for *ar-getud, paterei for *pa-trei (so Lat. stabulum for
*sta-blum } staMlis for *sta-blis).

The long preceding syllable is
the reason of its absence in Osc. maatreis (Lat. mdtris) (cf.
&
O. H. G. hlutres beside fogales and Plautus' preference periclum ,

It is not found in the initial syllable, so that Terebonio
&c.).
(C. I.L.
i.
190), if a dialectal form, does not belong to the
dialect (cf. Terebuni, Eph. Epigr.

(
erabro,
hornet
'
x
).
i.
16
Ital.
Oscan
calabrone from Lat
Accentuation often seems to influence
its
for example, Plautus has usually

;
manipularis), as in classical Latin
presence or absence in Latin
manuplaris (once at least

cliscipulus stands beside disciplina.
But the cross-working
of
Anaptyxis and Syncope, and the difficulty of ascertaining in

which words a suffix has been directly added to a stem ending
in a consonant, and in which there was originally an intervening
vowel
(ch. v.
21) has hitherto prevented the drawing up of exact
[A full list of Latin examples

be found in Stolz, Lat. Gram, (in Miiller's Handb. Klass.
rules for its use in the language.

will
nchaft) p. 277 (2nd ed.) (see also above,
Varro's derivation of the

'
Gracchus,
'
gerendo
(Lib.
name
Gramm.
102)].
p. 184, Wilm.), suggests a pronunciation like G'racchus.
CHAPTEE
III.
ACCENTUATION
l
.
Nature of the Latin Accent. Was the Latin accent one

Did the accented syllable in a Latin word
differ from the other syllables in being uttered at a higher note
than they were, or with a greater force ? The two things are
1.
of pitch or stress ?
For a syllable to be sounded at a high

obviously quite distinct.
is
one
or low note
thing, with energy or with gentleness is
another, just as a musical note may be sounded strongly or
gently (forte or piano), a thing quite different from its being
Most languages do
a note high or low on the musical scale.
indeed combine in a greater or less degree pitch-accent with stressThe accented syllable, if pronounced with more energy
accent.
is generally at the same time
pronounced at
for
all
a slightly higher (or lower) pitch.
But,
that, it is
of
one
this
to
say decidedly
language
language
usually possible
than the unaccented,
has a stress-accent
Our own language

accent.
of another
for example
language has a pitch-accent.

clearly a language of stress-
this
is
It distinguishes its accented syllables
by giving them
greater energy of articulation than the unaccented ; and it shows

the usual characteristics of a language with stress-accentuation,
namely, a slurring or Syncope of short syllables immediately

(
cf.
following the accented syllable (e. g. med(i)cine
dam(o)sel,'
'
f ant(a)sy and
fancy,') and an obscuring or reduction of un'
'
'
accented vowels
'
(e.
father,'
g.
Seelmann, Aussprache des Latein,

Heilbronn, 1885, is the chief exponent of the stress-theory Weil et
;
Benloew,
Theorie
generate
de
I'
Ac-
where the
has the sound of the
Paris, 1855, of the

pitch-theory. For sentence-accentuation, see the Class. Eev. v. pp. 373,
centuation Latine,
402.
ACCENTUATION OF WORD.
1
'
obscure vowel of the word
'
but
'
'
;
In a long word, say the adjective
number each
149
'
'
savage/ minute/ orange
'
characteristical/
').
we might
according to the amount of force with
syllable
uttered, the strongest (with the main accent) being

the fourth syllable of the word, the next strongest (with the
which
it
is
secondary accent) the first. The weakest syllables are, as is

usually the case with stress-accentuation, those following immediately on the most strongly accented, thus characteristical.'
In the Romance languages the accent is, like ours, an accent of
c
stress,
but this stress
is
much weaker than
ours, corresponding
to our secondary stress rather than to our main accent.

This
in
the
case
the
where
stress
is
than
it
weaker
French,
notably
for example, in Italian.
is
is,
But the Romance languages show the
same tendency to syncope of short unaccented
syllables,
and
to the
reduction of unaccented vowels, as our language does, though in

a much less marked degree (e. g. Italian gridare from Latin
Pitch- accentuation is
qmrttare, balsimo from Latin lalsamum).
seen in English more in the accentuation of the sentence than of
e
single words.
question like Are you ready ? differs by its
'
He is ready/ In
rising tone from a statement of fact like
'
some languages however, such as Swedish, Lithuanian, Servian,

these tone-distinctions are cleary marked in single words, a word
of the same spelling as another being often distinguished from
it by the tone alone.
In English we have no example of this,
unless it be such a word as rather/ which by a difference of
tone can imply two different meanings, in answer to a question
and
If we are asked,
Is it raining ?
like
Is it raining ?
'
'
'
'
'
if we give it one tone, will imply

not much.' with another tone will convey the notion
But in the main the distinctions of
violently.'
heavily,'
'
reply
Rather,' the word,

'
slightly,'
of
'
tone are
'
unknown
in our
language
and
it is this
that makes
it
for us to understand the nature of a language which

uses entirely or predominantly a pitch-accentuation, such as in
ancient times the Greek language, and of living languages,
difficult
Chinese.
In the case of a dead language, we have two means
of ascertaining whether its accent was one of pitch or of stress.

have the phenomena of the language itself on the one hand,
We
and we have the statements of native grammarians,
if
they are
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
150
[Chap. III.
Both these means of evidence point

trustworthy, on the other.
The words
to the pitch-character of the ancient Greek accent.
of the language do not
show that Syncope and Reduction
of
unaccented vowels, which we have seen to be characteristic

The Greek grammarians' accounts of
effects of a stress-accent.
own language
point in the same direction.

Greek has, however, a stress-accentuation, so that the
the accent of their
Modern
Greek accent must have changed its nature in the course of time,
though at what precise period the change took place it is difficult
No doubt the nature of the accent differed more or less
to say.
and the accent in one dialect may
in different parts of Greece
;
predominate over tone at an earlier period

the
N. Greek dialects, for example, as in the
(in
N. Greek dialects of modern times ; see Hatzidakis, K. Z. xxx.
have allowed
stress to
than in another
The accent is taken into account in Greek metre in the

388).
of
verse
Babrius, a contemporary probably of Augustus, and
author of a verse translation of Aesop's fables.
When we turn our attention to Latin, we are confronted with
the difficulty that, while the Latin grammarians often speak of
their accent in terms properly applicable only to a pitch-accent,
all the features of their language point to its having been
a stress-accent.
aMgo,
&c.,
The reduction
but Greek
a7rdyo>,
following the accent (e.g.
of the unaccented vowel

&c.),
objurgo
the
Syncope of
from objungo,
(e.
g.
syllables
calclus
from
unmistakably the presence of a stress

calidus),
And the difference of its accentuation from Greek,
accent.
though not a single grammarian definitely informs us of this
all
indicate
comes out clearly in the treatment of Greek loanwords, especially in the language of the less educated Romans.
Greek Soc/na (with short t) became Sofia, a stress-accent replacing
the pitch-accent with the result of lengthening the accented
difference,
vowel ; Greek
became idolum. Instances like these show

the same difficulty as we have, in
pronouncing Greek words with a short accented paenultima, or
with an accented antepaenultima and long penult. The difficulty
that the
would not be
so great for a
Roman
as for us, if his stress-accent,
modern descendant, the Italian, was not so strong

nor would it be so much felt at an earlier period, when
like that of his
as ours
eI8a>\oi>
Romans had much
1.]
151
the distinctions of quantity were more vividly marked (see ch. ii.
The Hungarian language,
141) than in the later Empire.
where the sense of quantity is equally vivid, accentuates the first
syllable of every word without detracting from the quantity of
vowels in the following syllables. No doubt too the nature of
the stress-accent would differ in various parts of Italy in ancient
times, as it does to-day (see Meyer-Liibke, Ital. Gram.

122,
In Praeneste, if we are to believe such indications as the
p. 71).
spelling
MGOLNIA
for the
name Magolnia on
perhaps the form conea for ciconia,

to greater lengths
language of
stork,'
than in Latin, and the
inscriptions,
Syncope was
and
carried
stress of the accent
14 below). But that the Latin

periods, at which we have definite knowledge of
must have been stronger

it,
'
all
was a language of
(see
stress-accentuation,
is
proved by
all
the
evidence at our disposal, and disproved by nothing except the

The same tendency to Syncope,
silence of the grammarians.
which before the
literary period produced undecim out of *unoseen

decim,
working in the Early Literary time in words like
objurigo (Plaut.), objurgo (Plaut. and Ter.), and in the Augustan
age in calidus and caldus (the form preferred by the Emperor
is
Augustus, Quint, i. 6. 19), while virdis for viridis asserted itself

still later, and the same tendency, as we have seen, still shows
itself
in
modern
Italian.
And hand
in
hand with Syncope
How
goes the reduction and change of unaccented vowels.
then are we to explain the absence of comment on the part of
the grammarians?
must, I think, take three things into
We
consideration.
all
the
First,
that
terminology used,
the
came
Accentuation, and
Greece.
study
of
to the
Romans from
was Tyrannic who in the first cent. B. c. brought this new

lore to Rome, including among his earliest pupils possibly Varro
and certainly Cicero's friend Atticus. Cicero, in a letter which
It
has been preserved (ad Att. xii. 6. 2), banters his friend on his
enthusiasm for so trivial a subject (te istam tarn tenuem Otapiav
tarn valde admiratum esse gaudeo
sed quaeso quid ex ista
acuta et gravi refertur ad re'Aos ?), and in his own treatise, the
.
'
Orator,' published at this time,
'
law of nature
makes mention of the wonderful

which prescribes that the accent shall never be
further from the end of a word than the third syllable (Or. xviii.
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
152
[Chap. III.
accent us itself was nothing but the Greek word

a Latin dress; and not only the terms employed,
but the description of the phenomena of accentuation are taken
58),
The word
Trpoo-wSta in
directly
from Greek
In the second
authorities.
place, the contrast
between their accent and the
Greek would not be felt so markedly by Roman grammarians as

it would by us, whose accent has so much stronger a stress than
the Latin, or modern Italian, a consideration which makes it less
surprising that they did not remark on the essential difference
And thirdly, the
between the two systems of accentuation.
Greek accent itself had probably at the time of these grammarians already entered that process of change which ended in
The Greek writers
the stress-accentuation of modern Greek.
on accentuation would no doubt go on using the terminology of
the earlier phoneticians, without perceiving that their terms and
descriptions were no longer so applicable to the actual phenomena
as they had once been ; and if the Greek contemporary theorists
on accent misused the terminology in
this
way, a
Roman
imitator
might be excused for carrying the misuse a little further, in

applying the same terminology to Latin accentuation. Indeed,
the writers on Latin
Grammar were seldom Roman by
birth
they were usually Greeks, and would have the same difficulties
in describing the Latin accent as a Frenchman in describing the
strong
stress-accent
of
English.
These considerations
may
explain how it is that only a few statements of the writers on

Latin Grammar are rid of the terms high and low (instead
'
of
'
'
strong
and
'
weak ')
'
accent, such as the
'
'
remark of a
fifth-
century grammarian, that the accented syllable in a Latin word is

the syllable which would be heard at a distance, when the others
We may then believe the Latin

were inaudible (quoted in
2).
accent to have been in the main an accent of stress, like that of
modern Italian, though like it (and the accent of the Romance
languages generally), the stress-accent may have been accompanied by a higher tone than the tone of the unstressed
syllables.
The discredit, which we have found it necessary to attach to

the language the grammarians use in describing the nature of
accentuation, makes us hesitate about accepting their distinction,
1.]
53
evidently borrowed from the Greek, of three kinds of accent,

grave, acute, and circumflex.
They postulate a circumflex for
those syllables with naturally long vowels which would have
one in Greek, namely, long paenultimas followed by a short final
The quantity of the final sylsyllable, e.g. Roma but JRdmae,

lable is the chief factor in Greek accentuation, but not in Latin,
where the quantity of the paenultima takes its place, so that one
would not expect the accent of the first syllable of Roma to differ
Other circumflex words are, according to
the grammarians, long monosyllables like res,jlos, wos, and final
long syllables of words whose last vowel has been dropped by
from that of Romae.
Apocope or Syncope, e.g. illlc from *illice, nostrds from nostrdlis.

In modern Italian these apocopated words have a strong acute
accent on the final syllable, e.g. bonta, citta, virtu, for bonttatem,
dvitatem^ virtutem, but in Spanish a word like amo (Latin amavit,
Vulg. Lat. *amaut) has a tone-circumflex in the last syllable, the
There is hardly
and then falling slightly.
voice rising first
evidence enough to enable us to test this theory of a circumflex

nor to show, supposing such an accent did exist,
in Latin,
whether
it
tone, like
was a tone-circumflex, formed of a
Spanish amo
stress-' circumflex,'
or our
'
Oh
'
!
rising
when used
falling
sarcastically, or
formed by two impulses of the
thing like our diphthongal
and
voice,
pronunciation of a long
somevowel,
In modern Italian a paenultima long by

has
a
position
very long pronunciation, and we might write
a circumflex accent over the first syllable of words like tanto
e.g.
'foe,'
'two.'
tanto '), tempo (pronounce c tempo '), while the

(pronounce
different treatment of a Latin penultimate from a Latin ante'
penultimate vowel in words like popolo (Lat. populus), uopo

(Lat. opus), suggest the possibility of a Latin Roma, &c. as
from Romulus, &c.

the whole, then, we may say that a circumflex accent
distinct
On
have existed in Latin in words
like Jlos,
illic,
and even
in
may
Roma
(though the grammarians' distinction of Roma, Romae is doubtThe

had.
ful), but that certainty on this matter is not to be
stress, a stress which was not so
and which may have been accompanied, as in
Romance, by a high tone.
Latin accent was an accent of
strong as ours,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
154
[Chap. III.
Testimony of the grammarians. (1) On the Nature of the Latin

The remarks of the Latin grammarians on accentuation have been
collected by Schoell, De Accentu linguae Latinae (in the Ada Soc. Philolog. Lipsiensis,
vol. vi. 1876).
They include remarks not only on accentuation, but on
proper pronunciation generally for accentus is often denned as vitio carens vocis
artificiosa pronuntiatio (ib. p. 78). Here are one or two of the more important
2.
Accent.
'
'
descriptions of the Latin accent. Varro, who probably learnt the theory of
accentuation from Tyrannio (Schoell, ib. p. 6), speaks of the altitudo of a word
as opposed to its longitudo (i.e. the quantity of the syllable).
By altitudo he
means its accentuation, cum pars verbi aut in grave deprimitur aut
sublimatur in acutum (ap. Serg. de Ace. p. 525. 28 K.) (cf. ib. p. 533. 4 cum
verbum enuntietur
aliqua in eo syllaba necesse est
summum
cent. A.D.)(iii. p. 65. 19 Eyss.), prettily describes accentuation as

et
illud vocis
His imitator, Martianus Capella (fourth and
fastigium possideat).
seminarium musices,' adding, quod omnis modulatio ex
'
fifth
anima vocis
fastigiis
vocum
gravitateque componitur and Nigidius, a contemporary of Varro (ap. Gell.

xiii. 26. 1-3 H.), describes the accentuation Vdleri by the words summotono est
;
prima, deinde gradatirn descendunt (cf. Audac. exc. 7. 357. 14-358. i K.). On
the other hand Pompeius (fifth century A. D.) (5. 126-7 K.) uses language
when he says, ilia syllaba, quae

accentum habet, plus sonat, quasi ipsa habet majorem potestatem, and goes
on to use the illustration of the accented syllable of the word optimus being
the only syllable heard at a distance, finge tibi quasi vocem clamantis ad
suitable to stress-accentuation (plus sonat),
longe aliquem positum, ut puta finge tibi aliquem illo loco contra stare et
clama ad ipsum. cum coeperis clamare, naturalis ratio exigit ut unam
et quam videris plus sonare
syllabam plus dicas a reliquis illius verbi
a ceteris, ipsa habet accentum.
optimus/ quae plus sonat ? ilia quae prior
est.
numquid hie sonat ti et mus quemadmodum op ? Ergo necesse
;
'
'
'
est,
ut
ilia
'
'
'
'
syllaba habeat accentum, quae plus sonat a reliquis,
clamorem fingimus.
[The same language
quando
used by Servius (fourth cent.), in

Don. iv. 426. 10-20 K.]. Some would explain this difference of language by
supposing the Latin accent in the time of Varro to have been more of a pitchaccent than it was in the time of Pompeius, while others try to make out
that it is those grammarians who were themselves Greeks, or who follow
implicitly Greek authorities, who speak of 'high' and 'low* accent, while
the native grammarians of a more independent turn of mind use the more
is
correct terms,
strong and weak.' I cannot see much ground for discriminating between the accent of Varro's time and of a later age. The same
processes of syncope and vowel-reduction are at work at both periods and the
cause of these processes must have been the same stress-accentuation. But
there may well have been a change in the Greek accentuation which became
more and more apparent in each successive century.
'
'
Servius (in Don. 426. 10 K.) distinguishes

(2) On the circumflex accent.
the acute accent of drma from the circumflex of Husa, acutus dicitur accentus
quotiens cursim syllabam proferimus, ut 'arma'; circumflexus vero, quotiens
'Musa' (cf. Pompeius, 126. 4 K. non possumus dicere 'arma,' non

possumus dicere Miisa
Cledonius, p. 31. 30 K. 'arma' excusso sono
dicendum est, while K6ma' is pronounced tractim). Similarly Priscian
of a, with the acute, the grave,
(i. p. 7. ii H.) speaks of three different sounds
and the circumflex accent, as in hdmis, hdmorum, hdmus, or drae, drarum, dra,
tractim, ut
'
2, 3.]
155
and Vitruvius, in a passage borrowed apparently from Aristoxenus, says of the

lux, flos, vox, nee unde incipit nee ubi desinit [sc. vox] inteiligitur, sed
words sol,
quod
[v.
3.
I.
nee quae] ex acuta facta est gravis, ex gravi acuta.
Accentuation of Greek loanwords.
quoted by
Schoell, pp. -Oi sqq.)
An
educated
(Archit. v. 4. 2).
(See the passages
Roman would
of
course pronounce a Greek word correctly with the same quantity

and accentuation that the Greeks themselves gave to it. The
grammarians of the Empire prescribe the Greek accentuation for

such Greek words in a Latin author as retained their Greek
form and declension. Thus in Virg. Georg. i. 59 Eliadum palmas
Epiros equarum Servius, in his note on the passage, says that
the word Epiros, since it has its Greek form, must be pronounced
;
with the accent on the first syllable, Eg/fobs, unlike the Latinized
form Epirns sane Epiros graece profertur, unde etiam E
habet accentum
nam si latinum esset, Epirus,' pi haberet,
'
'
'
'
'
'
quia longa
at
est.
Rome were
But Greek loanwords which became

adapted to the Latin accentuation
naturalized
and declension.
This was specially the case in the Republican period, according

to Quintilian (i. 5. 60), who tells us that Julius Caesar followed
the old habit of using Calypsdnem y a form which Quintilian himself does not approve, though he accepts Castorem, Olympus,
In the plays of Plautus, who uses the language of the
tyrdnnus.
educated society of his day, Greek words appear as a rule in

a Latinized form with a Latin accent, but in some words of use
among
the
common
people the Greek accent is retained with the

Thus the gold coin known as
effect of altering the quantity.

'
Philip/ Greek <KA.MT7ros, is always Pliitippus with the second

syllable shortened after an accented short syllable. The shorten-
ing of the second syllable, long by position not by nature, is.

like the reduction of the vowel in Tarentum (Greek Tdpavra,
Taranto), an indication that the Roman accent in
early times, as well as late, produced an effect on the word that
the Greek accent did not produce, an effect always traceable to
Accus.,
now
a naturally long vowel was

in a Greek loanword
the
accent
by
is doubtful.
Ancora (Greek ayKvpa), with o instead of it, is not
a certain example, and still less the hypothetical cwnftla (Greek
a stress-accentuation.
But whether
at this period ever shortened
j,
not
/co'znAa)
in Plaut
Trin.
935
(Journ. Phil. xxi. 205).
It
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
156
[Chap. III.
was frequently done at a later age when the long and short
quantity had more approximated to each other (see ch. ii.
141),
e.
g.
Mtwum (Greek
him (Greek
fiovrupov), bldsfemus
eremus (Greek
etficoAo^),
In
(Greek
eprjjuos
/SAao-^rjjuio?),
beside
epT/jotos),
ido-
settnum
these popular words which

into
Romance
the
languages (Ital. ermo, sedano, &c.) the
passed
rule seems to be that the Greek accent was always retained, even at
(Greek vtKivov), our
'
celery.'
all
the cost of the quantity, except in oxytone words, which followed

rather the Latin accentuation, e.g. tapinus (Greek raTreiuo's) [see
Meyer-Liibke, Gram. Rom. Sprach. i. p. 34, and cf. Anecd. Helv.
'
'
177. 4 H. on abyssus (apvao-os) paenultima positione longa sed

So abyssus Paulinus of Nola (19. 651 ;
acuitur aiitepaenultima.
35. 338); Cyprian, Gall. gen. 288 P.]. This inability of the Romans
:
to reproduce the Greek accentuation of a final syllable is a subject

Greek writer of the
of frequent remark in the grammarians.
sixth cent. (Olympiodorus in Aristot. Meteor, p. 27) makes the

curious remark that the Roman paroxytone pronunciation of
words
&c v was due to their haughtiness (6ia TOV

and had earned for them the epithet of the ' overween-
like TpcuKoi,
KOfjLTiov),
Romans
(oOtv virprjvopôvTs eKXr}6ri<rav VTTO T&V TTOITJT&V).

I have heard a Frenchman ascribe the English mispronunciation
ing'
of
words
like
'
Francais
'
to the
same
Romance Accentuation.
4.
part of the word
cause.
The
clearness with
which each
and Spanish always

Every syllable has due effect given
is pronounced in Italian
an English traveller.
There is nothing like the swallowing of parts of words,
The
that is seen in our own and in other Teutonic languages.
unaccented vowel in Italian notte, Spanish noche, is clearer and
more definite than in German Gabe; but on the other hand
strikes
to
it.
difference in quantity between a long and a short

the
accented
Toscana/ for
vowel,
long vowel in the word
unaccented
than
the
if
at
all, longer
example, being hardly,
there
is less
'
vowels of the word.
The accent
is
one of
stress,
but
accom-
is
panied by a high tone, the drop of the voice in a Spanish word

like
mano
(Lat. manns), being about one-fifth,
_^ZZ
though
mano,
sometimes in emphatic utterance the word
is
pronounced with
4, 5.]
a lengthening of
vowel and a slight
final
the second, the unaccented, syllable,
EfJEE
157
rise of
.
the voice on
The French accent
must have at one time been of very powerful stress, so great is

the reduction which French vowels and syllables have undergone,
but it is now much weaker than in any other Romance language,
so weak that it is usually difficult to say on which
syllable the
accent rests.
The difference of pitch, say between the two syllables of the word jamais
is often
very considerable, especially
'
'
in
excited
Stlld.
utterance,
E^=
l888).
or
:i[pEz= (see
ja-mais
ja-mais!
Storm
in P/ion.
The Earlier Law of Accentuation. The Indo-European

accentuation, which we can generally ascertain from the Sanscrit
5.
and Greek
(e.
g. Sansc. pita,
Latin the traces which
it
Greek
has
Trarrjp, father),
has not
left in
in the Teutonic languages.

Verner, and known as Verner's
left
According to a law discovered by

Law,' a Teutonic spirant, developed from an Indo-European
unvoiced mute, remained unvoiced when the immediately pre*
ceding vowel bore the accent in the Indo-European, but became

voiced when that vowel did not.
The Indo-European verb
*werto, to turn or become (Sanscr. vartami, Lat. vertd), is in
'
Woe worth the day ') with the
Goth, vair]?a (our worth in
'
'
unvoiced-spirant sound (our
///
in
'
thin
')
while Gothic fadar
(Engl. 'father') had the voiced -spirant sound of our Ik in then.'

By the same law Indo-European * appears in Teutonic words as
k
unvoiced or voiced under the same conditions, e.g. unvoiced in

Old High Germ, mug, our ' mouse ' from Indo-Eur. *mus (Sanscr.
mus, Gk.
had the
IJLVS,
Lat. mm], where the immediately preceding vowel

ore from Indo-Eur.
accent, voiced in Goth, uiza-, our
'
'
*ayos (Sanscr. ayas, Lat. aes), where the Indo-European accent fell
on another vowel. (On the change of voiced s to r in Latin, see
ch. iv.
148). The Lithuanian accentuation, too, often enables us,
when we compare it with the Greek, to determine in what cases

the Indo-European accent was circumflex,' and in what cases
acute/ e.g. circumflex in Gen. Sg. of A-stems (Greek rt/xr/s, Lith.
'
'
Nom. Sg. of the same stems (Greek ri/x?), Lith.

ranka from *ranka) (see Hirt's articles mlndogerm. ForscJi. i. &c.).
We have, however, in Latin, as Corssen proved, traces of an
rankos), acute in
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
158
[Chap. III.
the system which prevailed in the

show
us that at some early time the
which
period,
had
been replaced by a new law,
accent-law
Indo-European
older
accentuation than
classical
namely, that the accent should fall on the first syllable of every
word.
change of the same kind seems to have taken place
in the Teutonic languages (see Paul's Grundriss Germ. Philol.

i.
p. 339), and probably also in Celtic (Thurneysen in Revue
and in some languages of the present day,

such as Lettish, this uniform accentuation of the first syllable
celtique, vol. vi);
The
prevails.
traces it has left in Latin are these
of the second syllable of a word when that syllable

(1) Syncope
was short, e.g. undeciw. which under the ordinary Latin accentuation must have been *unodecim, a compound of unus and decem
(see
13).
(2)
Reduction of vowels, which would by the accentuation of
the classical period bear the accent, e.g. infringe from in and
frango; concldo from cum and caedo ; triennium from tri- (tres)
which point unmistakably to an earlier *concaido,

;
*triannwm, &c. (see 18). At what precise period the change, no
doubt a gradual one, from this earlier system to the Psenultima
and annus
Law
of Cicero's time
ascertain.
But
there
began and completed itself,

some evidence that it was
is
it is difficult
to
still
incomplete
the Early Drama, for the
metrical treatment of words like faciliuSj mulierem (^-ww ), in
in one particular in the period of
the plays of Plautus and Terence, indicate that the pronunciation

of such words in their time laid the accent on the first, and not
on the second
syllable.
line in
which the metrical
ictus falls
on the second syllable occurs very rarely in their plays (Philologus,

li.
364 sqq.). At the same time the incidence of the metrical
words points to the prevalence of the

for all words, except these quadrisyllables with
ictus in all other types of
Paenultima
the
first
Law
three syllables short.
But though we cannot
fix
the
time when Latin words passed from the old to the new accentuation^ when, for example, sdpientia became sapientia, tempest atibus
became tempestdtilus, we can guess, partly from the analogy of
other languages, partly from the inherent probabilities of the
case, what the nature of that change was.
long word like
sapientia, tempestatlbus
must have had
at all periods a secondary
6, 7.]
main accent it could hardly be pronounced otheras we can see from our own pronunciation of such words as
as well as a
wise,
4
159
first, main accent

So that sdpienlia would be more accurately
The change from the old accentuation to the
characteristical' (with secondary accent on
on fourth
syllable).
written sapientia.
new would
be, in reality, nothing but a usurpation by the

accent
of the prominence of the main accent ; sapientia
secondary
would become
sapientia, tempestatibus
Diwiidius, unless
(which
is
it
takes
unlikely),
its
-mi-
would become
by analogy of
tempestdtibus.
dimidiatus, &c.
must have been accentuated on the
syllable about 250 B.C., for the change of unaccented

found on the oldest inscriptions ( 22).
e to I is
first
not
The Umbro-Oscan dialects seem to have passed through the

same stages as Latin. Traces of the first stage, the accentuation
of the first syllable, are e. g. Osc. Maakdiis, Ar ezkei, Vetusco
(with syncope of the second syllable), of the second stage (the
Paenultima Law), Osc. teremenniu, ' ^terminia,' with doubling of
'
'
consonant before the ^-sound and after the accented vowel (see
von Planta, Gramm. Osk.-Umbr. Dial. i. p. 589).
Traces of I.-Eur. accentuation in Latin. The occasional appearance
e in Latin has been explained by the I.-Eur. accentuation
by
Wharton (Etyma Latina, p. 119), who thinks that e (and o) became a when
they preceded the syllable which bore the I.-Eur. accent, e.g. magnus from
For other theories of the kind, see Bugge in Bezz. Beitr.
*meg-nos, Gk. i*fyas).
6.
of a for I.-Eur.
xiv. 60. 67. 70
Froehde,
ib.
xvi. 182. 191. 215
Stolz in Wien. Stud. viii. 149

I.-Eur. accent in Umbro;
Conway, Verner's Law in Italy, &c. (on a trace of the

Oscan, von Planta, i. p. 491).
Secondary and main accent.
The Saturnian verse recognizes this

are right in regarding it as accentual and not quantitative verse, with three accents in the first hemistich and two in the second
7.
secondary accent,
^see ch.
ii.
we
141),
e. g.
For a
if
dabunt malum Metelli
II
Naeuio poetae.
word always counts for two accents in Saturnian

magna sapientia H multasque uirtiites,
five -syllabled
e. g.
dedet Tempestatibus aide meretod,

onerariae onustae stabant in flustris ;
and a four-syllabled word (at any rate of the forms - ^ - - and - - w
same at the beginning of the line,
e. g.
||
e. g.
verse,
||
e. g.
immolabat auream
e. g.
superbiter contemptim
e. g.
Cornelius Lucius
||
||
-)
does the
uictimam piilchram,
||
conterit legiones,
Scipio Barbatus.
Latin secondary accent in long words such as armatura is indicated by the

treat the vowel of the first syllable in the same way
Romance forms, which
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
160
[Chap. III.
Italian Florentine beside Firenze may point to the

as they treat accented a.
secondary accent having been stronger in the first syllable of Lat. Florentmus
than of Lat. Florentia (cf. Ital. tollerare, scellerato, &c., with doubling of the
consonant which follows the vowel with secondary accent) (see Meyer- Liibke,
Gram. Eom. Sprach., i. p. 501). There are some indications (e. g. Alliteration)
that the first syllable was even in the classical period pronounced with
amount
a certain
8.
of stress.
The law of accentuation which

and subsequent periods is that known
The Paenultima Law.
prevailed in the classical
Paenultima Law,' a very simple one, namely, that the

accent falls on the antepenultimate syllable, if the paenultima be
short,, on the paenultima itself, if long, e.g. decores, decores.
as the
The
earliest notice of
(Or.
xviii.
Latin accentuation, the remark of Cicero

as a law of
i), speaks of it
(
58) mentioned above
nature that the accent should never go further back in a word

have seen reason to
than the third syllable from the end.
We
believe that at
an
earlier period this
'law of nature
'
was broken
in the case of four- syllabled words, like faclUus^ beginning
three short syllables.
with
These were at the time of Plautus accented
But in all
on the fourth syllable from the end, fdcilms, &c.
other words the evidence to be obtained from the versification
and such processes of language as syncope and
reduction of unaccented vowels, points to the operation of the
Paenultima Law in the earliest literary period.
of Plautus,
The Latin grammarians agree
in pointing out the difference
between the Greek and Roman systems of accentuation, and the

and
greater simplicity of the Roman, which (like the Aeolic,
last
unlike the Attic, &c.) never lets the accent fall on the
word; though they are strangely silent on the

which one would have thought would have been quite
as striking, between the pitch-accent of the Greek, and the
syllable of a
difference,
stress-accent of their
own language.
They
posit for Latin the
by the Greeks, the acute, the circumand

the
flex,
grave, understanding by the last term rather the
absence of accent than any particular form of accent, and assignthree kinds of accent used
ing the circumflex, as we have seen, to vowels long by nature in

the penultimate syllable of words whose final syllable is short,
Thus the name Cetkegu*, with
and in monosyllabic words.
a naturally long paenultima and a short
final,
takes the circum-
8.]
l6l
on the paenultima, Cethegus, and the grave accent on the

the name Catullus, with a naturantepaenultima, Cethegus
ally short vowel in the paenultima, takes the acute accent instead
flex
of the circumflex, Catullus., with the grave on the antepaenultima, as before, Catullus.
Monosyllables like lux, spes,flos, sol, mons, mos,fons, Us, whose

vowel is naturally long, have the circumflex, lux, spes, &c., while
ars, pars, pix, nix, fax, with vowel naturally short and lengthened
'
only by
take the acute accent,
position,'
pated words
like
illic,
drs, pars, &c.
Apoco-
nostrds retain their old circumflex accent,
\llic(e\ nostrd(ti}s.
A compound word, or word-group, like respullica, jusjurandum, mdlesanus, inter edloci, has only one accent, respublica, malesdnus, interedloci, &c., though, if resolved into
words, each takes
Thus
inter ea loci.
two independent
separate accent, resque publica, male sdnus,

Arfjlletum, which the etymological fancy of
its
Romans
explained as Argi letum, the death of Argus,' is

mentioned as a unique example of a word combining all three
accents, the acute on the first, the grave on the second, and the
the
'
circumflex on the third syllable, Arglletum.

groups, see below,
The secondary
12.)
accent, which, as
we have
(On
seen
these word-
have existed in longer words like arboretum, temperdtus,

rdtus, ex\si/imdtus, is
ignored by the
must
mteme-
7),
Roman grammarians,
unless
we
are so to understand the media prosodia, mentioned by Ar arro.

in imitation of the jueV?? Trpoo-wSia of Greek Accentual Theorists,
an accent which he describes as something between the grave
The
absence of accent) and the acute accent.
in
in
the
accent
shows
Italian
traces
of
itself
doubling
secondary
of the consonant in words like pellegrino (Lat. peregrimis],
(i.e.
entire
scellerato
above,
The
(Lat.
scelerdtus),
tollerare
(Lat.
tolerare),
&c.
(see
7).
made it unnecessary
by written signs the accent with which a word was
to be pronounced.
The mark of the Greek acute accent, a line
sloping up from left to right, and placed above the vowel of the
syllable, was used in Latin inscriptions to indicate a long vowel,
and was called the 'apex' (see ch. i.
It was employed
i).
simplicity of the Latin accentuation
to indicate
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
162
especially
[Chap. III.
where two words of similar spelling differed in quantity

and mains (Quint, i. 7. 2), and has remained
alone, e.g. mains
with a quantitative use in several alphabets derived from the

Latin, e.g. the Irish alphabet.
9. Testimony of the grammarians.
Quintilian's remarks on Latin pronunciation are generally so free from Greek bias, that his account of the
Paenultima Law is worth quoting in full (i. 5. 29-31) difficilior apud Graecos
:
observatio est
legis sermonis], quia plura illis

et quod alias vitiosum, interim alias
loquendi genera, quas

rectum est apud nos
vero brevissima ratio, namque in omni voce acuta intra numerum trium
syllabarum continetur, sive eae sunt in verbo solae, sive ultimae, et in iis aut
proxima extremae, aut ab ea tertia. Trium porro de quibus loquor, media
longa aut acuta aut flexa erit, eodem loco brevis utique gravem habebit sonum
ideoque positam ante se, id est ab ultima tertiam, acuet. Est autem in omni
voce utique acuta, sed nunquam plus una, nee unquam ultima, ideoque in
disyllabis prior
praeterea nunquam in eadein flexa et acuta itaque neutra
cludet vocem Latinam. Ea vero quae sunt syllabae unius, erunt acuta aut
\sc.
8ia\fKTovs vocant
ne sit aliqua vox sine acuta. In another passage (xii. 10. 33) he praises
the variety of the Greek accent in contrast to the monotonous accent of the
Romans, who never give the acute or the circumflex to the last syllable of
a word, so thai every word has its last syllable, sometimes both its last
flexa,
syllable
and
its
(i. e.
paenultima, grave
unaccented)
and adds that Roman
poets like to give a charm to their lines by the use of Greek names pronounced
with the Greek accent. (For other similar statements of the Paenultima
Law, see the passages quoted by Schoell pp. 100 sqq. e. g. Diomedes 431. 6
:
K.
Donatus 371. 2 K.
dos, Catullus,
Servius in Don. 426. 15 K. &c.) Examples are sol,

Cethegus (Sergius, De Ace. p. 483.
K.) indoctissimus (Pomp. 127.
;
Galeni,
Camilli (Mart.
22 Eyss.), Eomdnus, Hispdnus ('Priscian,' De Ace.
p. 520. 17 K.),
15 K.), Caelius, Sallustius, Curidtius, cachim,
Cap.
iii.
p. 65.
Cicero, Galenus,
sol, mons, mos, fans, Tis (Diom.

15 K.), nux, res (Don. 371. 8 K.), nee, nox (Serv. in Don. 426. 27 K.), ros
(Serg. De Ace. 524. 21 K.), aes, et, que (Pomp. 128. 15 K.), deus, citus, ddtur, drat,
db, mel, fel, drs, pars, pix, nix, fax, lux, spes, Jlos,
431.
Roma (Diom. 431. 18 K..), hora, leges, sdlus, homo (Dositheus

K.), meta, Creta, nepos, bonus, mdlus (Don. 371.
K.), mannus, Qrispinus,
pontus, cohors, luna,
378.
amicus,
Sabinus,
Quirmus,
Athenae, Thebae, Ciimae,
lectica,
Metellus,
tabellae, fenestrae,
Marcellus,
Idtebrae,
tenebrae,
Fidenae,
Sergius, Mdllius, dscia, fuscina, Julius.
(Diom. 431. 23 K.), &c.

Of compound words and word-groups with one accent (like our son-inlaw/ 'man-of-war,' 'pockethandkerchief,') we have examples such as maleDiom. 433. 30 K. Pomp. 130. 18 K.
sdnus, interedloci (Don. 371. 22 K.
Cledonius 33. 12 K.). Argiletum (Prise, ii. p. 113. loH. but with all three
accents, Mart. Cap. iii. p. 68. 15 'Eyss.') propediem [Don. ad Ter. Ad. v. 5. 7 (888)],
12 H.), jurisperitus,
i. p. 180.
respublica, jusjurandum (Prise, i. p. 177. 10 H.
legislator, praefectusufbis and praefectusurbi, tribunusplebis, tribunusplebi, mentecaptus,
Claudius, Romdni, legdti, praetores, praedones
'
orbisterrae, orbisterrarum, paterfamilias, paterfamiliarum, armipotens,
magistermilitum, asecretis, acalculis, aresponsis, abactis (Prise,
modi, hujusmodi, cujusmodi (Prise,
i.
p. 440. 2 H.).
i.
armorumpotens,
p. 183. 5 H.), istius-
Of hujuscemodi,
&c., Priscian
H.) says that some regard them as two separate words, but the
accent, resting as it does on the last syllable of the pronoun, shows that they
(i.
p. 205. 16
0, 10.]
He
are compounds.
Septimus, &c.
163
distinguishes the separate accentuation of decimus et

septimus-decimus, &c. (de Fig. Num.
from the single accent of
xxi. p. 413. ii K.).
10. Exceptions to the Paenultima Law. The rule of Latin Accentuation,

that final syllables are always unaccented, is, according to the grammarians,
violated, or apparently violated, by certain classes of words. They are words
which have dropped or contracted their last syllable, so that the accent,
which in the uncurtailed form fell on the paenultima, remains in the curtailed
form on the same syllable, which has now become the ultima. Under this
category come
:
(1)
Nouns, or rather Adjectives, in
Gen.
-as,
-atis,
indicating the country
Arpinds, with primds, optimds (Caper ap. Prise,

These words, which in Early Latin (e. g. Plautus) have the
i. p. 128. 23 H.).
full form cujdtis, nostrdtis, when at a later time they became contracted, retained
of one's birth,
e. g. cujds, nostrds,
their old accentuation
tinguished by
i.
(Priscian
its
and
accent from
so nostrds,
nostras,
a countryman of ours,' was dis-
Ace. PI. Fern, of the Possessive Pronoun
p. 454. 11 K.).
Some Verbal Forms
addic, adduc, &c., fumdt (for fumdnf), audit (for

audlmt\ and the like (Servius ad Aen. iii. 3). Another remark of Servius (ad
Aen. i. 451), and other grammarians, throws some light on the last example.
They tell us that audtit and not audiit, Unlit and not lennt, was the ordinary
(2)
pronunciation, the forms with the short penult being an artificial usage of
poetry, much as in English the word wind is allowed a different pronuncia'
tion in poetry from its ordinary one.

From -lit to -It is so short a step that it
is difficult to justify a disbelief of the grammarians' statements about audit.
The third
Sing. Perf. Act. in Eomance languages (e. g. Span, amo, Latin amamt,
dormi, Latin dormlvif) points to Vulgar Latin forms in accented -aut, -It
(cf. -aut on graffiti of Pompeii, C. I. L. iv. 1391, 2048).
(3) Words ending in -c (the Enclitic -ce), whose last syllable is long by
nature or by position, e. g. adhuc, posthdc, antehdc, istic, illic, istuc, illuc, istinc,
illinc, istdc, iliac, istoc, Hide (Caper ap. Prise, i. p. 130. 2 H.).
Vulgar Latin
Ital.
accentuation of the final vowel of

e. g. Ital. li, la,
adverbs,
Span,
iliac,
illic,
&c.
is
indicated by the
Romance
alii, alia.
is long by
(4) Words ending in -n (the Enclitic -we), whose last syllable
nature or by position, e. g. tanton, Pyrrhin (Servius ad Aen. x. 668, &c.). This
rule cannot however have been absolute, for forms like mdcn ut in Old Latin
Poetry, and even in Augustan poets (Virg. Aen. vi. 779 Tib. ii. i. 25) show
that when the final vowel of the particle was elided, the verb might retain
the ordinary accentuation, viden. like vides. Servius (fourth cent.) tell us that
vid&nw&B the usage of his time (zdAen.vi. 779 viden ut geminae stant vertice
Ennium et
cristae] den naturaliter longa est, brevem earn posuit, secutus
;
'
'
brevis inveniatur), andPlautus

seems, when -qu, -ne is elided, to let the metrical ictus fall normally on the
syllable which would have the accent in the absence of the particle, e. g.
adeo ejus est inmutata natura, ut
jam ubique
(Amer. Journ. Phil. xiv. 313).

accent originally on the antepaenultima remains in the curtailed form
on the paenultima, according to the grammarians, in contracted vocatives and
Prise,
genitives of lO-stems, e.g. Vergili, Valeri, tuguri (Serv. ad Aen. i. 451
prosperequ(e}, surruptasqu(e]
An
i.
p. 301.
21 H.).
(first cent. B. c.)
Gellius (second cent. A.D.) tells us that Nigidius Figulus

wished to distinguish Valeri Voc. from Valeri Gen., but adds
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
164
[Chap. III.
own time such an
accentuation as Vdleri Voc. would sound very

nunc Valerium appellans in casu vocandi secundum id praeceptum Nigidii acuerit primum, non aberit quin rideatur (N. A. xiii. 26).
Lastly, Interjections are excluded by the grammarians from the ordinary
rule.
They are said to have no certi accentus/ whatever that may mean
and the statement of a late grammarian (Audacis exc. 361. n K. that papae
and attdt (also ehem, MSS. hoehem ?) were accented on the last syllable, is
that in his
strange
siquis
'
confirmed, in the case of at least the former, by the incidence of the metrical
ictus in Plautus (always papae, never papae}.
The Greek evye appears in
Plautus' dramas with the last syllable lengthened * (cf. the MSS. spelling
eugae), and the phrase eugae-eugae always has the metrical ictus eugae-eugae.
Greek words, as was mentioned before (3), when they were used by
a Latin author with their Greek form and declension, retained also their
Greek accent,
e. g.
Eplros in Virg. Georg.
i.
59 (Serv. ad
loc.~).
The Latin accentuation is retained

Vulgar-Latin Accentuation.
with wonderful tenacity by the Eomance languages. Where they agree in
deviating from the classical Latin accent, the accentuation which they reproduce is that of Vulgar Latin. There are four important cases of deviation
11.
words ending in -ffirem, -wlum, e. g. mulierem, ftiiolum, the

accent in Vulgar Latin was shifted from the i to the e and o, mulierem, flliolum.
The precept of an unknown grammarian (Anecd. Helv. p. ciii. K.) sanctions
(1) First of all, in
this usage
(mulierem in antepenultimo nemo debet acuere, sed in penultimo
and in Christian poets of the third and fourth centuries we find

scansions like insuper et Salomon, eadem muliere creatus, Drac. Satisf. 161
cf. Ital. figliuolo, Span, hijuelo, Fr. filleul.
Nouns in -ies, Gen. -wtis followed
a somewhat different course. Their Nominative became -es, and this form
was extended to the other cases, e.g. PARETES (C. I. L. vi. 3714), Ace. Sg.
*paretem is attested by the Latin loanword in Welsh, parwyd, and by the
potius),
Romance
*mulierem
forms, e.g. Ital. parete (with close e), Span, pared, &c., while
the original of Ital. mogliere (with open e in the penult).
is
(2) Again the occurrence of a mute with the liquid r at the beginning of
the last syllable seems to have attracted the accent to the penult. Thus
Vulg. Lat. *tenebrae is attested by Span, tinieblas, and other Romance
forms. We cannot be wrong in connecting this with the practice of Latin
poets of treating a short syllable before a mute with r as a long syllable,
when
it
suits their
convenience (see ch.
ii.
142).
Servius (fourth cent.) (ad Aen. i. 384) seems to say that the accent was not
for he remarks
in his time attracted to the penult in correct pronunciation
with regard to peragro in this line of Virgil
muta
per habet accentum
;
'
'
enim
et liquida quotiens
ponuntur metrum juvant, non accentum
(cf.
Diom.
431. 28 K.).
(3)
In Compound Verbs the accent seems to have shifted
to the
stem-vowel
of the verb in Vulgar or Late Latin, e. g. recipit is indicated by Ital. riceve, Fr.
With this we may connect the
repoit renegat by Ital. riniega, 0. Fr. renie.
;
tendency in the spelling of post-classical inscriptions, and of our earliest MSS.

to restore the vowels in compound verbs to their undecayed form, e. g. consacro,
1
compremo
18).
Like our bravo

the final vowel.
'
'
'
'
hillo
often pronounced with the voice dwelling on
ACCENTUATION OF SENTENCE.
11, 12.]
(4) Lastly,
Romance forms
the
of the
165
Numerals give indications that the
Vulgar Latin accentuation was viginti, quadrdginta, &c. (see Meyer-Liibke,

Gram. Rom. Sprach. i. p. 494). Triginta is one of the barbarisms quae in usu
cotidie loquentium animadvertere possumus/ enumerated by a fifth-century (?)
'
On a fifth-cent, inscr. (vid. A. L. I.

p. 392. 4 K.).
quarranta for quadrdgintd (Ital. quaranta), and an epitaph in
grammarian (Consentius
we have
v. 106)
hexameters has
vinti for viginti (Ital.
et
venti) [Wilm. 569
(cf.
C. I.
L, viii. 8573)
menses septem diebus cum vinti duobusj.
Accentuation of the Sentence. Hitherto we have been

But
considering only the accentuation of words by themselves.
12.
there
is
also such a thing as the accentuation of the sentence;
and the accent which a word would bear, if uttered separately.

may be different from the accent assigned to it when standing
with other words in a sentence.
for example, had, if
in the sentence its
The Greek
preposition
TT/OOS,
mentioned by itself, an acute accent. But

accent was obscured by the accent of the
noun which it governed, e. g. irpbs iroXiu, and this by the Greek

system was expressed by replacing its acute by a grave accent.
So that the Greek system of marking the accents recognized
both the word-accent and the sentence-accent.
By
the
Indo-European
sentence-accentuation
the
verb
in
a main sentence was treated as a subordinate word, and apparently occupied the position proper to enclitic words, namely,
the second place in the sentence, while in dependent clauses it
received the accent like any other word, and stood at the end of
the clause, an arrangement which has been, curiously enough,
preserved in German to the present day (see Wackernagel in
i.
Indefinite pronouns were enclitic
pp. 333 sqq.).
or subordinate words, while interrogatives were accented (cf.
Indog. Forsch.
and rt? avr]p ;). Other enclitics were the copula

Lat.
*qê (Greek re,
que), the personal pronouns (unless specially
&c.
emphasized),
Greek
avrip TIS
We
can determine with a fair amount of accuracy the accentuation of the Latin sentence, partly by the help of the remarks
Latin grammarians, partly from observing the phonetic
changes of Latin words in the Romance languages, where an
accented word or syllable is not subject to the same laws of
of
development as an unaccented, partly from the analogy of other

languages, and to a large extent from the versification of the
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
166
[Chap. III.
For Plautus and Terence leave, as a rule, the

early dramatists.
subordinate words of the sentence, the words, in fact, which we
omit in writing telegrams, in the theses of the
metrical ictus falls on them
line,
where no
e.g. Plaut. Trin. 21 [rogat] ut liceat possidere haiic
nomen
fabulam,
where ut and hanc, words which might be omitted without

obscuring the meaning, are relegated to the theses of the first
and fourth feet. The Latin grammarians, with their usual
'
adherence to Greek terminology, speak of the ' attraction of the

But this statement of
accent by enclitics or subordinate words.
the facts
is
corrected
by Quintilian
(i.
5.
who shows
25, 26),
that a subordinate relative, like qualis in the sentence, talis est

qualis Cicero fuit, or a subordinate preposition, like circum in
Virg. Aen.
254 quae circum
iv.
litora,
circum Piscosos scopulos,
with the following word into

&c.,
takes
the
which
a word-group,
ordinary accent of a single word
cum dico circum litora/ tamquam unum enuntio dissimulata
is
really in Latin united
'
in
tamquam
distinctione, itaque
una voce una
est
acuta.
The
Latin pronunciation would thus be qualis-Cicero, circum-Utora.

Priscian (i. p. 183 H.) objects similarly to a statement of Helleniz-
ing grammarians, that qms, the indefinite pronoun, in
siquis,
numquiS) &c., is an enclitic like rts in etns, and prefers to call

siquis a compound or word-group with the natural accent of
a single word.
With
correction, the
this
rules of the
Latin
and subordinate words are in the

main probable enough in themselves, and are confirmed by the
evidence of the Romance languages, and the early dramatists'*
grammarians about
enclitics
though some of
versification,
their
distinctions
between the
accentuation of words of the same spelling, such as ne, verily,'

'
lest
ne, prohibitive, ne
ddeo, the verb, and adeo, the adverb ;
'
'
'
therefore/ ergo, on account

additional
evidence
we can accept them.
before
of/ require
'
how,'
ut,
12a.
class
ut,
in order that
'
Latin Sentence-Enclitics.
'
ergo,
Among Latin Sentence-Enclitics we may
Ind. ca, Gk. re, all unaccented),

Eur. *we, O. Ind. va (unacccented), Gk. *f f in 17-6 from *^-f ], and so on.
Their enclitic nature is shown by their being always joined in writing with
the preceding word, e. g. atque, site. In the rapid utterance of ordinary con(i) Enclitic Particles like que (I.-Eur. *qUe, 0.
ve [I.
12.]
versation these words often lost their final vowel,

etc
(for *atq~), seu, &c. (see
35).
and
167
so appear also in the
forms
The mode in which es, est

(2) The various parts of the substantive verb.
are written in the best MSS. of Plautus, for example, amatus (amatu's), amatust,
amatumst for amatus
es,
amata
est,
amatum
est (cf.
ventwnst, &c. in Virgil
MSS.,
Ribbeck, p. 419), shows that they were treated as mere appendages of the
past participle passive. For the unaccented nature of erat, erit, &c. we have
proof, if proof be needed, in Romance forms like Ttal. era and Span era (Lat.
O. Fr. ert (Lat. erif), for an accented e would have taken another form,
erat),
such as
Ital. *iera,
Span. *yera
(cf. Ital.
niega, Lat. negaf).
It
need hardly be
which these words, and indeed all Sentence-Enclitics,'

were suppressed, would depend on the caprice of the speaker, on the nuance
No hard and fast rule can be
of thought, on the style of composition, &c.
laid down about them, just as no rule could be made for the use of 's for
'
said that the extent to
'
'
A sentence, for example, of Cicero, ending

quoted by a grammarian as an instance of
a sentence ending with a monosyllable (Mar. Sacerd. 493. 14 K.).
In the
(3) The personal and possessive pronouns, when unemphatic.
Romance languages two distinct series have been developed for the personal
pronouns (a) the enclitic, e. g. Ital. mi, ti Fr. me, te (6) the accented, e. g.
Ital. me, te
Fr. moi, toi.
Similarly a Vulgar-Latin possessive *mus, *mum,
*ma, beside the regular meus, meum, mea, is indicated by French mon, ma, and
Vulgar-Italian ma-donna, padre-mo, &c., which resemble O. Lat. sis forsuis, &c.
n), in such a line as Ennius, Ann. 151 M., postquam lumina sis
(see ch. vii.
osulis bonus Ancus reliquit. It is true that Priscian (ii. p. 141. 15 H.) expressly
says that there is no distinction in Latin corresponding to the Greek distinction between flSev //e and efSei/ Ifie, OVK Kivov, apud nos autem pronomina
eadem et discretiva sunt ut vidit me' vel, vidit me, ilium autem non' but
he seems to refer rather to the identity of the written form of the emphatic
and unemphatic pronoun, than to that of their intonation in discourse. In
Plautus and Terence the ictus always falls on the preposition in phrases like
in me, dd me, inter se, unless the pronoun is emphatic (or elided), just as in
Greek we have irpos //e, npos ae, &c., or as in English we lay the stress on for,'
with in for me,' with him,' &c. In 0. Irish this tendency of pronunciai
'
is,'
're' for
'
are' in English.
with the words
licitum
is
est,
'
'
'
'
tion reduced the pronouns to

&c. (but
mere
Censorin. ap. Prise,
cf.
ii.
suffixes, e. g. for-m,
p. 51.
'on me,'
for-t,
'on thee,'
H.).
The Romance forms

(4) The demonstrative pronouns, when unemphatic.
point to (ifyum pdtrem, (il)la mater, &c. as the origin of the definite article in
all the Romance languages, while We pater seems to have been pronounced
sometimes il(le) pater, e. g. Ital. il padre, Span, el padre, Prov. el paire, someFr. le pere.
Similarly (i)ste, indicated by Ital. stasera,
(iV)le pater, e. g.
3
ii.
'this evening,' is actually found in old MSS. (see Neue, Formenlehre
s. v.), and iste is menLex.
see
sta
in
the
on
Wortf.
Georges,
Itala,
pp. 402 sq.
times
tioned as a barbarism by a third-century grammarian (Mar. Sac. p. 451. 10 K.).

while the interrogative and
(5) The relative and indefinite pronouns,
exclamatory we're accented,
e. g. tdlis est qualis Cicero fuit,
but
qualis fuit Cicero
The grammarians often distinguish between the accentuation
of quis, qualis,
when used interrogatively, and when

or
indefinite
relative
are
pronouns (e. g. Prise, i. p. 61. 5 H.,
merely
they
interrogativum est quod cum interrogatione profertur, ut quis, qualis, qudntus,
quantus, quot, quotus, cujus, ubi, unde, &c.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
68
quot,
cum
quotus,
contrarium, ut
suos servant accentus.
[Chap. III.
Infinitum est interrogativorum

cum in lection e gravi accentu
So for qui interrog. and
501. 14 H.
quis, qualis, quantus, quot, quotus,
pronunciantur, cf. ii.

rel. ib. ii. p. 9. 20 H.
p. 127. 2
H.
Partit. p.
and rel. ib. ii. p. 179. 3 H. ; quo, ubi, unde,

'
i
83. ii H. qua quando relativum est gravatur ;
Prise, ii. p. 82. 24 H. ; guorsum, ib. ii. p. 83.
;
quando, Charis. p.
H. &c.). Their usual expression for the subordination of the relative and
;
qua,
ib.
ii.
cujus, interrog.
H. ii. p.
in. 27 K.
p. 132. 3
'
indefinite forms of these words is that they have the grave accent (gravi
accentu pronuntiantur, gravantur), though sometimes they use language more
applicable to Greek (e. g. TTOIOS interrog., irows rel.), and say that they take the
and Charisius (p. in. 27 H.) gives an actual
acute accent on the last syllable
Latin example of this accentuation of the last syllable in the sentence quando
tot stragis acervos Vidimus.
Quintilian, as we saw, corrects this statement
of the case, and shows that the true account for the Latin language is to say
that the relative is joined with the noun or important word beside it, this
word-group taking the accent of any ordinary word. The line from Virgil
would thus be really pronounced quando-tot stragis acervos, &c., so that the
accentuation of the final syllable of quando is due to the accident that it
l
'
'
stands next to a monosyllabic word. The relative would have no accent in

a sentence like quern testem te adducturum dixeras, for it would be joined
with the noun into a word-group, quem-testem, with the accent on the first
syllable of the noun. When in a line of poetry the relative followed the
noun, as in Plautus (Amph. 919) Testem quern dudumte adducturum dixeras,
the accentuation would presumably be by the same reasoning testem-quem and

this presumption seems to be conflhned by the versification of the dramatists.
Thus we should say supra
(6) Prepositions, while adverbs, are accented.
;
but supra moenia est

often inculcated by the
but
ante venit,
habitat,
is
grammarians
Charis. p. 189. 10 K.
^Diom.
This distinction
ante Caesarem venit.

e. g.
Palaemon
p. 407. 19 K.) insists
(first cent. A. D.) (ap.
on the different accentua-
ultra, citra, circa, juxta, contra, subtus, cor am, ante,
tion of infra, supra, extra, intra,
cf. Charis.
adverbs, and when prepositions
22 K. Probus, Inst. p. 149. 27 K. Mart. Cap.
ii. p. 33. i H.
Prise, ii. p. 28. 24 H.
ii. p. 30. 25 H.
iii. p. 67. 21 Eyss.
ii. p. 51.
H. &c.). Priscian (ii. p. 27. 4 H.)
ii. p. 45. 25 H.
ii. p. 42. 7 H.
says that Latin prepositions, like Greek, had, by themselves the acute accent
post, prope,
p. 231.
usque, super,
24 K.
Audax,
when
p. 353.
on the
last syllable (super, virep),
but in the sentence lost this accent
(accen-
tum habent praepositiones acutum in fine, tarn apud Graecos quam apud nos,
qui tamen cum aliis legendo, in gravem convertitur) (cf. Don. p. 391. n K.)
and Quintilian, as before mentioned, says that what really happened in
Latin was that the preposition was fused with its noun into a word-group,
which was then accented like any ordinary word, e. g. circum-litora (accented
Indeed the words are often written together in
like circumsistite, circumlitid).
old MSS. and inscriptions cf. Mar. Viet. 23. 12 K. and Indices to C. I. L. (so
Umbr. preveres 'ante portas'). This suggests that in collocations like in via,
per dolum, in manus the preposition itself may have received the accent of the
word-group, unless it were desirable for some special reason to give prominence to the noun. This view is supported by some word-groups,
which established themselves in Latin usage, such as obviam, sedulo (se,
;
commmus, denuo (de novo), admodum, affatim (but cf. Gell. vi. 7), as
well as by the versification of the dramatists, which also points to in-rem,
sine dolo),
12
.]
169
in-fipem, in-jus, &c. (cf. quamobrem.)

preposition placed after its noun
received an accent, as in Greek, according to the grammarians (e. g. Prise,
ii. p. 27. 4 H. cum praepostere ponuntur, monosyllabae
acuto, disyllabae
but remained unaccented in phrases like
paenultimo acuto proferuntur)
;
mrtutem propter imperatoris or justitia in legum, where the preposition is followed

by a genitive dependent on the noun (Censorinus ap. Prise, ii. p. 33. 20 H.).
(7) That conjunctions, like prepositions, had a different pronunciation
according as they came

(ii.
p. 24.
first
or second in the sentence
21 H.) praepositae gravantur
He
omnibus
is
asserted by Priscian
syllabis, postpositae
acuuntur
would
That the
monosyllabic conjunctions et, sed, and the like, were enclitic words in the
sentence, may be proved, if proof be wanted, from the versification of the
early dramatists, in whose lines these conjunctions are relegated as a rule to
the theses, and do not receive the metrical ictus, and also from the Romance
languages, where the Latin monosyllabic conjunctions have suffered the same
Et, for
phonetic changes as the unaccented syllables of Latin words.
example, if the word had been accented, would have become *iet, or some
in principio.
refers expressly to igitur, quoniam,
have us pronounce,
e. g.
igitur Cicero venit,
but
venit
saltern,
so that he
igitur Cicero.
similar form, instead of Ital. e, Fr. et. Span. y.

(8) Auxiliary verbs in Latin must, like those in other languages, have
been enclitic, or rather, according to the Latin practice, must have been
joined with their verb into a word-group, e. g. volo-sdre,

In Plautus volo-scire is always scanned
facit, cave-facias.
missumnever vold-
coctiim-ddbo,
wlo-scire,
and the metrical ictus in his verses of phrases like factum-wlo, facids;
Cicero's story about
missdm-face, cave-pdrsis, cave-fdxis supports our rule.
Crassus at his departure for Parthia mistaking the cry of a fig-seller, Cauneas !
scire
volo,
Cauneas
for cave ne eas (Div.
(sc. ficus vendo)
ii.
seems to show that in
40. 84)
ordinary talk this verbal phrase was treated as a word-complex with a single
accent cau(e)-n(e)-eas. Similarly a verbal phrase like operam-ddre, fulem-ddre,
dono-ddre would probably have ordinarily only one accent, just as we throw
the stress on the noun noise and not on the verb make in the phrase
to make a noise.' The dramatists let the metrical ictus fall on these phrases
thus fidem-dans, operdm-dat, operdm-dabam, dono-data. The reduction of other
unemphatic verbs to mere members of a compound word is indicated by the
'
'
'
'
'
traditional
you
way
please,'
of writing
from
si
vis
qudlibet,
(cf.
sultis,
quamms, quantumns, and the like.
Sis, 'if
Plur.), is an enclitic appendage of the

as dum in excute-dum, asptce-dum.
(Plautus
imperative, e. g. properd-sis as much

gives to these phrases the ictus properd-sis, excutedum, aspicedum, &c.)
become members
(9) Some nouns too of subordinate meaning must have
of word-groups.
In English 'thing,' 'kind,' state,' 'part' are used in this
'
something (nothing) of that kind,'

some parts of England.' That modus, res were so used in Latin we see from
the traditional spelling quomodo ? qudre ? So dies in pfopediem (Don. ad Ter.
Ad. 888), quotidie, postridie. Gellius (x. 24) says that in the time of Cicero
and the earlier period, the phrase diequinte or diequinti was in vogue, pro
adverbio copulate dictum, secunda in eo syllaba correpta,' and we may guess
that dies formed a compound with triginta (viginti] from the fact that these two
numerals are perhaps never found in Plautus and Terence with the ictus on
way without
stress,
in such sentences as
'
'
the last syllable, except

at ego te
when
dies (or
minae) follows,
e. g.
Men. 951
pendentem fodiam stimulis triginta
dies,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
170
[Chap. III.
last two words seem to make a compound noun, like our forttwelvemonth.' Locus too might be subordinated in a phrase like
interea loci (Don. ad Ter. Eun. 255), ubi loci, &c.
The versification of the early
dramatists, and the compound words in Romance suggest as similar word-
where the
night,'
groups phrases like vae-mihi,
vcie-misero-miki, bene-rem-gerit, male-rem-gerit (with

metrical ictus normally on these accented syllables in Plautus), ad-illam-horam
(Ital. allora, Fr. alors), ad-mentem-habere (Prov. amentaver, 0. Fr. amentevoir),
autruche, Span, avestruz), avis-tdrda (Ital. ottarda, Fr. outarde,

Port, abetarda), foris-fdcere (O. Ital. forfare, Fr. forfaire), male-habitus (0. Sp.
avis-struthio (Fr.
malato, Prov. malapte, Fr.malade), &c.,
13.
vowel
accent,
and
Engl. 'goodbye' for 'God be wi'ye').
The syncope
or suppression of an unaccented
feature of languages which have a stresscarried to the greatest length by the language
Syncope.
is
(cf.
common
is
is most
The Celtic languages had
powerful.
a stronger stress-accent than Latin, and so we find in Old Irish
some words borrowed from Latin (which the Romans had them-
whose stress-accent
borrowed from the Greeks), reduced by syncope to a much

greater extent than they were in Latin, e.g. felsub, Latin
And in countries under
pWHtitipkiUi apstal, Latin aposttilus.
selves
Celtic influence, such as France or the northern parts of Italy
Romagna dmeng f or donnnica, Sunday), Latin words

have been curtailed much more than in other parts of the
Romance-speaking world. In ancient Italy, too, we see syncope
(e.g. in
the
more developed in some districts than in others, e.g. Mgolnia for

Magolnia on a Praenestine inscription (C.I. L. i. 118), though it
is not
always easy to say when such forms are merely graphic,
and indicate the use not of a contracted pronunciation, but only
of a contracted system of writing.
The conditions under which
In
was
at different periods.
carried
out
differed
vowel-syncope
Latin a vowel between n and
was not syncopated, because the
consonant-group nm was difficult to pronounce, e.g. anima not

*anma. But in the Romance languages syncope has been pushed
a stage further, e.g. Prov. anma, alma, arma, Old Fr. anme,
arma, Ital. alma (in
being often changed to
rm, just as original nm in Latin "^can-men from cano, *gen-men
from geno^gigno became rm in carmen^germen (ch. iv. 78). Simialme, arme, Fr. ame, Span, alma,
poetry), the unmanageable group
Sicil.
nm
larly perflca, which resisted syncope in Latin, in Italian (pertica),

and in other languages, has succumbed in French (perche, our
'
Frigtdus appears in all the
perch ') and Provengal (perga).
ACCENTUATION.
13.]
Romance languages
&c.) (ch.
ii.
SYNCOPE.
171
in a syncopated shape (Ital. f reddo, Fr. f roid,

ViridiS) too, was in Vulg. Lat. mrclis (Ital.
132).
verde, Span, verde, Fr. vert), and caUclus appears early as caldws.
Analogy also may often prevent syncope, or, after words have
restore them to their original form.

Thus
was restored to pormgo by the analogy of the
and the analogy of other adjectives in -uhis
perfect porrexi
where this termination was preceded by some uncombinable con-
been syncopated,
may
porgo, for example,

;
sonant, e. g.frigidus, may account for the existence of unsyncopated

adjectives like calidus ; for the consonants in calichis, I and d, are
of a kind that would be easily combined.
Nom, Sing, like
syncopated to */wrf$, *hors, would soon be restored

to its old form by analogy of the other cases horti, 7iorto, &c.
In
hortus, if
the compound cohors we do indeed find this monosyllabic form

and one might be tempted to think that the syncope of hortus to
*hors had led to the word becoming an I-stem for an O-stem,
;
from hortm,
*hors, *hortis,
more
easily accounted for
compounds
animus (ch.
of
v.
Jiorti.
But the I-stem
by the Latin
of cohors
is
predilection for I-stem
nouns, e.g. ewanimis, unanimis from

It is doubtful whether any clear case of
O-stem
34.).
a change of stem through syncope of the

Sg. is to be found in Latin.
It appears, then, that vowels resisted syncope
between consonants which did not
of a
Nom.
when they
stood
final syllable
easily
combine, and that the
analogy of unsyncopated forms might prevent or efface syncope

in whole classes of words.
With these exceptions, it seems to
have been the law of Early Latin that
e, i
in the syllable after
the accent always suffered syncope, unless they were long by

'
This e, % might be original e, %, or the reduced (postposition.'
tonic)
as we
form of original
have seen above
so that every
e,
% in
a, o (
(
5),
18).
on the
The Early Latin accent

first
fell,
syllable of each word,
a second syllable not long by position must
have suffered syncope.
The
syllable -/#-, preceded
by a consonant, followed laws
of
own.
It appears in the posttonic syllable as er, e. g. paternus

for *patm-nus.
Similarly -/- appears in the posttonic syllable
its
The syllable -m- also

ch. iv.
13).
(ol) infacultas, &c. (see
stands apart from others owing to the vowel-nature of its con-
as ul
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
172
[Chap. III.
Thus we have syncope of

sonant, which facilitated syncope.
a vowel preceded by v even in a syllable long by position, e. g.
aunculus (Plautus), the ordinary conversational form of avonculns
(cf . ancnlus, C. I. L. viii.
3936, ix. 998) ; or rather the semivocalic

has dropped out between the two vowels.
Similarly dUior
for dMtior9 deorsum (dissyllabic deorsum in Plaut.) for devorsum,
and the
like, are different
The tendency
from the ordinary cases of syncope.
syncope continued to assert itself at all

Words which resisted it at an earlier
periods of the language.
The new
period often, as we have seen, succumbed at a later.
to
law of accentuation, the Paenultima
Law
8),
brought with
it
the possibility of a new variety, namely, suppression of the

Pretonic syncope is a feature of
syllable preceding the accent.
Indo-European, where indeed
it
was much commoner than post-
could play no part in Latin so long as the

accent remained invariably on the first syllable.
It is often
tonic syncope, but
difficult to
it
say whether a case of syncope
is
pretonic or post-
drdere, drdorem,
example, we say
that the syncope of * of *dridere, *dndorem is due to the new
accent on the penult *aridere, *arid6rem, but it might possibly
be referred to the influence of the old accent on the first syllable,
tonic.
In words
for
like
*dridere, *dridorem.
Words like
artena (Greek ap-6rai,va) perstrdma

t
(Greek TreptVr/aco/xa) Lucil. (i. 41 M. and Lowe^ Prodr. p. 347)5

both borrowed no doubt after the old accent law had ceased to
operate, are clearer cases of pretonic syncope.
So are
enclitic or
subordinate words which drop final e before an initial consonant,

e. g. nempe, proinde, delude, which before a consonant often took
the forms *nemp (so scanned by Plautus and Terence, ch. x.

prom, dein, as atque, neque became ac (for *atq, ate), nee.
benffoium, malfwium^ calfacio, &c.
And
7),
So
the influence of the
following accent, rather than the mere addition of extra syllables,

seems to be the real factor in the syncope in the literary period
of such words as frigddria (Lucil. viii. 12 M.) beside frig idus,
calddrius beside cdlidus, portorium beside portUor, postridie beside
The weakening effect on an

poster i, altrinsecus beside dlteri.
unaccented syllable of a following accent is shown by Plautine
scansions like senectutem, voluntdtem, potestdtem, penstroma, where
element is supplied by the short syllable
an additional
weakening
ACCENTUATION.
13.]
SYNCOPE.
173
These scansions must reflect the pronunciation of

preceding.
these words in ordinary conversation.
Similarly cale-fdcere
became cale-fdcere and cal-fdcere, and mmsterium passed into minPlaut. Pseud. 772), the consonant-group
(cf.
being specially adapted to combination with a preceding liquid
The unaccented -vi- of avtdus,
or nasal (cf. per(i)stroma above).
sterium or misterium
st
resisted syncope in the simple adjective-form, succumbs to

the influence of the following accent in the lengthened derivative
*avidere, audere, to have a mind for, to dare [e. g. si ancles (Plaut.),
which
in the classical period

sdfle8\.
Arid- of dridus becomes ard- in ardere, ardorem, and by their
analogy sometimes appears in the simple adjective (ardus, Lucil.
if
you please,
xxvii.
use
40 M.). Similarly aet- for aemt-
first
in aetds
may have come into
in the lengthened cases aetdtis, aetdti, aetdtem, or in deri-
vatives like aeternus,
though here the syncopated form of the
trisyllable established itself in ordinary usage, unlike ardus.
like calddrius
Forms
may have had some
into the colloquial usage
(it
influence in introducing caldus

hardly came into the literary) of the
6. 19) tells us that Augustus

(i.
as
a
of
affectation
the use of calidus for caldus
stigmatized
piece
non
id
sit
sed
latinum,
quia sit odiosum, et, ut ipse
(non quia
Augustan
period.
Graeco verbo
we
Quintilian
and yet in the Appendix Probi

same condemnation as frigda, virdis
significavit, ireptepyov),
find calda under the
(198. 3 K.).
Post-tonic syncope, under the new accent law, seems, during
the Republic and Early Empire, to occur only when the accented
vowel
*, e. g. jurgo (in Plautus still jungo\ usurpo for

-as for (Plautine) -dtis in nostrds, Arpmds, summds,
&c., though we find it in the period of the Early Literature after
is
*usunpo
long
a shortened vowel in words of four or more syllables where three

short syllables followed each other before the final syllable, e. g.
balmeum [so Plaut. and Ter.,and lalineator>Rud., 527 (-A--)]' a spelling which did not yield for some time to later balneum [balinearium,
C.I.L.i.n66 (c.i30B.c.); Caper (first cent. A. D.)( 108.7 K.) prefers
balneum ; cf. Gloss. Plac. 9. 29, and see Georges, Lex. Worlf. s. v. ;
Syncope after a long vowel
extra long.
is
due to the tendency
to
make
a long vowel
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
174
[Chap. III.
occurs frequently on the Lex Metalli Vipascensis of the

century A.D. (Eph. Epigr. iii. p. 166)], opttumus [the spelling
OPITVMA of an archaizing inscription, C. 1. L. i. 1016 ( vi. 1958)
first
of the late Republic or early Empire shows that this form had not
been so long obsolete as to be forgotten, though as early as the
200 B.C., we haveopTVMO, ' optimum'']. These words, as we saw above ( 5), had in the time of
Plautus and Terence the accent on the first syllable, balmeum
Scipio Epitaph, C. I.L.
producing
balneum,
i.
32,
c.
*6pitumus
optumus.
Similarly
opvfwina,
opificina (Plaut. Mil. 880), produced officina, puentia (with the

ictus pueritia in all the instances, not
of its occurrence in
many,
the early dramatists) produced the puertia of Horace \C. i. 36. 8

actae non alio rege puertiae; Charisius (fourth century A.D.) still
recognized J2mwz as the correct form, 266. 7 K.]J But forms like
caldus, virdis,
domnm
and were not as a
belong to colloquial or to Vulgar Latin,

rule established in the language till the later
Empire, though valde, older vaUde, Plaut. Pse&d. 364, and a few
other words, were current at a muchêariier time.
The same
wave of syncope that reduced viridis, dominus, &c., to dissyllabic
form attacked u, I in hiatus (cf ch. ii. 48). As early as the latter
half of the first century A. D. tennis varied between a dissyllable
.
and a trisy liable (Caeselliusap.
Cassiod.vii. 205. i6K.); cardus(for

carduus) (ch. ii. 54), mortus (for mortuus\ &c., are the precursors of
the Romance forms (Ital., Span, cardo, Ital. morto, Span, muerto,
Fr. mort); while the similar reduction of i (e), led to that
palatalization of consonants
appearance of the
ii.
which has
so
transformed the whole
e.
g. Ital. piazza,
Span,
Lat.
&c.
platea,
*platya,
(see
languages,
from Vulg. Lat.
plaza, Fr. place

ch.
Romance
48).
Forms
like saeclum beside saeculum are not to be classed
with
forms like/wô beside jurigo, for saeclum is the older form, while
in saeculum a vowel has been inserted between the c and the /
pronunciation, a vowel which is generally called
parasitic' vowel, or, in the terminology of the Sanscrit
'
grammarians, a svarabhaktic vowel (from Sanscr. svarabhakti-,
to facilitate
'
j
partial vowel') see chap. ii.
54. The termination -culus, -culum
in Latin sometimes represents the I.-Eur. suffix -tlo t which
indicates the instrument with which an action is performed, or
'
ACCENTUATION.
13.]
SYNCOPE.
175
performance, sometimes the suffix -colo, a compound of two I.-Eur. diminutive suffixes, -co and -to. To the
first class belong words like veMculum, 'that by which one is
the place of
its
'
poculum, that out of which one drinks

cubiculum^
'
the place where one lies down
periculwm from *perior perUus,
To the second, diminutives like
experior ordculum from orare.
'
carried
corculum, nxorcula, sucula.
These two classes of terminations
by us in our ordinary practice of writing

Latin they show, however, in the hands of Plautus a notable
For in his verses the first
difference of metrical treatment.
are not distinguished

;
normally as one
suffix appears
syllable, -clus, -clnm, reflecting
without doubt the current? pronunciation of his time ; the second

as two syllables, -cuZus, -cnlum.
Thus Plautus has always
ve/iiclum, with that monosyllabic form of the suffix which we
when by
find invariably
dissimilation the cl
changed into
is
cr,
'
ambulacrum^ a place for walking in/ for *ambulaclum,
while diminutives like auncula, pulvisculus retain the dissyllabic
e.g.
suffix in his plays as persistently as agricola, incola, or
the verb
of
compound
colo.
So do
any other
nouns formed by the
addition of the suffix
-lo to -co-stems, in distinction to those

addition to -easterns, e. g. porcu-lus, ceZoc-Za, a
Probably not a single instance occurs in his verses of
formed by
'
its
yacht/
-col- reduced to
-cl- by syncope, even after a long vowel, e. g. never

*corclum from cor-cn-lum, *porclus from porcu-lus (Class. Rev. vi.
87).
(But privicloes, 'priviculis/ Carm.
Forms with the
Sal., ch. vi.
parasitic or svarabhaktic vowel,
49.)
with
-colo-
for -cZo-, are indeed not infrequent with him.

Cubiculum for
instance, always or almost always, appears as a quadrisyllable.
But he uses these expanded forms as a rule (especially when
t
a long vowel precedes), only at the end of a line or half -line

that is to say he regards the equivalence of the parasitic vowel
to an actual short syllable as a licence only to be resorted to
;
metrical necessity.
For example, p&riclum is the
normal form of the word, while periculum occurs only at the end
in
cases
of
of a line or hemistich.
distinction
Capt.
740
is
a good example of this
periclum vitae meae tuo stat periculo
and
it is
only at the end of a line that the phrase nnllumst peri-
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
176
[Chap. III.
g. Pseud. 1076) becomes nullum periculumst (e.g. Capt.

too, shows this full form usually in a similar
Poculum,
91).
saeclum is never allowed trisyllabic scansion
while
position,
clum
(e.
The Romance languages show that a later wave of

not
onlv reduced gaec(u)lum, &c. to their original form
syncope
words like porculus to porclm^ e. g. Ital. cerchio,
but
also
saeclum,
at
all.
(Lat. circ(u}lus), teschio (Lat. test(u)la), spillo (Lat. sjrin(u)la).

of 18 A.D.,
(Cf. oclus, C.I.L. x. 7756, &C., crustlum, xi. 3303,
&c..
AevrXos,
Proclaes, xv. 1157, of 123 A.D., Vitlus, viii. 9432,
&c. on Greek inscriptions,, Eckinger, pp. 73-5, Masclus (Gk.

Mao-KAoj, &c.); so in Probi App. 197. 20-22 K. speculum non
c
speclum/ masculus non masclus/ vetulus non veclus/ vitulus
'
'
non
'
viclus/ vernaculus
non
vernaclus/ articulus non
'
arti-
baclus/ angulus non anglus/ jugulus non

clus,'
i
and
oclus/ 198. 23 tabula non
198. 18 oculus non
'juglus,'
baculus non
'
'
27 stabulum non 'stablum/ 198. 34 capitulum

non 'capiclum/ 199. 9 tribula non tribla/ 199. 14 vapulo
non 'vaplo' (MS. baplo); and see George's Lex. Wortf. s. vv.
'tabla/ 198
'
coaff(n)lo,
assec(u)la,
aedic(u)la,
tub(n)lus,
conch(u)la,
Vistula,
cop(u)la, cop(u)lo, cul>ic(u)lum, vit(u)lus, discip(u)lina, extemp(ii)lo,

lakerc(ii)lus, Herc(u)le> jug(u)lans, manic(u}la,
fib(ii}la, jig(u}linus,
orac(u)lum, poc(u]lum, peric(u}lum, pedi$aec(n)lum, scrup(u)lus, sextula (escla\ surc(u)lus, spec(u)-
ment(u)la,
c(u)l?is,
masc(n)lus,
vmc(u)lum, vet(u)lus, ver&c.

cf. Schuch. Vole. ii. 402 sqq.).
nac(u)l?is, Asc(u)lum, Vist(u}la,
Fr. roule, &c. from unsyncopated rotula points to a re-formed
diminutive; so in Roumanian, e.g. teule or tiule (Lat. tegula)
lum,
sub(u]la, temp(u)lum,
trich(i)la,
;
(Taverney in Etudes
Another case of
G. Paris, p. 267).
(See also
which
syllable-suppression
that of words like arcubii
21.)
differs
from
excubabant
(' qui
ordinary syncope
in arce/ Paul. Fest. 19. 10 Th.) for arci-cutm, where the
proximity of two almost identical syllables cl and cu has caused
is
the dropping of the former.

[Similarly semlmodius and semodius, detiilitare for *debilitdtdre, fastldium for
or facilitated
*fas$,tidium)
Idolatria
for
viii.
r](<$)o)<$opia, Xei('no)i:vpia )
And
limitrophus for limitotro-,

368), &c., as in Greek a\j,(<$)i)-
uWola-,
Restutus for Restttutus (A. L. L.
&c.].
a large number of words, like dixem (beside
diocissem),
ACCENTUATION.
14.]
SYNCOPE.
177
audissem
(beside audvvissem), audi-trix (beside auditor), gi-gno

(beside gen-us), are often wrongly included with genuine cases
In some of these there is
of Latin syncope like lardum, jurgo.
no syncope at all (so some explain diooem for *dic-$em,

if there is, it took place in
but see ch. viii.
es-sem
3), or,
either
like
the I.-Eur. period, e.g. I.-Eur. *gi-gn6 (ch. iv.

51), -tri- (ib.)
others, e. g. dixem, if a reduction of dixissem (ch. viii.
3), are
;
rather to be explained like ar(ci)cubii above

audissem,
like
sis
for
si
a reduction of audivissem (ch. viii.
vis.
3),
;
Syncope in the Praenestine Dialect of Latin.
14.
inscriptions found at Praeneste there are a large
number
On
if
the Latin
of omissions of
Gminia (for Gemmia), Eph.

i. 1133,
Diesptr (for Diespiter}, C.I.L. i. 1500; Ptronio (for Petronio\ Eph.
a full list in Sittl, Lokal. Verschied. Lat. Sprache, p. 22. This
vowels, e.g. Dcumius (for Decumius], C.I.L.

Epigr.
i.
72,
Epigr.
i.
92
remarkably with a reference by Plautus to a peculiar pronunciation

of the Praenestines, coma for ciconia,
a stork,' that it is likely that these
In the Truculentus of
spellings represent the actual sound of the words.
tallies so
Plautus the surly, taciturn slave Truculentus, whose mispronunciations are

more than once a subject of jest (cf. line 683), turns the word arrabo, a prepayment/ 'earnest-money,' into rabo, 'a raver' (cf. rabere, 'to rave,' rabula,
'a bawling pettifogging lawyer') and on being taken to task, says that he
has pocketed a part of his arrabo as the Praenestines do with ciconia (line 690)
l
'
ut Praenestinis
(Cf. misisia for Ital.
for Lat. immicus, &c.)

i.
modern Parmese dialect Ital. nemico

The omitted vowel is e or i, once a (Mgolnia, C.I.L.
amicizia in the
(besides Acmemeno for Agamemno, on
118)
Epigr.
ar' facio lucri,

'
conea est ciconia.
i.
19),
and the omission
is
an old Praenestine
easily explained
cista,
Eph.
by the influence of the

we admit that the ante-
accent in words like Diesp(fy(e)r, P(e)tronio, and, if

paenultima was accented in these words in the Praenestine dialect at this
period, in D(e)cumius, G(e)minia (cf. Cem(i}na, C.I.L. i. 99). But an accented
vowel is omitted in Trtia (for Tertia), Eph. i. 108, Pol(i}dia, Eph. i. 95, and
even a long accented vowel in Atlia (for Atllia), Eph. i. 33.
A grammarian of the second cent. A.D. (Terentius Scaurus, pp. 14, 15 K.) tells
us of a practice of an earlier date of substituting a letter for the name of the
letter.
The name of c was ce,' of d was de,' of k was ka '; and so era was
written for cera, kra for kara (cam). His example for d is almost exactly our first
example of the Praenestine contraction, viz. Dcimus for Decimus. These words
of Terentius Scaurus suggest that spellings like Albsi for Albesi, Albensi on an
inscription of Alba Fucentia, a town not far removed from the Praenestine
'
'
'
district (Zvetaieff, Inscr. Ital. Inf. 46), lubs mereto (for lubes, lubens merito)
an inscription found near Avezzano, in the same neighbourhood
on
(C. I. L.
183), are indications of a syllabic system of writing in partial use in this

nature of
region of Italy (ch. i.
13), and leave us in doubt about the real
Praenestine pronunciation.
i.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
178
Syncope under the Old Accent Law.

loses its second syllable in compounds
15.
(Gk.
afjupi)
(i)
[Chap. III.
The preposition
i
like dnculus,
ambt-
a servant,' for
Sanscr. abhi-caras), an old Latin word from

'to serve' (Paul. Fest. 15. 7 Th.) and ancilla ; ancipes
The
(Plaut. Rud. 1158), later anceps (from ambi- and caput) ; am-plector, &c.
same shortening may have caused that confusion of the old preposition indo
*dmbi-colus (Gk.
which came
afji(f>i-iro\os,
anculare,
(endo) (ch. ix.

27) with the preposition -in (en) (ind(o}gredior, &c. becoming by
syncope identical with ingredior) which led to the disuse of indo and the
adoption of in in 'its place. Thus indaudio (Plaut.) was completely ousted
by inaudio in the time of Terence, and in the classical period compounds
with indo are only found as archaisms in poets, e. g. induperator Juv.
(2) The second syllable of the first member of a compound is syncopated in
hospes for *hosff-pes,princeps for *pnmi-ceps (cf. primi-genia, an epithet of the goddess Fortuna, unsyncopated because m and g do not easily combine) forceps
for formi-ceps (fromformus, hot,' connected with Gk. 0fp^6s.
Paul. Fest. 59. 18
;
gives us this etymology, forcipes dicuntur, quod his forma, id est calida,
capiuntur; cf. Vel. Long. 71. 15 K.) quindecim from qumque and decem undecim
from unus and decem universus is a re-formation from an older syncopated
form which we find on the Decree of the Senate against the Bacchanalian
orgies, an inscription of the time of Plautus (186 B.C.) (though Plautus
himself uses the four-syllabled universus) (C.I.L. i. 196. 19 homines pious V
;
oinuorsei uirei atque mulieres sacra
lie
fecise uelet) (this
quisquam
a mistake for *oinuuorseii like sursuorsum on the Sentent. Minuc.

for
*mm-demia
Marpor
(C. I. L.
i.
1.
15")
may
be
vindemia
1076) for Marci-por, &c.
The first syllable of a verb compounded with a preposition is suppressed in

pergo for *per-rigo (cf.perrexi, perrectum};porgo, the old form ofporrigo, *por-rego (cf.
Fest. 274. 15 Th. antiqui etiam porgam dixe runt pro porrigam), e. g. exporgere
(3)
'
'
to stretch one's legs,' Plaut. Pseud, prol.
the word, sanci, cf. Epid. 733

tioned by the usage of Virgil (A. viii. 274 pocula porgite dextris), appears now
and then in the Silver Age poets (Val. Flacc. ii. 656 Stat. Theb. viii. 755, &c.),
but the classical form is porrigo surgo for surrigo, *sub-rego
a deponent perf.
lumbos,
participle sortus for *surctus, formed on the analogy of the syncopated pres. ind.,
was often used by Livius Andronicus (Paul. Fest. 423. i Th.) beside surrupui
(classical surripui) we have the syncopated form surpui in Plautus (e. g. Capt.
;
760), and even a perf. part. pass, formed after its type, surplus (Rud. 1105).
Lucretius also uses the contracted form of the present (ii. 314 motus quoque
surpere debent), and Horace (S. ii. 3. 283 unum me surpite morti ; cf. C.
iv. 13. 20 quae me surpuerat mihi)
pono for *po-smo (the preposition ispoa byform of *dpo, a&), postus, depostus, compostus, very common for po-situs, &c.
;
like postus isprae-sto, earlier pme-stu (Cassiod. 157. 22 K.), ready, at
hand, for
where the particle ce, here,' hither,' is

hue venerit (Zvetaieff, Inscr. IM.
These syncopated forms were probably far more frequent in
Inf. 231. 20).
the early period, than at a later time, when the same tendency to recomposition which produced con-sacro out of consecro, ad-sum out of assum
The older forms might remain
160) restored por-rigo, sur-ripui, &c.
(ch. iv.
undisturbed in derivatives whose connexion with the verb was unnoticed,
*prae-sttu
cette
for *cedite, *ce-date,
prefixed to the verb, as in Oscan ce-bnust,
'
'
'
refrivafaba (referiva, Plin. xviii. 119), the bean brought back by the farmer
field for luck (in Fest. 380. 17 Th. we are told that the word was
also associated with refrlgo. 'to roast/ 'parch ') ; apflcus, Aprilismaybe similar
e. g.
from the
ACCENTUATION.
15.]
SYNCOPE.
179
an ap-(e)rio (cf. op-mo), unless the syncope in all three words was pretonic syncope under the Paenultima Law of Accentuation, ref(e)riva, ap(e)ricus,
Verbs beginning with a vowel unite it into one sound with the
Ap(e)rilis.
traces of
final
crasis
vowel of the preposition, though to what period of the language this

should in each case be referred is uncertain, for it might be caused by
a following as well as by a preceding accent. Crasis was the rule in such

compounds in the early period, to judge from the usage of the older poets.
Coerce, for example, is dissyllabic in Pacuvius (Trag. 47 K.),
gradere atque atrocem coerce confidentiam (see ch.
The
ii.
150).
compound verb is
where the double consonant seems to
44). The syncope would in these
preserve a trace of the syncope (see ch. viii.
perfects be facilitated by the Latin tendency to drop one of two neighbouring
and it is
syllables of like sound (see on arcubii for arci-cubii, above
13)
(4)
first
dropped in
syllable of a reduplicated perfect of a
repperi, rettuli, reccidi, &c.,
natural to suppose that the perfects without reduplication, like ex-sculi (0. Lat.
sdtidi\ con-curri (and con-cucurri, older *con-cecurri) &c., originated in this way
>
(ch. viii.
44), just as in
But
/3ao; in
Another syncopated verb-form is

quoted from the Carmen Saliare by Varro
e^/3dcu, &c.
like 8ta/3aa>,
Imperat. of
modern Greek &i$afa has become
cano),
compounds
cante (2
(L. L. vii.
(e. g.
camie)
27).
have been
as a rule all traces of syncope in the declension of the verb
obliterated, the full forms
Plur.
having been restored through the
where the consonants were not adapted for combination

follow
(e. g. sistite*), or where the syllable in question did not immediately
the (early) accent (e.g. contimte), as well as from the analogy of other conIn Umbrian and Oscan these
jugations, e. g. amd-te, mone-te, audl-te.
imperatives are syncopated, e. g. Umbr. sistu (Lat. sistito), Osc. actud (Lat.
The same is true of derivative adjectives, e.g. in -idus, humidus,
agito).
frigiduSj cdlidus solidus, rigidus, aridus, &c. (but nudus for *novidns from a root
on udus see below), in
nogw-, Sanscr. nag-nas, our naked,' is syncopated
a glutton (from
-wus, e. g. unicus, clvicus, medicus, but the nouns Plancus, lurco,
lura, the mouth of a sack,' according to Paul. Test. 86. 23 Th. lura, os cullei, vel
etiam utris unde lurcones capacis gulae homines),. juncus, &c. are syncopated
Similarly vlmdus is saved from syncope by the influence
(see below on raucus}.
of other adjectives in -ulus, while the noun vita for *vlvita (Lith. gywata) is
The Umbrian adj. in -co-, totco- (Latin pubtteus) from tota-, *touta-, 'the
not.
community/ people,' shows the contraction which Latin adjectives of this
influence of forms
'
'
formation escape (cf. Osc. toutico-').

(5) Diminutives in -Zo-, on the other hand, extended the syncope from
dissyllabic to other forms, e. g. ullus from *uno-lus, mllum from *mno-lum, Ter.
and from their analogy, corolla for *coronula, persolla for *personula,
ampulla from amp(Ji)6ra (Greek d/xôpa, Ace. of d/z(/)opeus), &c.
(6) Greek words borrowed at an early period probably owe their syncope to
Adelph, 786,
the early accent,
e. g.
Hercules (Greek
'H/jcwA.?;?), Polluces
Plaut. Bacch. 894 (Greek no\vSevK^ 7 calx (Greek

tine Acmemeno (above,
14).
(the early form ofPollilx),

a)
cf Praenes-
x^^j wi th
ulna from
postulo from *posci-tulo
(7) Other examples are alter from dliter
*idma (Greek uXfvrf} original -In- becomes -U- in Latin, e. g. collis from *colnis
(Lith. kalnas, Greek KoXcavos) propter from *propi-ter.
sdcerdos from *sacro-dos, *sdcri-dosf
(8) For the syllable -ri-, examples are
;
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
180
sdcer and root do, 'to give

tion (belonging to root dhe, ' to
from
by
dcerbus for *dcri-dho-,
show
whereas
114)
-dus
when not preceded
sacettum for *sacer-lum, *sacro-lom,
like dger (Greek dypos), caper (Greek Kairpos), and adjectives

this treatment of the unaccented final syllable of the Nom.
hortus, &c. are saved from syncope by the analogy of other cases,
and
of other Nominatives, whose final syllable did not

In the Italian
(early) accent, like animus, autumnus.
find this -er- in similar positions, e. g. Osc. Aderla- from *Adrola-
hortum, &c.,
horti, horto,
with the same termina-
Nouns
sdcn-lum, &c.
like deer
[Chap. III.
make ') which becomes
g. frigidus, calidus (see ch. iv.
r, e.
case,
'
immediately follow the

dialects
we
(Lat. Atella), Abella- probably
from *Abrola- (Lat.
'propitious/ from pacri-, often spelt
*Apella),
Umbr.
ager, pacer,
Sabine Atrno- (Lat. Aternus'), Osc.

Tantrnnaium (Gen. PI.) (ch. iv. 92). In Latin we seem to have -er- for -ri,
in the accented syllable too, e. g. ter (Greek rpis), in Plautus (e. g. Bacch. 1127)
scanned as a long syllable, and so pronounced terr (cf. terruncius, the right
spelling
of er for
-r-,
e.g.
see Biicheler in Rhein. Mus. xlvi. 236), from *ters. The substitution
be due rather to metathesis (cf. N. Ital. fardor, &c. for
n would then
fredor, &c., Meyer-Liibke, Rom. Gramm. i. p. 291, and see above, ch. ii.
in).
Ter would however be unaccented in phrases like ter-mitte (cf. terdeciens written
word on Mon. Anc. i. 29). On ter, see ch. vi. 61, on er for ri ch. iv. 13.
For the syllable -vi-, e. g. autumo for dm-tumo (Greek o'ioj for of-ioa) claudo
curia for *comria (cf. Volscian covehriu, Zv. Inscr. Ital. Inf.
*ddvi-do, from cldvis
as one
(9)
47)
gaudeo for *gavideo, part, gdvlsus (Greek
*ndvl-frdgus
:
;
nuper, cf. adj.
nuperum Ace.
for yaff-dfO}) ; naufragus for

Plaut. Capt. 718 recens captum
7770*0;
Sg.,
hominem nuperum nouicium),
for *novi-perus from mvus and pdro praeco for

from prae and voco praedes, earlier praendes (praevides Plur., praes
Sing, on the Lex Agraria of Sp. Thorius, in B.C., C.I.L. i. 200, but only
praedes on the older Lex Repetundarum, 123-2 B. c., i. 198), from prae and vas,
*prae-vtco
perhaps suffered syncope after the
new
accent law, as did udus (as early as
Lucil. inc. 172 M.), in Plautus only uvidus ; raucus forrdvicus from raw's, ' hoarse'
ness ; mta for *wvita (see above)
auceps for *dvi-ceps ; Opiter, a name given to
a child 'who had a grandfather for a father,' cujus pater avo vivo mortuus
;
est (Paul. Test. 207. 15 Th.), Plur. Opiteres (Lowe, Prodr. p. 396), seems to be
The form
colloquial Latin for *Aupater for *dm-pdter from dvus and pdter.
mdvolo
The
is
found (with mdlo} in
Plautxis, but in the classical period only mdlo.

syncopated, even when long by position/ in auspex
nuntius, older noventius [the older form occurs in a prophecy of
Marcius, published 213 B. c. (ap. Fest. 164. 28 Th.) quamvis
syllable -m-,
for *avi-spex
the famous
'
-veis
noventium duonum negumate, quamvis bonum nuntium negate '] nundinae

for *noven-dinae from novem and dm- a bystem of dies (Sanscr. dinam, O. Slav,
dim). And -v- is dropped even before a long vowel when a vowel of the
same quality precedes, e. g. Idbrum, earlier Idvdbrum, Lucr. vi. 799. (Marius
Victorinus, ix. 20 K. quotes lavabrum for Idbrum among other instances of Old
'
Latin forms such as hacetenus for hdctenus, hocedie for hodie, semol for simul)
the old word for a bath, supplanted by the Greek loan;
Idtrina for Idvdtrina,
words bal(i)neum (fiaXavfTov) (cf. Non. 212. 7M.latrina

.est lavatrina, quod
nunc balneum dicitur), as balneum itself was succeeded by lavdcrum dlmnus
was early contracted to dlnus (Leo in Rhein. Mus. xxxviii. 2), e. g. reidinai and
.
Or
for *ndu-fragus,
claudo, gaudeo (?).
which became
ndu-fragus (ch.
iv.
45),
and
so
with
ACCENTUATION.
16.]
SYNCOPE.
l8l
res deina on an old inscription (C.I.L. xi. 4766), so obliscor for oblwiscor in the
early dramatists (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.), and in universal usage, sis, for
si vis, from which a plural sultis was formed.
(On loss of intervocalic -vii.
53 and ch. iv.
70.
This liability of every short second syllable to syncope under the Early
Accent Law makes it dangerous to infer from Latin forms the presence or
absence of a short vowel in the corresponding Indo-European forms, e. g. to
infer from the distinction between Lat. ultra, citrd, infra, supra, extra, contra on
the one hand, and ulterior, dterior, inferior, superior, exterior on the other, that
the original stem-suffix was -tr-, -r- in these adverbs and -ter-, -er- in these
adjectives. Priscian (ii. p. 30. i H.) tells us that the older forms were supera,
in/era, extera, &c. quaedam etiam syncopam passa sunt, ut
supra pro
see ch.
'
'
supera,' et
'
infra
'
'
infera,' et
extra
pro
laba ea proferebant, ut Cicero in Arato
'
pro
extera/
nam
antiqui trisyl-
Torvus Draco serpit supter superaque retorquens

Sese,
tenuit tamen, ut disyllaba magis ea proferantur (cf. ii. p. 55. 23 H.). Supera is
found in an elegiac epitaph, of the time of the poet Accius (to judge from its
use of a double letter to indicate a long vowel), C.I L. i. ion Ree fuit ee
vero plus superaque parens, and on another inscription, with the same
indication of date (cf. Ritschl, P. L. M. p. 46) (-ee- for e in seedes) we have infera,
i. 1166
quae infera scripta sont, but on the earlier S. C. de Bacch. (i. 196 of
186 B. c.) we have suprad and exstrad, so that supera (which is used also by
Lucretius) may be a form that is not genuinely antique. On the spelling

arUterium for arbitrium, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v., and cf. magistero- C.I. L.
i.
73, ma[gi~\steratus, Eph. Epigr. ii. 298 ; on dextera and dextra, see Brambach,
Lat. Orth. ; on sinistera for sinistra (e. g. Ter. Eun. 835), on Tiberis andTz&m, see
Georges, Lex. Wortf.
s.
w., and for other examples of syncopated by forms,
s.
vv.
but
Vir(i}domarus, frig(i)dus, ful(i}ca, Temese (Gk.) and Tempsa (Lat.)
audac-ter, later auddci-ter, pfivi-gnus beside prim-genus (cf. Paul. Fest. 225. 2 Th.
oenigenos' unigenitos), teg-men beside tegi-men, &c. admit of other explanasol(i)dus,
'
(On the use of a Parasitic Vowel with r see ch. ii. 102.)
Syncope is carried even further in Umbro-Oscan than in Latin, but in
Umbrian the Perf. Part. Pass, is not syncopated, while the 3 Sg. Imper. is (but
not -net-, e. g. kanetu, let him sing') thus sektu is Imper., se9etu is P. P. P.
(see von Planta, i. p. 214). Contrast Osc. toutico- with Umbr. totco-, 'publicus,'
Osc. minstro- with Lat. ministro-, Osc. Vezku- with Lat. Vetusco-.
tions.
Syncope of Final Syllable. In Oscan and Umbrian,
as in Gothic, e, 6,
in a final syllable are syncopated, e. g. Osc. hurz, Lat. hortus,
Bantins, Lat. Bantmus, tuvtiks for *touticos from touta-, community,' people,'
Umbr. emps, Lat. emptus, pihaz, Lat. pidtus, all with syncope of -6s Osc.
for *med-dik-es Nom. PI. of meddix, the title of the Oscan chief
fjif88fi
16.
I,
but not u
(?),
<
'
magistrate, censtur for *censtor-es, Lat. censores, with syncope of -es of Nom. PL
of -ris.
(seech, vi.
40). Umbr. pacer for *pac-ri-s, propitious,' with syncope
In Latin we have this syncope, unless it should rather be called metathesis
'
15. 8),
in
*en'tag-ro-s,
Nom.
Sg. of
-ro-,
and
might be for
*quetwor-es,
ri-
stems,
e. g.
dger for *ag-ro-s, in-teg-er for
but perhaps in no others. Quattuor

Masc. (Doric Gk. reropes, Sanscr. catvaras), but may
deer for ac-ri-s, volucer,
&c.,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
82
[Chap. III.
Neuter form (Sanscr.
catviiri) (see ch. vi.

63). The contraction of
Sg. of adjectives or nouns denoting the place of one's
birth, e. g. Arpinas, *Casilas (Umbr. Casilos), is later than Plautus, who always
uses the full form -dtis : while Campans (Masc. not Neut.) in his cruel sneer
also be the
-dtis
to -as in the
at the
Nom.
conquered Campaniaiis,
Trin.
545
Campans genus
Multo Surorum iam antidit patientia,
seems intended to mimic an Oscan *Campans for Campdnus, like Osc. Bantins
Like Arplndtis, later Arpinas, are Samnltis, later Samnis, Laurentis,
later Laurens, Tiburlis, later Tiburs, &c. (Prise, i. p. 134 H.). Nominatives Sg. of
i-stems like sors (in Plaut. Gas. 380 sortis), quies (if an I-stem like 0. Pers.
siyatis', Av. syeitis) may have dropped i in their final syllable, not by
syncope, but by analogy of consonant-stems cf. nubs used by Liv. Andr. for
nilbes (Serv. ad Aen. x. 636), pkbs and plebes (for other examples, see Eitschl.
Or these may be instances of parallel stem-formations, like
Opusc. ii. 652).
penu-, peno-, penos- of penus, Gen. penus, penum, Gen. peni, penus, Gen. penoris.
for Bantlnus.
So
violens
and
jluens
violentus,
and
fluentum, &c.,
epulonus
Fest.
(Paul.
55,
'epolonos' dicebant antiqui, quos nunc epulones dicim'us), and
15 Th.
epulo, centurionus
and
centurio, curionus,
decurionus
and
curio, decurio
'
(Paul. Fest.
centurionus
curionus' et
36 Th.
antea, qui nunc centurio, et
'decurionus' dicebantur), infans, once used by Accius (Trag. 189 R. infans
facinus) in the sense of infandus. Compounds like in-dex, iu(s)-dex, vin-dex
differ from caust-dlcus, iuri-dicus, fdti-dicus in being formed directly from the
weak verb-stem die-, like Sanscr. a-di-. So conjux (cf. Sanscr. sayuj-, Gk.
au) beside bijiigis and Wjugus, blgae, &c. So for(m)ceps, au-ceps, prin-ceps beside
urbi-capus (Plaut.), hosti-capas (Paul. Fest. 73. 10 Th.
hosticapas hostium
'
'
34.
'
'
captor)
opi-fex,
arti-fex,
carm-fex beside mum-ficus, magm-ficus
rem-ex beside
Man-sues (Ace. mansuem and mansuetem) beside man-suetus, in-quies

beside in-quietus are like Gk. dS/xTy? and dS/^ros, dtc/j.r)s and aK^rjros. Praeceps,
anceps from prae-, ambi- and caput, in Plautus praecipes (End. 671), ancipes
prod-igus.
(Rud. 1158) (cf. procapis, Paul. Fest. 281. 22 Th. 'procapis' progenies, quae
ab uno capite procedit
and concapit (?) of the XII Tables ap. Fest. 556.
27 Th. tignurn iunctum aedibus uineaue et concapit lie soluito) were afterwards assimilated to compounds of capio, e. g. prin-ceps (cf. Prise, i. p. 280.
;
'
'
H. antiqui tamen ancipes et praecipes et bicipes proferebant in

idem tamen vetustissimi etiam praecipis genetivum
secundum analogiam nominativi protulerunt). Old Latin Polluces (Plaut.
Bacch. 894, cf. Gk. IIoAvSeu/fTys) was shortened to Pollux, probably by analogy
'
'
15
nominative
'
'
of lux, Gen.
lucis.
concors, discors,
&c.
Priscian
were
(i.
p. 282. 12
H.)
concordis, discordis (cf.

l
i.
tells
us that the old forms of
354. 13 H.) (cf. late Lat. orbs,
'
orbis noil orbs Probi App. 198. 8 K.).

Veil. Fort. ix. 3. 14
O-stem adjectives often have their Nom. Sg. shortened through their tendency,
Thus hildrus (Gk.
especially when compound (ch. v.
34), to become I-stems.
I\ap6s, one of those loanwords from Greek to express sub tie nuances of feeling, for
which the Romans had no word of their own, like our loanwords from French,
such as triste ') became, after the time of Plautus, hilaris (ch. v.
34) fortis
was perhaps originally forctus (Paul. Fest. 73. 9 Th. forctum' pro bono dicee. g.
'
'
bant),
524.
though as early as the XII Tables we find forties for loyal allies,
15 Th.,
in
XII cautum
est,
(ap. Fest,
ut idem juris esset 'Sanatibus' quod
ACCENTUATION.
17.]
SYNCOPE.
183
Forctibus,' id est bonis, et qui numquam defecerant a Populo Komano

Paul. Fest. 59. 26 'forctes,' frugi et bonus, sive validus, where Paulus
1
cf.
may
have put the Nom. PI. forties by mistake for the Nom. Sg. forctis} sacro- and
sam- are parallel stems in O. Latin (sacres porci, 'pigs for sacrifice,' Plaut. Men.
289, Rud. 1208, cf. Fest. 464. 7 Th.), and similarly memo- and mam'-, good,'
;
'
only survival of this group was im-mdnis bad,'

In the Carmen Saliare occurred the phrase Cerus
'hurtful,' and the di Manes.
mdnus, explained by Paul. Fest. 87. 29 Th. as creator bonus, and at Lanuvium
the old word mdnis was in use even in the time of Macrobius (fourth cent. A.D.)
mane pro bono dicunt sicut apud nos
(.Macr. i. 3. 13 nam et Lanuini
though in
classical Latin the
'
quoque contrarium est 'immane'). Varro (L. L. vi. 4) connects with 0. Latin
mdnus, 'good' the adverb mane, 'early,' and in support of his etymology
mentions a curious Greek custom of uttering the words (pats dyaOov as a good
omen when a light was brought into the room, diei principium mane,' quod
turn manat dies ab oriente, nisi potius quod bonum antiqui dicebant
manum,' ad cujusmodi religionem Graeci quoque, cum lumen affertur,
The O-stem hortus became in the
solent dicere <f>ws dyadov (see ch. vi.
38)
compound *co-horto- an I-stem *co-hortis, which (like sors, &c. above) changed
'
'
Nom.
Even the Perf. Part. Pass, sdndtus appears in the

the expression quoted from the XII Tables by Festus 524. 10 Th.
for the repentant allies, who had first revolted and then returned to their
its
form
Sg. to co-hors.
sanati- in
'
allegiance,
quod nomen
Sanates
'
dicti sunt, qui
supra infraque
Romam
habitaverunt.
cum
defecissent a Romanis, brevi post redierunt

quasi sanata mente. And the Old Latin legal phrase dare
his fuit, quia,
in amicitiam
damnas esto, tantum damnas
esto (Cato ap. Gell. vi. 3. 37

Quint, vii. 9. 12, &c.)
be a case of substitution, for the usual O-stem damnato-, of an I-stem
damnati-j which has taken a cons. -stem Nom. Sg. damnas, like aetas, tempestas.
;
may
I0-stems had at all periods a tendency to pass into I-stems. The older
termination -drius (frequent in Plautus, vid. Lorenz ad Pseud. 952,
e. g. singularius, virginarius) may have been often replaced by -dris in MSS. of
Plautus (ch. v. 4). Cf. Caper 1 12. 2 K. vates olim vatios dicebant so Verres
and Verrius. In Vulg. Lat. -ius (-eus) became -is in actuaris, abstemis, sobris,
thus repeating the early
caerulis, consanguinis, &c. (Lowe, Prodr. p. 420),
confusion between -to- and -i- in the declension of names like Caecilius, Ace.
adj.
'
'
Caecilium, Caecilis, Ace. Caecilim (see ch. vi.
5).
But none
of these are clear
cases of the change of stem of a Latin word owing to the syncope of its final
Perhaps the most likely instance is Lucipor, from
syllable in the Nom. Sg.
of which the Plur. is given by Pliny, H. N.

Dat. Sg. Naepori on an inscription of the end of the
L. i. 1539 e), but even this might be otherwise
Lucius
and puer (stem puero-\
xxxiii.
26 as Lucipores
Republican period,
(cf.
C. 1.
explained. The weakening of final vowels in Latin (see below) gives an

a priori probability to the syncope of final short syllables like -is, -os, -es as
in Oscan and Umbrian, but it has not yet been satisfactorily proved that
syncope did actually occur in any syllables except those immediately

preceding or following the accent. (Schuchardt, Vok. ii. 394 sqq. has collected
a number of instances on late plebeian inscriptions of the omission of
a short vowel of the final syllable, e. g. feet for fecit.}
17. Syncope under the Paenultima Accent Law. (i)Pretonic. Compounds
of fdcio like cale-facio, which shortened their e by the law of Brevis Brevians
before
(see below), took the further step of suppressing the vowel altogether
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
184
[Chap. III.
the accent of the next syllable, cal-fdcere, cal-fdctus. Quintilian (i. 6. 21) tells
us that in his time the full form calefacere was never used in ordinary talk.
Ritschl proposed to help the
Olfacere, not *olefacere, is the regular form.
metre occasionally in Plautus by reading benficium, malficium for beneficium,
maleffaium, benfacta, malfacta (e. g. Trin. 185) for benefacta, malefacta of the MSS.
He supported his proposal by the old spelling BENVENTOD on a coin of
On later inscriptions spellings like

(C.I.L. i. 19), c. 2508.0.
BENMERENTI are frequent, also MALDicrvm (see Ritschl, Opusc. ii. 716). So
firmly established was the syncopated form of compounds of facio like
olfacio that even drefacw, whose e could not be shortened by ordinary phonetic
change, since it is preceded by a long syllable, seems after their analogy to
have been made a quadrisyllable by Cato, for the MSS. of the Res Rustica
125
157. 12).
agree wonderfully in presenting the word in this form (c. 69
To pretonic syncope we must refer the currency of the forms disdplina,figllna
beside discipulus, figulus, and on later inscriptions vetranus (cf. C.I.L. iii. Ind.
p. 1159 for veterdnus, &c. (on Greek inscriptions almost always ovfrpavos or 0erpavos). Festus 466. 16 Th. tells us that scena, an old word for the priest's knife
(used by Liv. Andr. Com. 2 R. corruit quasi ictus scena) had a byform sacena and
another obsolete term sculna, discussed by Gell. xx. n, a synonym of sequester,
Beneventum
was explained by a grammarian, who compiled a

'
(Lavinius
De Verbis
Sordidis
')
sort of
'
'
Slang Dictionary
as a contraction
of *seculna. Vulg. Lat.

be explained either as a case of the
mdt(u)tlnus (Ital. mattino, &c.) may

suppression of one of two similiar neighbouring syllables, like Res(tf)tutus
above ( 13, p. 176) or of pretonic syncope, such as is seen in Ital. cervello (Lat.
vergogna (Lat. verecundia], bonta (Lat. bomtdt-), gridare (Lat.
cerebellum),
qmntare}, dritto (Lat. dlrectus), &c. Procope is common in Italian, owing to
the frequency of final vowels, e. g. vescovo (Lat. episcqpus}, nemico (Lat.

mimwus), cagione (Lat. occasion-'), &c. Synizesis of the pretonic short vowel
coactus became *quattus
is seen in Vulg. Lat. qu(i~)etus, *dyurnus (Ital. giorno)
(Ital. quatto), &c. (cf. Georges, Lex. Wortf. on Num(f)torius, Lug(u)dunum).
;
A good example of syncope after a long accented syllable

(2) Post-tonic.
under the new Accent-law is the word barca (our barque '), a word which
seems to have been introduced at the time of the naval displays given by
Caesar for the amusement of the people, and which is clearly a contraction of
*bdrica from the Egyptian ban's (Prop. iii. n. 44) (see Rhein. Mus. xlii. 583).
Another is lamna (Hor. C. ii. 2. 2 inimice lamnae), in Vulg. Lat. lanna (Arnob. ii.
And we have
41), the older form of which was lammma (e. g. Plaut. Asin. 549).
many words which appear in Plautus in their full form, but in later writers
'
by syncope, such as obiurigo, by Terence's time always obiurgo,

nouns or adjectives in -dtis denoting the country of one's birth, &c., e.g.
The same shortening tendency attacked u, i in hiatus,
infimatis (Stick. 493).
are reduced
Idrua is a trisyllable in Plautus, a dissyllable later, so grains, later

while it has left traces of itself in spellings on old inscriptions like
iugra (for jugera) on the Lex Agraria of Sp. Thorius, in B.C. (C.I.L. i. 200.
14, 25), not to mention others which may be dialectal, such as PROSEPNAI
e. g.
gratis,
(Dative) on a very old mirror of Cosa (C. I. L. i. 57. -AI, not -AIS, is what is
written see Rhein. Mus. xlii. 486), and CEDRE for caedere on an early inscription
;
of Spoletium in
e. g.
Umbria
Plaut. Aul. 297
(C. I. L. xi.
Pers.
266
4766). Ardus for dridus appears occasionally,

Lucil. 27. 40 M., and on an inscription
copied in the Empire from an original of 105 B.
c.
(C.
L L.
i.
577. 2. 21
VOWEL- WEAKENING.
ACCENTUATION.
18.]
which
185
uda (2. 18) for uvida (but dridus, Plaut. Eud.

so Raude for Ravide, Catull. xl. i ; aspris for asperis, Virg.
Aen. ii. 379 (cf. aspritudo, aspretum, aspredo, and other derivatives, as well as
Ital. aspro), aspriter, Sueius ap. Non. 513 M.
Syncope after a short accented
x.
1781),
also contains
574, 726, 764, &c.)
syllable is seen in soldus, used even in the Lex Municipalis of Julius Caesar,
45 B. c. (C. I. L. i. 206. 1 14, 1 15), and admitted by Horace into his Satires (S. ii. 5.
65 metuentis reddere soldum, andS.
i.
113), in possum for pote-sum (ch. viii.
2.
and in ferme, for ferime, Superl. of fere, if the corruption fert me of the
Palatine MSS. in Plaut. Trin. 319 be evidence of the spelling /m'we in Plautus'
time. Plautus has never the form culmen, which appears to be a form proper
to the oblique cases, so that the declension was
Nom. columen, Gen. c6l(u)mmis
(cf. Georges, Lex. Wortf. on later (t)culus, and possibly fer({)culum). In Vulgar Latin
97),
we have slave-names
like Marpor (C.
L.
1076), Naepori (Dat. Sg.)
(i. 1539 e),

given by Festus (340.
17 Th.), mattus for maditus, 'drunk' (Petron.), virdis (cf. Probi App. 199. 9 viridis
non 'virdis') on vir(i)desco, mrffidarium, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.vv. dictus
for digttus (see Georges)
fridam for frigulam on an inscription of Pompeii
(C. L L. iv. 1291) (cf. Probi App. 198. 3 K. calida non 'calda'; frigida non
'frigda
infrigdo for infrigido, Oribas. fragm. Bern. iv. 34. p. i. 6 and 10 Hag.)
of
which
forms like
full
I.
i.
Quintipor, Marcipor, Gaipor, are
'
cf.frigdor (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) ; ccdda is read in Cato, R. R. vi. i and 75,
Varro, R. R. i. 13, &c., and the proper name Cald(us) is found on coins as
early as 109 B. c. (C.I.L. i. 382); on domnus for dominus, see Georges s. v., and
cf.
the proper
name
Domnus, Domna, Gk. Ao/xros
(C. I. G.
i.
6505,
end of second
and Vulg.-Lat.
cent. A. D.),
indicated by the
Komance
mt(i)dus, horr(i)dus, rig(i}dus, col(a)phus, &c. are

forms, e. g. Ital. netto, ordo (but with close initial
(For a list of syncopated forms in late inscriptions and

MSS., see Schuchardt, Vok. ii. pp. 394 sqq.)
o),
reddo, colpo, &c.
18. Change of Unaccented Vowels.

In a language with
a stress-accent the unaccented vowels are liable to be obscured.
We
in
language, where the unaccented vowels
father/ sister/ have become what we call par

the obscure vowel/ the vowel-sound of u in 'but/
notice too a difference in this respect between Italian pro-
excellence
We
own
see this in our
words
like
'
'
nunciation and our
own
for
an Italian pronounces the vowels

and does not slur them
Italian also the same
of the unaccented syllables more clearly,

to the same extent as we do.
But in
tendency to weaken an unaccented vowel is present, though not

marked a degree.
The unaccented vowel often fails to
in so
its
preserve
individuality,
and
is
open
to
influence
from
a neighbouring consonant,
short vowel to e}
rather
albero
its
;
r, for example, changing a preceding

changing one to o. Thus Latin arbor, or
oblique case-form arbtirem, &c. has become in Italian

debllis has become debole.
And in the pretonic
Latin
syllable of signore (Lat. seniorem), midolla (Lat. medulla), the
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
86
has become
vowel
unaccented
[Chap. III.
Exactly the same thing

we saw that a short
happened
vowel in the syllable following the accented syllable remained
In the
in Latin.
unsyncopated only when
its
i.
last chapter
syllable
when some
was long by position, or

But though unIts quality was
other cause prevented syncope.

syncopated, it did not remain unaffected.
In a syllable long by position
changed.
unaccented vowel becoming

in
other
syllables
i,
e,
e.g. remex,
e.g. remigis, jurigo
we
see
short
from remus and

(Plaut.),
ago,
later jurgo.
Under the influence of a following labial consonant or I it

assumes a u- or w-sound (see ch. ii.
1
6), e. g. occupo, in-cipio, from
a
r
it
makes
Some
capio
e, e.g. peperi, from pario.
following
;
vowels retained their individuality better than others.

Short
o in compounds of verbs like voco, rogo, &c. remains
unchanged,
e.g. convoco, invoco, irrogo, arrogo', short
u in
tu-tudi, &c.
Final syllables too cannot have been so liable to affection as

others, or the difference between Nominatives Singular of different stems, such as cmis, opus (Old Lat. opos), manus, &c. could
not have been so well maintained. Perhaps they were saved by
the analogy of trisyllables, and longer words, where the final
syllable was not in the weakest of all positions, viz. immediately
following the accent.
Even diphthongs were changed,

affected, ai
becoming
(through
first element being

an becoming u (through
their
*ei),
was
originally weakened to e (see below).

of ob and caedo became, under the influence
*en), just as single a
Thus the compound
of the early accent, occido, of ob and claudo, occludo.

But long
vowels were more resistive of change, e.g. invddo, from vddo,
irrepo,
from
repo.
The
regularity with which these changes of short vowels and

diphthongs are carried out in the second syllables of Latin words
is
a strong proof of the fact discovered by Corssen, that the
Latin accent at some early time rested invariably on the
first
syllable;
syllable immediately following the
accented syllable, which in a language with stress-accent is most
liable to be affected.
syllable with a secondary accent, like
for
it
is
the
the paenultima of *pdrri~ca\da- (under the old accent law) would

not be liable, just as in the Romance languages the vowel of the
ACCENTUATION.
18.]
VOWEL-WEAKENING.
187
first
syllable of words like classical Latin armatura, &c. shows
the same treatment as the vowel of the syllable with the main
accent (cf. Ital. Fiorentino from Florentines, like fiore from
but Firenze from Florentia). It might, however, change

vowel after the analogy of kindred words where the same
vowel followed immediately on the accent, e. g. *oc-caido, and so
florem,
its
we get
the Old Latin form paricidas (Paul. Fest. 278. 10 Th.).

the other hand the analogy of the simple word with accented
root-vowel would often save the vowel of the compound from
On
being changed, e.g. vades

vades is not weakened as
And
praedes.
relation of a
XII
et subvades,
Tab., where the a of
in praevides (C. I. L. i. 200), later

at any period in the language the sense of the
compound to a simple word might lead to the
it is
restoration of the vowel in the

e.
g.
(for
compound to its accented quality,

become
provocare, though the noun praeco
*prdvicare might
was
left unchanged
emco might become e-neco ;
*prae-vico)
;
consecro,
This restoration
con-sacro.
unweakened form,
'
'
of
as it
compounds to
is
their
sometimes
called,
Recomposition
a feature of the late Republican and the Imperial period, and
possibly had some connexion with the grammatical studies
is
imported from Greece towards the close of the Republic, and

prosecuted with great zest for many centuries.
In the period of the earlier literature the change of unaccented
vowels
is
more the
rule than
it
is
later,
e.g.
always enico in
Plautus, &c., in spite of the old practice of separating the preposition from its verb by tmesis, ob vos sacro, for obsecro vos, sub
vos placo, for supplico vos.
Analogy, however, was at work in all periods, and exerted its

now in one way, now in another. The analogy of the
Nominative preserved from change the vowel in the oblique cases
influence
of
arborem, fulguris, &c., at least in the literary language

albero fulgerator, Gruter. Inscr. xxi. 3) ; the analogy
(cf. Ital.
of the Oblique Cases, integri, integro, &c. has substituted e for

i in the Nominative
integer.
Compounds, too, which were made
were rarely used, like O. Lat. hosti-capas,

hostium captor (Paul. Fest. 73. 10 Th.), wrbi-capus (Plaut.), would
escape the change which befel a word established in use, like
But with thes^ exceptions the change of
prin-ceps, muni-ceps.
for the occasion, or
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
88
short vowels of the
second syllable
[Chap. III.
very regular in Latin,
is
though the oldest inscription extant, Manios med fefaked Numaon a brooch perhaps of the sixth cent. B. c. found at Praeneste,
is suggestive of an epoch when this law was not in operation.
The exact rules of change seem to be these. The older
representative of i, the modification of a short vowel in an
sioi,
while the
ordinary short unaccented syllable was e (Gk. e)
older representative of ii, the modification of an unaccented
;
short vowel before a labial or
I,
by i,
by u about 230 B.C.
change might be so described.
was
Up
An
(Gk.
o).
was replaced
to that time the process of
unaccented short vowel was
changed before a labial I to o, in all other circumstances to e.

Thus on old Praenestine jewelcases, &c. we find spellings like
Belolai (C. I. L. i. 44) for Bellulae, Salutes (i. 49) for Salutis,
and these older
Aecetiai for Aeguitiae (al. Angitwe\ (i. 43)
The MSS. of
later
often
to
a
much
period.
spellings
persist
for
for
traces
of
Plautus,
abigit, Capt.
dbegii
example, preserve
;
814; exsolatum for exulatum in Merc. 593 (B), Most. 597 (A),
&c., and the Lex Repetundarum of 121 B.C. (C.I. L. i. 198) has,
with the conservativeness of legal orthography, forms like
detolerit, oppedeis side
side
by
with
especially long retained after the
And
after
consonantal
Repetundarum, proiecitad
(y)
detulerit, ediderit, &c.
vowel
we
find
(for projicito)
i,
E was
e.g. ebrietas,parietem.
on the Lex
on the Titulus Lucerinus
conieciant
while the spelling inieciatis, Plaut.

(Eph. Epigr. ii. 298)
True. 298 has led to the corruption illeciatis in the Ambrosian
Palimpsest (so in Lucretius MSS. traiecere, iii. 513. For other
;
examples, see
tained after i,
Lachmann ad
Lucr.
ii.
951); o was similarly re-
(
little wells,' and after
fUiolm, Pwteoli,
vocalic or consonantal u (u w), e.g. paruolus.
(See ch. iv.
70.)
e, e.
lit.
g.
The
ie
through
of
compounds
became #, e. g. conicio,
and similarly ue of compounds
of jacio, &c.
loss of accent
(ch. iv.
51),
of quatio, &c. became u, e.g. concutio.

This older e remained
in short syllables before r, e.g. peperi.
Also in syllables
long by position, except where the first of the two consonants

was a labial or l\ and even into these it found its way in
time with the exception of the combination of / with another

e. g. condemno, older condumno (both forms are
consonant (not ll\
ACCENTUATION.
18.]
VOWEL- WEAKENING.
189
found on the Lex Bantina of 130 B.C., C.I.L. i. 197); surreptum

(surruptum Plaut.), but always insulto, insulsus, inculco (ch. iv. 10).
The
o, proper to syllables whether short or long by position in

which the vowel was followed by a labial or I, became u, which
might pass into the ^'-sound (ch. ii. 16), written at first u, later i.
The spelling of MSS. of Plautus, testnmonium, &c. became in
time testimonium, &c. In Superlatives i for earlier u was adopted
for State Inscriptions through the influence of Julius Caesar
(Quint, i. 7. 21 ; Varro ap. Cassiod. p. 150.
K.), so on the Lex
Julia Municipalis of 45 B. c. (C. I. L. i. 206) maximam and maxu-
mam, though we
e.g. proxsimum
find it occasionally used long before his time,
1291, an inscription which Ritschl dates

(i.
'not after 130 B. c/).
/ came in earliest probably in syllables
which were followed by a syllable with i in hiatus, e.g. recipio
(recipit
on a Scipio epitaph of
c.
180
B.C.,
i.
33).
The same vowel appears
in confringo, infringe, &c. in accordance

of Latin which gives us i for e in the
with the phonetic law

accented syllables of words like tingo (Gk. reyyco), ch.
The
succession of
maximus
(ch.
ii.
is 0,
e.g.
is
0,
u,
also seen in the parasitic or
'
iv.
n.
maxumus,
'
vowel
Svarabhaktic
154) ofcpdculum (Plaut. poclum), &c. The earliest spelling

on the Praenestine vases of third cent. B.C. belolaipocolom
(C. I.L.i. 44), Salutes pocolom
lom), (Epk. Epigr.
where
i.
5).
The
stabulum, &c.
facilis,
in words like maicomos,
The
(i.
49), Aisclapi pococolom (for poco-
classical
Latin spelling
is u,
pocuhim,
in I-stem Adjectives, &c., e.g. stabilis, agilis,

follows in the next syllable, is in O. Lat. e, e. g.
i
i.
166), on Greek inscriptions KauceAios, &c.
which had escaped the reduction to e became at the end of
fameliai (C.I. L.
An
the third cent. B.C. u, e.g. opus, earlier opos

earlier
Luciom
truo- y if
we
(id.
i.
52), Lucius,
(ib.
17); indnstrius (older endosTest.
75. 28 Th.) ; -unt in 3 PL for
may believe Paul.
i.
32) (cf. ch. iv.
Carm. Sal. (Fest. 244. 13 Th. MS.

in the sense of praeoptant. A u became u } i, e. g. satura, satira.
-oti-)
The weakening of the diphthong ai (later ae) to I was fre-
older -ont,
e.
g. praedopiont of
quently abandoned in the late Republican and Imperial time,
a number
of forms which exhibit this weakening, e.g. consiptum,

forms.
from
obsiptum,
saepio, being recognized as Old Latin
The same weakening may have occurred when ai stood in hiatus,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
190
[Chap. III.
but here by the Latin law of shortening a long vowel in hiatus

143), 1 sank further to #, e.g. Hovianum for Bovianum
(ch. ii.
(Oscan Buvaianud Abl.), Marius (cf. Oscan Maraiio-). Similarly

unaccented au in hiatus sank to u in elno, eludcrum (Cato) from
(For other examples, see Parodi in
(For reduction of final vowels, see 37.)
Greek loanwords in Latin show the same changes of the posttonic vowels, though a vowel may be retained unchanged in
(Old Lat.), lavdcrum.
lavere
Stud. Ital.
i.
385.)
words which were borrowed after the operation of the law

affecting that particular vowel, or which never became part and
parcel of the
common
language.
balneum
The change
(Plaut.
is
seen in bdlineum
trutina
classical
&c.),
(j3a\aviov),
(rpvrdvri),
talentum (rdXavrov), phalerae (fyakapa), &c., but not in platanus
(irXaTavos), barbarus (pdpfiapos), &c. Vulgar Latin citera (niOdpa),
Probi App. 197. 26 K.),

tarra
from
Ital. cetera
citdra (laOdpa") (as
from
and
but Span, guiItal. gambero, but
cetra,
Kajujuapo?
Span, gambaro), carry out the vowel -reduction which was

omitted in the classical forms of these words.
The analogy too
of native words may often have interfered with the normal
of
development
these
unaccented vowels
the o
of
ancora
(ayKvpa) and the e of placenta (irXaKovvra, Ace. Sg.), for example,

may have arisen in this way, just as vpoOvpov became protulum
376) by the analogy of diminutives, or ITepo-e<povr], Proserpina (Prosepnai, Dative, on an old mirror of Cosa,
C. I. L. i. 57) by the analogy of proserpo.
(Lowe, Prodr.
Under the
the
p.
early law of accentuation, when the accent fell on

of every word, pretonic change could take place
first syllable
only in proclitic or subordinate words like prepositions preceding

Whether Menerua of early inscriptions (e.g. C.I.L.
their nouns.
i.
191 Meneruai-,
(ch. iv.
148),
cf.
Quint,
i.
4. 17), a quadrisyllable in
became Minerva through
loss of accent in
Plautus
the
first
But the pretonic

syllable or by analogy of minor is uncertain.
u
in
of
au
to
Ital.
udire
change
(Lat. audire], uccello (Vulg.
Lat. *aucellus from avis), and of ae to i in Ital. cimento (Lat.
'
chisel' (Lat. caesellnm), may have
caementum), cisello, our
in
occurred
already
Vulgar Latin. The pretonic syllable is
often assimilated to the accented, e.g. momordi for earlier
memordi, and the
same tendency
in
the post-tonic syllable
ACCENTUATION.
19.]
VOWEL-WEAKENING.
191
seen in mispronunciations like tonotru (Probi Append.

33 K.), preventing reduction in alacer, lieletem^ &c.
is
198.
vowel in an unaccented syllable was not shortened

in
final syllable, see
the
40-50 infr.) until a late period,
(except
when the length of all long syllables had been reduced to somelong-
thing not far removed from a short syllable (see ch. ii.
141).
But a syllable long by position, when preceded by a short
syllable and followed immediately by the accented syllable, was
so reduced as to be often scanned as a short syllable by the
early dramatists, e.g. voluptatem, senectutem (Plaut. Ter.).

In Oscan and Umbrian, though syncope is of frequent occur-
the quality of an unsyncopated unaccented vowel is

retained in the spelling.
The name, for instance, of the Latin
who
was
a native of Umbria, is in Umbrian
poet, Propertius,
rence,
form Propartio-, not Propertio-
(Yois. Ner. Propartie on an

C.I.L.
xi.
inscription,
5389, would be in Latin Vols.
Neronis
cf.
xi.
Propertii,
5518 sqq.).
f. ;
Umbrian
Other Examples. I. Syllables long by position. Anteclassical

from sarcio, Ter. Heaut. 143 (e in all the MSS. cf. Paul. Test. 57. 12 Th.
exercirent
sarcirent)
ommentans, from manto, Frequentative of maneo, quoted
by Fest. (218. 14 Th.) from Livius Andronicus (cf. Gl. Plac. ommentat
19.
exercirent
&c.); inpetritum
inpetratum (Paul. Fest. 77. 3 Th.); inermat:
armis spoliat (id. 78. 28 Th.)
inlex: inductor, ab inliciendo (id. 80. 29 Th.,
expectat,
with quotation of Plaut. Asin. 221) from 0. Lat. Iftcio (id.

inducit in fraudem. Inde est allicere et lacessere
inde
'
'
'
83.
36 Th.,
lacit
lactat,'
illectat,'
oblectat/ 'delectat.' Cf. 83. 14 Th. lacit decipiendo inducit. 'Lax' etenim
fraus est) procestria (id. 282. 6 Th.), apparently from castra, seems to be the
word equated with Gk. irpoaarfia in the 'Philoxenus' and Cyrillus' Glossaries
1
compectus is in Plautus the Participle of the compound of paciscor, compdctus

have e before a labial with a consonant in incepsit,
(ch. ii.
144) ofcompingo.
We
the old *Perf.
Subj.'
peremne dicitur
76. 23 Th.)
sacro oritur, auspicato transit
consequi (Paul. Fest. 75. 27 Th.). The gloss
of incipio (Paul.
Fest.
amnem, aut aquam, quae ex
auspicari, qui
32 Th.) ; indeptare
adsequi, adipisci, on the same page, 1. 31 (cf. Gloss. Plac.) is
perhaps given more correctly in the Philoxenus Glossary, indepti dvvaavres
praeceptat saepe praecipit Carni. Sal. (Fest. 244. ioTh.); inebrae aves
quae in auguriis aliquid fieri prohibent (id. 78. 7 Th.). But enubro inhi(Fest. 316.
indepisci
'
'
benti
Cf. the questionable spellings in the 'Philoxenus'

(id. 54. 7 Th.).
Glossary, eniber, enibra, enibrum (for enub- ?). On the Falisco-Latin inscription
of the Faliscan collegium cocorum' in Sardinia (Zv. LI.L 72), an inscription
'
with bad spelling and worse metre, we have aciptum for acceptum in the first
line
Gonlegium quod est aciptum aetatei agedai.
Classical examples are gmetrix beside genitus obstetrix beside stator, constituo
(but proditrix, &c., influenced \>j proditor} fulgetrum (all these Neuters in -trum
:
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
192
[Chap. III.
and Ferns, in -tra have 8, except a few with a, e. g. veretrum, mulcetra, ardtrum. But
see A.L.L. i. in)
ul-ent-idem from ante; expers from pars', p&rennis
from annusj and imberbis from barba, with the usual I-stem of Compound
Adjectives incestus from castus forceps fromformus, warm,' and cdpio compesco
tonitru
from
parco
fefelli
So in Reduplicated Perfects,
*pac-sco (cf. pdciscor^
And in Final
fromfallo.
e. g.
peperci
from
Syllables like miles for *milets, *milit-s (in
Plaut. the last syllable of such words is long by position, ch. ii.
137) ; cornicen
for *cormcens, *cornu-can-s. An original o becomes e(i) in trlginta for *trigenta (Gk.
rpiaKovTo] (on i for e before nt, cf. ch. ii.
147), Hie from unaccented olle (ch. vii.
13), and perhaps peren-die (cf. Osc. perum) (on -undo- and -endo in the Gerund,
-unt- and *ent- in the Pres. Part., see chap. viii.).
original u becomes e in
con-sternari (cf. Gk. irrvpofjuu, 0. H. G. stornem) ; an original * perhaps in
An
0. Lat. magester Quint, i. 4. 17). Other examples of the variation of weakened

and unweakened forms are comperco and comparco, contrecto and contracto, aspergo
and aspargo, dmando and amendo, dispertio better than dispartio, bipartltus and
MpertituSj quinquepertitus and quinquepartitus, retracto better than retrecto, conspergo
and conspargo, caliandrum and caliendrum, attrecto and attracto (so perhaps Sarepta
and Sarapta), on which see Georges, Lex. TFor^/ s. vv.
cf. abarcet Paul. Fest.
n. 36, dbercet id. 19. 26 Th. On Greek inscriptions we have irpivKtif/, pavKiip,
see Eckinger
/3itAAa/>tos, ovnpavos, &c., from the end of the first cent. A.D.
prae-fiscml is usually derived from fascinum, but neither exintero beside exentero,
:
nor Upinnis beside Upennis are certain cases of the change of e to i, nor yet
Antistius beside Antestius ( 39). (On i for e in infringo, triginta, see ch. iv.
n.)
20. II. Short Syllables (1) in -r.
The compound of lex and rumpo has in
Plautus the spelling legerupa (e. g. Pers. 68, corrupted to lege rumpam), cf.
vlverddix, Cato, E. R. xxxiii. 3), though at a later time the usual CompositionVowel i was used, e. g. pinnirapus, Juvenal (see Rev. Phil. 1892, p. 109) from
paro come aequipero, impero, pauper, but opi-parus juniperus (and junipirus) (see
Brambach, Lat. Orth. p. 142), derived by Verrius Flaccus from juvenis undpirus
(' Serv.' ad. Eel. vii. 53); socer, soceri may be the direct development of *swekuros,
Gk. etcvpos, Skt. svasuras, but see 15, K. Z. xxxii. 564) cmeris, tineri, but cinis,
l
'
vv. Silerus, mataris, Samiramis, and for

plebeian spellings like Caeserem, see Schuchardt, Vok. i. 195, ii. 214).
[The
late spelling facinerosus is capable of being explained, like temperi Adv. beside
cinisculus (cf.
tempori Dat.,
by the variation of the
these Neuter stems (ch.

21. (2) in
S.
s.
-1
v.
71)
or Labial.
cf.
suffix -os-
Anteclassical
C. de Bacchanalibus of 186
and
-es-
in the Declension of
pignera for pignora (see Georges)].
B. c.
(C. I. L.
and
But
consoluerunt
ccsoleretur
on the
consuluere
i.
185
186 on two old inscriptions of Venusia) the MSS. of Plautus
show exsolatum, Merc. 593 (B), exolatum, Most. 597 (A), &c. (see Brixad Trin. 535)
consol on two inscriptions of 211 B.C. (i. 530-1) on another of 200 B.C. (Not.
Scav. 1887, p. 195), and so normally till the third Punic War, even in one of
71 B.C., consolibus beside consulibus (C. I. L. i. 204) exsoles is the Old Latin form
beside consoltu
i.
i.
196.
(Cornutus ap. Cassiod.
Caesellius ap. eund. p. 204. 2 K.), while

scribebatur per o, cum legeretur per u (p. 49.
p. 152. 7
'
K.
Velius Longus says, consol

14 K.) incolomis is the spelling of the best MSS. (B, C) in Plaut. True. 168 (cf.
remains in the classical period in vmolentus (perhaps by
colomnas C. I. L. i. 1307).
'
analogy of vino kntus\ somnolentus, and sangumolentus. For the Superlative suffix
we have the oldest spelling o in the proper name Maxomo in an inscription in
the Faliscan dialect (Zv. J. 1. 1. 60 Maxomo luneo he cupat, Maximus Junius hie
*
ACCENTUATION.
20,21.]
VOWEL-WEAKENING.
193
maxucubat') (cf. Gk. Afo[/nos C.I. A. iii.6i.

(3). 18, end of first cent. A. D. (?)
mus, &c., as was said above ( 18), is the usual spelling on inscriptions till the
time of Julius Caesar, though maximus, &c. is occasionally found much earlier.
The
spelling of Plautus has u in
words
like magnufice, Pseud. 702 (A. ) pultufagis,

362 (A.); sacruficem, Pseud. 327 (both A, the
Ambrosian Palimpsest, and the Palatine family of MSS.) carnufex, &c. (see
Index to Studemund's Apograph of A, p. 522). So Oinumama for Unimamma, an
Amazon, on an old Praenestine cista (C.I.L. i. 1501) testumonium on the Lex
Most 828 (A.);
sociufraude, Pseud.
197); Cornuficia on an inscription (i. 1087), which

Kitschl dates 'not long after Caesar' (cf. Gk. Kopvotyircios, e.g. C. I. G. 6948),
tubulustrium (Varro), but aedificandam 108 B.C. (C. I. L. i. 565 and Eph. Epigr. viii.
460), opiparum on the old Falisco-Latin inscription with aciptum (Zv. I. /. J. 72),
Bantina of 133-118
B.C.
(i.
vadimonium and aedificium on the Lex Agraria of in B. c. (C. I. L. i. 200) ; testimonium on the Lex Eepetundarum of 121 B.C. (i. 198), &c. Mdnufestus is the
anteclass., manifestus the classical spelling (Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.). [For other
examples see Georges s.vv. Hadrumetum, quadrupes, septu(m}ennis, septu(m)aginta,

cmssupes (Gk. Kpaffaoirrjs, Butt. vi. p. 280, of the Republican period), manupretium,
maritumus, incolumis, coluber, marsuppium, monumentum, cornupeta, aurufex, existumo,
lacruma
mucculentus,
recupero,
ustulo,
acupenser,
sterculinum,
intubus,
sescuplex,
The influence
of a following syllable with i (especially in

18) beside famulus; subrimii,
hiatus) is shown in fdmilia (0. Lat. famelia,
haedi, from rumis,
(Paul. Fest. 369. 8 Th.) beside subrumari (Fest.
moinicipieis beside mancup(um) on the Lex Agraria of in B.C.
442. 32 Th.)
victuma, pontufex].
mamma
ib. viii. 476, on a

both families of MSS.
of Plautus in Pseud. 876, surripere in Pseud. 290, 675, surripitur in Mil. 602, but
with u in the next syllable surrupui, surrupuisse seem to be the Plautine forms
we have recipit on a Scipio Epitaph of c. 180 B. c. (C.I. L. i. 33),
(also surruptus)
accipito and concilium on i. 197 of 133-118 B.C., accipito, conciliatum, conciliaboleis
on i. 198 of 123-122 B.C.; acipiant on i. 199 of 117 B.C.
only the z'-form is
quoted of inipitus implicatus vel inretitus (Gl. Plac.), from root ap- (cf. aptus}.
[For inipite inpetum facite (Paul. Fest. 78. 5 Th.), see below]. In Gk. inscriptions 'Zt-nrovp.ios is very rare we find almost always ScTTTtfuos. (See also Georges
on Lanivium).
Classical
u remains in contubernium (but adtibernalis, Paul. Fest. 9. 9 Th.)
from taberna; nuncupo, occupo from capio, occulo, &c., and was retained in the
(C.I.L.
i.
200)
manibieis, Eph. Epigr.
Capua inscription
c.
B. c.)
135
i.
p.
215 (but manubies,
surripias is the spelling of
spelling of Dat. and Abl. Plur. of some U-stems to distinguish them from
similar I- or Cons.-stems, e.g. artubus, but according to the second-cent,
grammarian in the
insulse per u
spelling only (Ter. Scaur, p. 25.
artubus
'
K.
nemo autem
tarn
on an old inscription in the British
dixerit) (trebibos
Museum, Eph. Epigr. ii. 299) dissupo is the anteclassical, dissipo the classical
spelling (Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.); so victuma and victima (ib. s.v.) ; monu;
mentum and monimentum were both used, e. g. monimentu (C. I. L. i. 1258, not
after 130 B.C.' Ritschl), while monementum and monomentum are incorrect
spellings (Georg. s.v.).
Documentum, &c. but specimen, &c. by Assimilation.
'
The
Parasitic Vowel.
to Mar. Victorinus (p.
Anteclassical
piacolom, the old spelling according

libris antiquis foederum et
n. 14 K. ut apparet ex
legum, qui etiamsi frequenti transcriptione aliquid mutarunt, tamen retinent

antiquitatem
pro piaculum ibi piacolom '), is on a law of 58 B. c. (C. L L. i.
603), piacul- (piaclum on the Spoletium inscription, xi. 4766), but the ancient o
'
'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
94
[Chap. III.
remains in Plautine spellings like
aemolos, Ace. PI., Pseud. 196 (A.) ; epolonos

dicebant antiqui quosnunc epulones dicimus (Paul. Fest. 55. 15 Th.) agolum
Tuscolana,
pastorale baculum, quo pecudes aguntur (Paul. Fest. 21. 37 Th.)
tabolam on S. C. Bacch. of 186 B. c. (i. 196)
C. I. L. i. 1200
tabokis, popolum
:
Lex Bantina of 133-118 B. c. (i. 197) singolos, taboleis (and

singolos
tabula), conciliaboleis on the Lex Eepetundarum of 123-122 B. c. (i. 198)
(but vinculeis) on the Sententia Minuciorum of 117 B. c. (i. 199) tabolam, singolis
on i. 208, an inscription referred by Eitschl to about the time of the Lex Agraria
n B.C.
(i. 200, which however has only tabula, tableis, singula, trientabule(is)},viz. i
angolaria (but opercula), on the (restored) Lex Parieti Faciendo of 105 B. c. (i.
577), so that the old spelling does not seem to have died out till the end of the
(beside popul(o)} on
second cent.
Acvre\os
(c.
B. c.
140
(On Greek inscriptions we have
B. c.), Aci/ruAos (first cent. A. D.),
102) ; the Grk. loanword drachma

spellings like vigulum, vigulo, vigelia,
is
A.CVTO\OS (first cent. B. c.),

(cf. ch. ii.
but usually Aevr\os
in the earlier writers drac(ti)uma

see Georges.)
for
titelus, sibelo, sepulivit,
accedo (for acddo) is pre22. in other short syllables.

Anteclassical
Lucr. ii. 1025, v. 609 and
served by the MSS. in Enn. Trag. 77. 206 R.
elsewhere (see Ribbeck, Prolegom. Verg. p. 416) so timedus in Naev. Com. 35 R.
acetare dicebant, quod nunc dicimus agere (Paul. Fest. 17. 30 Th.).
Similarly
e is retained without weakening in spellings of the oldest MSS. of Plautus like
detenet, Pers. 505, continuum, Stick. 214, contenuo623, &c. (so the corruption ad te
in the MSS. of Poen. 266proseda
alienenl, Pers. 497, points to attenent not attinenf)
:
Paul. Fest. 282. 16 Th. prosedas meretrices Plautus appellat), optenui on

a Scipio Epitaph of c. 130 B. c. (C. I. L. i. 38) ; conregione in the augur's formula
(cf.
(Varro, L. L. vii. 8 ; Paul. 46. 24 Th.) ; promeneruat, promonet, Carm. Sal. (Fest.
244. 12 Th.) ; cf. m&reto(d} on a Scipio Epitaph of c. 215 B.C. (C.I.L. i. 32) (but
meritod i. 190, 'early part of the sixth cent. A. u. c.'), and even on a recent
inscription (i. 1012). This e in Old Latin spellings often appears for I.-Eur. i in
syllables unaccented under the Old or the Paenultima Law, e. g. aidiles Nona.
Sg. on a Scipio Epitaph of c. 250 B. c. (i. 31) ; Fabrecio (i. 106) ; Tempestatebus
on a Scipio Epitaph of c. 215 B. c. (i. 32) ; Lepareses for Liparenses (Gk. fi.nra.pai},
(quoted probably from Ennius by Paul. Fest. 87. 6 Th.), and Greek inscriptions often retain the older orthography,
c.
50
B. c.,
then KaiKiXios)
AcTrcSos (in Rep.,
weakening to
at a time
e. g. KO/JICTIOV
Ka-jrcrcaXtov (usually, Kairir-
(usually), KaiKc\ios (till

till first cent. A. D.),
not
in Empire), Ao/^rtos and Ao/xtrtos.

But the
seen from dlmidius, which must have changed eioi
the accent rested on the first syllable confice on an old
but
is old,
when
A.ciri8os
as
is
Praenestine cista of third cent. B. c. (Mel. Arch. 1890, p. 303)

subigit and
habitarent oppidum, possidere
opsides on a Scipio Epitaph of c. 200 B. c. (i. 30)
on the Decree of L. Aemilius Paulus, 189 B. c. (ii. 5041) obstinet, dicebant
antiqui, quod nunc est ostendit, ut in veteribus carminibus, &c. (Fest. 228.
6 Th.) ; prospices, prospice, Carm. Sal. (Fest. 244. 13 Th.) ; enico is the old
;
spelling, later eneco (Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) ; prosicium, quod praesecatum
projicitur (Paul. Fest. 282. 13 Th., cf. prosiciae, Gl. Philox.) ; exsicas from ex
and seco, Plaut. Rud. 122 ; obigitat antiqui dicebant pro ante agitat (Fest. 214.
2 Th.)
jurigo, later jurgo (cf.
gallicinium from cano, by analogy of

;
Gl. Plac. p. 58. 24 G. conticinio : tempore noctis
et conticuit) (see Goetz, praef. in Plaut. Asin.
jurgium)
which was formed conticinium (cf.

post galli cantum quando cecinit
xxv). Classical: Juppiter from, pater ; sistiti (cf. Gk. iVrare) compitum, explained
'
'
by Varro, ubi viae competunt (L. L. 6. 25) (cf. propitius) ; dlmico from maco
;
(cf.
macto]
VOWEL- WEAKENING.
ACCENTUATION.
22, 23.]
of the rare
195
weakening of o we have examples in Compounds like
homidda, armiger, &c. for the Composition- Vowel, which is 6 in other languages,
is in Latin (see ch. v.
inquilinus beside mco?a? Of u, examples are cornicen
83)
;
(Gk. KopvoK\apios, KopvovKXapios and KopviitXapios) ; superdlium (cf. Gk. KV\U,

Plur.) both inclulus (incluto in all the MSS. of Plaut. Pers. 251) and inditus are
attested spellings
(cf. arbita, not arbuta, in the MSS. of Lucretius, v. 941 and
;
For other examples of e-i, see Georges,
Lex. Wortf., s. vv. eligo, compitum,

tremebundus, caeremonia, fenisicium, cervesia, ploxenum, subsicivus, quatenus, internecio,
protinus, seneca, querimonia, intellcgentia, neglego, interimo, also for late and plebeian
965).
spellings like
segitis,
Vok.
The change
patena, tredecem, decim.

(On late adjecentia see Schuchardt,
of e to i in syllables long by position is claimed for
praeflstini genista, &c. (on these see ch. ii.
12), certainly with right in infringo, &c. (see ch. iv.
n), before a consonant-group like ng (so tingo for
i.
*tengo,
193.)
Gk.
76770;).
Assimilation saves the vowel in
23.
segetem, teretem, &c.
Anteclassical disUsum et pertisum dicebant,

(3) Diphthongs, ai, ae.
quod nunc distaesum et pertaesum (Paul. Fest. 51. 25 Th., cf. 271. 2 Th.).
Festus, 372. 7 Th. tells us that Scipio Africanus Minor was twitted for his
use of pertisus by Lucilius
:
'
'
'
'
Quo
facetior videare, et scire plus
quam
'Pertisum' hominem, non pertaesum,
caeteri
dices.
Lucilius was right, for compounds with intensive per are Separable Compounds
like bene-facio, sat-ago (see below) ; pertaesum is the spelling on the Claudius tablet
at Lyons ; consipius was used by Ennius, according to Paul. Fest. 43. 37 Th. (cf.
and an example is quoted by Non. 183. 14 M. s. v. venor teneor consipta,

undique uenor (Enn. Trag. 254 R.) adsipere et praesipere dicebant antiqui, si cut
nos quoque modo dicimus abaequo 'iniquum,'ab quaerendo 'inquirere' (Paul.
Fest. 16. 9 Th.)
obsipiam, quoted from Caecilius by Diomedes (p. 383. 10 K.
quod vulgo obsepio dicimus veteres obsipio dixerunt. Caecilius, &c.)
(Com. 65 R.) praecidaneam porcam dicebant, quam immolare erant soliti
45. 15),
'
'
'
'
antequam novam frugem praeciderent (Paul. Fest. 273. 5 Th.). (Gellius, iv. 6
discusses this word and its cognate succldaneae, which, he says, was sometimes
mispronounced in his time
succidaneae succidaneae nominatae, littera i scilicet

tractim pronuntiata; audio enim quosdam earn litteram in hac voce corripere)
occisit is quoted from the Laws of Numa by Festus
(194. 21 Th.) ; so decidito in
:
XII Tab.,
inceideretis
on
S. C.
Bacch. of 186
B. c. (C.
I.
i.
196, 27).
But exquaere is
38 H.) from Plaut. AuL Qoo, and the MSS. of Plautus

often show this spelling of the word (see Ritschl, Opusc. iv. p. 141) (so defaecato,
Aul. 79, but deficatam, Most. 158 are the likely spellings) ; conquaeri, conquaesiuerit, exaestumaverit occur on the Lex Repetundarum of 123-122 B. c. (C.I.L.
i.
198), while on the Edictum Popillianum of 132 B. c. (i. 551) we have the
curious spelling conquaeisiuei [cf. i. 547, an inscription of 141 or 116 B. c., with
Caeicilius (and considto*), while a similar inscription, i. 548, has the older spelling
Caicilius (and consolto,
Later, the retention of ae became the rule, e. g.
26)].
opscteptum on the Lex Col. Jul. Urbanorum of 44 B. c. (Eph. Epigr. ii. p. 105)
lapicaedinis on the Lex Metalli Vipascensis of the first cent. A. D. (Eph. Epigr.
iii. p. 166)
we have usually fabri subaediani on inscriptions (C.L L. x. 6699. 5
quoted by Priscian
(i.
p.
9559.8, &c.), orsubediani (vi. 9558. 7 ; viii. 10523. 5) (of which last, subidiani
on ii. 221 1. 7, seems to be a misspelling). The weakened forms are used in
vi.
the classical period in the compounds of quaero, in existimo
O 2
(cf.
Mar. Victor.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
196
[Chap. III.
6 K. quid enim facietis in his quae, velitis nolitis, et scribenda sunt et

legenda ut scripta sunt, ut exempli gratia 'existimo' non exaestimo '), in
p. 22.
'
fastidium for *fasti-tidlum
au
13, p. 176),
&c.
aquam in fauces obsorbendam dare (Paul. Fest. 223. 8 Th.) ;

seems to be the spelling of Plautus and Terence (Ritschl. Parerg. Plaut.
The u of the
p. 540)
accuso, incuso, &c. from causa are classical forms.
compounds of daudo was in time adopted in the simple verb too, cludo by
offucare
defrudo
analogy of redudo, &c. (of

C. I. L.
Ital.
chiudo) (see Seelmann in
Gdtt.
Gel.
Anz. Aug.
sedfrude
69, on the Lex Repetundarum,
64, beside sedfraude
198). The 6 of explodo, &c. is not due to the loss of accent, but is a by-
1890)
15,
i.
(cf.
form of au found in the simple verb. (Diom. p. 382. 26 K. plaudo frequens

then after quoting the form ploderent from Cicero,
est, apud veteres plodo
he adds, secundum earn consuetudinem qua au syllaba cum o littera commercium habet, ut cum dicimus claustra et clostra/ item ' caudam et
codam et similia), just as oe (older 01) and u are byforms, e. g. communis,
Oboedio
immunis, COMOINEM in S. C. Bacch. (C. I. L. i. 196), immoenis (Plaut.).
from audio is difficult to explain. (See also Georges, Lex. Worif. s. w. dissaeptum,
;
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
and Brambach, Orth. onpertaesus, lapicidinae.}

Diphthongs in Hiatus. (On these see also ch. iv.) The w-diphthong
is retained in ab-avus, at-avus, tnt-avus (0. Lat. strit-avus) but becomes u in eluo
beside lavo, eruum (ervum) from
*ereg- (Gk. tpf(Siv9os), denuo for de now, &c. The
Greek 'Axcu(f) 01 became Lat. Achivi (through *Acheiv-); Gk. f\ai(pôv,oUvo- older
oleivo-, which became when -om was weakened to -um *oki(v)um Nom., *oteivi
Gen. &c. (see ch. ii. 53), whence oleum (for ey before a vowel loses y, e. g. eo, l
go/ for *eyo, ch. iv. 63), and ollvum, olei and otivi, &c. (like dei(v)us, deivi, whence
deus and dlvus, dei and divi, ch. iv.
Gk. fofufxila, a Thracian claymore,
70)
became rumpia (Enn. Ann. xiv. fr. 8 M. Liv. xxxi. 39. u). In cloaca for
exquiro, existimo,
24. (4)
the v has been dropped, as usual, before the accented vowel (ch.
53), while nocwus and nocuus are different formations (ch. v.
7).
clovaca,
ii.
25. (5) je and ve. On u as a weak or unaccented form of ye, we in Indosee ch. iv.
Whether the i of dbicio, &c. should be explained
51.
as a similar Latin weakening, or as a modification of -j-, is an open question.
,
European
The u
of concutio
also be
may
compared with the use of Greek KV
for Lat. -qm-
(especially unaccented), e. g. Greek AuActs for Lat. Aquila, Greek Kvpeivos for
Lat. Quinnus, see ch. ii. 28. Cf. ancunulentae 'unclean,' (Paul. Test. 8. 29 Th.),
and
inquinare ; blgae is the reduction of bi-jugae (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.

abido has the first syllable short in the old
bijugus\ quadrigae of quadri-jugae
dramatic poets (cf. ch. ii. 48, p. 45).
;
26. (6) Later change of o to u, u to ii, i. In syllables long by position

this is the usual development of original o, for cases like tfl-ginta with e(i)
for unaccented o (cf. Greek rpiaKovra) are rare, e. g. vetustus from I.-Eur.
a year ') and similar derivative TO-stems from Neuter

and similar Gerundial DO-stems from third Conjugation
Verbs, voluntas and the like formations [that funestus, ferendus, ferentarius (cf.
Osc. Herentat-, the Oscan Venus), &c. show a weakening of o to e, and not
rather a Ioj3teia.funes-,ferend-,ferent- cannot be proved cf. ch. viii.
89, 94, and
*wetos (Greek
eros,
g.gtems, ferundus
see above,
20
cf. lugubris (-os)
and/wwe&m
(-es)].
Similarly in final syllables
long by position we have -unt in 3 PI. of Verbs for 0. Lat. -ont, e. g. nequlnont
(Liv. Andron.), cosentiont (Scipio Epitaph) (ch. viii.
73). The change of o to u
ACCENTUATION.
24-27.]
in unaccented syllables
is
VOWEL-WEAKENING.
further discussed in ch.
20.
iv.
197
Dupundius (and
dupondius; see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.},promunturium, are not good examples,
for before nd, nt we find even accented o becoming a tt-sound, e. g. 0. Lat. frundes,
Acheruntem (ch. ii.

22). For examples of the change in syllables not long by
position, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.w.formidolosus, adulescens, lemures, fulgurio,
and cf. Brambach, Orth. on the misspellings pidenta, amulum,

and Georges on subules, eburis Gen., rigura Plur., vinulentus, sanguinuBut coralium (Greek Kcap-} and curalium (Greek Kovp.)
lentus, somnulentus, tripudo.
are not examples, nor mamphur (leg. mamfar) the 'thong' round a turner's wheel
(Paul. Fest. 101. i Th.) (see Meyer-Liibke, Comm. Schiveizer-Sidler, p. 24), and
bajidus, lautumiae,
Aequiculi
0. Lat. colina is a doubtful form. Examples of u-i are indutus, later inditus, defrutum and defritum (see Georges), arbutum and arbitum (Lucr.), satura and satira.
Greek words with Vowel-change, a. Aleria ( AAaAta in Herodotown in Corsica (cf. the Scipio Epitaph, c. 215 B.C. C.I.L. i. 32 hec cepit
27. (7)
tus), a
Corsica Aleriaque urbe) tessera (reffaapa) Agrigentum (AKpayavra Ace.), now

Girgenti ; Tarentum (Idpavra Ace.), now Taranto or Taranto ; Alixentrom
;
(A\av8pov} on a Praenestine
cista of third cent. B.
c.
59),
(i.
and on another
1501) Alixente(r) ('AAeai/5/3os), Casenter(a) (KaaadvSpa), Ateleta (AraXdvrrf)

camera (rca/j.dpd), also camara,
Hecuba, 0. Lat. Hecoba (Quint, i. 4. 16) (' Etta/By*)
(the spelling approved by Verrius Flaccus, Charis. 58. 23 K.), which was
(i.
specially used in the sense of a decked boat (see Georges, Lex. Wortf.
Camenna and Camanna

1.
pp. 32, 36)
(Kaâpti/a), crdpula (KpanrdKrf}
machina (A7Xaj/77>
jj.axo.vd)
(see
Catina (Kara 1/77)
s.
v.)
Meyer, Rom. Gram.

;
scutula (aKvrdXij)
strangulo (arpa-yyaXdoj).
c.
catapulta (Karair(\Tr]s}
retra ((papfrpd)
scopulus (ffKoir\os)
Acheruns Plaut. ('Axepw')
i.
dapsilis (5a\fî\rjs)
o.
amurca
(anopyr)}
tarpessita Plaut. (rpaTieîTrjs) ;pha-
enocilis
(Lowe, Prodr.
cupressus (nvird pianos).

cothurnus (nodopvos) ; epistula (eTrtaroA.^)
p. 376) (e'YxeAus).
also epistola ^see
Patricoles
Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.) ; paenula dpaiv6Xr]s) ; tribidus (T/9i/3oA,os)
(IIaT/joAos), the old form, used by Ennius (Trag. 314 E. ; a line of Livius
Andronicus is quoted by Gellius, vi. 7. 1 1, with this name in the form Patroclus,
;
without any divergence in the MSS.) lautumiae. Avernus, popularly connected

with aopvos, and late Lat. averta (Greek doprr]} admit of other explanations.
(See Solmsen, Stud. Lat. Lautgesch. p. 23). On the spelling numisma (Gk. vofuffjjia)
see Keller ad ILor.Epp. ii. i. 234, and on late Lat. zabulus for diabolus, Georges,
;
Lex. Wortf.
s.
v.
but artaena (artena) in Lucilius (dpvraivd) ; incitega ((yyvOrjKrf)

(Paul. Fest. 76. 3 Th. incitega machinula, in qua constituebatur in convivio
vini amphora, dequa subinde deferrentur vina) ; mattea, mincemeat' (Varro,
v.
arytaena,-
(The word appears in a curious military term

mattiobarbulus, used by Vegetius for a leaden bullet, or a soldier armed with
See
mincemeat-scattering.'
these, apparently for p.aTTvo--ndpfto\oS) lit.
A. L. L. v. 135)
serpillum, (if from Greek epirvXkos}, with s by analogy of serpo.
L.L. v.
112)
(/war?;).
'
at, av.
Achivi ('Axatot)
olivum
and oleum
(e\aiov)
oliva
and
olea (lAafa)
Centurum, Centaurum (Gl. Plac. p. 54. 7 G.) (Ktvravpov).

Parasitic Vowel. 'Hpa/fA^9 is on Praenestine cistae and mirrors Hercle
(C.I.L.
and on
1500), Hercele Ace.

On a
old Praenestine inscriptions (xiv. 2891-2) Hercole Dat.
xiv.
Hercles (? Fercles)
(C.I.L.
i.
(i.
56),
Koman
So Hercolei (i. 1175)) Hercoli

1503) Hercolei Dat.
815), but Herculis Gen. on an inscr. of 146 B. c. (i. 541), classical Hercules,
inscription
(i.
4105),
of 217 B.C.
(i.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
198
meherde
(cf.
Prise,
i.
Romanorum
p. 27. 13, H.
bus loco ejus (u) o posuisse inveniuntur

'
Aiscolapio Dat.
A<TK\r)Tri6s is
Aisclapi, Eph. Epigr.
on
techina, &c.,
28. (8)
and
on an old
vetustissimi in multis dictioni'
'
Hercolem pro
5), classical Aesculapius; 'A.\Kfjir)vrj is
musimo, see ch.
ii.
Vowel unchanged,
Herculem ')
'
but
in Plautus Alcumena
inscr. (Ann. Epigr. 1890, no. 85,
72.
in Latin words.
i.
Anteclassical
incantassit
'
XII Tab. (ap. Plin. xxviii. 18), but occentassint antiqui dicequod nunc conviciuin fecerint (Fest. 196. 12 Th.) ancaesa, dicta sunt
'
excantassit of
bant,
[Chap. III.
ab antiquis vasa, quae caelata appellamus (Paul. Fest. 15. 10 Th.), but Prise,
i. p. 29. 20 H. cites as instances of am-, 'anfractus,'
ancisus/ 'anquiro,' and
Varro, L.L. vii. 43 explains ancilia': quodea arma ab utraque parte,ut Thracum,
incisa perfacul antiqui, et per se facul dicebant, quod nunc facile diximus
is normal, for compounds with per- 'very 'seem not to
(Fest. 266. 20 Th.)
change the vowel, e.g. persalsus (beside insulsus), persapiens (beside insipiens)
'
'
'
'
perfadlis (beside
difficilis),
being what are called
'
'
Separable Compounds,
Ter. Andr. 265 (so that
per pol saepe peccas, Plaut. Cas. 370, per opus est,
Lucilius was right in his objection to pertisum, see above)
cf.
procapis progenies
concapit tignum
quae ab uno capite procedit (Paul. Fest. 281. 22 Th.)
XII Tab. (ap. Fest. 556. 27 Th. tignum iunctum aedibus uineaue et concapit
ne soluito); resparsum vinum (Paul. Fest. 353. 6Th.); concapsit, conprehenoccanuere (3 PI. Pft.) is quoted from Sallust's
derit (C. G. L. v. 182. 22).
Histories by Priscian, i. p. 529. 5 K.
Classical
redarguo, but
rederguo,' was used by Scipio Africanus Minor
(Fest. 372. 7 Th. redarguisse per e litteram Scipio Africanus Pauli films dicitur
pertisum ')
enuntiasse, ut idem etiam
alacris, but Vulg. Lat. alecer (so
in a glossary in MS. Vind. 482) (Ital. allegro, &c.) augurdtus, augur were
formerly 'augeratus,' 'auger' according to Priscian, i. p. 27. 17 H. impetus,'
;
'
'
but 'inipite,' inpetum facite (Paul. Fest. 78. 5 Th., apparently a corruption
for impite,' impetum fac), 'compitum'; undecim, duodecim weaken the e of
'
the final syllable but not of the paenultima
incola, but 0. Lat
inquillnus
U remains in tiiludi (see ch. viii.
10) maequdlis, but iniquus,' &c.
(ch. vi.
'
'
'
39)) pecudem, contumax, &c.
(See also Georges, Lex. Wortf.
s.
w.
instauro, con-
quaestor, compare, sepelio, &c.)
29.
in Greek loanwords amygdala
ii.
(djut^SdA.??)
(but Vulg. amiddula, Probi
198. 26 K.), artemo Lucil. (aprfftcav) ; astraba, the title of a play ascribed
to Plautus (aaTpa&rf) ; ballaena or balena, Plaut. &c. (<j>d\Xaiva) ; balanus, Plaut.
Appendix
&c. (jSaAavos)
barathrum, Plaut. &c. (QapaOpov]
apparently Vulg. Lat. *calmus

Plaut.
&c.
(KOTTO.POS')
Plaut.
(KavOapos)
cinaedus,
calamus, Plaut. &c. (aA.a/ios),
calmo and calamo, Fr. chaume)

Plaut. &c.
(/wVcuSos)
cottabus,
cantharus,
Plaut. &c.
cymbalum, Lucr.&c. (KuâXov) daedalus, Enn.&c. (SaidaXos) drapeta,

gaunacum, Varro (Ka.vva.Krf)
gausape, Lucil. &c. (yavadirijs,
Hecata, Plaut. &c. ('E/fdr?/) ; hilarus, Plaut. &c., later hilaris (l\apos')
;
(SpairtTiji)
favaairos}
(Ital.
Plaut., later Ittyria ('IAAv/>/a) ; lapathus, Lucil. (\arraOos) ; machaera,

Plaut. &c. (ftaxaipa) ; malacus, Naev., Plaut. &c. (fui\a.Kos) ; margarita } Varro,
&c. (napyapiTT)*) ; metallum, Varro, &c. (fj.fra\\ov) ; murena, Plaut. &c. (pvpaiva) ;
Hlluria,
narcissus
(ora7pos)
phalanga,
(vapKiaoos)
;
palaestra,
Varro, &c.
'touchstone,' Cic.
obrussa,
Plaut. &c.
;
pittacium
raphanus, Cato, &c. (fiaQavos}
(iraXaiarpa)
(irnraKiov}
sesamum, Plaut.
(6@pvrj,
ofipvôv)
onager
petasus,
Plaut. &c.
(neraaos)
ptisana,
Varro, &c.
(irTiaavrj}
(arjffaôv^),
but sesuma, Plaut.
ACCENTUATION.
28-31.]
Poen. 326, sesima (see

Tartarus, Tartarmus,
Georges
Enn. &c.
(Consent. 392. 17 K.)
s.
v.)
VOWEL-WEAKENING.
199
stomachus, stomachor, Ter. &c. (<rro/ixos)
(Taprapos),
sometimes mispronounced
thalamus (0a\a/*os)
Tarterus
'
thesaurus, t(fi)ensaurus, Plaut. &c.
tropaeum, Accius, &c. (rpoiraiov} ; tympanum, Plaut. &c.

tyrannus, Plaut. &c. (rvpawos)
paedagogus, Plaut. &c.
(Oijaavpos)
Long vowels. None
of the examples adduced to prove that long

unaccented vowels were sometimes changed are conclusive deUro from lira,
'a furrow,' root leis- (O.S1. leha, Lith. lyse, 'a garden-bed, '0. H. G. wagan-leisa,
&c.), is the correct form, while delero, as Varro (ap. Vel. Long. 73. a K.) pointed
DeUnio (so spelt in all the MSS.
out, is due to confusion with Greek \rjpw.
30. (9)
apparently of Plaut.
susplcio,
Stick.
convwium, all with
457),
beside
delenio,
subfllis
in the following syllable,
which even accented e is liable,

to Plautus, as an example of ob
e. g.
Ptinius (ch. iv.
(but protelum, &c.),
show the change
to
Occidamus, attributed
the MSS. of Festus (196. 10
7).
in composition, by
Th. occidamus Plautus ponit pro contra cedamus, cum plurimae aliae praepositiones familiariores huic verbo sint ; cf. Paul. 197. i Th.) is clearly
a corruption for occeddmus. For not only does Placidus' Glossary of Plautus
occurrere vel obviam cedere, but the MSS. (the
(p. 89. 4 G.) give occedere
Palatine family) of Plautus read in the passage referred to by Festus, viz. Pseud.
250, Accedamus hac obviam, where the corruption accedamus points to an
original occedamus.
Consiva, an epithet of the goddess Ops (Fest. 210. 26 Th.,
:
Varro, L. L. vi. 21) has been connected with consero, consevi. The examples of
unchanged e are numerous, such as the compounds ofcedo, repo, celo, credo, cretus,
For the change of a to e through want of accent
spero, irretio from rete, &c.
(for a similar
&c., see ch.
ii.
change through influence of palatal j (y) in Vulg. Lat. Jenuarim,

3) the examples usually adduced are anhelus (cf. Mlo), and subtel
But anhelus (spelt anellus in MSS. of Virgil see Eibbeck's Index)

(cf. talus').
has probably come from *an-enslos, the a of halo, from *dnslo (root an augmented
by s), having been changed to e while its quantity was still short. The word
subtel quoted by Priscian (i. p. 147. 9 H.) as an instance of -el, and explained as
TO KoiXov TOV TroSos (what does he mean by hostis hostilis, subtel subtilis,
the short vowel in the
i. p. 131. 21 H.
?) may similarly be due to a change of
original form *sub-tax-lus (cf. taxillus) (or from tellus ?). None of the Compounds
;
of cldmo, fdma,fdtus, cldrus, pdreo, pax, pldco, prdvus, rddo, vddo, gndrus, grdtus,
labor,
mdno, ndtus,gndvus, &c. ever change the vowel. Profestus is a compound offestus
Nor do 6, u change witness
(cf. feriae for *fesiae), not offastus, fas (cf. nefastus)
the Compounds ofploro, dono, flos, &c. Praestolor and praestulor come, the one from
.
praesto,
the other from praestu ( 15. 3). Pejero and ejero (cf.
33) have not yet been thoroughly explained.
conierat,
coniurat,
C. G. L. iv. 322.
Eecomposition and Analogy. In Vulgar Latin, as was mentioned

u), the accent seems to have rested on the first syllable of the
31. (10)
before
verb in
Compound
Verbs,
e. g. renegat, Ital.
riniega, O. Fr. renie
dimorat, Ital.
dimora (with close o), Fr. demeure. The vowel of the simple verb usually
appears unchanged in the Compound, e. g. reddedit, Ital. rendiede, 0. Fr.
rendiet.
From the inscriptions of the Empire and the remarks of grammarians we see that the same etymological treatment of Compound Verbs
*
was a
feature of Imperial Latin.

cent. A. D. ) the preposition of a
its
'
On the Latin Papyri of Herculaneum (first

Compound Verb, &c. is usually retained in
simple form and not assimilated to the initial of the verb, or noun,
e. g.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
200
[Chap. III.
'
'
ad-siduo, ad-fini (Class. Rev. iv. 443), by a similar re-composition ; and Velius
adlabor
as the forms in use at
mentions
16
62.
adluo,
adloquor,
(p.
K.)
Longus
though Assimilation was the custom with other verbs, e. g. attigo (see
The same grammarian, in another passage, while he approves
of the pronunciation commendo, adds that the popular pronunciation was
commando (73. 10 K. quamvis commendo dicamus, tamen commando in
his time,
ch. iv.
159).
'
'
'
'
est. )
(So amendo and amando. See Georges, Lex.Wortf. s. v.). And
remark on the word comprimo shows the tendency of his time (first cent. A. D. )
to follow in these Compound Verbs the Analogy of the Simple Verb, or of
the Perfect Participle Passive (76. 9 K. comprimo quoque per i malo scribi,
quamvis compressus dicatur). (Cf. Mar. Viet. 10. 6 K. sacratum autem
in compositione consecratum facit per s et e, non per s et a, sic et castus
facit incestum non incastum'
Caper no. 7K. 'insipiens' non 'insapiens'
The analogy of the Perf. Part.
Diom. 378. 30 K. Prise, i. p. 437. 25 H.)
Pass, (or was it Assimilation ?) brought e instead of i into the second syllable
consuetudine
his
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
ofperpeti, depecisci, &c.,
while the .analogy of the simple verb
is
seen in spellings
on Imperial inscriptions like consacravit (C. I. L. vi. 3716, of 182 A. D.), consacravi
on the Mon. Ancyr. ii. 30 iv. 25) (for other examples see Seelmann, Ausspr.
Often the two forms, the old with changed vowel and the new
p. 60).
popular form, are retained side by side, and are used by the grammarians to
;
express different shades of meaning. Thus Velius Longus (75. 6 K.) differentiates aspergo the Verb, from aspargo the Noun
Caper (100. 5 K.) protinus the
;
protenus the local Adverb. The i of the Oblique Cases

brother-in-law' (cf. Greek Sarjp, I.-Eur. *daiwer-) and indeed of
Adverb of time, from

of
'
levir, *laevir,
due to the analogy of vir (cf. Non. 557. 6 M. levir dicitur

frater mariti, quasi laevus vir) ; of the inferior spelling genitrix, for genetrix
Sometimes the
(see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) to the analogy of genitor.
Analogy of the Compound affects the Simple Verb, when the Compound is
the
Nom.
Sg. too, is
more frequently in use than the other. The Analogy of conspicio, aspicio,
changed the spelling of the little used simple verb from specio (e. g.
despicio, &c.
Varr. L. L.
Plaut. Gas. 516) to spicio
vi. 82,
complico,
explico,
&c.
have
effected
(Gk. TT\KTOJ) toplico. (For other ex. of 'Re-composition,'

see Seelmann, Ausspr. p. 60, and Georges, Lex.Wortf. s.vv. dispando, infacetus, praesee also above,
canto, infarcio, peremo, indamnis beside indemnis
28).
the change of
*pleco
32. (11) Pretonic.

Fest. 88. 12 Th.) (or by
became
in-aede
in
esse,
from
its
in-templum
Miniscitur pro reminiscitur antiquitus dicebatur (Paul.

Analogy of Compound ?) ; the Preposition en of 0. Lat.
position before the accented syllable in phrases like

Caper (p. 93. 3 K.) corrects the mispronunciation
ire, &c.
pinaria cella for 'penaria,' and (p. 106. 4 K.) pulenta for 'polenta,' and (p. 100.
23 K.), pidato for 'pedatu' in the phrase 'primo pedatu'; Probi Append. 198.
We
may similarly explain the

5 K. sinatus(C.I. L. i. 206, 1. 135 viii. 10525, &c.).
'
u of Ulixes, from 'O\v<taevs, the Aeolic form of 'O8v<rffevs (Quint, i. 4. 16, who
also quotes the spelling Pulixena for Polyxena) ; cf. lovfiivos on a Gk. inscrip;
'
tion of Syracuse,
1. 1. S.
Republican period,
Mitth.
125
vi.
EovXovfivios on a Cyzicus inscription of the

(See also Georges, Lex. Wortf. for the
124.
In Italian the
spellings rutundus, lulligo, ciminum, Sigambri, Lundinium, &c.)
influence of the following labial is shown in somiglia (Lat. *similiaf), domanda
(Lat. demandat), dovere (Lat. debere), of a following r in smeraldo (Lat.
smaragdus}. But examples in Republican Latin of the weakening of initial
7).
syllables are doubtful (cf.
32-34.]
ACCENTUATION.
VOWEL-WEAKENING.
2O1
In Italian
33. (12) Assimilation, Dissimilation, and False Analogy.
the unaccented vowel is often assimilated to the vowel of the neighbouring
cronaca (Lat. chronica) owes
syllable. Thus Latin aequdlis has become uguale
;
penultimate a to Assimilation. The same tendency is seen in Vulgar

Latin *aramen for aeramen (Span, arambre, Port, arame, Prov. aram, &c.),
*salvaticus for silvdticus (Fr. sauvage, our 'savage/ Span, salvaje"), &c., and in
classical Latin in Perfects like momordi, poposci, cucurri, of which the older
forms were memordi, peposd, cecurri (Gell. vi. 9). So strong is the tendency in
Latin to assimilate completely an initial syllable which has some resemblance
to a following syllable that we find this Assimilation even in the accented
syllable of Perfects like pupugi, older pepugi (Gell. ib.) \_cecini reflects the older
spelling *ce-cen-ei, but when the Stem-syllable had originally i, we have i in the
22) from *dic-sco~\.
Reduplication-syllable, e. g. di-dic-i (see ch. viii.
(On the
Assimilation of Syllables in Latin, see ch. iv.
163).
Mispronunciations of
this kind censured in the Appendix Probi (197-9 K.) are toloneum, tonotru,
passar, ansar, parantalia, butumen, and on late inscriptions we have misspellings
like monomentum (C. I. L. vi. 2888, 11131, 24481, xiv. 416 and 523 and 864
Butt.
Comm. Rom. 1880, p. 137, 1887, p. 43), optomo (C.I.L. ii. 4291) (cf. oppodum as early
its
of in B.C., i. 200.81), passar (I. R. N. 7160

C. l.L. vi. 2698),
7906), pataris (vi. 2060. 12, the Act. Arval. of 81 A. D.), carcares (vi.
2065, 2066, 2067, the Act. Arval. of 87-90 A. D.), cwbuc(u)larius (C. I. L. vi. 6262,
See also Georges, Lex. Wortf. on the spellings
8766), figilinae (xv. praef. p. 8).
as the
Lex Agraria
ansare
(v.
lucuna, lucusta, tuburis, Berenice, carcar, passar [e. g. Itala (Ash.) Lev. xi. 5, (Taur.)
Matth. x. 29 and 31, (Cantabr.) Luc. xi. 150], Ptolomais, Dolobella, tugurium, and
cf. Romance forms like Span, pajaro, Ital. passaretta (from Vulg. Lat.
passar).
The opposite tendency, viz. Dissimilation, perhaps appears in Vulgar Latin

in a word like vicinus, where the first I (close i) has been changed to open i
(Span, vecino, Prov. vezins, &c.). To the false analogy of lacus has been
referred the a of Vulg. Lat. *lacusta (Roum. lacusta), while forms like Prov.
The
langosta, 0. Fr. langoste point to an original 1'angusta (ilia angusta).
tendency of plant-, bird-, and beast-names to be changed by all sorts of false
analogies is well seen in the dialectal Italian descendants of Lat. vespertilio,
1
a bat
Parma
'
(Tosc. pipistrello,
palpastrel, &c.).
and
vipistrello Caserta sportiglione, Pisa pilistrello,

(For exx. of vowel retained by Assimilation, see
22, 29).
34. (13) Shortening of Syllables long by Position. In the dramatists of

the Republic a syllable long by nature or by position is occasionally scanned
as a short syllable when a short syllable precedes, a law of Prosody which is
usually called the Law of Breves Breviantes. Of final syllables, syllables

whether long by nature or by position are shortened by this law especially
in iambic words like cave, puta, ferunt, kgunt, the liability of a final unaccented
l
syllable to be shortened being increased
'
by the precedence
of a short accented
syllable (see next section).

Putting final syllables aside for the present, the
usual case of syllable-shortening is in a word of four or more syllables, where
a syllable long by position is preceded by a short syllable, and followed by

the accented syllable. Thus voluptatis, voluptatem, voluptarius, &c. are common
scansions in the early dramatists, and voluntatis, juventutis, gubernare and
The
gubernator, egestatis, venustatis, supellectilis come next in order of frequency.
normal scansion of all these second syllables is that of Classical poetry but
the position of the syllable between a short syllable on the one hand and the
;
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
202
accented syllable on the other,
made
it
[Chap. III.
especially liable to be slurred in
who
followed more closely the

themselves at liberty, when
exigencies of metre demanded, to treat it as a short syllable. In the word
ministerium this pronunciation was carried so far as to syncopate the second
syllable, minsterium, misterium (Ital. mestiero, Fr. metier, Chaucer's 'mistery,'
ed. Morris, iii. 348)
and this form seems to occur as early as Plautus,
pronunciation, so that the dramatic poets,
pronunciation of everyday life than others,
felt
Pseud. 772
paruis magnisque misteriis praefulcior,

offer miseriis. Less frequently we find the preposition shortened
Compound when preceded by a short monosyllable (or elided dissyllable),
where the MSS.

in a
83 in occulto, Most. 896 tibi optemperem, phrases which may be considered

as word-groups in-occulto, tib(i")-optemperem, and so fall under the same category
as the polysyllables voluptatis, voluptarius just mentioned, but also, e. g. Trin. 318
e. g. Capt.
where the accent does not fall on the

immediately following the preposition. The tendency of a preposition
quid exprobras ? Capt. 70 quia muocatus,

syllable
in a
Compound to
be weakened (ch. ii.
cido, re-latus, re-duco f
130) (cf. 6-mitto for *om-mitto, *obmitto ; reearlier reccido, rellatus, redduco, but see ch. ix. 49), is here in-
creased by the precedence of a short syllable ; or perhaps the truer explanation

that the Preposition was regarded as separable from the other member of the
is
Compound, and quid ex- qui(a) m- show the same shortening as in the final
syllable of iambic words.
Similarly in Greek and other loanwords a syllable
7
long by position may be shortened when the preceding short syllable has the
accent, as in Plautus always Philippus (QiXuriros) in the sense of a 'Philip/ a gold
coin, and in the Christian poets abyssus (aûaaos) (Paul. Nol. 19. 651 ; 35. 228 ;
Cypr. Gall. Gen. 288 P.). In Vulgar and Late Latin we have syllables long by
nature shortened in this way, e. g. eremus (Zprjpos} in the Christian poets (e. g.
Prud. Psych. 372
Cath. v. 89), whence the Romance forms, Ital. eremo and
ermo, O. Fr. erme, Span, yermo, &c. merebatur, a mispronunciation censured
by Consentius 393. 23 K. (also orator 392.
K.) verecundus in the Christian
;
poets
(e. g.
Fort. vii.
6.
10)
(cf.
vericundus
C. 1. L. x.
1870),
whence the Eomance
syncopated forms of ver(e~)cundia, Ital. vergogna, Fr. vergogne, Span, vergubut the instances which can be quoted from the early dramatists
enza, &c.
are so few and so uncertain as not to warrant us in ascribing this pronunciation
to an earlier time (see Journ. Phil. xxi. 198
In Ter. Phorm. 902 an
xxii. i).
uerebamini, some MSS. have an ueremini and Clutemestra or Clutaemestra (KAuratfjLrjarpa, a better spelling than KAurat/ôT/xi), in Livius Andronicus, Trag. nR.,
may be a case of false analogy, like orichalcum (opeixa^fos'), which is in Plautus
aurichalcum, by confusion with aurum, and owes its short i to this earlier form
(cf. aquaeductus non 'aquiductus' Prob. App. 197. 26 K., like terrae motus
non Herrimotium' ib. 198. 32). Ancora (ayrcvpa), where the shortened vowel
follows a syllable which is not short but long by position, seems, with its o for
The early
v before r, not to be a direct development of the Greek word.
dramatists do not shorten by the law of Breves Breviantes the prepositions
in, con in Compounds when the letter following the preposition is s or / (see
Journ. Phil. 11. cc.) and we know from Cicero (Or. xlviii.
159) that the i, o
were long in these cases. Calefacio, &c. (in Quintilian's time apparently calfacio,
;
i.
6. 21),
are really separable compounds, calefacio (cf.facit are, Lucr. vi. 962),
e is properly regarded as a final vowel ; and the same is true of
so that the
diequinte (cf. Gell. x. 24. i).
35.]
ACCENTUATION.
REDUCTION OF FINAL SYLL.
203
Change and Shortening of Vowel in Unaccented Final

The final syllable in Latin requires a separate treatment, for besides the want of accent, there are other weakening
35.
Syllable.
which a final syllable is always liable. Phoneticians tell us (Sweet, Primer,

105) that the general tendency
of language is to pronounce with diminishing force,' so that in
influences to
'
'
English, for example, the c of cat is pronounced with more

'
force than the t, and the final consonants of
obliged' are
'
'
'
whispered
and in Portuguese the
is
campus)
whisper/ not with
(Lat.
'
final o of
similarly uttered
'
voice.'
When
a word like campo
with what
is
known
as
a vowel actually ended
a word, it would also be liable to elision, more or less complete,

before a word which began with a vowel or the letter h.
I. Loss on
SYNCOPE OF SHOUT VOWEL,
The weakness of a final short vowel in Latin is
i.
Final vowel.
seen in Plautine
Plautus (according to Langen, in Philologus, xlvi.

a preference to elide a final short vowel rather
shows
p. 419)
than allow it to constitute by itself a thesis, so that endings of
versification.
iambic lines like expectare vis, where the final e of expectare

forms the thesis of the last iambus, are not common.
The
weakness of
final e
in particular, the vowel to which, as
we
vowel was changed, is shown still

occasional suppression in words like quippe, uncle,
shall see, every short final
more by its
inde, and perhaps ille, iste, before an initial consonant in Plautus
and the early dramatists.
Nempe is always scanned nemp in
this position by Plautus and Terence, while proinde, cleinde, have
developed the byforms proin and dein, and neque, atque, the
All these are words which
monosyllables nee, ac (for *atc).
would naturally be closely joined in iitterance with a following
word, so that
after n,
buono,
signer
we may compare
the Italian suppression of
-e, -o,
I, r in word-groups, such as of the final vowel of bello,

signore, &c., in phrases like bel tempo, buon giorno,
padre,
tal
cosa,
&c.
Similarly
the
subordinate
or
auxiliary verbs facio, dlco, duco, lose their -e in the 2 Sg. Imper.
fac, die, due (see ch. viii.
28). The same loss of -e, whether due
to syncope in a word-group, or to elision before an initial vowel,
or to both causes, has produced -I from -le, -r from -re, in forms
like bacchanal for earlier *bacchandle, calcar for *calcdre (Neut. of
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
204
[Chap. III.
ferrum, the iron attached to the heel '), &c.,

and has reduced the particles -ce -ne, to -c, -n, in hie, kunc, viden,
The loss of final -um in wihil for ni/iilum, sed for
audin, &c.
calcaris, for calcare
sedum (Ter. Scaur. 1 2. 8 K.), &c., can have been due to

but not to syncope (see ch. x.
18).
ii.
Injinal
syllable.
The sync6pe
elision,
of a short vowel in a final
in
syllable ending in a consonant has been already discussed
there saw that this syncope, a prominent feature
1 6.
We
of the
Oscan and Umbrian languages,
e.g.
Osc. hurz (Lat.
Umbr. emps
(Lat. emptus), is difficult to establish with

certainty for Latin, since violens beside violentus, mansues beside
mansuetus, remex beside proMgus, &c., may be instances of parallel
hortus),
stem-formations like penu-, peno-, penos-, of penus, Gen. penus,

petmm, Gen. peni, penus, Gren. penoris', and even stronger examples,
such as Arjnnas, older Arpindtis, praeceps, older praewpes, may
have arisen otherwise than by syncope.

36. Loss of -e. For other examples in Plautus such asPseud. 239 mitt(e) me sis,
and for a list of instances ofquipp(e), nemp(e),&c. see Skutsch, Forsch. i. Plautus'
use of -ne and -n seems to depend, not on whether the initial of the following
word is a vowel or a consonant, but on whether the preceding syllable is short or
apud Plautum) (for Terence's use .of -ne, -n, see

while he employs the forms hisce, illisce, &c.
before an initial vowel, hi, illi, before an initial consonant (Studemund in
Fleckeisen's Jahrb. 1876, p. 73).
Parallel forms like atque, and ac (for *atc\
Ital. tale and tal, which have arisen from the same original form according to
long (Schrader, De part, 'ne'
Dziatzko ad Phorm. 210 Anh.)
.
in the sentence, are called
doublets.' (German 'Satzdoubletten')

The Latin mdgis has thus become in Italian mai, when used
(ch.
136.)
independently as an Adverb but ma, with loss of the final vowel, when
used as a Conjunction, and so joined to a following word. In Oscan, avt, in
the sense of Latin autem or at, and avti, in the sense of Lat. aut, may be
The syncopated form of the I.-Eur. preposition *apo
similar doublets.
(Greek airo, Sanscr. apa) has become universal in Latin, e. g. ap-erio, ab-duco
its position
ii.
(cf.
sub,
Greek
i/rro),
almost the only trace of the final vowel being po~situs,
I.-Eur. *peri (Greek irtpi, Sanscr. pari) is Lat. per- in permagnus, persaepe, &c. ; I.-Eur. *eti (Greek tn, Sanscr. ati) is Lat. et (Umbr. et) ;
I.-Eur. *6pi (Greek fan-aOev) is Lat. ob (Oscan op) ; I.-Eur. *ambhi (Greek
pono for *po-s()no
d/x</>t)
is
whether the Syncope of these words took

from *ape, earlier *apo), or at a much more
English 'of,' off'). Neu, seu, ceu, which are not
Lat. amb-ustus, an-clsus),
place in the Latin period
(aft
'
remote period
(cf. Goth, af,

used in Latin poets before a vowel, are cases of Syncope in the Latin period
o sive &c. also qum (see ch. x.
16) for qui-ne [cf. Ter. Andr. 334, if n$)
:
efficite
ego id
sin for si-ne
quot, tot (cf.
qui detur tibi
agam mihi qui ne
toti-dem, Sanscr. kati,
detur)
tati).
(On/er and
vel,
see ch. viii.
ACCENTUATION. REDUCTION OF FINAL SYLL.
36, 37.]
205
58, and on em, originally *eme, the Imper. of emo, to take,' ch. x.
19). As late
as the time of Terence we find abduce used before a vowel, abduc before a con'
the form employed at the end of a line (Engelbrecht,

owing to the prevalent
i. e. in close connection
with a following word, the syncopated doublet ' has ousted the other form,
just as in post-Augustan poetry we find nee more and more supplanting
neque, and usurping the position before vowel- as well as before consonantsonant, while face
is
but in the classical period,

Studia Terentiana, p. 63)
use of these imperatives die, due, fac, in word-groups,
;
Other Imperatives occasionally appear without final -e, e. g. inger mi

So with -e of the Infinitive. Biber dari is
58).
quoted by Charisius (124. i K.) from Fannius (cf. Caper 108. 10 K. bibere non
and a plausible etymology of instar, a word first used in Cic. Verr. ii. 5.
'biber')
ut omnia ex altera
44, and literally meaning weight' (cf. Cic. Off. iii. 3.
initials.
Catull. xxvii. 2 (see ch. viii.
parte collocata vix minimi momenti instar habeant), makes it the Infinitive,
used, like biber, as a Substantive, of insto, to be of equal weight,' to show equipoise of the balance/ like Swiss-German die Stimmen stehen ein,' the votes
'
'
are equal.' (Wolfflin in A. L. L. ii. 581.) Bustar or bostar, glossed by Povcrrdaiov

in the l Cyrillus and Philoxenus Glossaries, may be for -stare, as instar for
'
We
instare.
animal, but
'
'
find
from
-al,
-ar
sedile,
subtel (TO icoT\ov
though
for
&c.
we do
TOV
TroSos,
in trisyllabic or longer
-are
-ale,
not find
Prise,
i.
*sedil,
p. 147.
&c.,
Nouns
nor from
H.)
is
ule,
like
&c.
ul,
said to stand for
Sirempse, an old legal word, found in

*subtele, Neut. of *subtelis from talus.
the phrase sirempse lex esto, 'let the same law apply,' e.g. Plaut. Amph.
prol. 73
sirempse legem iussit esse luppiter,

final -e in the Tabula Bantina of 133-118 B. c. (C. L L.
siremps lexs esto), and other early laws. Lade, the Plautine form
(though lac is the reading of the MSS. in Amph. 601, perhaps, a corruption
of lacf) is lad in Varro, L. L. v. 104 (lade Cato ap. Char. 102. 9 K.), and in
classical Latin lac (cf. Charisius, 102. 4 K. lactis nominativum alii volunt lac,
alii lact, alii lacte *e' postrema).
Volup,
pleasurably,' seems to be for
is
found without the
i.
197. 13
Adverbial Neut. of an Adj.
*volupe,
*volupis
and Kitschl
(Opusc.
ii.
450)
would
analyze the volupest of Plautus, Mil. 277, &c. into volupe est, a form which the
phrase seems actually to bear in late Latin writers, like Arnobius,
Prudentius and others (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.). We have similarly
facul for facile, e. g. Lucilius vi. 3 M. nobilitate facul propellere iniquos, and
Paul. Fest. 61. 32 Th. Fest. 266.
difficul for difficile (see Nonius, p. in. 21 M.
;
perfacul antiqui et per se facul dicebaiit, quod nunc facile dicimus)

The 0. Lat. Adverb poste (e. g. Enn. A. 244 M. poste recumbite, uestraque
pectora pellite tonsis) is in classical Latin post ante does not appear without
20 Th.
'
'
the final
-e
in Latin, but we have in Oscan ant, as well as pust, post, Umbr.

suppression of a final short vowel was a common feature of Oscan
The
and Umbrian, e. g. Oscan nep, Umbrian nep (Lat. neque), &c.
(See also ch. x.
9 and 12, on ut and uti-nam, donee and donique, and cf. Georges, Lex Wortf. s. vv.
post.
altar(e),
animal(e),
autumnal(e),
boletar(e'),
cervical(e~),
cochlear(e),
laquear(e),
pulvinar(e), virginal(e), lucar, specular, toral, torcular, vectigal, &c. Quint,

speaks of tribunale as out of use in his time).
37. II.
seen
Change of Vowel,
18) that, in
the
i.
Short Vowel.
syllable
i.
6. 17
We have already
immediately following the
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
206
[Chap. III.
early accent, every short vowel was changed to e, unless diverted

by a following labial to o. It is probable that short final vowels
took the same course, and were one and all changed to e. This
e might be dropped (
36) or retained, but did not become *, as
unaccented e in the middle of a word did ( 18), so that e is
final
preeminently the final vowel of the Latin language.
becomes e in mare for *mari, ammdle (later animal) for *animali,
&c., while in the middle of the word it remains, e.g. maria,
animalia.
it
Similarly final
-e,
when, by the addition of a
ceases to be a final vowel, becomes
#,
beside quippe, sicine beside

hoc-ce from *hod-ce (ch. vii.
16).
dene, quippini
particle,
e.g. benifvcus beside
beside
hoccine
sic(e),
A diphthong
in the final syllable was treated

in
As we have ei,
the
posttonic syllable.
diphthong
for posttonic ai in inceido (S. C. Bacch.), class, inculo
class.
from O. Lat. caido, class, caedo, so we find final ei, class. I repreii.
Diphthong.
like a
66) in the I Sing, of the Perfect

Active, &c., e.g. tutud-l (older -ei). And while an example of the
weakening of oi to ei, I in the posttonic syllable is difficult to
senting I.-Eur. ai (or a\
find
8),
it is
class, foederati,
? ch. viii.
regular
when
final,
e.g.foideratei (S. C. Bacch.),
from an original ending
-oi.
On
the treatment
of the final long diphthongs -ai, -ei, &c., see ch. iv.
iii.
Long Vowel. In the post-tonic syllable, as we
45
saw
sqq.
(
30),
a long vowel was not changed through the influence of the

preceding accent. Nor was it changed in quality in the final
syllable,
though
its
quantity suffered.
Long
final
a became
-a in terra, arva, &c., but did not pass into another vowel, such
as
(
e.
The shortening
of long final vowels
is
discussed below
40).
38. Change of final short vowel to e. An example of e- for an original -6

the ending of the 2 Sg. Imperat. Pass, and Depon., e.g. sequere for *sequeso
(Gk. 7re((r)o, ch. viii. 77), of -e for -u, perhaps sat from an older *sat(e), if this
was a w-stem *satu- (cf. satu-r} (but see ch. ix. 4). An -o which has escaped this
weakening (e. g. endo, on which see ch. ix. 27) became -u (as in the posttonic
is
syllable,
26), e. g. indii.
(On
noenii,
a byform ofnoenum, see ch. x.
18).
Other examples are istic, illic

39. Alternation of final e with internal i.
from iste, ille, increased by -ce isticine, illicine, further increased by -ne hicine,
in Plaut. Mil.
nuncine, tuncine ; tutin, for tute with ne, is the spelling of the MSS.
290 undique from uncle, indidem from inde ante is anti- in compounds like antici;
38-40.]
ACCENTUATION. REDUCTION OF FINAL SYLL.
207
pare, antistes, antistita, antigerio (O. Lat. for valde~), and antisto (a better spelling
than antesto : see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) ; facilin for facile with ne, servirin
the spelling of the MSS. in Plaut. Men. 928 and 795

(beside benevolus, malevolus, &c., a spelling
much discussed by the grammarians, e. g. Vel. Long. 76-77 K. Alcuin 298.
14 K. ; Probus, 119. 2 K. See Brambach, Lat. Orth. and Georges, Lex. Wortf.
s. vv.)
(For additional examples see Kitschl, Opusc. ii. 556).
for servire
with
ne, is
benivolus, benificus, malivolus, malificus
40. III. Shortening of Long Syllable, i. Final long vowel

long vowel or diphthong in the middle of
or diphthong.
a Latin word
may be shortened in hiatus, e. g. jnus (cf Oscan

balneum
piihio-),
(fiaXavtiov), deamo, prehendo (see ch. ii.
143).
The same thing happened apparently to a final long vowel or
.
diphthong when the next word began with a vowel or
h, so
that
463 mei honoris, Asin. 706 de hordeo

class,
'Ermms,Ann.
45 M. Scipio inuicte, need not have
(cf.
me/iercle],
been imitations of Greek poetry, but rather expressed the actual
scansions like Plautus, Aul.
Latin pronunciation. How far the shortening proper to this

position may have attached itself to the vowel, even when a consonant
initial followed, is
of Latin literature
vowel.
-a
and
we
not easy to say.
From
the earliest period
find a tendency to shorten every final long
Some offer more resistance than others -1 and -u than

-o.
The final a of Nom. Sg. of A-stems and of Nom.
;
Ace. PI. of Neuter O-stems seems never to occur even in the

earliest poetry in any but a shortened form, while in the Oscan
and Umbrian dialects it has been reduced to some sound which
is written o, and which is treated by Lucilius as a short vowel
(Lucil. inc. 106 M.), if we may trust the quotation by Festus
uasa quoque omnino dirimit non sollo
(436. 7 Th.) Lucilius
id
non
Final o of verbs and nouns is, on the
est,
dupundi/
tota).
f
other hand, always long in the earlier poetry, except when the
precedence of a short vowel, especially an accented short vowel,
to be scanned as a short syllable, e. g. lego, moclo, less
But by the time of grammarians like
frequently pellego, dicito.
allows
it
Charisius and Diomedes (fourth century A.D.), this -o was

universally shortened in pronunciation, so that a fifth-century
p. 232 K.), cannot explain Virgilian
scansions like canto, except on the theory that they are imitations
of the Greek -o> of -Trotw, &c.
The course of development taken
grammarian (Pompeius,
by
-o in the literary period, viz. its
shortening
first
in iambic
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
208
words
like lego,
then in cretic words like
words, e.g. canto,
Nom.
every
O-stems.
pellego, finally in all
we may
suppose to have been taken in the

final -a.
From fera, &c. the shortening
age by
would spread to effera,
pre-literary
Chap. III.
&c.,
and would in time be extended over

and Nom. Ace. PL Neut. of
Sg. Fern, of A-stems
That the shortening was mainly the work of analogy

from tnginta, quadrdgintd, &c., which, though really
Neuters Plural, were regarded as mere numerals and so escaped
the shortening which was enforced on every Neuter Plural Noun.
But it must have been aided, partly by the inherent weakness of
we
see
every final syllable, partly by the shortening of a final long

vowel in pronunciation when the next word began with a vowel.
The former presence of a final consonant does not seem to have
made much
difference.
Ovid scans
esto
(earlier
estod) as
he
scans Sulmo-, and Plautus allows the shortening by the Brevis

Brevians law of dato, dicito, jprobe, maxume, manu and other
Ablatives (earlier datod, &c.).

ii. Long vowel followed by consonant*
in a final syllable is often influenced
'
The quantity of a vowel

by a following consonant.
'
In English the long vowel-sound of node becomes a half-long

sound before the dental tenuis, 'note.'
Similarly in Latin
a long vowel tended to be shortened by a following final t, r,
Under the shortening influence of a preceding short
&c.
accented syllable, the final syllable (with naturally long vowel)

is readily shortened by Plautus in words like tenet, amat, and,
to a less extent, soror, moror, but seldom in words like tenes,
amas,
(for the statistics, see
78); and in
Leppermann, De
correptione,
poetry every originally long vowel

scanned as a short vowel before final -t, -r, &c., but not before
&c. p.
is
moms
final -s.
Final
classical
-I also
shortens a preceding long vowel
thus
bacchanal (for bacchandle) became, when the accent shifted to the

second syllable, bacchanal, as calcdr (for calcdre) became, under
And, though we cannot trace the

-m in poetry, seeing that a syllable so ending is
before an initial vowel, we are told by Priscian that it had
similar circumstances, calcar.

effect of final
elided
the same power of shortening a long vowel (even in monosylmeridiem (Prise, i. 23. 13; 366. 21 H.).
lables), e. g. spem, rem, diem,
iii.
Final syllable long by position.
In Plautus
legunt, dixerunt
ACCENTUATION.
41.]
FINAL SYLLABLES.
are admitted as well as lego, diocero.
But
209
in the hexameters of
Ennius, Lucilius, &c., these shortenings of final syllables long by

position are avoided, as they were in the poetry of the classical
period.
They were apparently regarded as vulgarisms, much as
the change of final -ng to -n
41.
is
with
us.
Final long vowel in Hiatus. In Greek poetry (dactylic, anapaestic, &c.)

ai, 01 before an initial vowel
besides the shortening of final diphthongs like

(a scansion due to the consonantal character of
nounced avSpa
evvcirf being prot, avdpa pot.

G. Meyer, Griech. Gram.*
154), we sometimes find
in similar circumstances. This shortening seems
rj
poytvveTTf,
shortening of final d, o>,

have reflected the ordinary pronunciation, as we can see from inscriptions
in the Cretan dialect, a dialect in which the nuances of sound taken by a word
in its various positions in the sentence were more regularly expressed in the
orthography than in other dialects. On the Tablet of Gortyn, for example,
prj is written /*e when the next word begins with a vowel (K. Z. xxxiii. 133)
In the native metre of the Romans, the Saturnian, a final long vowel or
diphthong (or syllable in -m), seems similarly to be left in Prosodical Hiatus, i. e.
to
shortened, not wholly elided, before an initial vowel or h- (see ch. ii.
143)
this Prosodical Hiatus, as well as Hiatus proper, such as the non-elision of
a final short vowel, is much more common in Plautus than in Terence, as it
was in Naevius, according to Cic. Or. xlv.
Plautus
152, than in Ennius.
;
and
employs it in dialogue metres with (i) (accented ?) monosyllables preceding

a short initial syllable, e.g. quo earn ? (2) iambic words with verse ictus on the first
(3) monosyllables following a short final syllable which
has the verse ictus, e. g. omnid quaeistidedi (4) iambic words or word-endings,
when the final syllable has the verse ictus and the following initial syllable
is short and has the natural accent, e.g. vin habitat, una opera ebur, obsequt
animo. In Anapaestic Metres also with (5) Cretic words, and in other cases.
(For a list of examples, see Klotz, Altrom. Metrik, p. 119. They include not
merely instances of dissimilar vowels, but also of similar, e. g. i-i in eri
imagine, Pseud. 1202).
Terence, and apparently Lucilius, restrict it to the
first of these cases
but Virgil has not only examples like qui amant (Ed.
viii. 108), but also like vale vale inquit (Ed. iii. 79), and sub Ilio alto (A. v. 261).
Virgil thus employs it (i) to prevent the entire suppression by elision of
a monosyllable (accented ?), ending in a long vowel or -m
(2) in cases where
a long final vowel would be shortened by the law of Breves Breviantes in the
dramatists. That a vowel shortened in Hiatus was not so long as an ordinary
short vowel, we may infer not only from the fact that it is normally elided,
but also from the disinclination shown by Plautus to allow a vowel so
shortened to constitute by itself the thesis of a metrical foot. It is allowed
to go with another short syllable to form a resolved thesis, e. g. quo earn, but
is never allowed to dispense with the proximity of another short syllable,
except in a few phrases which may be considered as word-groups or compound words, e. g. de hordeo, Asin. 706, which might be written de-hordeo like
The difference in this respect between Plautine and
dehortari, Poen. 674.
Saturnian versification (see ch. ii.
143) need not imply a change in the pronunciation of these final long vowels in Hiatus but may be due merely to
the different character of the verse. The Saturnian poetry was of a more
syllable, e.g.mei honoris
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
310
[Chap. III.
solemn and dignified tone than the conversational verse of the dramatists,
and would naturally be uttered with a greater pause between the words.
Imitation of the Greek dactylic and anapaestic prosody is inconceivable in
the Saturnian poetry, and unlikely in the trochaic and iambic verse of
Plautus so that we can hardly be wrong in supposing this Prosodicat Hiatus
;
to reflect the ordinary pronunciation in Latin, as it did in Greek.
42. Breves Breviantes. The syllables most affected by this law are those
ending in a long vowel in words which were in ordinary talk closely joined
with a following word. Forms like mihi, tibi, sibt, modo, cito, &c. have forced their
way even into classical poetry and in Plautus we find this shortening chiefly
in verb-forms, which go closely with a following word, e. g. volo-sdre, dbi-rus,
cave-dicas, while the examples of nouns are mostly confined to adverbial forms,
e. g. domi-restat, domo-prodit, or subordinate words like homo (see statistics in
Leppermann, De correptione, p. 78). Ennius in his Epic restricts this usage
;
to
words ending in a vowel, and subsequent Hexameter poets follow him,

That this
puto but not legunt, dixero (Hor. S. i. 4. 104) but not dixerunt.
e. g.
shortening was not a mere metrical licence, but reflected the actual pronunciation, we see from Quintilian's remark (i. 6. 21) that have, not ave, was the
normal form in his time, as well as from Phaedrus' fable of the man who
mistook this word for the caw of a crow (App. 21), and Cicero's story (Div. ii.
40) of Crassus mistaking a figseller's cry, Cauneas (sc. ficus vendo), for cave ne eas.
The spelling causis for cave sis in Juvenal ix. 120 points to the same thing
and Servius (ad Aen. vi. 780) says that viden was the pronunciation of his
day. (Should we read rogan for rogas in Pers. v. 134 ?) Plautus in his
dialogue metres allows the scansion of a cretic word as a dactyl in the first
but Horace in his
foot only of the line or hemistich Terence not at all
Satires and Epistles has Pollio, dixero, mentio, &c. commoda Catull. x. 26 is probably
Neut. Plur. (see Owen ad loc.).
(On the operation of the Breves Breviantes
Law in Plautus, see Journ. Phil. xxi. 198 and xxii. i.) Plautus requires that
he does not allow
the preceding short syllable shall be perfectly short
a short vowel preceding a mute and liquid to act as a Brevis Brevians, e. g. not
patri like pati, nor even a short vowel preceding qu, except under particular
;
But in
circumstances.
classical poetry
we
find putrefacta,
liquefiunt,
&c.
We
43. Shortening of final -a.

have -a in Greek words in the early
poets (Enn. A. 567 M. agoea longa repletur is very uncertain ; cf. Gk. ayvta),
just as we have in later poetry, e. g. Stat. Theb. vi. 515 Nemea (cf. Prise, i.
16 H.). But the instances quoted of -a in Nom. Sg. of A-stems or
Ace. PI. of 0-stems seem to be illusory. They are really cases of
(i) metrical lengthening, e. g. Enn. A. 149 M. et densis aquild pinnis obnixa
volabat, a lengthening of a short syllable before the penthemimeral Caesura,
p. 202.
Nom.
like the lengthenings before the
hephthemimeral in A. 85 M. sic expectabat

iii. 464 dona dehinc auro gravid sectoque
populus atque ora tenebat, Virg. A.
we have an originally short syllable (e. g. populus, I.-Eur.

lengthened, by a metrical licence borrowed from Greek poetry, before
the two chief caesuras of the hexameter (2) syllaba anceps, e. g. Plaut. Mil.
1226 namque edepol uix fuit copia adeundi atque impetrandi (at the end of
the first hemistich of an Iambic Septenarius, like -MS in True. 149 non aruos
elephanto, where
-6s)
agerest : si arationes) ; Plaut. Eud. 1086 TR. Et crepundid (6).

ea sunt aurea ? TR. Quid istuc tua ? (at change of speaker,
hicsedpascwos
GR
Quid,
si
like
of Voc. Sg., I-Eur.
-e
Unde
FINAL SYLLABLES.
ACCENTUATION.
42-44.]
agis te, Dordale.
-e,
211
in Pers. 482 TO. Quid agis ? DO. Credo. TO.

Or they are cases of wrong scansion,
tibi).
DO. Credo
ducitur familia tota (where the metre is Anapaestic

Mil. 1314 Quid tds? Quin tu iubes ecferri
omnia quae isti dedi [where we should scan omnia quae isti, not omnia qu(ae),
ulla sit in aedibus
isti], or of wrong reading, e. g. Asin. 762 Ne epistula quidem
e. g. Trin.
251 nox datur
with familia, not Cretic with fdmilia),
(where we might insert usquam before ulla, as in Bud. 529, and scan epistula,
not epistula). A few apparent instances of -a in Plautus have not yet been
(For a list of examples in
explained, viz. Bacch. 1128 Epid. 498 Men. 974 a.
in Ennius, see Eeichardt in
Plautus, see C. F. 'Miiller, Plaut. Prosodie, p. i
In the Saturnian fragments there is no reason for
Fleck. Jahrb. 1889, p. 777.)
scanning -a in Nom. Sg. or Neut. PL (see ch. ii 141). Final -d for -del is long in
;
Early Latin, as in Classical poetry, e. g. Abl. mensa, era, Adv. extra, supra
Latin
(exstrad, suprad on S. C. Bacch. of 186 B. c., C. I. L. i. 196), so that Early
Iambic
contra, frustra (e.g. Plaut. Eucl. 1255 ne tu frustra sis, at the end of an
line
Naev. praet. 6 E. contra redhostis, at the beginning of the second
hemistich of a Trochaic Septenarius Enn. ap. Varr. L. L. vii. 12 quis pater
aut cognatu' uolet nos contra tueri ?) cannot have been originally *contrdd,
But it may be shortened by the influence of a preceding short
*frustrdd.
;
any other long vowel, e.g. venustissumd, Poen. 1177, gratia, Stick.
Similarly with -d of Imperatives of the first Conjuga327, rusticd, Pers. 169.
have in the dramatists amd, putd beside amd, putd, and so even
tion.
syllable, like
We
hoc putd non justum est. But this shortening was not
extended by analogy to all Imperatives in -d. We never find *planta for
This is perhaps due
plantd, *mandd for mandd in Early or in Classical poetry.
to the influence of the other Persons of the imperative plantdto, plantdte, while
for nouns like mensa the length of the final -a would not be impressed on the
e.g. Persius iv. 9.
memory by
other cases like mensae, mensam, &c.

scanned as a short syllable
quadraginta, &c. is not
The
till
= Meyer, Anth. 1326) quadraginta per annos

septvagintd, when Abl. -d is similarly treated, e. g. C.
Amphion ereptus primd juventa (see ch. ii. 141).
vi.
28047
-a of
Numerals
late times,
like
e. g. C. I.
L.
29426 ( = Mey. 1389)

L. xiv. 3723 hie situs
vi.
I.
Final -e of the Imperatives of the second

44. Shortening of final -e.
Conjugation is scanned short by Plautus under the same conditions as final
-a of first Conjugation Imperatives, e. g. mom and mone, cave (almost always
That this scansion corresponded with the pronunciation we see from
short).
the remark of Quintilian (i. 6. 21) that have, not ave, was the universal pronunciation of his time (multum enim litteratus, qui sine adspiratione et
avere
est
enim et
calefacere
producta secunda syllaba salutarit
'
'
'
'
dixerit potius quam quod dicimus, et conservavisse,' his adiciat ' face et
'
dice et similia. recta est haec via : quis negat ? sed adjacet et mollior et
'
'
This shortening was not extended to Imperatives

never* splende. Similarly the -e ofcale, frige, &c. in
the compounds calefacio, frigefacio is in all Latin poetry scanned short only
when the first syllable is short, calefacio (but never *frigefacio), which in
Quintilian's time was apparently pronounced calfacio (Quint, i. 6. 21 quoted
above for this spelling see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.). Cato's arfacit, so spelt
in MSS. of the Res Rustica 69 125
157. 12, seems to follow the analogy of
These Compounds were Separable Compounds (cf.facit are for arefacit,
calfacit.
Lucr. vi. 962), so that their -e is properly regarded as final -e. This -e already
magis trita) (cf.

with long penult,
42).
e. g. splende,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
2,12
[Chap. III.
shortened to some extent under the influence of the preceding accented short
syllable in cale, made, &c., is in the Compounds cale-fdcio, made-fdcio (cf. Prise.
i. p. 402. 10 H.) subjected to the additional weakening influence of a following accented syllable, and so is scanned by the dramatists invariably as
a short syllable, although other writers sometimes make it long, e. g. Enn. Ann.
573 M.
patefecit
Catull. Ixiv. 360 tepefadet beside tepefacsit of Ixviii. 29 (see
short vowel before a mute and liquid (and to

Ritschl, Opusc. ii. p. 618).
some extent before qu) (see ch. ii. 93) was not so short as a short vowel before
a single consonant, and was not so capable of acting as a Brevis Brevians in
the dramatists' versification.
Hence Ritschl was wrong 'in scanning putre-
Plaut. Most. 112, though Ovid has putrefaclus, liquefiunt. Similarly in the
compound of dies and quintus, &c. the e of the second syllable, properly
regarded as a final -e, was shortened in the Republican forms diequinte. &c.
facit,
ab eruditis nunc quoque

(Gell. x. 24. i 'die quarto' et 'die quinto
Sed Marci
dici audio, et qui aliter dicit pro rudi atque indocto despicitur.
'
'
Tullii aetas ac supra earn non, opinor, ita dixerunt ;
diequinte enim et
'
'
diequinti pro adverbio copulate dictum est, secunda in eo syllaba correpta.

Divus etiam Augustus, linguae Latinae non nescius, munditiarumque patris
sui in sermonibus sectator, in epistulis plurifariam significatione ista dierum
non aliter usus est.) Final -e in the Abl. of the fifth Declension is treated by
'
Plautus exactly as final
-a of first-Declension Ablatives,
that
is to say, it
when
preceded by a short, especially an

accented short, syllable, but not otherwise, e. g. die, fide. This shortening
was not extended to Ablatives with long penult. So with Adverbs in -e
(originally -ed, e.g. facilumed on S. C. Bacch. of 186 B.C., C.I.L. i. 196).
Plautus scans prob5,maxuwi%, though an instance of the shortening of this -e is
is
occasionally scanned short
wanting in Terence.
In Plautus and the other dramatists final
-6.
shortened under exactly the same conditions as final -e, that is to say, only
under the influence of a Brevis Brevians, e. g. volo, which normally has this
scansion when joined closely as an auxiliary verb with an infinitive, volo-scire,
&c. This shortening of -o in some iambic and cretic words had so established
itself in pronunciation that even the later Republican and Augustan poets
admit scansions of iambic words likehomo (Lucr. vi. 652), volo (Catull. vi. 16),
45. Shortening of final
-o is
daW
PciUio
(Catull. xiii. ii), veto (Hor. S.
(Hor.
S.
i.
10. 42,
85
i.
i.
and even of
104),
and even in the
Odes,
ii.
i.
cretic
words
14), mentio
like
(Hor.
S.
The shortening
93), dixero (Hor. S. i. 4. 104), quomodo (Hor. S. i. 9. 43).
of final -o, like that of final -a, and unlike that of final -g, rapidly extended
i.
4.
itself to all instances,

ergo (Her. v. 59,
even when a long syllable preceded.
and elsewhere),
esto, Trist. iv. 3.
In Ovid we have
and even
72, Sulmo, Naso, &c.
his epigram is rightly quoted by Quint, (viii. 6. 73) fundum

Vetto vocat, quern possit mittere funda, &c. (On endo, see ch. ix.
27.) But -o of
the Dat. and Abl. is not shortened till very late times. The fourth -century
Cicero uses
Vetto, if
grammarians speak of the final -o of Nouns (Nom. Sing.), Verbs (i Pers. Sing.
Pres. Ind.), Adverbs and Conjunctions, as universally shortened in the
pronunciation of their time, except in monosyllables and foreign words.
etiam illud magna cura videndum est quod veteres
nomina quae o littera finiuntur, item adverbia vel
conjunctiones producta extrema syllaba proferebant, adeo ut Vergilius quoque
idem servaverit, in aliis autem refugerit vetustatis horrorem, et carmen
[Charis. p. 16. 5 K.
omnia vel verba vel
ACCENTUATION.
45-49.]
FINAL SYLLABLES.
213
contra morem veterum levigaverit

paulatim autem usus invertit, ut in
sermone nostro scribo
dico et item talibus, ubi o non solum correpta
.
'
'
'
'
ponitur, sed etiam ridiculus
sit
qui earn produxerit
sane monosyllaba fere
quaecumque sunt verba irpcaTOTvira o littera finita tain versu quam etiam prosa
bimiliter productam habent
necesse non corripi, ut sto
do.'
quibus si
'
'
conferatur
'
dico
'
curro
'
disco
'
item producta o
littera, dijudicari poterit
cf. p. 63. 17 K.
sit aliud absurdum, aliud per euphoniam gratum
nullum autem nomen o producta finitur nisi peregrinum, veluti Ino
Sappho 'Dido (cf. Diom. p. 435. 22 K. 'Prob.' de ult. syll. p. 220. 15 K.) Mar.
Victorinus (p. 28. 23 K.) distinguishes the Verbs monstro, ostento, &c. from monstro,
Servius (ad
ostento, the Dat. and Abl. cases of the Nouns monstrum, ostentum.
quam
'
'
'
'
'
Priscian (i. p. 409. 16 H.) excuses vigilando of

on the ground that it is part of a verb (: nos in do utimur
terminatione, quae similis est dativo vel ablativo nominis, nisi quod verbum
hoc existimantes quidam etiam corripiunt o finalem ejus.]
A.
291) attests quando.
iv.
Juv.
iii.
'
'
232, &c.
The shortening of -I by the Brevis Brevians

46. Shortening of final -I.
is common in Plautus in Imperatives like aU, redi, and Perfects like
dedi ; while in nouns we have domi (very frequent), eri, viri, sem, &c. with the
Ablatives am sinistra, Pseud. 762, pan fortuna, Bacch. 1108 (cf. Ter. Urn sententia,
Law
Hec. 312).
47. Shortening of final -u.
By
Law we
the Brevis Brevians
have manu
in Plaut. Trin. 288, but owing to the few words with short paenultima ending
in -u, the examples are not frequent. Terence has always diu, never diu, but
Plautus has diu (or dju ?) very frequently.
A final diphthong is almost never

48. Shortening of final diphthong.
shortened by the Brevis Brevians Law in Plautus (e. g. novae nuptae, Cas.
This is rather to be referred to the infrequency
118), and never in Terence.
of words so ending (Noms. Plur. and Dats. Sing, in -ae\ than to be quoted
as a proof of the difference in sound between a diphthong and a long vowel.
49. Shortening of long vowel before final Consonant. -1. In Plautus
still the long quantity, e. g. Aul. 413 aperitur Bacchanal
adest, but
in Classical poetry -cd, e. g. tribunal, Ovid (cf. Mar. Victorinus de Finalibus
we have
p. 231. ii. K.). Subtel
sub
and
talus)
(apparently for
(but see
30), is
*subtele,
Neut. of
*subtelis,
quoted as an instance of
-cl
Compound
by Priscian,
of
i.
and explained as r6 KoiXov rov irodos.

-m. Whether the different treatment of -m after o of the Gen. Plur. and o of
the Ace. Sg. Masc. and Norn. Ace. Sg. Neut. of 0-stems on the earliest
Suessanorum probum ') is
inscriptions (e. g. C. I. L. i. 16 Suesano probom,
a proof that a long vowel was at the end of the third cent. B. c. not yet
shortened before final -m is uncertain (see cb. ii. 137). If Lat. -m sounded like
-w owing to the lips not being closed in pronouncing it (ch. ii.
61), the
shortening spent may be compared with neu (ch. ii. 34). Osc. paam quam
Ace. Sg. Fern., Umbr. pracatarum Gen. PI. Fern, (with u the equivalent of Lat. 6)
indicate a retention of the long quantity in Umbro-Oscan.
-r.
The final syllable was without doubt long in
(i) Nouns like calcar(e).
Plautus, though there is no certain evidence of its quantity, or of its loss of
p. 147. ii H.,
'
'
final
Lucr.
-e.
ii.
It is short
124),
in Classical poetry,
e. g.
exemplar,
though the grammarians recognize that
it
'
Hor. (but exemplare,

ought to be long by
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
214
[Chap. III.
Mar.
the analogy of the other cases -am, -an', &c. (Charis. exc. p. 541. a K.
and similarly of -al p. 231. 10 K.).
(2) Nouns and Adjectives like soror, maeror, m.mor, major, have the long
quantity invariably in Plautus, unless in cases of shortening by the Brevis
:
Victorin. de Fin. p. 232. 9 K.,
amor, Cist. i. i. 69, and probably always

soror, Pom. 364
Iambic nouns often retain the old Nominative ending -os, e. g. odos,
Ennius in his Annals has -or. Whether he ever
Pseud. 841
honos, Trin. 697.
but Lucilius has normally -or (e. g.
(A. 455 M. sudor) uses -or is doubtful
stridor, inc. 90 M.), and the two probable examples of -or in Lucilius, (dolor
v. 55 M.
pudor xxx. 70 M.) are perhaps metrical lengthenings before the
Brevians Law. e.g.
pater.
Caesuras, like Virgil's labor (0. iii. 118), domitor (A. xii. 550), &c.
There is a lack of decisive instances in the plays of Terence (see Boemer, De
chief
correptione, p. 25).
(3)
Verbs
like moror, utor Ind., morer, utar Subj., in Plautus
always have
a long final, unless shortened by the Brevis Brevians Law, e. g. End. 1248 nil
moror ullum lucrum Aul. 232 utar Bacch. 153 nil moror. By Lucilius' time
oblmdr xxx. 25 M. In the
it is invariably short, e. g. fruniscor xviii. 3 M.
;
Comedies of Terence the evidence
is
defective
(e. g.
Andr. 819).
sequdr,
In
13 trahor is of course a case of metrical lengthening before the

*
penthemimeral Caesura. Oscan patir 'pater,' keenzstur censor' apparently
Tibullus,
10.
i.
retain the long vowel.

-t. The shortening of a long vowel before final -t was perhaps slightly
It is indeed not found in Plautus, except where
earlier than before final -r.
the Brevis Brevians Law interposes (and here the shortening is much more
frequent than with -r), e. g. cubat, Amph. 290 timet, Amph. 295 vemt, Aul. 226
but in Ennius' hexameters,
solet, Merc. 696
alt, Gas. 693
ardt, Asin. 874
though the long quantity is usual, we find shortening occasionally even after
a long syllable, e. g. mandebdt, A. 138 M. (^but ponebdt, A. 288) splendet, Sat. 14
(but jub'et, A. 465) potesset, A. 235 (but esset, A. 81). In Lucilius the short
;
quantity is normal, though we have crissamt ix. 70 M. But Terence, to judge

from the slender evidence at our disposal, seems to follow rather the usage
of Ennius' hexameter poems, for we have more long scansions, e. g. stetlt,
Phorm. prol. 9 augedt, Adelph. prol. 25, &c. beside audiret, Adelph. 453. On
a Scipio epitaph of c. 130 B.C. written in elegiac metre (C. I. L. i. 38) we have
;
though the spelling
nobilitauit,
-eit
L L.
in the Perfect
is
found
much
later
70).
600, of 62 B. c.) (see ch. viii.
repeatedly lengthens the -it of interiit, abiit, rediit, &c. and of petiit (see
10. p. 164.
ad Lucr. iii. 1042). On attdtin the Dramatists see
probaueit beside coerauit, in
C.
i.
(e. g.
Ovid
Munro
It is
the long quantity persisted to classical times.
by the Brevis Brevians Law in Plautus, e. g. Mil. 325
Aul. 187 habes and the same is true of the plays of Terence (e. g.
sunt manus
boms, Eun. prol. 8), which however do not offer any example of a verbal form
But
in -s being shortened (potes, ades are for *potess, *adess, not *potes, *ades~).
this shortening is very rare in both dramatists, and not at all so frequent as
the shortening by the same Brevis Brevians Law before -t, -r (see the
statistics in Leppermann, De correptione
apud Plautum, and in Boemer, De
Horace's palus aptaque remis (A. P. 65) is a unique
correptione
Terentiana}.
scansion in Augustan poetry (cf. viden, rogdn 42). Ennius has in his Annals
Before final
-s
occasionally shortened
(1.
102 M.) virgines
(cf.
Plaut. Pers. 845) before a consonant initial (see below).
50. Shortening of Final Syllable long
by
position.
Abest in Lucilius
ACCENTUATION.
50, 51.]
FINAL SYLLABLES.
215
(ix. 29 M.), which seems to be the right reading, stands perhaps alone as an
instance in non-dramatic poetry of the shortening by the Brevis Brevians
Law of a final syllable long by position. Horace allows dixero, but not e. g.
Ennius'
dix&runt.
virgines
nam
uirgines
in Ann. 102 M.
sibi
quisque domi
Romanus habet
sas,
shows shortening of a final syllable long both by nature (-es for -ens, ch. vi. 2),
and by position. In the dramatists the shortening by the Brevis Brevians
Law of final syllables long both by nature and by position, or by position
only, is freely allowed in the case of dissyllables in the dialogue metres (e. g. Nil
potest (?) supra, Ter. ; ex Graecis bonis Latinas fecit non bonas, Ter.), in the
case of trisyllables, &c. only (as a rule) in Anapaestic and other lyric metres
venerant hue, Plaut.
(e. g.
odio enicas miseram, Plaut.
qui hie liberas
virgines mercatur, Plaut.).
Final
Plautus,
syllables
e. g.
which had originally a double consonant are long in
miles for *miless, Aul.
528 miles inpransus
astat, aes censet dari,
though they may, of course, be shortened by the influence of a Brevis

Brevians, e. g. potes, Stick. 325. But after Plautus' time they appear to be
Ennius has not only eques (Ann. 484. 249 M.), but also miles
short syllables.
Terence has always ades,potes; Lucilius has miles (xi. 8 M.),
128 M.)
Lucretius (iii. 721) exos, and so on. But final -s for -ss
never fails before an initial consonant to make position in Early Latin
miles vult could not end an Iambic
versification as original -s usually fails
(Ann.
prodes
277)
(inc.
'
'
Senarius like occidistis me, Plaut. Bacch. 313. Perhaps the reduction of the
double consonant was proper to a position before an initial consonant,
so that the actual pronunciation would be originally, e. g. miless impransus,
final
miles pransus (see
below
51,
on
feoc(c)).
Shortening of Monosyllables. The connexion of all

these cases of shortening with the absence of accent is seen from
the fact that monosyllabic words are as a rule not shortened,
51.
Thus a long
unless they are subordinate or enclitic words.
vowel is shortened before final -?; -I, in Classical poetry in unaccented syllables, e.g. candor, major, fundor, calcar, tribunal, but
not in the monosyllables/^/, sol, where the natural length of the
is retained.
The monosyllable cor, however, which represents *cord, with vowel naturally short, but long by position, is
scanned short in classical poetry, though it is long in Plautus,
vowel
Poen. 388
huius
cor,
hums
studium, huius sauium, mastigia,
the pronunciation of his time having probably been cord huius,

cord ardet, when the next word began with a vowel, but cor calet
a consonant.
when
the next word began with

Similarly the more or less subordinate word ter.
(like cor(d)culum, ch. iv.
157),
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
2l6
older *terr
(cf.
[Chap. III.
terr-uncius) for *ters (I.-Eur. *tris, ch. vi.
61), is
a long syllable before an initial vowel in Plautus, JBacck. 1127

(a bacchiac line)
:
rerin ter in
anno posse has
while in subsequent poetry the
tonsitari,
doublet
consonant, e.g. ter(r) durus, like
'
used before an
initial
hor(r)deum (from *horsdeum,
Hoc
158), established itself before initial vowels too.
Neut. for hocc (^Jiod-ce^ ch. vii. 1 6 ; cf hocci-ne) retained its ante-
ch. iv.
vocalic
'
doublet
'
form in
hoc
classical poetry,
erat,
alma parens,
and Velius Longus, commenting on
e.
g. Virg.
A.
ii.
664):
&c.,
this line, tells us that the

'
actual pronunciation of his time was hocc erat (54. 6 K. ergo

scribendum per duo c, hoc-c-erat alma parens,' aut confitendum
'
'
quaedam
aliter
Plautus uses the
aliter pronuntiari).
of all these monosyllables
scribi,
'
which have a vowel

proper
a
short
followed
that
consonant
naturally
by
represents two conthus
he
makes
'thou
art'
es,
sonants;
invariably
(I.-Eur. *es-s(i),
'
doublet
2), a long syllable before a word beginning with a vowel

under
the operation of the Brevis Brevians Law, just as
(unless
we find hoc in a line like Men. 522 quid hoc est negoti?). But
ch.
viii.
a short syllable, and so in Lucilius (e. g. iv. 4 M.)

(On the reduction of a final double consonant, see ch. ii. 133).
The shortening of si in 8$-qmdem, and (in the older poetry only)
in Terence es
is
te, me, &c. before quidem (e.g. tuquidem, Lucil. xiv. 26 M.,
Plaut. Epid. 99), is due to accentuation, and should be understood in connexion with the rule that antepenultimate syllables
of tu
iii.
2, p. 153), and with the
modern Italian practice of diphthongizing a paroxy tone vowel, e.g.
buono (Lat. lonus\ but not a proparoxytone, e.g. popolo (Lat.
could not be circumflexed in Latin (ch.
1
.
,
The^shortening of English sheep, know in shep-herd,

shepherdess, know-ledge, is similarly due to accentual conditions,
populus).
and of Welsh brawd, a

'
$w
brother,' in brod-yr,
brothers/ &c.
**-
52. Loss of Final Syllable with -m.

This could hardly
take place except in the case of words closely joined in ordinary
talk with a following word [e.g. noen(um) est, noen(um) habet,
'
forms
doublet
nihil(um) est, nihil(um) habet, would be the
'
ACCENTUATION.
52.]
FINAL SYLLABLES.
217
initial vowels, noeiium dat, nihilum dat, the ante-consonantal doublets], so that the theory which explains adverbs in
-ter, e.g. dreviter, as Accusatives Sing. Neut. of adjectives with
before
the
'
'
comparative suffix -tero (ch. v.

18), for breviter(um], &c., is
unlikely to be correct (seech, ix. 2). The Preposition circum, when
compounded with a verb beginning- with a vowel, has

syllable not entirely elided
but
its
final
left in prosodical hiatus, e. g. cir-
cu(m)it (a trisyllable); (cf sublatuiri for sublatum iri, ch. viii. 89),
and it is possible that non,ni(hi)l, should not be referred to noen(um),
.
nihil(um\ but should receive another explanation, such as non for

noe-ne (on noenu, see ch. x.
(cf imlellis
.
compound
and
18), nihil for *ni-Mle,
imbellus, sultel
of talus
(?),
and
see
Neut. of I-stem
from *mb-tele, Neut. of an I-stem

49).
But
venire
seems to repre-
did not become *pessire.

The
ire, though pessum
grammarians defend the spelling sed against set by a reference
to an older sedum (Charisius, 112. 5 K. ; Mar. Viet. 10. 13 K.)
sent venum
(see ch. x.
ire
5).
(On donee and O.
Lat. donicum, see ch. x.
2).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
21 8
BY comparing
the various
Romance words
for, let
us say,
Span, caballo, Port, cavallo, Prov. cavals,

cal, &c., it is possible to conjecture the form
'horse,' Ital. cavallo,
Fr. cheval,
Roum.
of the Latin prototype from which they all have descended,

calallm. In the same way we can guess at the early form, what
is called the
Indo-European form, underlying any cognate
'
'
group of words in the various Indo-European languages e. g.

Lat. mater, Dor. Gk. /utarrjp, O. Ind. mat&r-, O. Ir. mathir,
O. Slav, mater-, Arm. mair, O. Eng. m5dor, point to something
;
like
*mater as their prototype.

an Indo-European
We may
similarly trace
back
'
form, and may out of these

words
and
construct
an Indo-European '
inflexions
conjectured
*
inflexions to
'
alphabet.
In the last two chapters we have discussed the pronunciation

and accentuation of Latin, and the phonetic changes of the
language produced under the influence of the accent, or due to
and temporal merely) of pronunciation.
peculiarities (often local
In the next chapter we shall compare Latin with the other languages of the Indo-European family ; we shall investigate the form
in which the various sounds of our imaginary Indo-European
alphabet appear on Latin soil, and how that form differs from
'
'
the forms assumed in the various languages of Asia and Europe,

which are classed under the name 'Indo-European/
These
languages are: (i) the Aryan, including i. Indian, ii. Iranian

(Zend, Persian, &c.) (2) the Armenian ; (3) the Greek ; (4) the
;
Albanian; (5) the Italic, including i. Latin, ii. the UmbroOscan dialects (6) the Celtic, including i. Gaulish, ii. Goidelic
;
Gaelic of Scotland, &c.), iii. Brythonic (Welsh, Breton,

&c.) ; (7) the Balto-Slavic, including i. Baltic (Lithuanian, &c.),
ii. Slavonic
(8) the Teutonic, including i. Gothic, ii. Scandi(Irish,
navian,
to
iii.
W.
Teutonic (German, English, &c.), (see Introduction
Brugmann's Comparative Grammar).
CHAPTER
IV.
THE LATIN REPRESENTATIVES OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN

SOUNDS.
A, A.
1.
A.
A-stems
I.-Eur.
is
Latin
Thus
a.
in the declension of
we have
Latin familids (the old genitive preserved in

legal language, pater familias), terrdl (later terrai,, terrae), praedd
/
(O. ~L&i.praiddd) ) fUidmm,fllidb us (another legal form, required

for distinction fromjiliis, Dat. Abl. Plur. ofjfilim) the word for
;
mother/ I.-Eur. *mater- (O. Ind. matar-, Arm. mair, Dor. Gk.
par-rip, O. Ir. mathir, O. Slav, mati, with o as the equivalent of
I.-Eur. a in Lithuanian and in the Teutonic languages, Lith.
'
mote, 'wife/ O. Eng. modor, O. H. Germ, muoter, now Mutter,

with short vowel and double consonant instead of long vowel and
single consonant) is in Latin mater.
I.-Eur. a, Lat. a, is often found in developments from simple
roots like gen-, f to beget/ e.g. Lat. gndtus, later ndtm, beside
'
indi-gena, gen-us
to carry/ Lat.
tel-,
Idtm for
*tldtus, P. P. P.
(O. Slav, stelja, 'I spread'), Lat. Idtus, wide,

earlier stldtus, stldta, sc. ndvis, whence the adj. stldtarius, or with
-aU- for earlier -at- (ch. ii.
127), stlatta, stlattarius (Paul. Fest.
of
tollo-j
stel-
455. I Th. stlatta, genus navigii, latum magis quam altum, et

a latitudine sic appellatum, sub ea consuetudine, qua ' stlocum
'
'
'
pro litem dicebant Gl. Philox. stlata

Juv. vii. 134 stlattaria purpura); ster7rtipa.TiK.ov (TKaQovs et8o?
(
(
wear
to rub/
(Lat. sterno), Lat. strd-tus, strd-men ; ger-,
pro locum, et
stlitem
away/ make
'
old
'
(Gk.
yepcav),
Lat. grd-num
keld-,
'
to strike
'
'
(Lat. per-cello), Lat. clddes ; tet-, to bind/ weave together

(
(O. Ind. crtati, he binds/ krnatti, he spins '), Lat. crates ; ker'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
2,2,0
(Gk.
Kepa?,
The
Id,
rd,
[Chap. IV.
horn), Lat. crdbro for *crds-ro (

153), a hornet.
nd has been variously explained in some or all of
these instances, as (i) long sonant or syllabic 1, r, n (

81, 92),
1
so
for
Grundr.
i.
that,
Brugmann,
(so
example, Lat.
253, 306),
grdnum would represent I.-Eur. *grno-, while Goth, kaurn, Eng.
corn, represent I.-Eur. "^grno- (cf. Lat. racl-lx, I.-Eur. *wfd-, but
Goth, vaurts, Eng. wort, I.-Eur, *wfd-) (2) due to the fusion of
:
an e-sound with an -sound in a grade of a dissyllabic root of the

form gen-, &c., so that e.g. ^L&i.gndtus would come from gena-,
the root gen- with the addition of an #-sound, while Gk. (Att.
and Dor.) -yvrjros would come from gen#-, the root gen- with
the addition of an e-sound (so Bechtel, Haiiptprobleme, p. 203)
the *crds- of Lat. crdbro for *crds-ro will thus be a grade of

I.-Eur. *ker0s- (Greek /cepas-)
(3) a secondary root, formed by
:
the addition of a stem-suffix a to the

root (see
Brugmann, Morph. Unt.
i.
weak grade
p.
of the simple
Persson, Wurzeler-
weiterung, p. 91), so that e.g. Lat. gndrus would show a root

formed from gn-, the weak grade of the root gen-, l to know,'
by the addition
of the suffix
a,
as gnotus, gnosco
would show
a root similarly formed from gn- by the addition of the suffix 6 ;

Lat. latu%) 'carried," for *tldlus, will thus be like Dor. Gk. e-rAd-z;
from root
tel-,
Latin d
e.g.
to carry,' e-7rrd-z> from root pet-, ' to fly.'

often a lengthened by 'compensation' (
is
162),
for *quas-lus (cf. quasillus); halo for *ans-lo, from the
'
'
to breathe,' with the addition of s, ans-, to be fragrant
qualm
root an-,
(O. SI. achati,

enslo,
'
to be fragrant
with change of a to
'),
with compound an-helo from *anthe vowel became lengthened
e before
'
162). The older spelling was with II

in Virgil MSS.), so that the d
ankellitus
(cf. quallus, anhellus,
is due to the
of
the
shifting
long quantity from the consonant to
'
(ch. iv.
by compensation
and
the vowel.
In octdvus from odd we seem to have before v an
d developed from an d, just as in cavus we have av for ov ( 19).

Unaccented d remains unchanged, e.g. immdnis, from an old
word, mdnus, good
t, r,
I,
When
it
but when
final,
or
when preceding
final m,
was, like other long vowels, shortened in course of time.

perhaps only in iambic words, originally (ch. iii. 43),
final,
but this shortening was extended to all

fern, noun, puta, imper.
Noms. Sing, of A-stemsandNoms. Aces. Plur. Neut. (see ch. vi.
3
;
REPRESENTATIVES OF
2, 3.]
SOUNDS.
I.-EUR.
A, A.
22,1
and 45). Thus in the declension of A-stems, the First Declension,'

'
Nona. Sg. is even in the earliest poetry a short

the Ace. Sg. has -am
the final syllable of the 3 Sg. Pres.
e.
and
mittar was shortened in the second
Pass,
g. miUat,
Subj. Act.,
final -a of the
vowel
cent. B.C.
was
-al (older -die)
also shortened (see ch.
iii.
49).
In Umbro-Oscan I.-Eur. a was likewise retained (von Planta,

i-
77)j e -g"-
P-
fratrum
Osc.
'
fratrum,'
niaatreis,
Umbr.
f rater
Umbr. matrer 'matris'; Osc.

f ratres/
But final -a became
'
an O-sound, written in Oscan u (in Lat. alph. o, in Gk. alph.

in Umbr. u (in Lat. alph. 6) and a, e. g. Osc. molto, Umbr.
o),
mutu and muta, multa
'
('
a fine
'),
Osc. viu
via/
It is scanned
as a short syllable by Lucilius

(in the Neut. PI. of an O-stem)
ii.
so that I.-Eur. final -a
M.
inc.
106
cf.
ch.
Lucil.
i),
(solid,
may
;
have been modified at a very early period in the Italic languages

(Latin as well as Umbro-Osc.), and the Latin shortening may not
have been confined originally to iambic words (but see ch.
2.
Latin a for I.-Eur.
a.
Other examples are
(i)
iii.
in suffixes, &c.
43).
I.-Eur.
a of the Subjunctive, Lat. feramus, feratis, &c. I.-Eur. noun-suffix -tat- (e. g.
O. Ind. deva-tat-, 'divinity/ Dor. Gk. reo-rdr-), Lat. novitdt-, wluptdtI.-Eur.
;
adjective-suffix -ako- [e. g. Ir. buadhach, 'victorious' (from buaid, 'victory'; cf.
Boudicca, wrongly called by us Boadicea), Gaulish Teuto-bodiacI, Ben-acus,
Lith. saidokas, sweetish, '0. SI. novaku cf. Gk. ve'd], Lat. meracus, verac-; (2)
in individual words
I.-Eur. *bhrator-, broth er'(0. Ind. bhratar, Gk. typdrajp,
the member of a <f>paTpia, 0. Ir. brathir, W. brawd, Goth. bro>ar, O. Eng.
'
brofor, Lith. broter-eli-s), Lat. frdter I.-Eur. *bha#o-, 'beech-tree' (Dor. Gk.
beech tree,' boc, a book,' lit. the runes scratched on
<f>ay6s, 0. Engl. boc-treow,
a piece of beech-wood), Lat. fagus; I.-Eur. *swadu-, 'sweet' (0. Ind. svadu-,
;
'
'
Dor. Gk. d5y?, 0. Sax. swoti), Lat. sudvis for *suadvis ; similarly Lat. cldvis
(Dor. Gk. A.a(f)is), navem Ace. (0. Ind. nav-am, Horn. Gk. i/^(f)-a, 0. Ir. nau),
fari,fama,fdlula (Dor. Gk. 0ci-/, O. SI. ba-jati, 'to converse'), votes (O. Ir. faith,
the i being due to Infection,' that is, to the influence of an i, which was
'
suppressed in pronunciation in a following syllable, from stem
fati-,
I.-Eur.
*wati-).
3.
A.
I.-Eur. a
(O. Ind. ajami,
Gk.
is
Latin
ayco, Ir.
a.
Thus
agaim, O.
l
I.-Eur. *ago,
Isl.
aka
inf.),
is
'
'
I drive
in Latin
'
ago
derivative, I.-Eur. *agros, a field (O. Ind. ajra-s, Gk.
Goth,
aypos,
akrs, Engl. acre), is in Latin ager, stem agro-.
;
its
I.-Eur. a varies with a, and similarly Latin a with a, in this

'
root ag-, 'to drive'
(Lat. amb-dffes, Sanscr. aji-, a race, contest/ Ir.
'
ag, a contest '), and in others, some of which are enumerated in
'
56. The P. P. P. of sto, from root sta-, to stand/ is status (Gk.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
222
[Chap. IV.
with a for the weak grade of a. Latin a (probably

is also the vowel of a weak grade of 6, e.g. in a root
like do-, 'to give (Gk. ba-vo$, b&-pov), Latin da-tus beside do-num.
Like Lat. da-tus from root do- is Lat. sa-tus from root se-,
oraro's),
Eur. a)
'
'
sow
to
'
and
a seems to be an Eur.
this
a,
a weak grade
e.g. in root ked- (Gr. eKCKrjSet and KKc8ozrro, Lat. cedo).

This I.-Eur. vowel, found in a weak grade of roots with a, 6, e,
whether it was in each case a, or in some or all cases was an
of
e,
indeterminate vowel (written e by Brugmann), appears in Latin as

a, status, datus, satits, but in O. Ind. we have i in sthitas, a-di-ta
The
3 Sg. Aor., -dhitas P. P. P. of dha- (I.-Eur. dhe-), 'to place.'
same O. Ind. i is seen in words like I.-Eur. *pter-, O. Ind. pitar-,
where in the other languages we have
a,
Gk.
7rarr?p,
O.
Ir. athir,
Goth, fadar, O. Engl. f seder, as a in Latin pater, probably

'
a derivative from the root pa-, to protect,' with this weak-grade
In other words, like Latin pateo, a seems to vary with
vowel.
e
a,
(Gk. TSST&VWIM) i and in Latin we have a few instances of

where other languages, or kindred Latin forms, offer Q,frango
fragllis (Goth, brikan, Engl. break), flagro (Gk. Âe'yoj), gradus

(Goth, grtys), aper (O. Engl. eofor, Germ. Eber). They are mostly
cases of a with a liquid or nasal, and so admit of the explanation

that they are a form of the sonant or syllabic 1, r, m, n (so
Osthoff, Morph. Unt. vol. v. pref.), while aper has been explained
as a contamination of I.-Eur. *>apro- (Gk. Kavpos) and I.-Eur.
'
'
;
they have also been explained by the theory that I.-Eur.
and o when pretonic became a in Latin (Wharton, Etyma
The more or less complete fusion of I.-Eur.
Latina, p. 128).
a and o in other languages makes it impossible to be sure that
this use of a in words connected with e-roots is not a peculiarity
*epro
e
of Latin, or rather of the Italic languages generally
Umb. abro-),
it
Osc.
(cf.
may be, on the pronunciation

For Latin a for o, under influ-
depending,
patensins,
j
of Latin or Italic a (see ch. ii.
).
ence of v, e.g. cavus, older covus, see
19,
and for ar al
y
an,
from sonant r, 1, n,
81, 92.
Unaccented Latin a in the posttonic syllable became at first
This e became,
except before I and labials, where it became o.
perhaps about the end of the third century B.C., in syllables

not long by position (except when it preceded r), and before ng\
4, 5.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
E, E.
223
while this o became u or the u- sound, which in most cases passed

at the close of the Republican period.
Thus the compound
into
and cado became accedo (so spelt by Ennius), then accido ;

in and arma we have the compound inermis ; from sub
of ab
from
and rapio first *surropio probably, then surrupio (Plaut.), then

wrrtpio', from ex andfrango, effringo (seech, iii.
18). Final Latin
a probably became e, and might be dropped (see ch. iii.
37).
In Umbro-Oscan I.-Eur. a remains, as in Latin, e. g. Umbr.
'
'
a field/ Osc. actud agito third Sg. Imperat., also I.-Eur.

'
e. g. Osc.
paterei
patri/ Umbr. lupater
Juppiter
(von
'
ager,
'
'
a,
Planta,
i.
p. 75).
4. I.-Eur.
a.
The
Germ, ab, Engl. of)

sion of the final vowel
I.-Eur. preposition *apo (0. Ind. apa, Gk. ano, Goth,

Latin dp- of op-mo, usually written o&, with suppres-
is
af,
but the formpo- ofpo-situs, from pono for *po-smo, shows

suppression of the initial vowel *ad (0. Ir. ad, Goth, at, Engl. at) is Latin ad.
The I.-Eur. pronoun *alyo
other' [Gk. d'AAos, O. Ir. aile, Gaul. Allo-broges,
those of another country \Schol. Juven. viii. 234), (as opposed to *Combroges,
;
'
'
native,'
whence Welsh Cymry), W. all-, Goth,
Similarly madeo (Gk.
aljis,
Engl. el-se]
is
Latin dlius.
(Gk. aAAo/icu) sdlix (Ir. sail, a C-stem,

Bret, haleg-en, O. H. Germ, salaha, O. Engl. sealh, Engl. sallow) (but see
92-94) ddcruma, later lacruma and lacrima (Gk. Sdrcpv, 0. Ir. der, W. dagr,
ûaSacy)
sdlio
Goth, tagr, 0. Eng. tear, Germ. Zahre) ango, angor, angustus (O. Ind. ^has,
'need/ Gk. ayx, Ir. t-achtaim, W. t-agu, Lith. anksztas, 'narrow,' O. SI.
aziiku, Goth, aggvus, Germ, enge) arceo (Gk. apecy, Arm. argel, hindrance')
mticer, thin' (Gk. parcpos, long, Av. masah-, size,' 0. H. Germ, magar,
thin')
;
'
'
'
'
albus (Gk.
white leprosy) animus, dnmia, soul

Gk. ai/eô?, wind, from root an-, 'to breathe
i
d\(f>6s,
Gen.,
'
soul,'
(O. Ir.
')
anim,
anman
cawo (O. Ir. canim,
W.
canu, Goth, hana, 'a cock,' Engl. hen) ; dlo (Ir. alaim, W. alu, Goth, ala,
I grow up,' Gk. av-a\Tos, insatiate) ; aqua (Goth, ahva) scdbo (Gk. ffKairTU,
Lith. skabu, 'I cut,' Goth, skaba, 'I shave,' 0. Engl. scafe, Engl. shave) ; oro
'
a plough,' Gk. dpocu, 0. Ir. arathar, a plough,' W. ar, tilth,'

I plough,' 0. SI. orja, Goth, arja, Engl. to ear) sal- (Arm. a\, Gk.
ariii,
aAs, 0. Ir. salann, W. halen, 0. SI. soli, Goth, salt, Engl. salt).
I.-Eur. a or e (see
51).
(Ann. araur,
'
'
'
Lith.
&
a
'
(see
55)
e. g.
atrox
(see
61)
e. g.
aser
and odium,
blood (Gk.
acer-bus
and
Zap), sacena
ocris.
a priest's knife
(cf. seco).
E, E.
5.
E. I.-Eur. e
is
Latin
Thus the
e.
optative-suffix, I.-Eur.
(-iye-) (O. Ind. syas, siyas, Gk. et?]? for *eo-t7]s) is -ie- of
O.L&t.sieg. From the root pie-, c to fill' (O. Ind. pra-ta- Part., 'full/
-j.e-
Arm.
li,
Gk.
itXrj-prjs,
O.
Ir.
'
1m,
number/ O.
Isl.
'
fleire,
more ')
comes Latin pie-mis, im-ple-tus,pleri-queQ. Lat. ex-ple-nunt\ from
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
224
'
'
O.
throw seed (Gk.
to throw,
se-,
Ir. sil,
W.
'
seed/
hil,
fy/ou
for
[Chap. IV.
*rri-<r?7-fu, ^-/xa
'
Goth. mana-se)?s,
for *se-nm,
mankind/ Engl.
seed,
'
'
Lith. seju, I sow/ O. SI. seja, se-m, seed') Latin se-vi, se-men.
This I.-Eur. e is often found in developments from simple roots
with
as, for instance, pie-,
e,
from the simple root
'
pel-,
to
'
fill
'
much/ O. Ir. il), or pse- (O. Ind. psa-, to devour/ Gk.

from
the simple root bhes-, (O. Ind. bhas-, ' to devour '),
\lrijv,
the e being either due to the fusion of e with an e-sound, in
a grade of a dissyllabic root (thus pie- would be a grade of pel<?-),
filu,
(Goth,
to rub)
or a stem-suffix added to the
pse-
is ps-,
suffix e).
the
weak grade
weak grade
of the simple root (thus

of bhes-, with the addition of the
The same doubt we found
to exist about roots
with
Occaa, like gna- (Lat. gnd-tus) from gena- or gn-a- (

i).
sionally e became I in Latin through the influence of an i (y)
followed by a vowel in the next syllable, e. g. fttius for *felius.
Latin
e is often e,
lengthened by 'compensation/
from *an-anslo-
e.
g. dnhelus
halo}, written in the older

an/iellus, a spelling which indicates
for *an-enslo
(cf.
orthography (in Virgil MSS.)

the lengthening of the e to have been a transference of the long
quantity from the consonant to the vowel. Sometimes Latin e is
due to the fusion of two vowels, e.g. prenclo from prehendo,

ires
from *treyes
(ch. vi.
61).
In the unaccented syllable, Latin e remained unchanged,

g. concede, accedo (see ch.
shortened in iambic words
e.
iii.
in
30).
But when
final, it
was
course of time, so that while
Plautus scans cave and occasionally cave, the ordinary pronunWhen preceding final
ciation in Cicero's time was cave only.
m,
it
was shortened
like other long vowels
hence the
first
Pers. Sg. of the optative would be siem in Latin, unlike Gk. elrjv
and before final -, -r, -I it became (like a, &c.)
for *e(o-)t^r
a short vowel in the second century B. c. (For this shortening,
;
see ch.
iii.
40.)
In Oscan I.-Eur
ii
e,
(Lat. alph.
sometimes
Planta,
i.
i),
i,
e.
'
(the symbol also of I.-Eur.
i,
13),
'
'
'
g. ligatuis
p. 89).
6. Lat. e for I.-Eur.

'
e is
legatis/ ligud lege ; in Umbr.

'
g.plener plenis/ habetu and habitu habeto' (von
e.
e.
Other examples are

'
I.-Eur.
suckle (0. Ind. dha-, dha-ru-, suckling,' dha-tri, nurse,'
dhe-, 'to suck,'

I suck,
Arm. diem,
REPRESENTATIVES OF
6-8.]
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
E, E.
225
Gk. OrjcrOai, Orj-\vs, OTJ-XTJ, 0. Ir. dith, -he sucked/ dinu, Pres.-Part., a lamb,'
Goth, daddja, 'I suckle,' 0. H. Germ, tau, Lith. de-le, 'a leech,' pirm-del6,
'young mother,' 0. SI. de-te^, 'infant'), Latin fe-mina fello (vulgar form offelo),
fl-lius for *felius I.-Eur. ne-, 'to sew, spin (Gk. vrjv, vrj-Ooj, vrj-pa, vrj-rpov, Goth.
l
'
needle/ O. H. Germ, nadela, iiaen, Germ, nahen), Lat.
'
ne-]?la,
men
ne-re, ne-tus, ne-
I.-Eur. *semi-, 'half (0. Ind. sami-, Gk. 77^-, 0. H. Germ, sami-, 0. Engl.
jam-, Engl. sand-blind), Lat. semi-. Similarly Lat. res (0. Ind. ra-s, 'property')
Lat. vents (0. Ir. fir, W. gwir, Goth, tuz-verjan, to doubt/ 0. SI. vSra, belief)
;
'
'
Lat.
re-ri
to advise/ 0. Engl. ra-dan, Engl. rede, Germ, rathen);

to have leisure/ O. SI. speti, to advance/ Goth, spediza,
(Goth, redan,
Lat. spes (Lith. speti,
Germ.
'
'
'
'
This I.-Eur. e is often a doublet of ei (see 47) re-, for

example, of Lat. res, 0. Ind. ra-s, is a byform of rei-, rey- (0. Ind. ray-as Gen.),
and some refer the fl- of Lat. fllius to an I.-Eur. dhi-, a grade of a root dhei-,
dhey, to suckle.' That the Romans of Plautus' day regardedyzZws as a cognate
offelo (fello} appears from a line preserved only in the Ambrosian MS., Pseud.
422 iam ille felat filius, and in Umbrian the word seems to have had the
'
later/
'
spat).
'
sense of
'
suckling/
e. g.
Ace., as well as that of

(Biich. Umbr. p. 174.)
7.
for
'
sif filiu
son/
'
filius
'
tres sues lactentes
'
on an Umbrian epitaph.
(On Praenestineê(i)a, a nurse
see A.L.L.
(?),
ii.
482).
Ptinius (dialectal ?) apparently

Delmio, a byform of delenio
convlcium from root weq 1^-, to speak (?) susplcio from root spek-, to
e.
'
'
from^Zewws
'
tref sif feliuf,
trif,
e. g. fel. forfeits,
'
look/ all seem to be examples of this change of e to 1, produced by a ?/-sound

in the next syllable. Filius is spelt felius on an inscription (C. I. L. xiv. ion),
and seems in Umbrian to have the e-sound, spelt e or i. On the spellings
Cornilius, Aurilius, which prove the affinity of Latin e with an i-sound before
a syllable with y, see ch. ii.
[Aurilius occurs on an inscr. of 200 B.C. (C. L L.
xiv. 4268, with eisdim)~] and on the spelling stilio, for stellio, a newt, see Georges,
Lex Wortf. s. v. (Parodi in Stud.Ital. i. 385 gives other exx., and adds tttia, &c.)
8.
E.
I.-Eur. e
is
Latin
for example, in the present stem,

first Pers. Sg.
(O. Ind.
e.g. of the root bher-, I.-Eur. *bhero,
bharami, Arm. berem, Gk. 0epw, O. Ir. berim, W. ad-feru Inf.,

Goth, baira, Engl. I bear, O. SI. bera), Lat./m? in the Neuter
;
ES-stem.
e.
g. of root gen-, I.-Eur. *genos,
Nom.
Sg. (O. Ind.
Gk. yeVoy, O. Ir. gein), Lat. genus; in the numeral 'ten/

L-Eur. *dekm (O. Ind. dasa, Gk. 5â, O. Ir. deich, W. deg, Goth,
taihun^ O. H. G. zehan, Lith. deszimt, O. SI. desti), Lat. decem.
janas,
Latin em, en
nasal,
e.
may represent I.-Eur. m, n^ the

*kmtom (or *ke mtom), O.
g. I.-Eur.
sonant or syllabic
Ind. satam, Gk.
W. cant, Goth, hund, Lith. szimtas, O. SL

Lat. centum (see
I.-Eur. ew became ov in Latin,
81).
which in the unaccented syllable passed into u, e. g. novus (Gk.
vtos) and de-nuo, and similarly I.-Eur. we became o, e. g. soror
t-Karov, O. Ir. cet,
siito),
for I.-Eur. swesor-, in certain circumstances (see

below), and I.-Eur.
el became ol
i or in the
before
e,
group ell, e.g. volo >
(ul) except
but velim,
velle.
Latin
became
before ng,
e.
g. tingo (Gk.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
2,2,6
before^,
e.
has become
languages
Engl. 'wind.' It became
when
I or
see 119), just as in the Teutonic

(?
before a nasal and a consonant, e. g.
decet
dignushom
g.
e
[Chap. IV.
open unaccented syllables, except

r, but passed into a w-sound before
also in
final, or
when preceding
labial.
Thus the compound
was
of neco
e-wico (later spelt
eneco), the ordinal of decem was decumus, class, decimus (ch. iii. 1 8).
Latin e sometimes represents ei (ey) before a vowel, e.g. eo
from the I.-Eur. root
'
ei-,
to
go/ on which
see
Final Latin
63.
represent .any I.-Eur. short vowel, as may also e in unaccented syllables before r or a consonant-group, e. g. pe-per-i from
e
may
from caput (see ch. iii.

1
Final -e was often
8).
dropped, e. g. nee for neque, exemplar, older exemplare> as e (and i)
in the middle of a word might be suppressed by syncope, e. g.
pario, an-ceps
1
On the substitution of -er- for
surgo for sul-rego (see ch. iii.
3).
-r%- in far, older farr
for *terg, I.-Eur. *tris, &c.,
(cf. terr-uncius)
see ch. iii.
in Umbro-Oscan, though
e
remains
8.
I.-Eur.
15.
before some consonants
it
appears as
i,
e.
g. Osc. estud
'
esto/
Umbr. fertu 'ferto.' The change to 6 before 1 is apparently

unknown. (For particulars, see von Planta, i. p. 83.)
9.
Latin e for I.-Eur.
vrka, Gk.
Aifot,
e.
I.-Eur. -e in the Voc. Sg. of 0-stems (0. Ind.

is Latin -e of lupe, &c., as in the
Lith. vilke, 0. SI. vluce)
Imperative 2 Sg. Act., e. g. *ag (O. Ind. aja, Gk. <ryt) Lat. age, dropped in die,
duc,fdc (ch. iii. 36) the conjunction and,' I.-Eur. *qSe (0. Ind. ca, Gk. re) is
Latin que, with -e dropped in nee for neque, &c.
the first personal pronoun
(0. Ind. aham, Arm. es, Gk. 70;, Goth, ik, O. Eng. ic, Lith. asz, O.S1. azii)
is in Latin ego.
Other examples are Lat. nebula (Gk. vecptA?;, O. Ir. nel from
'
*neblo->
Gk.
W.
C'TTO/ICU,
nifwl, 0. H. Germ, nebul, Germ. Nebel)

O. Ir. sechur, Lith. seku) ; Lat. et (Gk.
madhya-, Gk.
^tVo-os, /afaos,Goth.
Lat. sequor (0. Ind. sac-,

Lat. medius (0. Ind.
;
ri)
midjis,O.Ir.medon,'themiddle/O.Sl. me2da;
Lat. equus (O. Ind. alva-, O. Ir. ech, Gaul. Epo-redia, W. ebol ' a colt/ Goth,
aihva-tundi, 'a bush,' lit. 'horse-tooth,' 0. Engl. eoh, Lith. aszva 'a mare') ;
?
Ij&t.'veho(0. Ind. vah-,
Goth, ga-viga,
'
10. 6 for e
Pamphyl. Gk.
ff'x^? I r fgn
-
from *wegno-, 'a waggon,'
move/ Germ, be-wege, Lith. vezii, 0. SI. veza).

with w and 1. I.-Eur. *newn (0. Ind. nava, Gk. twka
Îv-vcpa, Ir. noi,
W. naw,
is
(0. Ind. nava, Gk. i/e'os, O. Ir. nue

newydd) is Lat. novus, Novius, while in the unaccented syllable
I.-Eur. ew in denuo. (For other examples of this w, see ch. iii.
24.)
of
for
in Latin novem; I.-Eur. *nSwofrom *nowio-, Gaul. Novio-dunum, W.
Goth, niun)
we
see
for
The change
to o before w, which is shared by the Celtic languages (e.g. Gaul. Novio0. Ir. nue for *nowio-, W. newydd from *nawydd for *nowio- from
dunum,
O.-Ir. noi, W. naw from I.-Eur.

cf. Gk. vci6s, Goth, niujis
*newn), and by the Balto-Slavic (e. g. Lith. tavas for I.-Eur. *tewo-, Gk.
Tc(f)os ; O. SI. novu for I.-Eur. *newo-, Gk. ve(p )os), does not affect the ev
(Latin ev, but not I.-Eur. -ew-) of words like Uvis (Gk. !-Aaxk), severus,
I.-Eur. *newio-,
REPRESENTATIVES OF
9, 10.]
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
E, E.
apparently from root segh-, brevis (Gk. Ppaxvs}, so that the law of change must
have ceased to operate before these words assumed in Latin this form. It is
like the change of the diphthong eu to ou in the Italic, Celtic, and BaltoSlavic
see
e. g.
languages,
0.
Lat.
for I.-Eur.
douco
*deu/co
(Goth,
tiuha)
35).
I.-Eur. swe- appears as so- in Latin, e.g. I.-Eur. *swesor- (0. Ind. svasar-,
eop-fs, O. Ir. siur, and after a vowel fiur, W. chwaer, Goth, svistar, Lith.
Gk.
sesu, 0. SI. sestra) is in Latin soror

[(Kvpos, W. chwegrwn, 0. H. Germ,
I.-Eur. *swekuro- (0. Ind. svaSura-, Gk.

swehur, Germ. Schwaher, Lith. szeszuras,
I.-Eur. *swepno- (0. Ind. svapna-, 0. Scand. svefn,
O. SI. svekru) is Lat. socer
I.-Eur. kwe is said to
0. Engl. swefen) is Lat. somnus for *sopnus cf. sopor.
appear as coin Latin in combr-etum, a bulrush (Lith. szvendrai Plur.) from a
stem kwendhro-, though this may stand for *quombr-etum with the 0-grade of
stem (see
1
But e of dwe37) forem seems to represent dissyllabic *fwerem.
;
older Duenos],
Que from I.-Eur.
kwe, &c. remains, and does not become co, e. g. -que (I.-Eur. qSe), queror
from kw-es- (cf. Gk. KcuKvoi), though quo became co in course of time, e.g. co7o,
the 0. Lat. form of which was quolo, as in the old inscription of the Faliscan
collegium cocorum,' written in rude Saturnians, and with equally rude
remains,
e. g.
bellum, older duellum, bene (cf.
qjie,
'
spelling (Zvetaieff, Inscr.
Ital. Inf.
72 a)
gonlegium quod est aciptum aetatei aged[ai],

opiparum ad ueitam quolundam festosque dies,
quei soueis astutieis opidque Uolgani
gondecorant saipisume comuiuia loidosque,
ququei hue dederunt inperatoribus summeis (i. e. Jupiter, Juno
and Minerva)
utei sesed lubentes beneiouent optantis,
where
also coqui is written ququei (so qolunt for colunt in the Plautus Palimpsest
in Pseud. 822). The compound inquilinus, with -quil- for quol- in the unaccented
was formed before the change from quo to co, and being a legal term
old spelling, unlike incola, (but see p. 229). That quo had come to sound
as early as the beginning of the second cent. B. c., we may infer from
syllable,
kept
its
like co
the spelling in oquoltod, for in occulto, on the S. C. de Bacchanalibus (C. I. L.

i.
for occulo must be connected with ceZo, which has not the
196) of 186 B. c.
T
q A- guttural (cf. Ir. celim, W. celu with the e-grade of the same root). The
;
analogy of quam, quern, &c. would preserve the spelling quom till a late date,
though the word was probably pronounced *com, for the preposition, I.-Eur.
*kom or *kom, is usually spelt quom till the time of the Gracchi (Bersu,
and similarly loquontur, &c. would be written after the
Gutturakj p. 42)
fashion of loquantur, loquentur, with quo so that it is not until the fifth
cent. A. D. that every quo has assumed the spelling co, e. g. cot, corum, coque
The form
(the conjunction), condam (the adverb), locor (Bersu, p. 90).
;
censured by Quintilian (i. 7. 6 frigidiora his alia ut

quotidie,'
quot diebus verum haec jam etiam inter ipsas ineptias
evanuerunt), by Velius Longus (79. 16 K. illos vitiose et dicere et scribere
'
l
co
[qui potius] per quo
quotidie dicunt quam per
cotidie, cum et
dicatur melius et scribatur. non enim est a quoto die quotidie dictum, sed
a continenti die cotidie traetum), and by Marius Victorinus [13. 21 K. nam
concussus quamvis a quatio habeat originem, et cocus a coquendo (v. L quo*
quotidie is
non
cotidie, ut sit
'
'
'
'
'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
228
[Chap. IV.
quendo), et cotidie a quoto die, et incola ab inquilino, attamen per c quain

Cottldie and cotidie are the spellings of the best MSS., and
are found on inscriptions (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.), though no doubt the
older spelling would have quo-,
Lat. vo- became ve- (see Solmsen, Stud. Lat. Lautg. p. i) in the middle of the
perqu scribuntur].
Quintilian tells us that Scipio Africanus (Minor) was

this change of orthography (i. 7. 25 quid dicam
'vortices' et 'vorsus,' ceteraque in eundem modum, quae primus Scipio
Africanus in e litteram secundam vertisse dicitur?). (On these spellings in
second cent.
credited
B. c.
by tradition with
Brambach, Orth. p. 101.) The MSS. of Plautus show the

and compounds, voster, voto (I-Eur. gS-), -vorro and
divorsi, vortex are found even in the MSS. of Augustan poets, like
The grammarians of the Empire sometimes advised the retention of
inscriptions, see
older spellings
invorto,
Virgil.
vorto, vorsus,
these forms for the sake of distinctions, e. g. Caper, 99. 1 1 K. vortex fluminis
est, vertex capitis ; 97. 15 vorsus paginae dicetur, versus participium est
a verbo vertor.
One
of the o-forms indeed, voster, was retained to the last

vos, or of nosier) in Vulgar Latin (cf. Roumanian vostru,
(perhaps by analogy of
Ital. vostro, Fr. votre), as o was retained in classical voco (by analogy of vox ?),
was retained before single I and I before another
vomo, voro (I.-Eur. g~-).
consonant, e. g. volo, to wish, volo, to fly, vola, hollow of hand, volvo, volnus,
and
though Cassiodorus, a doubtful

v, e. g. voveo
the old spelling of convellere (149. 17 K.).
Voldterrae
for Etruscan Velaflri, Volumnius for Etruscan Velimna cannot be quoted to
prove that Latin ve- was ever pronounced vo-. They exemplify the phonetic
law that el became ol in Latin (see below). There is no evidence that vSho
later vulnus, &c.,
makes
authority,
before
convollere
was ever
The old
*voho, or Venus *Fonws, or ventus *vontus, or veru *voru, &c.
spelling vorto (I.-Eur. *werto, Goth. wairja) probably belongs to a period
when vo- had come to take the sound of ve- and was occasionally used as
a symbol of this sound (ch. viii.
it has also been referred to the analogy
8)
of the P. P. P. vorsus (I.-Eur. *wrt-to-), where Lat. or represents I.-Eur. r.
;
Oi
may
similarly have become
ei
after v, so that vldi
may represent an
I.-Eur.
*woidai (0. SI. v6de cf. Gk. olda, ch. viii. 39) but the appearance of e beside o
in Latin in words like amplector, 0. Lat. amploctor (Prise, i. p. 25. 15 H. cf. below
'
ch. viii.
33) is better referred to the same variation (Ablaut) as that seen in
;
'
beside toga,procus beside precor, &c., on which see

51.
'
is found in the group ell, e. g. velle, vellem (that II had a more
exilis sound
than Z, in technical language was 'front-modified,' is attested by the grammarians, ch. ii. 96), and before e, i (y) but in other circumstances it seems that
the character of Latin I so asserted itself as to change e to o, e. g. volo, though
tego
El
'
there are a few exceptions to the rule, and not very many instances 1
Thus
the Greek A.cu(f)a, when adopted by the Romans (in the period of the
.
Tarquins, Plin. Nat. Hist. xv. i), became *olaiva, then *oleiva ( 27), ollva.
A following e- or i-vowel prevents the change, e. g. velim, melior. The older
type of declension holus, *Mleris (from *heleses~) has left traces of itself in holus,
holeris
and
0. Lat.
helus (Paul.
Fest. 71. 13 Th. 'helus'et 'helusa' antiqui
Pliny contrasts the I of lectus,

with the exilis Z-sound of
Metellus, so that we cannot suppose
Latin I to have been pronounced
lectum
'
'
exactly as Russian or Gaelic 1, viz.

'
a deep I before a, o, u, a palatal
'
before
'
e,
'
i.
REPRESENTATIVES OF
11.]
quod mine holus
SOUNDS.
I.-EUR.
E, E.
229
et holera
cf. the gloss 'helitores' hortolani Lowe,
has not survived beside sceleris. Before a consonant
el became ol (ul
17) (on the pronunciation of I before a cons., seech, ii.
96),
e. g. vult, older volt.
(On gehi, helms, semel, celsus, and for other instances of the
change to ol, see Osthoff, Dunkles u. helles'l'im Lat.}. Inquitlnus may thus
represent an older *enquelino-,inc6lascn. older *enquold- both from an early qêl-.
dicebant,
Prodr. p. 339),
but
*scolus
11. i for
(accented)
e.
Other examples are
before ng, Lat. lingua, older

Lat. inguen
tafod, Goth, tuggo)
Ir. tenge, W.
Lat. stringo, I bind, draw tight (0. Ir. srengim,
I.-Eur. ngV5- (Q-k. d8r}v}
1 draw'); Lat. septingenti, confringo, attingo, &c. for*septengenti, *confrengo, *attengo,
dingua from I.-Eur. dncjhS- (0.
from
4
before gn, ignis from I.-Eur. *n#ni- (0. Ind. agni-, Lith.ugnis, O. SI. ogni) ;
;
Ignatius, a late spelling of Egnaiius (see Schuchardt, Vok. i. 334) ; ilignus and
&c.
from Ilex, but abiegnus (with e, according to Priscian, i. p. 82. 8 H.) from
the old religious term for a sheep, brought with its two lambs to the
sacrifice, is given by Paul. Fest. as ambegna (4. 7 Th.
ambegni bos et vervex
appellabantur, cum ad eorum utraque latera agni in sacrificium ducebantur),
but in Glossaries as ambigna (Mai, vi. p. 506 b. ambignae,' oves ex utraque
iligneus
dbies
'
'
parte agnos habentes
and
'
ambignae,' oves quas Junoni offerebant, quia
geminos parerent), while the MSS. of Varro give ambiegna, which may indicate
a correction of ambegna to ambigna (L. L. vii. 31 ambiegna bos apud augures,
quam circum aliae hostiae constituuntur). We have sim- for sem- (I.-Eur.
sm-, Gk. d-TrA-oos, &c.), in simplus, simplex, simpludiarea funera (quibus adhibentur
duntaxat ludi corbitoresque, Fest. 498. 24 Th.) as well as singuli, sincerus,
sincinia (cantio solitaria, Paul. Fest. 500. 23 Th.) and in simul, older semul (see
Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.), similis, simitu, but e does not become i before mpl of
templum, nor before nc in juvencus, and Umbrian sumel, Gk. oâAos, &c. suggest
that the sim- of similis and its cognates is I.-Eur. som-, and has the -it-sound
'
'
of sumus, written also simus, lubet later
libet
(see ch.
ii.
16)
sinciput is
derived
from semicaput by Velius Longus (78. 18 K.), &c. On the quantity and quality
The I.-Eur. word for
of the vowel i before gn in dignus, &c., see ch. ii.
144.
five *peiiqe (0. Ind. pafica, Arm. hing, Gk. Wi/re, O. Ir. coic, Gaul, irc/j-ire'
'
W. pimp,
Goth, fimf, Lith. penki, 0. SI. p^ti) is in Latin

indicated both by inscriptions and by the Romance forms,
a quantity which has been referred to the influence of quin(c)tus (K. Z. xxx.
In rustic and dialectal Latin e before re became i,
144)].
501) (see ch. ii.
e.g. Mircurios, Mirqurios (C.I.L. i. 1500 and 59, both from Praeneste), stircus
from Luceria, in Apulia on the borders of Samnium), com(C. I. L. ix. 782,
8ov\a,
cinqfoil, 0.
quinque [with long
mentioned as an older form by Velius Longus (77. 12 K. 'mium' et

commircium quoque per i antiquis relinquamus, apud quos aeque et Mircurius per i dicebatur, quod mirandarum rerum esset inventor, ut Varro
dicit. nostris jam auribus placet per e, ut et Mercurius et commercia dicantur).
The i of country-terms like hirsutus, hirtus, &c. (apparently from root ghers-,
Ho be rough,' whence Lat. horreo, hordeum, &c.) may be explained by this
mircium,
'
'
'
'
dialectal pronunciation of stircus forstercus, &c. (cf. Osc. amiricatud 'immercato ').
'
In other positions than before re, &c. the rustic pronunciation seems to have
'
substituted e for i (ut iotalitteramtollaseteplenissimumdicas,Cic. de Orat. iii. 12.

To this confusion is perhaps due the uncertainty
46) (cf. above, ch. ii.
17).
in the spelling of country-terms likefilix orfelix, a fern (the latter approved by
Caper, p. 106. i K. ; see Georges s. v.), fiber and fiber, a beaver, from I.-Eur.
bhebhr- (see Georges) ; but the byforms^mâ andpenna, vigeo and vegeo, villus
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
330
M. and
[Chap. IV.
N. have not yet been satisfactorily explained. Levir, a brotherlate Latin writers, and so misspelt with e for
ae (see
28), from I.-Eur. *daiwer- (Gk. Sarjp, Lith. deveris) takes i by anal,
of mr.
(On other byforms due to the late Latin identification of i with g, and
to the change of e to i in unaccented syllables, see ch. ii.
6).
vettus
in-law, a
word only found in
1 1
I.-Eur. I has been faithfully retained by the various
in
almost all circumstances, and is in Latin I, though
languages
often written in O. Lat. ei, after the I.-Eur. ei-diphthong had
The diphthong et in
come to take the sound of I (ch. i.
9).
12. I.
Greek developed to the same sound (thus ereio-a, the proper spellbecame erlaa), so that in Greek also et was in course of time
often written for i, e.g. TroAeir/js, and Ulfilas adopted this symbol
ing,
For examples of I.-Eur. i we

for the long ?'-sound of Gothic.
c
in
-Tnotake
the
adjective-suffix
(O. Ind. nav-fna-, new,' Gk.
may
ei
often with
names
of animals, e.g.KopaK-u>os-, b\âK-ivtj 9
H. G. guld-m, Engl. gold-en, Goth,

gulj?-eins, O.
O.
sv-ein,
Engl. sw-in, Engl. swine, O. SI. mater-inu, motherly/
in
the optative-suffix i
Latin su-lnns, dlv-lnus, &c.
sv-inu),
Goth.
'
55) (O- Ind. dvisi-mahi, Gk. dbel^v

(varying with ye, ch. viii.
from ei'8e(<r)-t-jU6i;, Goth, vil-ei-ma) in Lat. s-l-miis ; the adjective
'
*cjîwo-,
W. byw)
alive/ (O. Ind. jiva-, Lith. gy vas, O. SI. zivu, O. Ir. biu,
in Lat. vivus, in old spelling veivos Lat. vis (Gk. Is,
;
virus (Gk. to? for ^to-os^), Lat. vltex (Gk. frea and
T-cju); Lat.
I.-Eur. T is usually a grade of an
drta, Eng. withy, Lith. vyt\s).
to
and
it
is
difficult
often
ei-root,
say whether Lat. I represents
the i-grade or the ei-grade.
After
Latin
appears as e in lani-ena for *lani-ma, &c.
(cf.
tonstr-ina\ as we have e in societas, anxietas, but * in castitas, noviLatin 1 represents I.-Eur. ei in clico (O.
tas, &c. (see ch. v.
83).
"La,t.deico, Gk. bfiK-vv-pi), ad-dico, 8tc.,fido (Gk. Tret^w for *(/>et^w),
con-fldo, &c. (see ch.
viii.
and has come from
lengthened
in
*nisdowords
like
nidus
for
(Arm.
compensation
(*nizdo-)
by
In the unaccented syllable it may
nist, situation/ Engl. nest).
6),
ei
(Latin ei, not I.-Eur. ei), viz. an I-diphthong
element has been weakened ; as in con-cido, older
represent older
whose
first
con-ceido,
from
caedo, older caido,
Perfects like tu-tud-l (older
-ei}
and in the
final syllable of
(O. Ind. tu-tud-e), which have the
REPRESENTATIVES OF
12, 13.]
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
I, I.
231
I.-Eur. i Sg. Perf Middle ending- -ai (-i) (ch. viii.

66) ; oi in
the final syllable of Noms. Plur. of O-stems like populi (oldest
Lat. poploe, then populei, ch. vi. 40).
Vldl, older veidei, from I..
SI. vede) shows vei-, a development of an older

as
versus
voi-,
(I.-Eur. *wrt-to-) shows ver-. a development of an
older vor- ( 10).
On the use of e for Lat. I (perhaps properly
Eur. *woidai (O.
only I.-Eur.
ei)
in rustic Latin, e.g. speca, vella, see ch. ii.

17,
I.-Eur. I remains
7.
32; on I for e \XL films>
and cf. below,

Umbro-Osc. and
in
'
is
written in the Oscan alphabet ii or i (in

e.
g. Osc. liimitu[m
ei),
Umbr. i (in Lat. alph. i and

limitum/ Umbr. si, sir, sei, 'sit' (see von
Lat. alph.
i),
in
13. I.
I.-Eur.
i is
Latin
i,
Planta,
i.
p.
sometimes written in Old Latin
on a Scipio epitaph), after unaccented e had

(e. g. Tempestatebus
come to take the -sound (see also ch. iii.
The I.-Eur. pro18).
e
noun
*i- (O. Ind. i-d-am Neut., Goth, is Masc., ita Neut., Engl. it)
'
Lat. 19 M., id N.; the pronoun *ki-, this (Goth hi-mma Dat.,
hi-dre Adv., Engl. him, hither, Lith. szis, O. S. si) appears in
Latin cu, citra ; the interrogative and indefinite pronoun *qUi'
is
Gk. ri(8), O. SI. ci-to) is Latin quis M., quU N. (cf

from the root min-, ' to lessen/ from the primary root
mei- (O. Ind. minomi, Gk. fjavv-dco, Goth, mins Adv., O. SI.
minjiji Adj.) we have Lat. mwuo, minor.
(O. Ind. ci-d,
Umbr.
pis)
I.-Eur.
mm-
i is
generally the
from mei-,
'to lessen
dlco (older deico), fides

Gk. TTttOo) for êt^co).
(cf.
weak grade
'),
and
of the diphthong ei (as

e.
g. m-dico beside
so in Latin,
Gk. -m0-ov) beside/'^, olderfeido
For
(cf
varying with
I, e.g. I.-Eur. *wiro,

4
a man,' see 58.
Latin i may represent any short vowel in an
unaccented syllable, not long by position, e. g. concino for con-cano,
diUyo for dilego, mqmlinus for *wquolinu99 quiclMbet for quidlubet
In an unaccented syllable
judex beside
judico (&. juri-dicus).. comes, properly *comess, Gen. com-it-is, and
in an open unaccented
syllable before r, e. g. cin-er-is from cinig,
and also when final, e. g. mare but maria, man-timus ; leve, Neut.
(whence
libet
for lubet, ch.
long by position
became
ii.
e, e.
16).
g. index beside indico,
Gk. Ibpi, Neut. of tfyts), mre, Loc. of rus, in which

be
may dropped, e. g. ammal for animdle, Neut. of animdlis.
Latin -ri- in the unaccented syllable, when preceded by a conof levis (contrast
case
it
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
232
sonant, became
er,
(Lith. asztrus, O.
and apparently
ter,
may
(cf.
for *tr%-stis
testis
e.g. acerlus for *acn-bu
from *acru-dho-
SI. ostru), incertus for *incf$tu*
this
properly ters
[Chap. IV.
e.
terr-uncius) for *ters
(cf.
(Gk. a-Kptros)
occur in the accented syllable too,
Oscan
from
*tr%$
(Gk.
g.
rpis),
trfstaamentud, in Lat. testdmento
iii.
15. 8).
Similarly for --, when, through
syncope, the I has to play the part of a vowel (sonant or syllabic
e
as is seen in our able,' and more clearly in French able, we
1),
Abl.) (but see ch.
find ul (older ol) in Latin, e.g. facultas for *facl$)ta8 beside

slmultas for *$iml($)ta# beside nmiUtas.
facilitas,
After i we find e not i in sod etas, anxietas, &c., beside prti&Lfai,
c
'
casUtas, &c. (cf. Engl. ye- for yi- in
yes '), as we find
yet,'
laniena beside tonstrma ( 13).
In Oscan I.-Eur. i is i (in Lat.
alph. 2, in Gr. ei) ; in Umbr. it is i (Lat. alph. i), but in O. Umbr.
often e
14.
e.
g. Osc. pis,
Umbr.
'
'
quis
pis
for I.-Eur.
i.
(von Planta,
The
-is-
i.
p. 96).
of the L-Eur. Super-
lative suffix is-to- (0. Ind. svad-istha-, Gk. ^SKTTOS, Goth, sut-ista, sweetest ')
appears in Latin mag-is-ter (in O. Lat. written magester according to Quintilian,
'
i. 4. 17 quid ? non e quoque i loco fuit ?
Menerua et ' leber et magester et
'
'
'
'
'
Diove Victore,' non Diovi Victori), mm-is-ter. The weak grade of an ei-root is
seen in L-Eur. tri- from root trei-, 'three' (0. Ind. tri-su Loc., Gk. rpi-ai, Goth.
]>ri-mDat., Lith. tri-se Loc., O. SI. tri-chu) and Latin tri-lus, though inter, terni,
&c. there is the usual change of -ri- to -er- Lat.pfecz's (Goth, fisks), while 0. Ir.
iasgfrom *peisco-shows the ei-grade Lat. video (0. Ind. vid-ma, i PI., Horn. Gk.
from
Fti-Hfv, W. gwedd, aspect,' Goth, vit-um, i PL, Engl. wit, Germ, wissen)
root weid-, 'to see, know,' with Perfect-stem woid- (Gk. o?5a) Lat./M-i,/mdo
to split,' Goth, bitum, i PI. Pret., Engl. bit, Germ, bissen),
(O. Ind. bhid-),
'
<
from root bheid- (Goth, beitan, Engl. to

I in the unaccented syllable.
See ch.
15. ie,
tives in
bite,
iii.
Germ,
beissen).
18 for other instances.
not ii. Other examples are pietas, satietas, ebrietas and other derivafrom io-adjective stems, arietis, dbietis, &c., variego, &c. beside levigo,
-tat-
&c., hietare,
(see ch. iii.
and the
earlier spellings conieciant, proiecitad, inieciatis, traiecere, &c.
18, p. 188).
0,6.
16. 6.
I.-Eur. 6
is
Latin
5.
Thus the
I.-Eur. root po-, 'to
'
drink (O. Ind. pa-,pa-na-, Noun, Gk. Tre'-Trco-Ka, a/ix-7ra)-rts, the ebb,
Aeol. TTw-i/ft), Lith. pu-ta) is Latin po- of po-to, pd-tus, po-culum ;
c
do-, to give' (O. Ind. da-na- and da-ti-, 'a gift/ Arm. tur, Gk. 8<S-
pov and buurivrj, Lith. du-tis, Oo SI. da-rii, dan-ii, P.P.P. ; in Celtic,
the I.-Eur. word for 'gift' has taken the sense of an accomplishment,' O. Ir. dan,
W.
dawn)
is
in Latin do-mtm, do-s.
On
REPRESENTATIVES OF
14-17.]
the other hand, I.-Eur. 6

from root TTCT-,
is
Trwraojuot
from
O, 6.
233
often a grade of e or e (e. g. Gk.

a thief, from KAermo, tfco/xo's
root like gno- (Gk. y^coro's, Lat.
K\to\l/,
51, 53).
TiOi]î) (see
SOUNDS.
I.-EUR.
notws, older gnotus, gnosco) beside gen-, admits of

either as an addition of the suffix -6- to the weak
being explained
grade gn-, or as
a grade of a dissyllabic root geno-, so that gnotus from genowould be like $ndm$ from gemz-, &c. ( i).
Latin o sometimes represents an
lengthened by compensapo-sitits) ; sometimes it is due
tion,' e. g. pono from *po-s(i)no (cf

to crasis, e. g. copula for *co-apula, comluro for co-amb-uro (see
ch. ii.
149) sometimes it is the 'rustic' development of Latin
.
which in standard Latin became w
on,
g. robus for *rubus (cf
e.
rulidus) from
times
someI.-Eur. reudh- (Goth. rau]?s) (see

41)
the rustic form of aii 9 e. g. plostrum, a byform of
;
'
it is
But o is also found to vary

ii.
37).
with au in Latin, when both are sprung from an original ou,
e. g. o&culum, ausculum
(ib.).
plaustrum, from plaudo (ch.
In unaccented syllables o remained unaltered, e. g. con-dono

co-gnosco, but final -5 became shortened in course of time (see
and
ch.
iii.
show dv
Octdvus from
45).
for 6w, as cavus
odd (I.-Eur. *okto, *oktou) appears to

shows av for ow
Fur, cur
19).
an I.-Eur. *bhor (Gk. <cop,

p. 254), *qô-r (Lith. kur, 'where/ for *kur, ch. x.
10), and
1
non to stand for *mm, a development of noen(nm) (ch. x.
8).
I.-Eur. 6 is in Osc. u,uu (in Lat.alph. u), but the endings -Os, -OD
(O. Lat. quor) seem to represent
appear in Osc. as -us, -ud (with u, the symbol of I.-Eur. o) e.g.

'
c
donavit,' dunum
donum/ Abellanus Abellani
djuunated
;
'
'
Nom.
'
Boviano Abl. Sg. In Umbr. it is

Lat. alph., for the native alphabet writes u for
both the U-sound and the O-sound, ch. i.
but -OK appears
i),
Buvaianud
Plur.,
usually o (in
as
(see
-ur,
e.
g.
nome
'
nomen, postro
retro,'
arsferture
adf ertori
von Planta,
17.
i.
p. 116).
I.-Eur. o is Latin (accented)
6.
0, e.
g. I.-Eur.
W. wyth,
Goth, ahtau, O. Engl. eahta, Lith. asztum, O. SI. osmi), Lat.
$ctd\ I.-Eur. *poti-, 'master' (O. Iiid. pati-, Gk. 7:00-19, Goth.
<
eight' (O.Ind. asta,
Arm.
ut',
Gk.
6*,
bridegroom,' O. Engl. fadian,

vesz-patis, lord '), Lat. potis, potior.
bru|?-fa}78,
'
'
O.
Ir. ocht,
to arrange,' Lith. pats,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
234
I.-Eur.
ow
[Chap. IV.
seems to have become av in the beginning of the
second century
cavus, older covus (Gk. /coo/, cavities,

Latin vo- became ve- in the
B.C., e.g.
for *KofiAos).
KolXos
Hesych.,
middle of the second century B.C. in versus, older vorsus, &c.
(
10) ; but voco was the older form of vaco, as we see from
Plautus'
fac
in Gas.
pun
527
habeant linguam tuae aedes.
Latin
may
-ov-*-
10)
Latin
so-,
10);
Latin
ol,
Quid
ita ?
Quom
ueniam, uocent.
represent I.-Eur. -ew-, as in novem, ndvus (see

I.-Eur. swe-, as in soror, socer, somnus (see
or,
the I.-Eur. sonant or syllabic
1,
as in
r,
In the accented, as well as the unaccented

92).
Latin o became u, before I with a consonant (not II),
fors, cor (see

syllable,
before
with a
labial, before ngu, e. g. vult (volt)
from
vofo,
lum-
Before certain other consonant-groups it tended to

bus, unguis.
the close o- or to the w-sound (see ch. ii. 22). In the unaccented
syllable,
Latin
o offered
more
resistance than, for example, Latin
became e, then in open syllables;

have not changed their vowel like acUgo (from
In syllables long by position, 6 became u about the end of
a,
to the rule that a short vowel
e.
g. adnoto, arrogo
ago}.
the third century B.C. ; and any o which had escaped weakening to
took the same course (see ch. iii. 18). The terminations -os, -om
e,
became -us, -um towards the end of the third century B.C. [Luciom,
on
Jilios, on one Scipio epitaph (C.I.L. i. 32), Lucius, pr ognatus
another (ib. i. 30), -us, -um invariably in the S. C. Bacch. of 186 B. c.,
of
i.
(ib.
196), and on the decree of L. Aem. Paulus Macedonicus
189
ii.
But after v, n, qu, gu we find the spelling
5041)].
down to the end of the Republic. There are similar traces
B.C. (ib.
-os, -om,
in Osc. of unaccented o
Planta,
i.
p.
in).
u,
e.
Final o became
e,
becoming
g. dolom
and dolum (von
like final a,
i,
sequere imper. for I.-Eur. "^seq-eso (Gk. eweo) (see ch
&c., e.g.
viii.
77).
Latin 6 for I.-Eur. o. Other examples from the I.-Eur. root 6qS-, 'to
see (varying with oqB-) (O. Ind. aksi-, the eye,' Arm. akn, Gk. oft/za, oôât,
'
Lith. akis, O. SI. oko) comes Lat. oculus the I.-Eur. preposition *pro, forth
e.
to
indicate
Grk.
used
like
the
Ind.
O.Ir.
ro,
g.
(0.
pra,
Augment
past time,
TT/>O,
ro chan 'I sang' from canim 'I sing,' O.Bret, ro-, Goth, fra-, Lith. pra-, O. SI.
pro-) is Lat.pro- ofpro-ficiscor,&c. another preposition, I.-Eur.*A;om 'with (Gk.
Koivtis from *Kop-yos, 0. Ir. com-, Osc. com) is Lat. com, which when unaccented,
or when preceding 5, p, gu, &c., became cum, its usual form in classical Latin
I.-Eur. *nokti-, night' (0. Ind.nakti-, Gk. vv, 0. Ir. in-nocht, to-night,' W.
18.
'
'
'
'
<
<
henoeth, nos, Goth, nahts, O. Engl. neaht, niht, Lith. naktis, O.
SI.
noti)
is
REPRESENTATIVES OF
18-20.]
Lat. nox, metis Gen.

o<y,
SOUNDS
I.-EUR.
6, 6.
I.-Eur. root od-, 'to smell' (varying with 6d-) Gk.

in Lat. od-or, oleo for *od-eo ( in).
235
68/^7,
Arm. hot) appears
19. Lat. a for I.-Eur. o,
under influence of v.
Other examples are Lat.

from
from
caveo for *coveo (Gk. /fo(/r )ca;, to perceive, d-tfovcu), Lat. autumo for *dvi-tumo
*ovi-tumo (Gk. otcy), Lat. lavo for *lovo (Gk. AOVOJ).
Lat. favilla for *fovilla
'
dhegh-, to burn (0. Ind. dah-, Gk. rety-pa, ashes, Lith. degii,
The example previously quoted, Lat. cdvus for covus, enables us to
The Spanish and
assign a date to this change of I.-Eur. ow, Lat. ov to av.
Portuguese words (Span, cueva, Port, cova) show that cow-, not caw-, was the
Vulgar Latin stem at the time when Spain was made a province. The
country-term coum, (cohmn), the hollow in the plough, used by Ennius of the
'
I.-Eur. root
'
burn
').
innermost part of the heavenly sphere, retained the o, as did ovis (Gk. o^t?),
though whether the avi- of aububulcus pastor ovium (Lowe, Prodr. p. 348),
avillus
agnus recentis partus (Paul. Fest. 10. 32 Th.) is better referred to
'
'
*d/3i/o?) is not clear.

(Varro,
135 explains coum as sub jugo medio cavum, quod bura extrema
addita oppilatur.' and adds 'vocatur coum a covo' cf. Paul. Fest. 28. i Th. ;
this root or to acjH- the root of agnus (Gk. dpvos for

'
L. L. v.
Isid. Nat. Rer. 12 cous
(v.
chous) est quo caelum continetur, unde Ennius,
I.
vix solum complere couni (MSS. choum, cous) terroribus

Partes ejus sunt, cous
(v.
I.
caeli.
chous), axis, clima, cardines, convexa, poli, hemi-
Diomedes (365. 17 K.) says that Verrius Flaccus spelt incoho, not
inchoo, for he derived the word from cohum, the Old Latin word for mwndus).
We have already found that I.-Eur. ew became ov in Latin (e. g. Lat. novus for
I.-Eur. *newos), and that probably at a very early date, seeing that the change
is shared by other Italic languages (e. g. Osc. Nuvellum). If then it be the case
that I.-Eur. ow became av in Latin in the third or second cent. B. c. we must
suppose that Latin ov from I.-Eur. ew had a different sound from Latin ov from
sphaeria
I.-Eur.
ow
for the
former
ov
does not undergo change to av
(e. g.
novus,
not
Latin ov from I.-Eur. ogh shares the change to

*navus; novem, not *navem).
av, e. g. favilla from I.-Eur. dhogh^-, the o-grade of the root dheghE-, 'to burn' ;
but nudus for *nov(e)dus from I.-Eur. *nog-, naked,' shows that the change
of ov to av was later than the syncope of e in the post-tonic syllable.
Lat. voco (Plaut. Cos. 527) for vdco (Umbr. va9eto- P. P. P., vakaze, for *vakaz
se, Lat. vacatio sit ?), is probably nothing but an indication of the o-sound
assumed by a when preceded by v (see ch. ii. 4). This o-sound in *voatus
'
for 'empty,' must have persisted

Italian voto, as well as 0. Fr. voit, reflect this form.
the Vulg.
20.
ii
Lat.
for
Accent-law)
Neuters in -os
:
6.
word
till
late times, for
unaccented (according to the early

(Gk. (f)^Tos), and other derivatives from
(i) in close syllables,
vetustus for
*vetos-to-
(class. Lat. -us\
such as angustus,
homiUlus for
venustus, onustus
from *homon-lo-, and other lo- Diminutives from ow-stems, like

so also
lenullus, whereas Diminutives from on- have -oil-, e. g. persolla, corolla
Diminutives in -co-Zo- from ow-stems, like homunculus. latrunculus alumnus (cf.
Gk. TpcQ-oufvos) and similar formations, Vertumnus, Autumnus, columna, &c.
culmen (contrasted with columen) stultus
(2) before I with consonant (not It)
(contrasted with stoltdus) pulvis (contrasted with pollen) fulvus (contrasted
with salvo for *solud}. In Old Latin we have o, e. g. on inscriptions, Folvius
C.I.L. i. 554 and
(C. I. L. vi. 1307, of 187 B. c.
Eph. Epigr. viii. 476, c. 135 B. c.
*homollus
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
23 6
[Chap. IV.
555> both of 130-129 B.
c. &c.)
Priscian
Polc\er~\ (t&. i 552 of 132-131 B.C.).
us that colpa was the 0. Lat. form of culpa and in the
lines of Ennius about Servius Tullius (Ann. 337 M.) the corrupt reading of
the MSS. optimus for ultimus, probably indicates the spelling oltimus (cf.
Osc.
tells
33 H.)
p. 27.
(i.
ultiumam)
mortalem surnmum Fortuna repente

summo regno famul oltimus esset.
reddidit, ut
On
the spellings volva and vulva, Fern, of adj. *rolvus from volvo, see Georges,
s. v.
Vulnusis the pronunciation of Varro (L. L. iii. fr., p. 148 Wilm.
Lex. Wortf.
velum, vinum, vomis, vulnus, where he gives examples of initial v

followed by the various vowels of the alphabet). This ol may be I.-Eur. el,
vafer,
e. g. volt, vult (
10).
m with labial
umbo for *ombo, like umbilicus for *omb- (Gk. 6fjuf>a\6s)

the Greek (Thracian ?) pojxjxiia is rumpm in Ennius (A. xiv. fr. 8 M.) and Livy
(xxxi. 39. n).
Perhaps also before ms, e. g. umerus from omso- (O. Ind. sa-,
Arm. us, Goth, ams, Umbr. onso-).
(4) before ngu: unguo, unguen, unguentum for*ongu- (0. Ind. anj-, to anoint')
ungula, like unguis (Gk. 6W)
butlongus, where the g is not velar (gu), retains
the o (we find however lun[gum] beside lon[gum~] in neighbouring inscrr.,
(3) before
'
C.
C.
L L.
L L.
i.
i.
We
1073).
1430, in a
have
also uncus for *oncus (Gk.
Cremona
inscription), &c.
On the
oy/cos), (but sesconciam

occasional use of u for o,
often for Greek o, before other consonant-groups, e. g. turnus beside tornus,

from Greek ropvos, 0. Lat. frundes (see ch. ii.
Some isolated cases of
22).
u for accented o have various explanations humus, for *homus (cf. Gk. \0<uv),
may take its u from the analogy of humeo, for the word (not common in the
oldest writers humi, for example, not occurring till Terence, Andr. 726) seems
to have been first used in the sense of moist ground, clay, e. g. Laevius ap.
Prise, i. p. 269. 7 H. humum humidum pedibus fodit Varr. Men. 531 B. in
pavimento non audes facere laconamf, at in humu calceos facis elixos Enn.
;
396 E. cubitis pinsibant humum Pac. Trag. 351 R. tractate per aspera
saxa et humum cf. Gracch. Trag. 3 mersit sequentis humidum plantas (MS.
Priscian's old Latin huminem (i. p. 27. i H.) may be an
plantis) humum
etymological spelling to suit a derivation from humus, like the spelling colina,
Serv/ ad Aen.
adapted to the derivation from colo (Varro ap. Non. 55. 20 M.
iii. 134)
fulica, if for *folica, either follows the analogy offullgo, or shows the
vowel offulca, the form used by Furius Antias ap. Gell. xviii. n. 1. 4.
the 3 Plur. suffix
(5) in syllables unaccented under the later Accent-law
-ont became -unt at the end of the third cent. B. c., though the old spelling
was sometimes retained even later. On old inscriptions we have e. g. dederont
(C. I. L. i. 181, from Picenum), cosentiont on a Scipio epitaph (i. 32) (so on the
Trag.
'
'
restored Columna Rostrata, cxfociont, i. 195).

Festus (244. 13 Th.) quotes
praed-opiont (MS. praedotionf), in the sense of praeoptant, from the Carmen Saliare,
andnequmont, an old 3 PL form ofnequeo, from the Odyssea of Livius Andronicus

cf. Paul. Fest. 163. 14 Th.)
(ap. Fest. 162. 24 Th.
:
partim errant, nequinont Graeciam redire
Nom.
Sg. termination of Neuter ES-stems is -os on an old inscription, opos

(C. I. L. i. 52, probably from Orvieto) (cf. Uenos on old mirrors, i. 57 and 58)
the Ace. Sg. termination of 0-stems is -om in the older period, e. g. donom, the
the
Nom.
Sg. is -os (see
Index
to
C. I. L. i.),
and
this spelling
remained after
u, v,
REPRESENTATIVES OF
21-23.]
SOUNDS.
I.-EUR.
U, U.
237
the time of Quintilian, though the pronunciation may

arvom,
have been the w-sound (see 70). (On this reduction of o to u in unaccented
syllables, see ch. iii.
18, 26 another example is the verb sum, for *som, with it
for o, because of its usual unaccented character.)
In late Latin, when u and
6 had come to have nearly, or altogether, the same sound, o is often written for
w, so that the older spelling seems to be revived (see ch. ii.
29).
till
e. g. equos,
u,u.
U.
21.
'
root dheu-
is
Latin
ti
I.-Eur. *dhumo-,
'
smoke,' from
'
move violently (O. Ind. dhuma-, Gk. dvp,6s,

dumai PL, O. SI. dymu), Lat. fumm; I.-Eur.
to
Lith.
passion,
I.-Eur.
a mouse
'
(O. Ind. mus-, Gk. ^vs, O. Engl. mus, O. SI.

It is generally a grade of a eu-root as I of an eiroot ( 12). Latin u older ou, may represent also I.-Eur. euor ou,
douco (see
35, 41), Latin u, older oi, oe, I.-Eur.
e.g. duco older
'
*mus-,
mysi), Lat. mus.
oi,
and sometimes has arisen from u by compensa'
e.g. cura
38),
tion/ e.g. dnmus, older dusmo- (Paul. Test. 47. 30 Th.), a spelling
retained in the proper name Dusmius; dmnetumi.? dusm-, in Virgil
MSS.
spelt dummetum, shows that -um- is equivalent to -umm-.

In the unaccented syllable u may represent au, e.g. defrudo
include
homfraudo,
quor, see
*for,
some other
von Planta,
22.
'to use,'
yiisa-,
Gk.
23.
^v-fjirj
e.
Umbr. frif
g.
U.
On/^r, cur
18).
Umbr. and perhaps
'
fruges
'
for
in
Ace. PI. (see
129).
for * C^'A17??
so-liitus
an eu-root,
'
i,
iii.
in
Other examples of Lat. u, I.-Eur. u.

Germ, brauchen, 0. Engl. brucan, Engl.
veo-K&TTVTos}
join
Lat.
dialects
i.
from claudo (ch.

I.-Eur. u is
1 6.
Lat. frunisd (Goth, brukjan,
to brook) jus, broth (0. Ind.

sutus (0. Ind. syuta-, Gk.
leaven, Lith. jusze)
;
(Horn. PovXvrov-Sf).
I.-Eur.
ii,
Lat.
$,
appears often in the weak grade of

*
a yoke/ weak grade of yeug-, e to
e.g. I.-Eur. "*yugo-,
(O. Ind. yuga-,
Gk.
vyov, Goth, juk, O. SI. igo for jugo),

7
jugnm I.-Eur. luk-, weak grade of leuk-, to shine (O. Ind.

I.-Eur. u (Lat. u)
riic-, Gk. a/x0t-Ai;K77, twilight), Lat. lucerna.
is also the weak
a
of
I.-Eur.
we-root,
e.g.
*peruti, 'last
grade
from
and
*wetes-,
year^ (Gk. TTC'/WO-I),
'year/
similarly in the
'
unaccented syllable Latin u often appears for

*conqvetio from quatio
(see ch.
I.-Eur. (and older Latin) o ;

B. c. into the sound $,
third cent.
(unless saved by a preceding
ue,
e.
g. concutio for
Lat. u often represents

25).
for an o passed at the end of the
iii.
v,
when
u\
e.
g.
in the unaccented syllable
donum from
earlier donom,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

the time of Quintilian
but equom
till
syllable o
came
to
[Chap. IV.
and even in the accented
assume a w-sound before certain consonant-
groups, e.g. culpa, older colpa, Fulvius, older Folvius (see
(On equom, divom, &c.,

Lat. u offered more
20).
see
70, 135).
resistance than a to the usual transition
of a short vowel in the open unaccented syllable to
(earlier
e,
and always beforer), e.g. socer (Gk. eKvpos) (ch. iii. 18). Before
I and labials it passed in open unaccented syllables
(especially
when the next syllable contained an i in hiatus) into the
&-sound, which ultimately was written and pronounced #, e.g.
That it ever had
mannbiae, manibiae, manibus, dissupo, dissipo.
the #-sound, the sound of Greek v, in the accented syllable of
native Latin words is doubtful.
[On (quid)lubet and (quid)libet,
&c. see ch.
ii.
Before a vowel in the unaccented
16].
syllable Latin u may represent I.-Eur. ew, ow, Lat. ov, e. g.

denuo for de novo, eluo for e-lavo (I.-Eur. *lowo) (ch. iii.
24) ;
before ând labials any short vowel, e. g. occupo from cap-, to take
(ch.
and before any consonant-group -Latin
1 8),
iii.
Jiomullm for *homon-lo- (see
20).
Final
-u, like
0,
e.g.
other short
e, and might be elided (ch. iii.

37, 38).
relation exists in Latin, as in I.-Eur., between u and
vowels, normally became
A close
w, vocalic and consonantal
Plaut.),
arvum
(aruos,
After
u.
a consonant in the second

-a,
and
r the
vowel u became
cent. B.C. in Latin, e.g. larva (Idrua,
-om
Plaut.), milvus (miluos,
Plaut.),
For Latin u (earlier o], the parasitic,

pelvis, &c. (see ch. iii.
48).
or svarabhaktic vowel, in oculm from oc~lo-, speculum from speclo-,
oraculum from
ord-clo-, see ch.
ii.
154.
Umbr. subra supra/ though

sometimes we find o written in Umbr. [i.e. in the Lat. alph., for
the native alphabet did not distinguish the O- and the U-sound^
i
In Oscan we find iu after t, d, n (s ?), e. g. tiurri
(see ch. i.
)].
I.-Eur.
is
Umbro-Osc.
u,
e.
g.
'turrim,' Diumpais 'Lumpis' ('to the Nymphs'), Niumsieis

'Numerii' Gen. Sg., an affection of u which resembles Boeot.
riovxa (Att.
Tvxri),
or Engl. 'pure/ &c. (pronounced piu-), (see
von Planta, i. p. 122).

24. Lat. u for I.-Eur.
ii.
I.-Eur.
-ii-
in the U-stem suffix
is
Latin u of
mdnus, &c. the I.-Eur. preposition *iip6 (0. Ind. upa, Gk, vno, 0.
fo for *wo, with p di-opped between vowels, and u turned into w, Goth,
fructus,
Ir.
uf,
REPRESENTATIVES OF
24-26.]
I.-EUR.
DIPHTHONGS.
239
Latin s-ub (see ch. ix.

the preposition *uper, *uperi
52)
Gk. vircip, v-rrfp, 0. Ir. for, from *wer, with suppression of p,
Goth, ufar, Engl. over, o'er) is Latin s-uper (see ch. ix.
I.-Eur. *snuso-,
53)
daughter-in-law (0. Ind. snusa-, Arm. nu, Gr. w(cr)os, 0. Engl. snoru,
Germ. Schnur, 0. SI. snucha), isLat. nurus I.-Eur. *kluto-, 'famous/from kleu-,
to hear (0. Ind. sVuta-, Gr. K\VTOS, 0. Ir. cloth, Gaul. Cluto-ida, 0. H. Germ.
Hlud-olf, Hlot-hari, from hari, army,' whence Lothair, &c.), is Lat. in-clutus,
is
Engl. of-ten)
(0. Ind. upari,
'
'
'
'
later in-ditus; I.-Eur. *rudhro-, 'red,' from the root reudh-, 'to be red' (0. Ind.
rudhira-, Gk. fpvdpos, O. SI. rudru) is Lat. ruber Lat. musca (the Romance forms
;
prove
u),
Gk.
/j.vta
for *f*vaya, Lith.
from I.-Eur. *yuwnko-
muse
Ii&t.juvenis (0. Ind. ynvsLn-^Juvencus
Ind. yuvala-, Gk.
(0.
'Yd/t-ivOos,
Welsh ieuanc,
Lat./%a (Gk.
from urg-, the weak
O. Ir. oac,
Gaul. Jovincillus, Goth, juggs for *juvunga-, 0. Engl. geong)
from root bheug-, 'to flee' (Gk. (pei/yca) Lat. urgeo

grade of the root werg-, to confine, press' (Gk. (-(ftepyca, Lat.
^1/777)
'
vergo.}
We have seen that Latin o became u when

25. Latin u and Latin 6.
unaccented, and even in the accented syllable before certain consonant-groups,
and that in late Latin u and o came to have the same sound and were often
exchanged in spelling (see 17 and ch. ii. 29). Some doubtful cases may
be discussed here. As turbo and turbo, (Gk. Tvpfirj, ffrvpfiafa} come from I.-Eur.
the weak grade of twer-, to twirl,' so I.-Eur. qr-, ghSr-, the
of qêr-, gh lAer-, seem to appear in Latin as cur-, fur, e. g. furnus,
an oven, from I.-Eur. gh lArno- (0. SI. grunu, 'a kettle'), but/ormws, warm, from
Whether Nonius, who
I.-Eur. ghôrmo- (0. H. G. warm, Engl. warm).
derives furnus from formus, has any justification in spelling the word/omws
turb-,
from
tur-,
weak grades
but fornax has o, and Plautus Epid. 119 puns on

(531. 24 M.) is uncertain
Curro may then stand for *qrso- from the root
furno (so the MSS.), and/oro.
qer- (cf. Lat. querqucrus) curtus cannot be the same as Gk. fcapros, from the
;
but must stand for *qrto-, from a root qer- corpus

must represent *qorpes-, not *q^rpes- (cf. 0. Ind. kfp-)
ursus may be
a loanword (Lucanian, according to Varro, L. L. v. 100), or may owe its u to
a velar guttural -rqlA- urceus cannot be connected with orca the spelling
forcillis in MSS. of Catullus (cv. 2) must be late, if the word is connected with
Hesychius' Qovprtop, <pvpttos, Which point to u (Cyprian (f>opKes = x ^PaKfS shows
dialectal o for v)
urbs (cf. Mars, enurbid 'in urbe') cannot be connected with
orbs, so that there is no etymological appropriateness in the play on these
words which is often found in the later poets (e. g. Rutil. i. 66).
root
feer-
of Gk.
Kflpca,
<
26.
ai9 au,
The Diphthongs.
ei,
[(i) I.-Eur. ei
In its treatment of the diphthongs

and in Latin also, (2) I.-Eur. ai (oi?) in
the post-tonic syllable, (3) I.-Eur.

oi,
ai, oi
in the final syllable],
ou], Latin stands halfway

In Oscan they are all retained
1
In
except that the ^-element has sunk to an ^-sound
ou, [(i) I.-Eur. eu,
(2) I.-Eur.
between Oscan an Umbrian.

intact,
Umbrian they
1
are all reduced to
Perhaps both in Oscan and Latin
the second element of
ai,
&c.
was
simple sounds, e.g.
a sound between open i and

as in German and English.
Umbr.
e,
just
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
240
devo-, Osc. deivo-,
Umbr.
Goth.
Osc.
toto,
J?iuda,
'
god
rtofro,
Umbrian
community
people,
whence some derive
Teuto-bodiaci,
W.
toro-,
'
[Chap. IV.
Osc. ravpo-, bull

[I.-Eur.
*teuta-,
Teuton,' O. Ir. tuath, Gaul.
tud (in Gaelic tuath
is
'
used for the country-
people/ 'the tenantry ). Lith. tauta], (see von Planta, i. p. 137).

In the Latin of Cicero's time ae (from ai) and au are the only
survivors and even they tend in rustic or colloquial speech to
;
e, o, e.g.pretor,plosfrum.
Diphthongs whose two
elements had affinity of sound, such as ei, ou, are naturally the
first to be simplified
ei, for example, both in Greek and in the
single sounds,
Teutonic languages, passed early into a long -sound. The oldest

Latin inscriptions offer with great fidelity ei for I.-Eur. ei, as also
which I.-Eur.
when
unaccented, were reduced.

Thus on the S. C. de Bacchanalibus of 186 B.C. (C.I.L. i. 196)
for the ei to
ai, oi,
we have deicerent (I.-Eur. ei), inceideretis (I.-Eur. post-tonic ai),

But this diphthong soon became
foideratei (I.-Eur. final -oi).
identical in pronunciation with the long i- vowel, so that spellingreformers like Accius and Lucilius used
a-sound without
sound
(see ch.
i.
sufficient
9),
and
and
ei
for this long
regard to the past history of the

the practice grew up of using ei to
indicate the long vowel-sound,

also sometimes used for Latin
to indicate the short.
Ou
is
u (I.-Eur. oi), e.g. couraverunt

from
i.
1419,
Picenum), though not at all to the same
(C.I.L.
Ou seems to have been reduced to a simple
extent as ei for 1.
sound at the end of the third century B.C. Ai became ae a little
later.
Towards the end of the second cent. B.C. we find the
spelling ae established in use, with an occasional resort at the
transition period to a spelling aei; but the original spelling (not
pronunciation) was again brought into fashion in the reign of
Claudius and
found occasionally on epitaphs even of the late

the
Empire.
diphthongal sound of ae (Germ. Kaiser is
evidence of this sound in Lat. Caesar], au, see ch. ii.
32.
is
On
Oi passed (through oe} into u at the beginning of the second

though oi, and afterwards oe, were long retained
cent. B.C.,
on
official
inscriptions
in
(coeraverunt), e.g. C.I.L.

et
pluteum faciund.
(older
phrases like faciundum

i.
567
coeravere,
coiraverunt
(Capua) of 106 B.C.:
where
the
spelling
murum
murum
moerum, moirom) shows that the pronunciation was
u,
REPRESENTATIVES OF
27.]
not
oe,
SOUNDS.
I.-EUR.
and in some words of the
official or
AI.
241
legal style like
The long diphthongs are not common in I.-Eur., so that we

have hardly sufficient material from which to discover their
In the Veda, the oldest literature of India,
history in Latin.
we
see a tendency to use final -a (I.-Eur. -6) before a consonant
-du (I.-Eur. -6u) before a vowel initial (e.g. deva

and devau in Dual of deva-, I.-Eur. *deivo-, god ') and the
development of ei and 6u in roots and suffixes in the various
I.-Eur. languages suggests that doublets of this sort, ei and e,
5u and 6, already existed in the case of these two diphthongs of
initial, final
kindred elements in what
is
called 'the
Indo-European
period.'
diphthongs, composed of sounds not so nearly allied as

e and i, 6 and u,
may have taken on Latin soil a different course
Long
development, according as they were final or not. When

the second element may have been suppressed (probably
after passing through the doublet -stage), just as in later times
of
final,
a short final vowel has been suppressed after a long syllable in

words like exempldr(e] y nev(e). When followed by a consonant
the long element must have been shortened,
long vowel is shortened before y, w, n, m,
by the
1,
r,
rule that
&c. followed
any
by
a consonant, so that ai (ay) would pass to the ordinary diphthongsound ai, au (aw) to au, eu to eu, 6i to oi ; just as we have ventus
from *went27. AI.

f
aiwe-,
'
(root we-,
I.-Eur. ai
time, life
alF-, as in
is
(Gk. ai&v,
Gk.
aWco,
O.
arjjuu)
(see below,
ai}, e.g.
det for *alFc((r)i
eXaa for *eAat/: d, O.

;
Gk.
Lat. ae (older
'
appears in Latin aevum

'firewood,'
to blow,'
Ir. ais, aes,
I.-Eur. aidh-, to
Ir. aid, aed, 'fire/
45).
the I.-Eur. root
with Ion. Att. a for
Goth,
aivs, O. Engl. &),

burn/ (O. Ind. edhas-,
O. H. G. eit, 'pyre/ O.
'
Engl. ad), in Latin aedes, lit. where the fire is kept up/ aestus.
In the last root I.-Eur. ai is the weak grade of aye, thus aidh-
of ayedh- (aye- is seen in I.-Eur. *ayes-, 'metal, gleaming metaP),

and in the first of ai (
In the
45) (cf. O. Ind. ayu-).
from quaero y
i, e.g. inqmro, occiclo
caedo (see ch.iii. 1 8), or rather ai became ei, then , e. g. inceideretis
on the S. C. de Bacch. ; and in the final syllable, e.g. tutudi
unaccented syllable ae became
(O. Ind. tutude) with the
Sg. Perf. Middle ending
-ai or -ai
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
342
(ch. viii.
On
76).
Latin confusion of
38), see ch.
ii.
rustic
and
ae, e,
and on the late

which had been restored,
spurious diphthong ai is found in
colloquial e for ae,
oe (that is, oe
41, 44.
the verb aio (for *ahio,
[Chap. IV.
ain (for *aisne), aibat (dissyllabic), &c.
6),
28. I.-Eur. ai, Lat. ae (ai).

Lat. caedo from I.-Eur. root skaidh- (Goth,
skaidan, O. Engl. scadan, Engl. water-shed, Lith. skedSiu, I separate ') ; Lat.
scaevus (Gk. aiccu(f)6s) ; Lat. laevus (Gk. Acu(f )os, 0. SI. levii)
Lat. caecus from
'
I.-Eur. */caiko-, 'blind' (0. Ir. caech,
with another sense, 'empty,'
cf.
Gael,
'
l
caoch-ag, a nut without a kernel/ Goth, haihs ; in Gk. KOIKV\\Q}, to gape about,'
the at has become ot, through the assimilating influence of the accented v) ;
Lat. haereo
from I.-Eur. root ghais-
'
to frighten,' lit.
goat) ; Lat. Umr
'
'
Goth, us-gaisjan,
(Lith. gaiszti, to tarry
cause to hesitate,' Engl. gaze) Lat. haedus (Goth, gaits, Engl.
from I.-Eur. *daiwer-, 0. Ind. devar-, Arm. taigr, Gk. 8dr)p,
;
'
0. H. G. zeihhur, 0. Eng. tacor, Lith. deverisj 0. SI. deveri) is a late Latin

spelling for laevir, the i being due to the analogy of vir.
AE on Inscriptions. We have ae on the S. C.
Bacch. (C. L L. i. 196)

in aedem (along with aiquom, tabelai, datai, &c.) ; Aemilius on three
inscriptions of 187 B. c. (i. 535-7), but Aimilius (C. L L. ii. 5041) of 189 B. c. ;
aetate on a Scipio epitaph of c. 130 B. c. (i. 34), (along with quaimtis) ; quaestor,
29. AI,
of
1 86 B. c.
quaero, praetor are established spellings in
197), the
Lex Repetundarum
the Lex Bantina of 133-118
of 123-122 B.
B. c.
(i.
The spelling aei,

198), &c.
of the second cent. B. c. , conquaeisivei
c. (i.
which we find once or twice towards the end

(in the post-tonic syllable under the older Accent Law) (i. 551, of 132 B. c.),
Caeicilius (i. 547 b., 'of 141 or 116 B.C.,' Momms., and i. 1487, from Majorca),
Caeician[us] [i. 378, on a coin with an alphabet A-X, so older than the introduction of Y, Z (ch. i. a)], Caeidia (ix. 3087, from Sulmo), seems to mark the
transition stage.
Often ai and ae are found side by side, e. g. praitores aere
Martio emeru (i. 1148, from Cora)
aetatei and saip[is]ume on the dedicatory
The
inscription of the Faliscan collegium cocorum
(Zvet. L L L 72 a).
spelling Caisar, &c. is frequent on inscriptions of Claudius' reign, when antiquarian lore was in fashion (e. g. C. I. L. vi. 353), and we find on epitaphs of
;
'
'
the late Empire Valeriai (Rossi, i. 113, of 352 A.D.), quai smdfiliai (Rossi, i. 410,
of 393 A. D.), &c. E is not regularly exchanged with ae till the fourth cent. A. D.
on inscriptions (Seelmann, Ausspr. Lat. p. 225), but in dialectal inscrr. it is of
course much earlier, e. g. cedre for caedere on an old inscr. of the Umbrian
territory (C. L L. xi. 4766), and in plebeian from the first cent. A. D. (Hammer,
The use of CM, ae for a is a feature of inscriptions of the
Loc. Verbr. p. n).
Etruscan country (see Mem. 1st. Lombard. 1892), e. g. Painsscos on a Praenestine
mirror (C. L L. xiv. 4098) [cf. Saeturni on a Praenestine vase (i. 48), and perhaps
Lat. Aesculapius for
30.
AU.
'AaA antes]
I.-Eur. au
became u
(see ch.
syllable
was in dialectal Latin 5
(e.
we have
is
iii.
ei
in queistores
(i.
183, Marsic).
Latin au, which in the unaccented

1
and in the accented syllable
8),
g. Plautus'
Umbrian name was Plotus
Thus the I.-Eur. root aug-,

splay-foot,' Paul. Fest. 305. 7 Th.).
c
6
a
weak
or
strength,'
grade of the root awegindicating growth'
of
Gk. aê'fo) (O. Ind.
ojas-,
Goth, aukan,
'
to multiply,' Engl.
28-32.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF
SOUNDS. AU,
I.-EUR.
El.
243
'
eke vb., Lith. augu, I grow/ Gk. av &>, avdv() appears in Latin
the I.-Eur. particle *au [Gk. ov, aS-re, CLV-TLS,
aug-eo augus-tus
t
'
Goth, au-k, e also (with -k like Gr. ye), O. Engl. eac, Eng. eke
advb.], in Latin au-t (Osc. avti, Umbr. ote\ au-tem (Osc. avt).
perhaps similarly the weak grade of *a-we,

Lat. au represents the weak grade of an I.-Eur.
This I.-Eur. *au

(see ch. x.
is
4).
in ausculum (Plaut.) beside

beside cos,
54).
6u-root
Other examples.
31.
from I.-Eur. *6us
os
favai PL, Engl. few)
Lat. paucus (Goth,
(cf.
Lat.
'
aurora for *ausosa (Gk. avpiov for *avapiov, dyx mav P s

Apoll. Rhod., nearing
the dawn/ Lith. ausz-ra, 0. Scand. austr, 0. H. G. ostar, Engl. east) from
to gleam (cf. Gk. ^ws for *df cus), whence
I.-Eur. aus-, a weak grade of awes-,
'
'
'
*auso-,
au, a
'
Lat. auris for *ausis, aus-culto (0. Ir.

N-stem, Lith. ausis) from I.-Eur. *aus-,
(Lat. aurum, Lith. auksas)
gold
Neuter S-stem, Goth, auso, an
weak grade of *awes- [cf. Gk.

ment of the high grade *ous
a
a'ica
(aw), I perceive
but
ovs is a
Greek develop-
0. Ind. avis, 'openly'].
Lat. au-, away, as

O. SI. u- of
in au-fero, au-fugio (Pruss. au- of au-mu-sna-n Ace., 'washing off
u-myti, to wash off') from I.-Eur. *au, a weak grade of *awe (*awo ?) (0. Ind.
;
cf.
'
'
ava,
'away/ ava-bhr-,
'
aufero').
It is often difficult to distinguish this Lat.
(a reduction of I.-Eur. awe) from Lat. au, a reduc16. 9.)

tion of Lat. ave, dm, e. g. audeo from avidus. (Other examples in ch. iii.
On the occasional appearance of u for au in the accented syllable, e. g. sedfrude
au, representing I.-Eur.
'
'
sine fraude
and
in the
au
Lex Repetundarum, post-class, dudo, and on the plebeian
dialectal reduction of au to
6,
plostrum, Clodius, see ch.
e. g.
ii.
36-37.
32. El. I.-Eur. ei was in Old Latin ei ; but this diphthong

became identical with the sound of long i, so that in inscriptions
from the latter part of the second century B. c. the symbol ei is
used not only for I.-Eur. ei, but also for I.-Eur. I, and some
spelling reformers proposed to reserve the letter I for short it and
In Oscan,
the diphthong-symbol EI for long i (see ch. i.
9).
In Latin
however, the diphthong is preserved.

the interjection hei, ei, from which
Instances of I.-Eur.
ei,
Latin
ei
or
i,
comes
it is
the
used in
verb
are: I.-Eur. deik-,
'
ejulo.
to show,
f
say* (Gk. fciK-iw/xt, Goth, ga-teiha, l declare '), Lat. dico, O.
Lat. deico, Osc. deicum Inf.; I.-Eur. bheidh-, 'to believe, trust'
Before a vowel ei, ej
(Gr. Tmtfoâi), Lat. fldo, O. Lat. feido.
became
e in
accented
O. Lat.
ei,
to go/ both
e. g. eo from I.-Eur. ei-,
and in the unaccented syllable (ch. iii.
Latin,
63),
class.
I,
may represent other I-diphthongs in the
unaccented syllables,
-ai or -a\
(ch.
viii.
in the
24).
final or
g. in tutudl Perf (O. Ind. tutude), I.-Eur.

76); in popull Nom. PI. (oldest Lat. pojploe\
e.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
244
I.-Eur. -oi
in con-cido
from caedo, older caido, I.-Eur.
spelling of all these words shows
sometimes
[Chap. IV.
-ei,
The older
ai.
tutudei, pop(u)lei t conceido,
Nom.
'
Pl._, on a Scipio epitaph

Greek
ei before a vowel was written
e. g.
(C.I.L.
32).
Ddreus
to
e.
later
e.
Alexandria,
e,
g. balneum),
(shortened
g.
e.g.ploirume
e,
plurimi,'
i.
<?,
Alexandria (shortened to
33.
#) (cf . ch.
ii.
143).
ei.
I.-Eur. *ei-ti, 3 Sg. Pres. Ind. of
Gk. e&n, Lith. eiti, eit), Lat, it (with i in Old
a shortening produced in the course of the second
Latin, but class.
cent. B.C. by the influence of the final -t, ch. iii.
49); I.-Eur. *deiwo-, 'god'
(0. Ind. deva-, Lith. devas, Ir. dla, Gaul. Aeiovova, W. dwy-fol,
divine/
O. Engl. Tlwes-dseg, Tuesday
but Gk. 5fos is for *5tf ios, like O. Ind. divya-),
Lat. dims, on the Dvenos inscription deiuo-. When o of the final syllable
was weakened to u, deivos became *deius (for *deivus, the v being absorbed by
the following u,
70), deivom became *deium, which passed into de(y)us,
<to go' (0. Ind.
ei-,
eti,
'
'
de(y)um as *ei-um, Ace. M. of
word would be declined

the 'doublets' divus,
is,
into e(y)-um,
*ei-o i Sg.
deus, deivei, deivo, deum, &c.
divi,
divum,
divo,
Sec.,
and
into e(y)o, so that the
from this variation arose
deus, dei, deo,
deum, &c.
(cf.
deo sei deivae) some grammarians of Varro's time proposed

to restrict divus to the sense of a mortal made a god (so later divus Augustus),
but Varro contested the accuracy of this usage, showing that in old times
C. I.
L.
i.
632
sei
divus
was the word
Aen.
xii.
for any god (Varro, L. L. iv. fr., p. 150 Wilm.

cf. Serv. ad
139 diva deam, &c.). Eeus (cf. rivdlis, older reiv-}, seu (cf. slve, older
seive) are to be similarly explained, though some prefer to suppose that the
prior stages of all three words were *deus, *reus, *seu (like Alexandria, Dareus,
;
and quote levis as an example of the passage of ei before v into e (cf.

Gk. \ci(p)os) (von Planta, Osk.-Umbr. Dial i. p. 145). Neu, ceu are most naturally
explained as shortenings from *neu (cf. neve}, *ceu (cf. Gk. /tfj, Lat. ce-teri, B. JB.
xv SJS)? though they also admit of being referred to *nei-u (from 0. Lat. nei,
ni, used in the sense of class, we), and from a Locative, either Demonstr. *cei
&c.),
(ch. vii.
15) or Relative quei, qui (ch. vii.

116.
13, peior below
23).
On
meio see ch.
viii.
6,
ejus ch. vii.
34.
of 186 B.
EI and
c.
I in Inscriptions, &c.
(C.I.L.
i.
196)
we have
On
the
S.
C.
de Bacchanalibus
deicerent (I.-Eur. ei), inceideretis (I.-Eur.
post-tonic ai), foideratei (I.-Eur. final -oi). But we have ei employed merely
to indicate long i in audeire of the Lex Eepetundarum of 123-122 B.C.
198); ameicitiam of the Lex Agraria of in B.C. (i. 200); ameicorum,

(i. 203, of 78 B. c.) ; erceiscunda deividunda and feient of the Lex Rubria
of 49 B. c. (i. 205) esureis on a leaden bullet used at the siege of Perusia
(i.
veneire
with the cruel message carved on it, esureis et me celas (i. 692)
veivos
and this seems to be the function of ei in the Plautine text
(i. 1256), &c.
represented by the Codex Ambrosianus (see Index to Studemund's Apograph,
Even as early as the end of the third cent. B. c. we have opeinod
p. 504).
deuincam ted on a Praenestine mirror with a representation of a gaming-table
The transition stage from ei to i is
(Rendic. Accad. Lincei, v. p. 253, 1889).
perhaps marked by the spelling e in ploirume (Nom. PI.) on a Scipio epitaph
of the end of the third cent. B. c. (C. L L. i. 32), conpromesise on the S. C.
;
REPRESENTATIVES OF
33-35.]
Bacch. of 186
B. c.
(i.
196
cf.
I.-EUR.
i.
ameiserunt,
SOUNDS.
EU.
though this spelling
204),
is
345
often
nothing but a dialectal variety, e. g. uecos (Lat. vei-, wcus] on an inscription

from the Marsic territory (i. 183) (cf. Umbr. devo-, 'god/ Lat. diro-). Now and
then we find ei written for a short vowel, as in inpeirator on the inscription of
Aem. Paulus Macedonicus, from Spain (C. I. L. ii. 5041, of 189 B.C.), leiteras
so in the
(see ch. ii.
130), and seine on the Lex Repetundarum (i. 198)
Ambrosian Palimpsest of Plautus, ibeis, Cas. 92 curabeis, Merc. 526. And ei
appears occasionally even for the e-sound, as in pleib-, in an old inscription
found between Rome and Ostia (Eph. Epigr. i. 3), in leigibus on a Praenestine
;
cippus of erratic orthography (pro sed sueq for pro se suisque, &c.) (C. L L.
2892), and in decreivit on the Spanish inscription of 189 B.C., just
mentioned (C. I. L. ii. 5041) (see ch. ii. n). The Dative forms in -e on old
xiv.
inscriptions
(e. g. C.
L.
i.
mo
lunone
as graphical varieties of the Dat. in

the 3 Sg. Perf. Act. forms in -ed, -et,
(beside
cepif)
on a Scipio epitaph
probaveit beside coeravit,
i.
-ei,
e. g.
(C. I. L.
600) (see ch.
Seispitei Matri) are best explained

-I (see ch. vi.
28), and similarly
class.
on the Praenestine fibula, dedet

32), as graphical varieties of-eit (e.g.
fefaced
i.
viii.
70).
The Plautine
spelling
must
have been mendico-, eira to judge from the remarks in Rucl. 1305 that mendicus has
'one letter more than medicus, and in True. 262 that comprime sis eiram becomes
comprime sis eram by 'taking away a single letter.' (Cf. Early Greek E for EI).
'
EU. This diphthong has been merged
35.
guages
but Greek, with
will serve as criteria.
heu
Gk.
in on in most lanand
ov,
Gothic, with iu and au,
find eu in Latin in the interjections
and
ei>
We
the pronoun neuter [a trisyllable

with accent on the ne, whereas in
149), ne
neutiquam^ pronounced w&tiquam (or nyutiquam, ch. ii.
the
a
was
unaccented,
;
neu,
being
conjunction
by form of
elided]
(ch.
(cf.
ii.
33),
<eu), eheu, heus
from ne and
uter,
byform of swe (older seive), ceu from *ce-ve or *cei-ve

(
33)(O n ^ ne Pronunciation of eu in these words and in
Eu
Latinized Greek words, like OrpJieus, see ch. ii.
32, 46.)
is
to
Saliare
Carmen
on
the
of
the
the
assigned
strength
quotations Leucesie (Ter. Scaur. 28. ii K.), and cozeulodorieso of Varro,
L. L. vii. 26 (perhaps
or
Zeu, &c., ch. ii.
5), but whether rightly
not is a matter of doubt. (See Rhein, Mus. xxxiv. i on Latin eu.)
neve, seu, a
Examples of I.-Eur. eu, Latin u (O. Lat. ou) are Lat. ducere
(Goth, tiuhan, O. Engl. teon, Germ, ziehen); l^&i.jugeribus Abl.Pl.
from *jugus (Gk. CeCyos) Lat. uro (Gk. {fo> for *eMco). The Greek
:
HoAvSei'K^s is in O. Lat. *Pollouces, written in the orthography

of the early Praenestine inscriptions Poloces
(C. I. L. i. 55), and
Polouces (xiv. 4094), then Polluces

in Plaut. Bacch.
(so the MSS.
894; cf. Varro, L. L. v. 73 in latinis litteris veteribus nomen
quod est, inscribitur ut noXvbevKrjs,
'
Polluces,'
non ut nunc, Pollux).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
246
Before a vowel eu
[Chap. IV.
from I.-Eur. ew similarly became ov in
(ev)
the accented syllable, e. g. novus from I.-Eur. *newo- (see

10),
and in the unaccented was reduced to u, e. g. denuo (see ch. iii. 24,
and for other examples Solmsen, Stud. Lat. Lautg. p. 1 28)

&c. v has been dropped before the accent (ch.
36. Other examples of I.-Eur. eu.
Jupiter,
in cloaca,
53), leaving o.
ii.
in the usual Latin spelling
may have
been originally a vocative like Gk. Zeu irarcp.

(Can the fragment of the Carmen Saliare quoted above from Varro have Zeu
with Z for the sound dy~, as in Oscan inscriptions written in Roman
characters we find zicolo- as the Diminutive of the word for day,' like Latin
Juppiter (ch.
ii.
130),
dieciila ?).
The diphthong was reduced very early to

37. OU, TJ in Inscriptions.
a simple sound, as is natural where the two elements of the diphthong have
have u for ou (I.-Eur. eu) in the name Lucius
so close affinity as o and u.
We
two of the oldest Seipio epitaphs (C. I. L. i. 32 Luciom i. 30 Lucius with

Loucanam, and abdoucit\ not later than 200 B. c. deducundae, 181 B. c. (i. 538)
in
Lucius in a dedicatory inscription of the consul
Mummius,
146
B. c. (i.
542) ;
Bantina of
and iurarint (with iouranto, ioudicetur, ioudex, &c.) in the Lex

133-118 B.C. (i. 197) iurato, iudicibus, duco (with ioudicium, ioudicatio, ious) on
the Lex Repetundarum of 123-122 B. c. (i. 198), while the spelling with ou
is entirely discarded in the Lex Cornelia of 81 B. c. (i. 202, with iuus,iure, &c.).
Now and then ou occurs for a short vowel, e. g. ioubeatis (beside iousiset} in the
S. C. Bacch. (i. 196) (but see ch. viii.
29), proboum on old coins (i. 16),
Laoumeda on an old Praenestine vase (xiv. 4108, or Lad- ?), possibly to represent
the transition-sound between o and u, or in imitation of the Greek orthography, in which ou represented the u-souud, v the ii-sound. Ou is sometimes used for u (I.-Eur. oi), e. g. couraverunt (i. 1419, from Picenum), plourume
(with Cloul[i~\ for Cloelius, i. 1297, from near Amiternum), though not at all to
The spelling
the same extent as ei for 1. (On ou for I.-Eur. ou, see
41.)
o for ou (I.-Eur. eu) is dialectal, e.g. Poloces and Losna on a Praenestine mirror
Umbr. toro- for Latin tauro-, bull). On Latin inscriptions o occurs
(i. 55) (cf.
for I.-Eur. ou, and for the new ow-diphthong, which arose by syncope in words
The spellings poblico-,
like nov(e)ntius, cov(e)ntio, but not for I.-Eur. eu or u.
puplo-, &c. (see index to C.I.L. i.), are due to confusion of the two radically
luuci
different
words pubes and pop(u)lus.
38. OI.
to be written
was
and
was
oi till the second century, then came

into the sound u, though oe
passed
finally
I.-Eur. oi
oe,
written in some words which belonged to legal or

e.g. foedus, a treaty, poena (but punio), Poenus,
moenia (but munio), oboedio, in the poetic words foedus, foul,
still
official diction,
Thus I.-Eur. *oino-,

amoenus, and in the family name Cloelius.
one (cf *oiwo- Gk. otos, ' alone ') (Gk. oforj, the ace, O. Ir. oen,
'
'
W.
un, Goth, ains, O. Engl. an, Engl. one, an, a, Pruss. ains,
in Greek the numeral-root used was
Lith. venas, O. SI. mil
;
I.-Eur. sem- of Lat. semel, &c.,
ds for *sem-s,
/utta
for
*<rj(xia,
tv
REPRESENTATIVES OF
36-40.]
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
OI.
347
I.-Eur. oi is a grade of
for *sem), Lat. unus, older oenus, oino-.
an ei-root, often seen in the Perfect Tense or in a derivative
noun, e.g. woid- in the Perfect of weid-, to know' (Gk. ot8a and
TT7Toi0a from -Treitfo), I.-Eur. bheidh-, Lat. fido,feido), *qoina-, 'an
'
assessment, fine,' from qUei-,' to value, care for (Gk. TTOIZJJJ, from
Zend,
reico, often written no), borrowed by the Romans, poena
'
k and
kaena-, O. SI. cena, the

oi
not
two examples indicating
c in these
and similarly in Latin, e.g.foedus, a
treaty, faomfeido,
fido, just as o appears in the similar grade of e-roots, in pondus
ei)
from pendo.
After
initial v-
Latin
oi
became
ei,
as o
became
e in
(
10), e.g. vldi in older spelling veidei, from
Perf.
Mid. (O. SI. vede ; cf. Gk. oT6a, Goth,
*woidai
I.-Eur.
(-ai),
vorsns, versus, &c.
wait, O. Engl. wat, Engl. wot).
In the unaccented syllable oi became ei, class. I in the nautical

term anqwna, a truss, a loanword from the Greek (ayxofoi;),
perhaps adapted to Latin nouns in -ma (Non. 536. 5 M.
anquinae vincla quibus antennae tenentur), but in most cases
was as
resistive of
weakening as
o (ch.
iii.
e.
8),
g. se-curus
from
cura^ older coira, impunis (impoene Catofrag. p. 37. 2,1 Jord.) from
poena (cf. punio) ; in the final syllable ei, i is regular, e. g. Nona. P]
.
populi, earlier pop(u)lei,
from a
earlier poploe.
still
(Fest. ^44.
24
Th. quotes from the Carmen Saliare pilumnoe pqploe, a designation of the Romans 'velut pilis uti assueti.')
spurious
diphthong
has arisen through composition in coepi

coetus for co-itus, and through loss of v before the
oi, oe, class. H,
(older coepi),
accent in Julius, older luilio-
from *Io(v)illius ( 43) (cf Cloelius,

from the root *klew-, to be heard, famous '). On cui
see ch. vii.
18.
35, and on non from noen(um), ch. x.
.
older Cluilius,
from
quoi,
39. Other examples of I.-Eur. oi.
Lat. munus, PI. munera, *mune, PI.

munia, munlcipium^ com-munis, im-munis, 0. Lat. moini-cipio-, comoinem
(C.LL. i. 196, of 186 B. c.) (Goth, ga-mains, Germ, ge-mein, 'common/ Lith.
mamas, 'exchange/ 0. Ir. moini, maini, gifts '), and from the same root muto,
to exchange, mutuus, lent (Sicil. Gk. fjioTros, requital, Goth, maijmis, a gift/
moenittj
'
'
Lett, meetot, 'to exchange')
Lat. utor, O. Lat.

;
Mart. Cap. iii. 236 ' oisus
oit-ile
(C.LL.
i.
201. 9),
oeti
'
etiam dicitur ; sic enim

603. 6. 8), &c. (cf.
veteres usum dixere) seem to show, like Gk. ofros, fate, portion/ the o-grade
of a root eit-, seen perhaps in Osc. eitiuva-, 'money/ for *eitu- ; cunae shows
(i.
'
the o-grade of the root

40. OI,
'
kei-,
to lie
'
OE, U on Inscriptions.
(Gk. Mi-pai
cf. icoirrf).
reduced to u in a Scipio epitaph of

the beginning of the second cent. B.C. (<7. 1. L. i. 33) with utier so usura in one
of Mummius' tithe-dedications to Hercules (i.
542) of 146 B. c. muru Ace. on
Oi is
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
248
[Chap. IV.
a Capua inscription of c. 135 B. c. (Eph. Epigr. viii. 476) procurandae (with oind
and moinicipieis) on the Lex Agraria of in B. c. (C. I. L. i. 200). But the spelling
oi, and after it the spelling oe, long continued to be used, especially in such
;
phrases as faciundum coiraverunt (coeraverunf) in magisterial inscriptions (e. g.

i. 566, of 106 B. c. coiravere and
i. 600, of 62 B. c. coeravit
i. 617, of 51
loid[os]
;
and Cicero in the laws which he draws up for his ideal state
seems to think that the official style demands the spelling oe (e. g. ploeres, Legg.
iii. 3. 6
coerari and oesus, ib. iii. 4. 10), though in the Lex
oenus, ib. iii. 3. 9
B. c. coeraver.}
Julia Municipalis of 45 B. c. (C. I. L. i. 206) we have regularly euro, utor, municipium (once/owtfere), and similarly on the Lex Kubria of 49 B. c. (i. 205), ludus
(not loedus\ the form used in the Comm. Lud. Saec. and the Mon. Anc., both of
Augustus' reign, though Virgil MSS. often show moerus for mums (see
Ribbeek's Index}. The traditional nature of this spelling, even in the second
cent. B. c., is seen from the occurrence of spellings like murusside by side with
coeravere
loedos i. 568, of 104
coeraverunt, &c., e. g. i. 567, of 106 B. c., murum
B. c., murum
coiravercoiraverunt.
Eph. Epigr. viii. 460, of 108 B. c., murum
Examples from the older literature are, oenigenos unigenitos Paul. Fest. 225.
2 Th. oenus Plaut. True. 104 (B.) proilioMen. 186 (P.) moenis, obliging, quoted
by Nonius 23. 9 M. from Pacuvius moerus Accius Trag. 347 R. moenio in the
Ambrosian Palimpsest of Plautus (see Index to Studemund's Apograph)
'
loebesum et loebertatem antiqui dicebant liberum et libertatem Paul.
Test. 86. 30 Th. (Loebasius is given as the Sabine name for Liber by Serv.
ad Georg. i. 7 quamvis Sabini Cererem Pandam appellent, Liberum Loebasium cf. Gl. Plac. 80. 22 G.). This oe seems to have represented to the Romans
a long &-sound, the sound, in fact, of Greek v and the earlier instances of u
for I.-Eur. oi probably indicate this sound.
Plautus (Bacch. 129) puns on
.
'
'
'
'
Lydus (Gk. AOSos) and ludus
non omnis
and
oe is
41.
(
aetas, Lyde,
often used to express Gk.
OU.
19), first
v,
ludo conuenit
e. g. goerus, coloephia (ch. ii.
28).
I.-Eur. ou before a vowel (ow) became, as we saw

ov in Latin, then in the second century B.C. av,
which in the unaccented syll. fell to u, e. g. eluo (ch. iii.

24).
For I.-Eur. ou before a consonant we find sometimes
sometimes
<?,
Occasionally both these spellings occur for the same word.

Thus I.-Eur. *roudho-, red ' (Goth. rau]?s), is Latin robus, rob-igo
u.
[the form rubigo (with u like rufus, or with u like ruder?) is

rejected in the Probi Appendix, 199. 5 K. ; cf. the gloss robigo
non 'rubigo ' C. G.L. v. 144. 32, and see ch. ii. 24], and rufus, the
last being shown by its./, instead of d or b
114), to be dialectal.
(
RulM-dus comes from a verb in -eo (cf. kuwMus from humeo,
cattdus from caleo, &c.), *rubeo with I.-Eur. eu of Gk. epe^^w,
while the ordinary form of the verb, rubeo, shows, like ruler
(Gk. epvOpos), the ii of the weak grade of the root, I.-Eur. rudh-.
The same variety of spelling is seen in a word indicating
unshaped metal, &c., rodus and rudus though the normal spelling
y
REPRESENTATIVES OF
41,42.]
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
OU.
249
perhaps raudus (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.), the weak grade
of this stem (perhaps connected with the stem of robus, rufus)
is
being apparently seen in rudis, which means rough,

e.
g. aes rude, or
rough, metaphorically,
e. g.
literally,
arte rudis, in Ovid's
criticism of Ennius Ennius ingenio maximus, arte rudis. [Varro,

L. L. v. 163 deinde (porta) Eauduscula, quod aerata fuit.
Aes
raudus dictum ex eo veteribus in mancipiis scriptum raudus:
'
'
culo
'
libram
ferito
rem rudem
Festus
4 Th.
356.
rodus,
raudus
vel
nam saxum quoque
raudus
imperfectam,
roudus
ut
manibus
Accius
hinc
appellant poetae,
rapere
(so
the MS.) saxeum ; Paul. Test. 377. i Th. Rodusculana porta
significat
et
appellata,
aere,
quod rudis
et impolita sit relicta, vel quia raudo, id est
This variety of spelling

vincta].
became in Latin an <m-sound, which
fuerit
I.-Eur. ou
written, like Lat. au
from I.-Eur. au
Lat. ou from I.-Eur. eu
sometimes, like
though, owing to the
30), as
35), as u\
suggests that
was sometimes
<?,
scarcity of reliable instances, it is impossible to determine how

far these spellings corresponded to the pronunciation of the
diphthong at various periods, or how far they were influenced
by the analogy of other grades of the same root. For the higher
grade with I.-Eur. ou, 5 would have in Latin o ( 50), and the
weak grade of an eu-root with I.-Eur. ii would have in Latin
^ ( 2 3)j while a ^-grade
also not
(I.-Eur. u, Lat. u] was
unknown (51).
The Latin diphthong corresponding to I.-Eur.

eu had thus a different sound from the representative of I.-Eur.
An
ou.
ow-diph thong arose in Latin also from I.-Eur. -og(h)~-,
for the velar

Thus
g(h)s took in Roman lips the sound of v (u).
I.-Eur. *nogêdo- became in Latin *novedo-, *noudo-, whence
*nudus, an example which suggests that the ou from I.-Eur.

og(h)~ had the same sound as the ou from I.-Eur. eu, and was
developed in the same way to long u. Also by syncope in words

O. Lat. noventius (as in the prophecy of Cn. Marcius quam-
like
uis
nouentium duonum negumate,
Lat.
tiv t
*newn)
ap. Fest. 164. 28 Th.)
with
I.-Eur. ew, O. Lat. *novendmae, from novem (I.-Eur.

and din-, a stem for ' day/ seen in O. SI. dini, ' a day/
O. Ind. dina-, &c.

42. Other
(Goth, niutan,
For
this spurious ou
we have
first 0, later u.
examples of I -Eur. ou. From the root neud-, 'to use, enjoy'
to enjoy ') comes the Latin nutrio, nutrix (in Old Latin notrix,
<
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
350
[Chap. IV.
Quint, i. 4. 1 6), perhaps showing the o-grade, I.-Eur. noud- (Goth. nau]>s,
O. Engl. nead, Engl. need, Germ. Noth. Cf. Latin usus est, there is need)
Lat.
dunis seems to represent I.-Eur. kloun- (0. Scand. hlaunn, haunch,' but Gk.
K\6vis~), though the word occurs so seldom in the older writers that we cannot
;
'
say whether *claunis, *donis were earlier spellings Lat. lucus is I.-Eur. *louko(O.H.G. loh, 'copse, brushwood/ the -loo of Water-loo, O.Engl.leah, Engl.lea),
properly an open space in a wood, like the German Lichtung (cf. collucare,
to make a clearing in a wood), showing the o-grade of the I.-Eur. root leuk;
of Lat.
luceo, &c.,
of truth after
The
'
etymology lucus a lion lucendo had a grain

shows -ou-, e. g. in hoce loucarid on the
ix. 782)
honce loucom
quod loud siet on the
so that the old
all.
'
0. Lat. spelling
.
.
inscription of Luceria (C. J. L.
;
inscription of Spoletium (C. I. L. xi. 4766) ; the Perfect Part. Pass, of law, to
wash, I.-Eur. low- (Gk. Xovai) is lautus, later lotus (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) ;
the Dat. (Abl.) Plur. of bos, bovis (I.-Eur. *gSou-s, *g2ow-es) is bobus and lubus ;
.
formed from the same stem bou- after the fashion of instar(ch.iii. 36), comes the
word spelt bustar in the Glossary of Philoxenus, and bostar in the Glossary of
Cyrillus, and stated in both glossaries to be the equivalent of the Greek ftovffTaffiov, a word which must have belonged to the older period only, for Spanish
and Portuguese alone preserve it [Span, bostar, Port.bostal, indicating a Latin
original bostar bustar, a place for burning a dead body, (Charisius 38. 19 K.),
is a quite different word, connected with bustum]
Lat. uber appears to show
;
'
the u-grade of the root, like 0. Ind. udhar, 0. Engl. uder, Lith. udriiti, to give
milk,' but the ou-grade of Gk. ovOap, Gen. -aros for -ntos, meaning (i) udder,
(2) fertility of soil, may appear in the (dialectal) name of a river in Latium,
Ufens (modern Uffente) [cf. the Apulian river, Aufidus (modern Ofanto)], from
which comes the name of one of the Koman tribes Ufentina, in Old Latin
Index
Oufentina (see
to C.I.L.
also Vofentina,
i.),
and
Ofenlina (C. I.I. xi. 5702),
in Greek inscriptions 'n<-, Oucw^- (Eckinger, p. 44).

43.
for older ovi, ove.
By
the composition of com-,
co-
with
vir
we
word *coviria (cf. Volsc. covehria-), which became by syncope *cou(i)ria,

curia-.
The name Julius (written luilio on a lamp found in one of the oldest
graves in the Esquiline bury ing-place, Ann. Inst. 1880, p. 260) seems to come
from an earlier *Jovillio-, from a word found in Oscan in the form diuvila-, later
iuvila-, meaning apparently a gift presented yearly by a corporation or clan
to its tutelary god. Here the older spelling lull- suggests that the u repreget the
sents not
having been suppressed before the accent (see

form of the substantival name, of which Julius
is an adjectival derivative.
The trisyllabic lulus is an invention of Virgil's
(JHerw.xxiv. 155). Similarly Cluilius, the older form of Cloelius (written on an old
inscription Cloul[_is~], C. I. L. i. 1297), shows its derivation from the name Cluvius,
a name evidently connected with the root kleu-, to be famous (Gk. /cAtf-os)
ch. ii.
53)
ot?(t)
.
but
o(v)i,
the
Julius is the original
'
'
cluvior : nobilior, Lowe, Prodr. p. 364 ; Paul. Fest. 39. 2 Th.

Clonius Cloelia familia a Clonio Aeneae comite, est appellata.
[compare the gloss

refers the
word to
The family name

not
retained, as often happens, the older spelling with oe, Cloelius,

Similarly 0. Lat. coventio (couentionid on the S. C. Bacch. of 186
Clulius'].
B. c., C. I.L.
i.
196), lost its v before the accent, and the two vowels o
6 ; contio (but see ch. ii.
147, and below on nuntius).
and
were fused into

44.
The spurious diphthong
ou.
Nontio,
the older spelling (denontiari on
43-45.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF
the Lex Bantina of 133-118 B.

darum of 123-122 B. c., i. 198
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
AI, &C.
251
i. 197
pronontiato on the Lex Repetunon the Epistula ad Tiburtes of c. 100
B. c., i. 201
pronontiato and pronontiatum on fragments of old Laws, i. 207 and
208) became nuntio at the close of the Republican period (renuntio is the
spelling throughout the Lex Julia Municipalis of 45 B. c., i. 206 so nuntiationem on the Lex Rubria of 49 B. c., i. 205), though Cicero in his Laws (ii. 21)
uses nontius. Marius Victorinus (12. 18 K.) says the old spelling had ou. For
nundinae the oldest spelling is with ou, noundinum on the S. C. Bacch. of 186
B. c. (C.I. L. i. 196, then with o, nondinum on the Lex Bantina) (i. 197).
c., C. I.
L.
nontiata
45. AI.
The
I.-Eur. root, referred to in
27, as aiwe-,
'
time,
perhaps more correctly aiwe- (cf O. Ind. ayu-, life '), with
the diphthong originally long, but shortened in Latin aevnm,
according to the rule that a long diphthong (including combic
life,' is
nations with a nasal or liquid as second element) shortened in

Latin its first element when a consonant followed. Final I.-Eur.
-ai,
of
by
the ending of the Dat. Sg. of A-stems, shows traces in Latin

doublet forms, (i) d (with suppression of the second element,
a similar syncope as produced exemplar from exempldre), a form
'
which seems
Loucina (C.
to occur
on a few old
inscriptions, e.g. lunonei
189), lunone Loucina Tuscolana sacra (i. 1200)

-ai
(2)
(one syllable), class, -ae (presumably ae ; cf Osc. -ai, Umbr.
-e, Rustic and Late Latin <?, ch. ii.
41) (with a shortening of the
1.
L.
i.
element, which properly took place only before a consonant).

Similar doublets -o and -oi seem to show themselves for I.-Eur.
first
-6i in
O-stem Datives [(i)
Rom-anoi, Numasioi
the
cf.
class, eqwo,
Osc.
-ui,
dommo,
Umbr.
-e],
(2)
O. Lat. populoi
though in O-stems
(not the second doublet as in the A-stems) established

in the classical usage.
(On these Datives, see ch. vi. 23.)
first
itself
In Greek
this I.-Eur. -ai became -a, e. g. x.pq, later -d,

dialects also -at (presumably at), while this I.-Eur. 6i
e. g. iTrTTco, later -co, in dialects -ot.
-<j>,
but in
became
'
Shortening of long diphthong before consonant. It seems to have
been a law very widely spread through the I.-Eur. languages that a long
vowel became shortened before any y (in i-diphthongs), w (in u-diphthongs),
m, n, r, or 1, when this was followed by a consonant. Thus I.-Eur. *went- from
the root we-, to blow (Gk. a-77f) has become in Gk. d-lvr-, in Goth, vinds, our
wind/ as in Latin ventus (Span, viento) the I.-Eur. word for the heel or
the ham (0. Ind. parfni-) is in Gk. -mtpva., in Goth, fairzna, and in Latin
'
'
'
p&rna (Span, pierna) [curiously enough Mar. Sacerdos (vi. 451. 5 K.) cites
a derivative of this word, pernix, swift (lit. ' strong in the ham,' and properly
used of horses and other animals, A. L. L. viii. 453) as an illustration of a short
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
252
the long pronunciation of which
e,
is
a barbarism
[Chap. IV.
barbarismus ...
fit
... si
'
dicas pernix et * per producas, quae correpta est] ; the Dat. (Abl. Loc. Instr.)
Plur. Suffix of O-stems, I.-Eur. -ois has become in Greek -ots, as in Latin -eis,
(ch. vi.
-is
'
48)
lentils is
a cognate of
tinis.
(Cf.
Engl. 'kept,' 'wept' from
keep/ 'weep').
The
46. ATI.
I.-Eur. long diphthong au
is
seen in the stem
nau-, 'ship' (O. Ind. naus, navas, Gen.; Horn. Gk. vrjvs, vr}6s Gen.,
Arm. nav, O. Ir. nau, naue or noe, Gen._, W. noe, ' a dish,' like our
'
butter-boat/ O. Scand. nor), which
is
in Latin
an
z'-stem ndvis,
The
-an- of nau-fragium, nau-stibulum

(Gk. K\rj(F)ts).
6
vas alvei simile' (Fest. 172. 23 Th.), claudo shortens the first
element owing to the fact that a consonant follows (see above,
like cldvis
45).
au
(e.
[That claudo had the same au, as the equivalent of I.-Eur.

g.fraus), we see from its sinking to u in the unaccented
e.
syllable,
I.-Eur. 6w,
g.
e.
excluder e,
like defrudare.~\
g. octdvus,
For Latin dv from
and perhaps fldvus (beside
florus,
Gk.
Gams
(a trisyllable till late Latin, Harvard

Studies, 1891) is the class, form of older Gdvius (Osc. Gaaviis),
xAwpos), see
50.
with suppression of intervocalic v ( 70), a name apparently

derived from the root of gaudeo, gdvisus sum (Gk. yr]Qtu) for
*ydF0a>) (cf Raius and Rdvius) On the curious remark of Teren.
tianus
Maurus about the pronunciation
of Lat. au, see ch.

'
ii.
34.
'
I.-Eur. ei appears e. g. in *rei-, property (O. Ind.

the
Gen.
ras,
rayas), Lat. res, Gen. rel for *reyl, a root in which
the
had
in
the
'Indo-European period'
diphthong
apparently
47. El.
ei
(ey) and e. The Loc. Sing, ending of E-stems shows the
second of these doublets in Latin, e. g. die crastini, postridie, &c.
doublets
EU. The
Nom.
*dyeus, the sky,' shows the long

eu
divam and dyam, diyam ; Gk.
Ace.
diphthong
(O. Ind. dyaus,
Zevs for ^Zrji;?, Lat. dies like Ace. diem on Jovis, &c., from the
48.
I.-Eur.
'
stem dyew-, see
A final
<?w-diphthong arose in Latin

by the suppression of the final -e of neve, and produced the form
neu ; ceu is probably to be referred to an older *ce-ve (ch. x. 1 1).
ch. vi.
9).
The Loc. Sg. ending
of U-stems, if this was I.-Eur. -eu, appears

where the u represents an earlier -eu with shortening
of the first element of -eu (see
26), so that I.-Eur. *dyeus
in nociu,
should be Lat. *dius (nu-dius-tertius ?).

49. 6l.
An
example of
final -6i
has been already mentioned,
REPRESENTATIVES OF
46-51.]
I.-EUR.
VOWEL-GRADES. 253
This in Latin shows the

the ending of the Dat. Sg. of O-stems.
classical ending, e.g. equo, domino, (2) -oi
-<?, the
(presumably -oi), an ending found in very old inscriptions, e. g.
doublets, (i)
Numasioi (Osc.
-ui,
Umbr.
vi.
-e) (ch.
26).
numeral *oktou, a dual in

50. OU.
l
form, with the sense apparently of two sets of four (O. Ind.
astau, asta, Gk. OKTW, Goth, ahtau, O. Engl. eahta, Lith. asztu-ni),
I.-Eur. 6u- is seen in the
'
in
Duals in the Veda show generally -au (I.-Eur. -6u)

an initial vowel, -a (I.-Eur. -6) before an initial consonant,
'
devau and deva, twin-gods ; and it is probable that these
Latin odd.
before
'
e.
g.
doublets existed even in
the -5 of Latin octo
(cf.
what
is
called the I.-Eur. period, so that
ambo, duo) will represent an I.-Eur.
-6,
and not -6u. As I.-Eur. ow became dv in Latin ( 19), so I.-Eur.

6w is said to have become dv in the corresponding ordinal number,
octdvus for *octovws (Gk. oyo(f )os). The long diphthong seems to
have occurred in the I.-Eur. declension of the word for 4 ox/ stem
*g"ou- (O. Ind. gaus, Loc. gavi, Ace. gam, Nom. PL gavas, &c.,
Arm. kov, Gk. jSofo, Dor. POOS, according to the grammarians,
O. Ir. bou, bo, W. bu, buw, O. Engl. cu, Lett, guws) ; but the
a doubtful example, for its b- instead of the normal vsuggests that it is a dialectal (or rustic) form like ovis for
Latin bos
(
X 39)
is
*avis (I.-Eur. *owi-,
19),
and not a genuine Latin development.
Variation (Ablaut) of Vowels. A root like pet- of Gk.

'
he flies,' appears in the form ptTTCTtcrOai, to fly, O. Ind. patati,
in Gk. 7rreV0cu, O. Ind. a-pa-pta-t, he flew/ the shorter form being
51.
'
a syncopated form of the other, due to loss of accent. Similarly

the root ei-, 'to go (Gk. et-crt, 3 Sg., Lith. el-ti, Lat. it, older
ei-t, ch. viii.
2), loses the e of the diphthong in the P. P. P. *i-to'
(O. Ind. -ita-_, Gk. -tros, Lat. -Itws), where the accent falls on
the suffix and eu becomes ii, through loss of accent, in I.-Eur.
;
'
'
*bhtiga,
flight
Lat./%0) from *bheugo, I

'
(Gk.
<fiyj,
while en, em,
'
flee
(Gk.
similarly reduced, appear before

a vowel as n, m, r, 1, e.g. Gk. yt-yr-o/xat, Lat. gi-gn-o, beside
Gk. yeVos, Lat. gen-ns, but before a consonant assumed in Greek
<evyo))
the forms
a, pa,
er,
el,
Xa, e.g. $aro's
from
(/>ez>-,
to
kill,
I.-Eur. gh"en-,
bpaKvv (O. Ind. drsant-) from 8epK-, to glance, I.-Eur. derk-, in

Latin en, em, or, ol, e.g. ten-tus (O. Ind. ta-ta-, Gk. ra-ro's) from
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
254
[Chap. IV.
'
to stretch/ fors (O. Ind. bhr-ti-, O. Ir. brith, Goth, gaSi, 92).
baurj?s) from bher-, to bear' (see
may call these
ten-,
We
'
'
bhug-, bhr-, &c., the weak grade of the

find
roots, and pet-, bheug-, bher- the normal or E-grade.
these roots also with their e replaced by o in such words as Gk.
reduced forms pt-
'
We
yi-yov-a Pft., otros, a Derivative Noun from the root ei-, to go/
yovos from the root gen-, Qovos from gh-en-; and gon-, oi-,
There are
-grade of these roots.
gh~on- may be called the
'
also occasionally
forms with
e, 6,
e.
g.
Gk. irardo/uu from
pet-,
This variation, or gradation, called by the Germans

fly.'
'
of
I.-Eur. vowels has not yet been thoroughly explained
Ablaut,'
or systematized ; the relation for example of u, I to the ordinary
'to
weak grade
in words like I.-Eur. *klu-to- (O. H. G. hlut,

loud/ Zend, sru-ta) beside I.-Eur. *klu-to- (O. Ind. sru-ta-, Gk.
<
KAiJ-ro's)
is
to the E-
ti,
not quite
clear,
and 0-forms,
e.g.
nor yet that of the E- and 0-forms
Gk.
Trcordojuuu
beside
Troreo/xat.
They
'
are generally called lengthenings of the weak grade (of diphthongal roots), of the E-grade and of the 0-grade, and are by German
'
'
Dehnstufe ( lengthened
philologists classed under the term
in
see
these
Inclog. Forsch. iii. 306, who
grade '). [On
Streitberg
'
explains them as produced by syncope of a following short vowel

in *bhor (Gk. (/>o>p) for *bhor(o)s, &c., *reks- (Lat. reoc-i] for
Nor have the grades of other than E-roots been
*reg-es-, &c].
properly equated to grades like pet-, pt-, pot-; the variation

of the root do-, to give/ for example, which has 6 in Gk. 6t-8co-/xt,
Lat. do-num, but a short vowel in Gk. So-ros, Lat. da-tus, of the
'
throw/ or 'to throw seed/ with e in Gk. t-Tj-ju for

Lat. se-men, but with a short vowel in Gk. e-ro's, Lat.
to stand,' with a in Gk. t'-orrj/iu for
sa-tus, of the root sta-,
*(ri-o-Ta-jLu, Lat. std-re, but with a short vowel in Gk. ora-roy,
root se-, 'to
*o-i-en7-juii,
'
similarly the variation of a and a, e.g. in the

{
meaning to drive,' ag- in O. Ind: aja-mi, Gk.
ayo), Ir. agaim, Lat. ago, ag- in O. Ind. aji-, a contest/ O. Ir. ag,
Lat. sta-tus
I.-Eur. root
'
'
a contest,' Lat. amb-dges
and the variation of o and
6, e.
g. in
~La,t.fodio beside fodi, Gk. d-p} beside ev-w^rys; not to mention

the variation of a and 6 in Lat. scabo beside scobis, acies (Gk.
afcpoy,
Horn. aKpu, a hill-top) beside O. Lat. ocris, a rugged

a point), from the root ak-, ok-, sharp.'
'
(Gk.
OK/HS,
hill
REPRESENTATIVES OF
51.]
of this variation of vowels in Latin are
Examples
(a)
Weak
VOWEL-GRADES.
I.-EUR.
grade in
(i) Derivative
Nouns with
I.
355
in E-roots:
A-suffix, O-suffix,
Tl-suffix, &c. (ch. v.

2, 42), e.g.fuga (Gk. Qvy-ij) from the root
'to
flee,'
bheug-,
jug-urn (O. Ind. yug-am, Gk. ($y-6v) from the
3
root yeug-, to join \fors (O. Ind. bhr-ti-), mens (O. Ind.
ma-ti-),
mors (O. Ind. mr-ti) ; (2) in P. P. P. with TO-suffix, e.g. duc-tus
'
from duco for *deuco, us-tus (A. L. L.

(Gk. e&o for
ii.
607) from uro for *euso
for *kld-toe#Ao>), per-culsus
(cf.
clacks)-,
(3) in
from the root gen-,
sido
Reduplicated Present-stem,
g. gi-gn-o
from the root sed- ; (4) in Nasalized Present-stems,
e.g. ju-n-g-o from the root yeug-, U-n-qiio from the root leiq~e.
for *si-sd-o
I
fl-n-d-o from the root bheid- (Goth, beita,
bite'); (5) in some Present-stems with the YO-suffix, e.g. fug-io
from the root bheug-.
*
(Gk.
AeiTTco),
Normal or E-grade in (i) Neuter ES-stems, e.g. gen-us

(b)
from the root gen- (Gk. yeV-os), decus from the root dek-, nemus
from the root nem-; (2) Present-stems formed with the Thematic
Vowelj e.g. veho from the root wegh- (O. Ind. vah-, Lith. vezu,
O. SI. vezaj, sequor from the root seq-- (O. Ind. sac-, Gk. erro/zen,
O. Ir. sechur), fulo, O. Lat. feido, from the root bheidh- (Gk.
root deik- (Gk.
iretô) for
*<ei0co), dtco, O. Lat. deico, from the
35), from the root
^(KWIJLL), duco, O. Lat. douco for *deuco (
deuk- (Goth, tiuha), uro for *euso from the root eus- (Gk. #o>
for *v/ia>), j)luo, O. Lat. plovo for *plewo, from the root pleu(Gk. irXt(F}<&). (On the u of pluo see ch. viii.
6.)
(c)
O-grade in (i) Derivative Nouns with A-suffix, O-suffix,

g.flrocus from the root prek-, to ask (Lat. precor), domus
'
&c.,
e.
'
(Gk. boôs) from the root dem-,, to build (Gk. Seâi), toga from
the root (s)teg-, to cover, thatch (Gk. o-reyw, Lat. tego) (2)
Causative Verbs, e. g. moneo, lit. e cause to remember/ from the
'
'
'
root
men-
'
(Lat. me-min-i), torreo,
root ters- (Gk. repo-o/uat).

II. in E-suffixes.
(i)
Nouns
Voc. Sg. in
Nom.
equom
(2)
-e, e.
g. eque,
lit.
cause to dry up,' from the
of the
Second Declension with
Ace., &c. in -os, -om,
N-stems, E-stems, S -stems,
&c.,
e.
e.
g. equos,
g. temp-us (O. Lat.
temp-os\ temp-or-is for *temp-os-es Gen., temp-er-i Adv., aug-us-tus

for *aug-os-to-, auxilium for *aug-s-ilio-, pleb-es, dec-or (O. Lat.
dec-os)
no-men^ car-n-is, rati-on-i
In the I.-Eur. declension
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
256
[Chap. IV.
may have shown in the Nom. Sg.

unaccented, e.g. Gk. So-rrjp, 8w-ro)/>,
cases e when accented, 6 when unaccented,
of these stems the suffix
when
in the other
e.
g.
Gk.
'
'
strong
7ra-re'p-a, $/>a-rop-a,
e.
grade,
when
accented, 6
g.
divergences
Gk.
of
and in the
weak
'
removed in the various I.-Eur. languages,
e.
accentuation of the stem or the
g.
The
well as jurjrpos, Trare'pcoz; instead of -narp&v.

strong and weak stems in Declension,
Gk.
Gk.
wefosj
&c.,
for
*ped-ya-,
/mrjrepo?
as
alternation of
depending on the
has left its mark in
suffix,
the divergent form of words like Gk. -TTOU?, -rroSoy

tri-pod-are) and Lat. pes, peel-is (cf. Gk. Tre'fa, rpa-7rea,
footed,'
weak
cases the
Tra-rp-os, ira-Tp6.-ai (O, Ind. pi-tr-su), but the

the suffix-form have been to a great extent
*ped-yo-),
(cf.
'
lit.
Lat.
four-
Lat. pecten and
KTCIS for *17KTVS, &C.
The combination
ye,
we was
treated
somewhat
similarly to
loss of accent to i, u, e. g. Gk. VTT-VOS

ei, eu, being reduced by the
for *sup-nos (O. SI. sunu) from the root swep (O. Engl. swefn,
(
a dream
'),
Gk.
Tiepva-t,
last year, for we'/wri (O. Ind. par-ut)
from
the root wet- (Gk. (f)eros, a year, Lat. vetus). This root wetseems to have lost by procope an initial a, and the reduced form
of awet- appears in Gk. ei/t-aur-os, just as the reduced form of
aweg- (Gr. a(F)^n>) in the aug- of Lat. aug-eo, Gk. a#co, O. Ind.
strength/ while ug- the reduced form of weg- (with
ojas-,
procope of initial a) appears in O. Ind. uks- to grow strong,' Gk.
And as we sometimes find I, u beside i, u the
uytrjs for ûyiris, &c.
'
'
weak grades of ei, eu, so we find the same long vowels in forms
of ye- and we-roots, e. g. ku- (O. Ind. suna-, want, emptiness ')
from the root kwe- (Gk. K(F}tv6s, empty). On the variation of
*
with ye (iye) in I.-Eur. YO-stems, see ch. v. 4, of i with ye in the

I.-Eur. Athematic Optative (O. Lat. sies and simm, &c.), see
ch. viii. 55. Latin con-cut-io for *con-quel-io from quatio, ab-ic-io
i
short in the older poetry), for *ab-yec-io

from jacio, shows that the Latin language had the same tendency
as the I.-Eur. to reduce unaccented ye to i, we to u, and in many
(with the
first syllable
cases it
impossible to say whether the reduction belongs to the
is
'
Indo-European
period or
is
a Latin development.
I.-Eur. e (Lat. e) varies with Lat. a in

Lat. se-men (Gk. rj-pa, a casting) and sa-tus (Gk. e-ros) from the
III. in other roots.
REPRESENTATIVES OF
51.]
root se-, fec-i (Gk.
VOWEL-GRADES.
I.-EUR.
an extension of the root
e-flrjK-a) a,nd.fac-io,
with Lat. a in Lat.

n'-flrj-jui)
do-num (Gk. Swpoy), and da-tus (Gk. 8oro9, 8oW) from the root
do-, cos (O. Ind. sa-, 'to sharpen ') and catus, which in O. Lat. meant
dhe- (Gk.
sharp,'
'
shrill
I.-Eur. 6 (Lat. o) varies
from the root ko-
I.-Eur. a (Lat. a) varies with
Latin a in ~Lat.fd-ma (Gk. tyri-^} &n.dfat-eor
(ch. viii.
32) (Gk.
(Gk. tarr^t for *o-t-oTd-/ou) and sta-tvts (Gk. ora-ros).

In all these cases the Latin weak- grade vowel is a, while in Greek
std-re
(fraTos),
we have
i
for E-roots, o for 0-roots, a for A-roots, but in Sanscrit
hi-ta- from root DHE-, di-ti- from root DO,

(e. g.
from root STA-), just as we have Lat. a of pater, which is
& in Greek and other languages (Gk. 7rdr?}p, O. Ir. athir, Goth,
for all roots
sthi-ta-
also
We
find even in Greek

fadar) represented by Sanscrit i (pitar-).
in
form
the
weak
of
a
0-roots
KtKdbovro
E-,
occasionally
(e. g.
beside eKK?j8ei, 801^09 beside 8<3poy), so that
we
are perhaps justified
in supposing a short 0-sound (a) to have been the form of the weak
grade of e, 6, as well as of a, in European languages (see
3).
The Latin tendency to weaken every unaccented vowel has
greatly obscured the traces of the I.-Eur. variation of vowels

prosperm, for example, has spa- (cf. O. Ind. sphira-, 'wealthy*) the
weak grade of spe- of spes, spero (O. Ind. spha-, O. SI. spe-ti),
;
with a weakened before
r in the
unaccented syllable to
e,
and
creditus (O. Ind. srad-dhita-) has the same vowel weakened to #.

Words like franyo (a is shown by con-fringo for con-frengo, &c.),
with the weak grade frag- in the Nasalized Present-stem of the
'
I.-Eur. root bhrey- (Goth, brikan,

to break '), gradus, gradior,
with a weak form grad- from the I.-Eur. root ghredh-, to step
(Goth. grij?s, a step '), suggest that in Latin (as perhaps in other
'
'
'
languages,
re, le,
the
the
M.
were the weak grades of

or, ol, em, en to be
U. v. pref.) ra, ma, &c.
me, ne, although
we have
"
seen Lat.
weak grades of er, el, em, en where the liquid or nasal follows
e.
But we occasionally find in Latin (and perhaps in the other
Italic
languages) a in forms of E-roots where e is not preceded by
a liquid or nasal, e.g.pateo
(Osc. pate-) from the root pet- (Gk.
its
relation
to
the
obscure or indeterminate vowel
ntT&wviJii) ;
(like the
Hebrew she va), written a,
a,
&c., is
not clear
(see
3,
83, 94).
As an
I.-Eur. a
is
the
weak grade
3
of
6,
so
an
may
be the weak
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
2,$$
[Chap. IV.
grade of 6u the Plautine aus-culum, for example, may then exhibit

the weak grade of the stem *ous- (O. Ind. as-, Lat. 5$-). It may
;
weak grade
also be the
beside O. SI. severu,

similarly ai of 6i, ei,
o, so ai
It
ai.
vary with
may
also possible that as a varies with
is
oi (e. g.
Lat. aemidus and Gk. oi&Uo), and
r
Kav\6s, a stalk, and KotAo? for *Ko/ t\os,
(e. g.
and some explain in this way Latin forms like lavo beside
au with ou
hollow) ;
Gk.
of eu (Caurus or Corns, Lith. sziaure,

quoted as an example), and of au ; and
is
Gk.
which
see
and Lat.
Aovco (on
52. I.-Eur.
19).
and
Lat. procus (Lith. praszyti, 0. SI. prosit!)
6.
from I.-Eur. root prek- (Lith. perszu and Lat. preces, precor) Lat. noceo, the
Causative of I.-Eur. nek- (0. Ind. nas-, Gk. veievs, Lat. nex, &c.)
Lat. pondo,
in weight (used with ellipse of libra, e. g. centum pondo es,
you weigh
a hundred pounds'), the Abl. of an O-stem *pondus, -i, beside pondus, -eris,
from pendo, to weigh Lat. domus, an O-stem in Plautus and the writers
before Sulla, I.-Eur. *domo- (0. Ind. dama-, Gk. So/ôs) from I.-Eur. root dem-,
;
'
'
to build
'
(Gk.
Germ. Zim-mer
men)
Latin
ratas)
'
ritii,
Se/zas, form, Goth, tim-r-jan, to build,' Engl. tim-ber,

Goth, ga-timan, Ho be suitable, conformable,' Germ, zierotundus (0. Ir. roth, a wheel,' W. rhod, 0. H. G. rad, Lith.
'
SffMu,
;
<
rota,
I.-Eur. root reth-, < to run (0. Ir. rethim, W. rhedu Inf., Lith.
I roll ') ; Latin orbus, I.-Eur. *6rbho- (Arm. orb, Gk. dpQavos, 6/xo-/3ora<,
'
from
O. Ir. orbe, from stem *orbio-, 'an inheritance,' Goth, arbi) from I.-Eur. root
Ir. erbim,
I entrust, bequeath ') cunae from *coinae (cf. Gk. Koirrj}
erbh- (O.
'
from kei53. I
with
'
to lie
and
'
6.
(Gk.
*>).
This o
and
is
best seen in the
Noun
Suffixes -on-, -or-
which vary
well as with -on-, -or-, e. g. Lat. homo Nom.,

hominis for *homenis Gen., Lat. ddtor, datoris beside Gk. Swrup, Swropos and dorrjp,
in Greek it is seen also in the Perf. of verbs with e,
SoTTjpos (see ch. v.
57)
-en-, -er-
-en-, -er-, as
e. g.
reOcuKTai
from
#7770;,
dêojKa
from
atyirj/jii,
The
&c.
root of Lat.
flos,
Flora is
Goth, blo-ma, Engl. bloom O. Engl. blos-tm, Engl. blossom

0. Engl. bio- wan, Engl. to blow, of flowers), which is connected with the root
bhle- of Lat. flemina, congestion of blood (Goth, uf-blesan, Germ, auf-blasen),
Lat. plebes, Gk.
just as the root pie-, to be full (Latin plenus, Gk. TrXrjprjs
bhlo-
(Ir. blath,
'
'
ir\fj6os) seems to be connected with the root plo- of Ir. lar, Engl. floor, &c.
but these are rather to be explained like gno- and gna- of Lat. gnotus, and
;
gndrus
i).
54. 6-a, e-a.
From
<
root led-,
to leave, to let
'
(Goth, letan, 0. Engl. laetan,
with 6-grade in Goth, lai-lot Perf., we have in the weak grade Lat.
Idssus (Goth, lats, Germ, lass)
Lat. catus, which Varro makes the equivalent
of dcutus, used in Old Latin and in the Sabine dialect of sounds, i. e. sharp,
Engl.
let),
46 apud Ennium
iam cata signa fere sonitum dare voce parabant.
hoc enim verbo dicunt Sabini quare
shrill (L. L. vii.
Cata acuta
catus Aelius Sextus
non, ut aiunt, sapiens, sed acutus)
is
in O. Ind.
'
sita-,
sharp,'
from
a-,
to
52-56.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF
I.-EUR.
VOWEL-GRADES. 259
and is connected with Lat. cos, a whetstone (like dos from root
41), and
Similarly we have rd-tus beside re-ri, fdc-io beside/ec-i (eh. viii.
from I.-Eur. ok-, swift (connected with ak-, sharp ?) (0. Ind. agii-, Gk.
in the Philoxenus and
OJKVS, Lat. odor) acupedium (presumably with
), equated
sharpen,'
do-).
'
'
'
'
the acupedius of Paul.

Cyrillus Glossaries to ogviroSia (cf. Gl. Plac. p. 7. 40 G.
7. 19 Th. is a mistake, see Class. Rev. v. p. 9) ; accipiter (dec- Ter. Maur.
1267) is probably a corruption of *acu-peter (cf. O. Ind. asu-patvan- for *6ku-,
;
Test.
Gk. wKv-irtTrjs, the epithet of a hawk in Hesiod, Op. 210),

etymology from accipio the form acceptor, the original of
O. Span, acetore, is used by Lucilius (me. 123 M.) exta acceptoris et unguis,
but is censured by the grammarian Caper (p. 107. 8 K. accipiter non 'acceptor')
dmarus shows the root dm- (0. Ind. am-la-, sour'), which is usually regarded
as the weak form of orn-, raw (0. Ind. ama-, Gk.
swift-flying,' and
to a popular
'
due
'
'
'
this interchange are Lat. atrox for *adrox (Arm.

scabo, to scrape (Gk. <fKaiTT(v, to dig) and scoUs,
acuo, acus, acies, acer-bus (Gk. atcpos, Horn. apts, a hill-top) and ocris
a point, oKptofis, an epithet of unhewn stone in Homer), an Old
Examples of
') and odium
55. a-6.
ateam,
'
sawdust
I hate
;
(Gk. o/tpts,
Latin word for a rugged
[Fest. 196. 17 Th.
hill.
Philologus in libro Glossematorum refert,
apud Livium
ocrem antiqui, ut Ateius
montem confragosum
vocabant, ut
sed qui sunt hi, qui ascendunt altum ocrim
unde fortasse etiam ocreae sint dictae inaequaliter tuberatae in Umbrian,

and Marrucinian the stem ocri- (Nom. Sg. ocar, in Umbrian) seems to bear the
sense of citadel] ; ancus, an Old Latin word for a person with a crook-elbow
(Paul. Fest. 15. 3 Th. ancus appellatur, qui aduncum bracchium habet, et
exporrigi non potest), which went out of use c. 200 B.C., to judge from the
fact that the word survives only in Portuguese anco, the elbow (Gk. ayiccuv
and dyKakr). O. Ir. ecath, 'a hook,' from root ank-), and uncus, a hook, reduncum
doceo and Gk. 8i5dovu for
bracchium, aduncus unguis (Gk. oyitos, a hook)
*8i-8aK-ffKG).
We have Oscan a, Latin o in tongere, a word used by Ennius,
declared by Aelius Stilo to be equivalent to noscere, and to be still employed
.
'
'
in the Praenestine dialect (Paul. Fest. 539. 5 Th. toiigere nosse est, nam
Praenestini tongitionem dicunt notionem. Ennius alii rhetorica tongent.
'
9 Th. [tongere Aelius Sti]lo ait noscere esse), appearing in

Oscan in the noun tangion- with the sense of sententia, e. g. senateis tanginud,
senatus sententia,' the cognate of our word think,' probably from a root
tengr-.
[Cf. the (dialectal ?) variation of names like Blossius, Blassius ; Fabius,
Cf. Fest. 538.
'
'
'
and a. I. Eur. pag-, to fasten (cf. pak-) (Sanscr. pasa-, cord,' Dor.
Gk. irdyvviJLi and firayr]Vj Mid. High. Germ, vuoge, 'deftness in fastening, '&c.,
Mod. Germ. Fuge, and Goth, fagrs, 'suitable),' ~La,t.pango (with a; cf. com-pingo],
I.-Eur. swad-, to
pepigi (from *pe-pag-i) and corn-pages, pddscor and pdc-em Ace.
make pleasant (0. Ind. svadati and svadate, Dor. Gk. ddopai and Horn. Gk.
I.-Eur. *nas-, the nose/ probably Nom. nas(s),
cij&Sov, S.5ov Aor.), Lat. suddeo
Gen. nas-os (0. Ind. nas- and nas-, Lith. nosis and 0. SI. nosu), O. Lat. ndssum,
class. Lat. ndsus (ch. ii.
129), nan's; similarly Lat. sdgio, sdgus and sdgax
I seek,' Goth, sokja, Germ, suche, O. Engl.
(Dor. Gk. dyeofMt, Ir. saigim,
The Latin words sdgio and sdgax were used of hounds on the track,
sece).
56. a
'
'
'
'
'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
260
whence
praesdgio, to
'
scent out
'
[Chap. IV.
the future (Cic. Div.
65
i.
Ennius, A.
cf.
voce sua nictit ululatque ibi acuta)

saga was
375 M. nare sagaci Sensit
applied to an old match-maker, like Gyllis in the first Idyll of Herondas
(Non. 22. 34 M. sagae mulieres dicuntur feminarwra ad libidinem virorum
indagatrices cf. Lucil. vii. 6 M. saga et bona conciliatrix). So Latin deer, stem
;
acuo (Gk. dxpos, Lith. asztrii-s, &c., show I.-Eur. a) ; Lat. am- beside
Gk. &Kpo- reminds us of Latin sam- (sdcres porci, pigs for sacrifice, Plaut.)
beside sdcro-.
and
am'-,
and
57. e
e.
eat' (0. Ind. ad-, 'to eat' and adya-,

itaii and etum, Lith. ed-s Part., O. SI.
Lat. lex, leg-is and lego, &c. I.-Eur. reg- to stretch,
I.-Eur. sd-,
'eatable,' Gk. fto/iou
and
ftySws,
Ho
Goth,
jad-u), Lat. Mo and edi Perf.

rule (0. Ind. raji-, a row,' raj-, * a king,' 0. Ir. rigim, I stretch,' ri, ' a king'),
Lat. rego, I rule, reg-, a king. This lengthening appears chiefly in Preterites,
e.g. 0. SI. nesu, 'I carried' (beside nesg, 'I carry),' Goth, setum, 'we sat'
'
'
'
'
'we sit'), O. Ir. ro mldar, 'I judged' (beside midiur, 'I judge,
from the root med- of Gk. /êSofiat), and in the nouns derived from Verbstems like lex, rex. The occurrence of the long vowel in some Present-forms
I eat,' is probably due to the use of a Perfect-stem as
like Lith. ed-mi,
a Present (like Gk. avuyca Pres. from avajya Perf.).
(beside sitam,
think,'
'
58
and
I.
I.-Eur. *wm>-, 'a
man'
(0. Ind. vlra-, Lith.
vyras have
0. Ir. fer from*wiro-, Goth, vair from *wiro-, 0. H. G. wer, Germ. Wer-wolf,
Engl. were-wolf and Lat. mr have I) I.-Eur. *gîro-, 'lively (O. Ind. jira-, Lat.
But most examples of Latin i-l are really cases of i-ei, e. g. fides and
wreo).
'
ido,
older feido (see
13).
'
to see (Gk. 6'ô/iai and aty) appears in

(Gk. 65^, Arm. hot, and Gk. 8va-w8ijs, Lith.
iidziu) in Lat. odor
nSg^-, naked (O. Ind. nagna-, Ir. nocht, Goth, naqaps,
and Lith. ntigas), in Lat. nudusfor *n&o(f)dus; Slen-, 'the elbow' (Gk. wXtvr),
59. 5
and
Lat. oc-ulus
6.
The I.-Eur.
the root 5d-,
root oq-,
'
'to smell'
'
'
Goth, aleina, a cubit,' 'ell,' O. Ir. uile, uilenn Gen., W. elin, 0. Engl. eln,
Engl. ell, el-bow) is Lat. ulna for *6l(i~)na. As with e (varying with e) we find
o (varying with 6) in the Perfect-stem, in nouns derived from Verb-stems, &c.,
e. g. Gk. 07r-<y7r-a, w\f/.
'
u.
I.-Eur. *nu, 'now,' from the root neu- of *newo-, 'new'
Adv. and Particle, nunam, Gk. vv, vvv, 0. Ir. no and nu, a Verbal
Part, often used with the Present Tense, e.g. no chanim, I am singing,' Goth,
nu, O. Engl. nu, Germ, nun and sometimes nu, Lith. nu-gi, 0. SI. ny-n),
Lat. nu-dius tertius the day before yesterday, lit. now the third day,' -num in
etiam-num, &c. (Gk. roi-vvv}, nun-c I.-Eur. lu- from the root leu-, to loose [Gk.
0ov\vTov-S, about the time of loosing the oxen from the plough, towards
60. a
and
(0. Ind. nu,
'
'
'
'
(Class. Eev. ii. 260 ; Schulze, Quaesl. Ep. p. 321), and \vr6s], Lat. so-lutus ;
'
I.-Eur. su-, a sow (O. Ind. su-kara-, Gk. vs, O. Engl. su), Lat. sus and su-cerdae,
Non. 175.
'stercus suillum' (Fest. 432. 8 Th.
cf. Paul. Fest. 433. 2 Th.
I.-Eur. tu, the accented
14 M.) (W. hw-ch, Goth, sw-ein, 0. Engl. sw-in)
midday
'
and the unaccented form
of the
2nd Personal Pronoun (Gk.
rv-v-rj
and
av, &c.),
Lat. tu (on tu-quidem, see ch. iii. 51) ; I.-Eur. pu-, Ho rot' (Gk. irvdoj, Goth, fuls
'
he stinketh,' O. Engl. ful, Engl. foul, Lith. puti Gk. TWOS for *irvffos\ Lat.
ist,
;
puteo andputer; I.-Eur. */cuti-, 'skin' (Gk. ey-Kvriand O. Engl. hyd, Engl. hide,
O. H. G. hut, Germ. Haut), Lat. cutis. But usually the alternation of u with u in
Latin is the alternation of I.-Eur. eu, ou with u, e. g. duco and dux, fugi and
REPRESENTATIVES OF
57-62.]
I.-EUR.
VOWEL-GRADES. 26 1
The u-grade of eu-roots and the 1-grade of ei-roots are

23).
frequent before certain suffixes, especially the TO-suffix (ch. v.
28), e.g.
I.-Eur. *lu-to- (Lat. so-lutus, Horn. 0ov-\vTov-8c'), though the ii-grade and
i-grade are most common in the P. P. P., e. g. Gk. AV-TOS (t&.) (cf. defrutum,
fugio (see
must boiled down, Plaut. Pseud. 741, Mar. Viet. 24. 15 K. in defruto apicem
secundae syllabae imponere debetis, nam a defervendo et decoquendo fit tale
but defrutum Virg. G. iv. 269). [See Osthoffs list of forms with I, u in Morph.
such as Lat. fu-mus (I.-Eur. *dhu-mo-, 0. Ind. dhu-ma-), sutus
Unters. vol. iv.,
(Gk. veo-KaTTvros, 0. Ind. syu-ta-), pu-rus, &c.]
and a. Cognate with 0. Ind. asan-, Lettish asins,

word aser, blood, with a derivative *aseratum, a mixture
61. e
O. Lat.
'
an
wine and
blood,' is
of
blood (Paul. Fest. 12. 19 Th. assaratum apud antiques dicebatur genus
quoddam potionis ex vino et sanguine temperatum, quod Latini prisci sangui-
nem
'
'
vocarent
assyr
Philox. 23. 56 G. aser
Gl.
alpa)
which appears
with an e-sound in Greek (cap in the Cretan dialect, peXav clap Callimachus).
Another Old Latin word sacena, a priest's knife or axe, whose byform scena
word for a knife, scian (stem scena-) (Fest. 466. 16 Th. scena ab
a quibusdam 'sacena' appellatur, dolabra pontificalis; id. 488. 33 Th.
scenam genus [fuisse ferri] manifestum est, sed utrum securis an dolabra
recalls the Irish
aliis;
sit,
ambigitur.
Cincius in libro qui est de verbis priscis, dolabram ait

Livius in Lydio
quam
esse pontificiam.
corruit quasi ictus scena, haut multo secus)
may be, like another word for a priest's knife, secespita (Fest. 522. 4 Th. Paul.
'
Serv.' ad Aen. iv. 262)
Fest. 523. 3 Th. dicta autem est secespita a secando ;
derived from seco, to cut. 0. H. Germ, sahs, 0. Engl. seax Neut., 'a knife/
;
suggest connexion with Lat. saxum. Lat. aries, Gk. %pi-(pos, is in Lithuanian
a lamb,' with e, and has in Umbriaii some e-sound, erietu Ace., so that
i
eras,
has been suggested that Lat. a, Gk. e (but see

51 on KefcaSovro with
a from root fcrjS-), may be weak grades of an e-root and the same explanation
might be given of aser and sacena. In several cases of Lat. a, Gk. e we have
a Gk. byform with t, e.g. Lat. pateo, pando, Gk. TTCTO.VVVIU and mrvrjui Lat.
quattuor (Osc. petora, Umbr. petur-\ Dor. Gk. re-ropey, Aeol. irtavpfs and Horn.
Lat. lapis, Gk. AeVa?, and in Hesych Aty
Other examples
iriavpfs
Tre'rpa.
it
Lat. gradior, and gressus (O. SI. gr^dg, 'I come,' O. Ir. ingrennim, 'I
Lat. magnus (cf. magis, major,
pursue,' from root grend-, Goth, grifs, 'a step')
ch. ii.
Lat. nancis-cor, nactus, Gk.
55), Gk. [tfyas (Goth, mikils, Arm. mec)
to carry/ 0. SI. nesti, 0. Ir. conicim,
I am able ')
-vf-fffiv (Lith. neszti,
are:
'
'
Lat. Idbium, labrum (by analogy of lambo ?), 0. Engl. lippa from root leb- (?) ;
Lat. glades and gelu Lat. alnus, Lith. elksnis, 0. SI. jelicha, O. H. G. elira and
;
erila,
Germ.
Farcio
Erie).
(cf.
frequens)
shows dr
(cf. confer (c)tus'),
metathesis (like Gk. QapKros beside ^>paros) (but see
perhaps by
92).
Another example of *aus-, the weak grade of the I.-Eur.

is aureae, whence, by composition with ago, aunga (Paul.
Fest. 6. 27 Th.
aureax
auriga, aureas enim dicebant frenum, quod ad
aures equorum religabatur
orias quo ora cohercebantur, with an absurd
reference to auris, ear), a byform of oreae (Fest. 202. 23 Th.
freni
oreae
ATaevius in Hariolo
quod ori inseruntur
62. 6u-au.
stem
*6us-,
'mouth/
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
deprandi autem leoni
si
obdas oreas,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
262
[Chap. IV.
like our proverb to beard a lion ') ; austium (C. I. L. i. 1463) (0. Pruss. austin,
mouth,' O. Ind. ostha-, lip '), a byform ofostium (Lith. usta, mouth of river,'
Lett, osta, 'harbour').
(Schmidt, PJuralb. p. 221.)
'
'
'
'
W.
Y,
63.
Y.
by the rough
sometimes by
we
I.-Eur. initial
is
represented in Greek sometimes
breathing-, e.g. 'TaK-tz/floy,
from I.-Eur. *yuwnk-,
e.g. fvyov (I.-Eur. *yugo-), the same letter as

find used for an initial y- or yy- sound which has developed
f,
from an original dy-,
But in Latin
e.g. Zeus (I.-Eur. *Dyeu-).
both these kinds of I.-Eur. y are represented by j as we write
the letter, but, as the Romans wrote it, i, e.g. jftvenc-us9 jwgum.
9
The question whether
this
j was pronounced like a consonantal
spirant (y), or like the half - vowel i, is discussed in ch. ii.

48. In
the middle of a word it is often difficult to say whether the
form of the sound, the Indo-European form,' as we call

more correctly expressed by the spirant y, or by the vowel
i
This would no doubt often depend upon the
(or iy, ii, 8y, &c.).
The I.-Eur. word for
preceding consonant or consonant-group.
l
original
it, is
we
middle,' for example,
Gk.
fA(r((r)os,
word
(cf.
for
write
Goth, midjis, O.
*medhyoSI.
(cf.
*
mezda,
O. Ind. madhya-,
the
')
the middle
'
paternal/ *ptrio- or *p#triyo- (*ptrijo-, *patrayo-)

O. Ind. pitriya-, Gk. Trar/atoj). In Latin, this suffix -yo-,
appears as -io- medius, patr'ms^ though a word like socius

gives us a clue that -yo- may often have been the originaUform.
-io-
'
For in this word the qu of the root seq*-, to follow, accompany

(Lat. sequor), has become c in the derivative with this suffix, and
with the o-grade of the root ; and this would not have happened
*
unless q
(Lat. qu)
from
had preceded a consonant
116)
Gk.
(cf.
*soq-yo-) ; so that the word originally

socyo- has become in time a trisyllable, *socio-.
At a later period, owing to that wave of Syncope which, as
a-oa-a-rjrrip
we
*6o-<ro- for
saw, passed over Late and Vulgar Latin, this Adjective-ius 9 and similar dissyllabic endings, were reduced to
ending
single syllables, the
(now become y) merging
the
itself in
preceding consonant and giving it a palatal character, e.g. Titius

became *Tityus and then something like * Tits us the i lost
'
REPRESENTATIVES OF
63.]
itself in
I.-EUR.
see ch.
ii.
this palatalization of a consonant before
is
W.
Y,
463
a sibilant sound,' as a fifth-century grammarian puts
(perdit sonum suum et accipit sibilum ;
It
SOUNDS.
90
an
also
i,
it
151).
reduced to
which has made many Romance words, especially French, so

unlike their Latin originals, e.g. Fr. bras from Lat. Imcchium,
nilce from neptia, through *netty- ; ache
through *braccy-
y,
from opium, through %py-; rage from

*raby- ; singe from simia, through *simyhistory of the suffix -yo- in Latin
rabies,
rabia,
(see ch.
iii.
through
3).
The
very like that of the suffix

After a consonant both developed a parasitic vowel ;
-lo-.
*soc-yo-
became
became
*oc-olo-,
socius,
*soc-iyo-,
oculm
is
and
this
as *oc-lo- (from root

vowel was in both
oq~-)
cases
absorbed by syncope at a later period, *soc-yus, *oclus (whence

Romance forms, e.g. Ital. occhio). Between vowels y was
the
dropped in Latin,
e.
g. I.-Eur. *eya-, the Fern, of the
tive (Goth, ija Ace.)
is
Latin ea
in
(so
Demonstra-
Umbro-Osc., Umbr.
eo, ea,
Causative Verbs, which

Osc. lu, io ; von Planta, i. p. 175).
in
in
ended
I.-Eur.
-eyo (e.g. O. Ind. manaya-mi from root man-,
the I.-Eur. root menin -eo,
of
e.
memmi
-ye- to
The
Gk.
<o/3eco
from root
</>e/3-),
'
and in Latin (e.g. ab-icio), see

which we find in major,
in L-Eur.
intervocalic j (y)
nounced
end in Latin
cause to remember/ from root menfor *me-men-i, I remember.

On the weakening of
g. moneo, I remind,
mayyor,'
ayyo,'
ch.
ii.
5*5 P- 256.
aio,
&c. (pro-
55), has arisen through
In
suppression (or assimilation) of k (for I.-Eur. gh) before y.
the first syllable y is not found after any consonant in Latin,
except d, and that only in the older period, e.g. O. Lat. Diovem,
Jovem (from dyeu-, O. Ind. Dyaus, Gk. Zevs, while
classical
Lat. dies shows a
bystem ^dieu-, O. Ind. Diyaus), though how
far this j (y) of Jovem (for yy-^ I.-Eur. dy-, Gk. -) differed at
any time in pronunciation from the j otjuvenis (I.-Eur. y-: Gk. '-)
and from the j of jugum (I.-Eur. y-, Gk. f-), we cannot say.
All these have developed to the same sound in the Romance

languages, e.g. Ital. Giove, giovane, giogo (with the sound of our
3
or
-dgein 'judge').
The Oscan orthography shows both
ii
and
for intervocalic
(y), though the paucity of the remains of the language makes

it
impossible to determine how far this was arbitrary or reflected
i
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
264
[Chap. IV.
the actual pronunciation, e.g. diiviiai * { diviae,' mefiai mediae' ;

heriiad is 3 Sg. Pres. Subj. of the verb and heriam Ace. Sg. of
the noun derived from her-, { to wish' (I.-Eur. GHEE-). The
presence of the y-sound is indicated by the doubling of a pree
ceding consonant after the accented vowel, e. g. medikkiai med'
Dat. Sg., 2rarri7]is
diciae
'
Statii
'
Gen. Sg.,
Pettio-, &c.
In
the Oscan dialect of Bantia this y-sound is merged in the preceding consonant, e.g. Bansae 'Bantiae,' atto 'alia' (see von
Planta,
i.
[Cf. Pel.
p. 165).
64. I.-Eur. initial y.
fi
I.-Eur.
(ch.
ii.
*yuwnko-
51), written s in Musesa.]

(0. Ind.
yuvak-, Gk.
"faic-ivOos,
Welsh
ieuanc, Gaul. Jovincillus, Goth, juggs for *juvunga-,

O. Engl. geong), Lat. juvencus, with its cognates juvenis (0. Ind. yuvan-),
I.-Eur. *yugo-, (O. Ind. yugam, Gk.
juventa (Goth, junda, Engl. youth), &c.
O.
Ir.
oac,
Engl. yoke, 0. SI. igo for *yigo, *yugo), Lat. jtigum, from the
rootyeug-, Ho join' (0. Ind.yuj-, Gk. {etiyvvpi, Lith. jimgiu, 'I yoke'), Lat.j/ww0o;
I.-Eur. *yus- (O. Ind. yusa-, Gk. {v-pij for *v(r-/M/, leaven, Lith. jusze), Lat.
jus, broth, while Lat. jus, law, older jous, is I.-Eur. *yeus- (0. Ind. yos,
*
welfare ') ; I.-Eur. ya-, to go,' formed by adding the suffix a to i-, the weak
fryov, Goth, juk,
'
grade of the root ei-, 'to go' (0. Ind. ya-, 'to go/ Lith. joti, 'to ride,' 0. SI.
jad) appears in Lat.ja-nwa, a door, Jdnuarius.
(On the tendency to give Latin
a after initial.?' the open e-sound, whence Vulg. Lat. *Jenuarius, see ch. ii.
i.)
Similarly Lat. jocus with I.-Eur. yo- (cf. Lith. jiikas, 'ridicule,' with I.-Eur.
yo-,
jB.
Prise,
B. xviii. 255)
i.
149. 7
H.
59 above). On rien (Plaut. cf. lien} and

Vulg. Lat. qu(i)etus, ch. ii.
151, and cf. ch.
(cf.
On
ren, see
iii.
on par(i)es.
65. I.-Eur. y preceded by a consonant,
(i) In the first syllable
This y has been dropped in the Latin derivatives from I.-Eur. roots like syu-,
to sew (O. Ind. syu-, Gk. tea-cavco, a compound with
ar(d), Goth, siujan,
:
'
'
O. Engl. seowian, Lith.
siuti, O. SI. siti), Lat. suo
'
;
*ghyes-,
'
yesterday (O. Ind.
cf. Goth, gistra-dagis), Lat. fieri, with Adj. hester-nus', though

5
possible that there were sometimes I.-Eur. byforms without y (cf. 0. Ind.
su-tra-, 'thread,' also used, in the sense of 'clue,' for ritual and grammatical
hyas, Gk. x#
it is
text-books, the Sutras). So Lat. spuo (Gk. irrvca, Lith. spiauju, 0. SI. pljuj%, &c.).
There is a similar doubt about dy-. It may have lost the dental at a very early
'
period, for we have loves (' Jovios ?) on the ancient Dvenos inscription, and
not possible to prove that the form Diovem had gone out of use by the
time that the form Jovem came in (cf. Diouem, C. I.L. i. 57, louei, i. 56, both on
old Praenestine mirrors). Diovem may quite well have come from a byform
*diyew-, as 0. Lat. sies from *siyes (O. Ind. siyas), a byform of *syes, (0. Ind.
doublet
syas) and have been discarded in course of time for the other
it is
'
'
*dyew- Jovem.
In other syllables
Y after a consonant in other syllables than the
became vocalic in Latin. Thus after p we find y becoming r in Greek in
verbs formed with the suffix -yo- (-iyo-), e. g. rvir-rca for *TV7T-z/a>, xa^ ir- TC>} f r
but in Latin these verbs appear with -pio, e. g. capio, sdpio after
*XaA7T-?/a>
(2)
first
n we
y producing epenthesis in Greek, e. g. ati/cu for *gSm-yo, root g\tem-,

but not in Latin, e. g. venio. But -ghy-, as has been mentioned, became hy.
find
REPRESENTATIVES OF
64-68.]
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
W.
Y,
then y or rather yy, e. g. aw, pronounced *ayyo, and often written

to say.'
7), from agh-,
2,6$
aiio (ch.
i.
66. I.-Eur.
y between vowels.
-eyes, e. g. I.-Eur. *treyes
The Nom.
PI. of I-stems
from the stem tri-, three'

'
from the stem ghosti-, 'a stranger' (0. SI.

tres, hostes. In the words ahenus, aheneus the
shows
I.-Eur.
(O. Ind. trayas), *ghosteyes
gostije), in Latin -es for -*e-es, e. g.

letter h indicates the hiatus caused
*ayes-, 'metal,' *ayes-no-, 'made of metal'

Ind. ayas-), like Tiin the Umbrian stahu for *sta-yo, 'I stand' (Lat. sto).
Like Lat. sto for *sta-yo (Lith. pa-sto-ju), arefleo for *fle-yo (0. SI. ble-j^), neo for
*ne-yo, &c., where the similar vowels a and o are blended into one sound, but
the dissimilar, e and o, remain in hiatus. Similarly Lat./ormo for *formd-yo,
by the dropping of y of I.-Eur.

(0.
*/onwa-), and other ist Conj. verbs from ist Decl. nouns,
for Ttftd-w, *Tt/xa?/cu, from rip-fi, Dor. np.a (stem Tt/xa-).
from forma (stem

like Gk.
rtfta),
67. Latin j. Any j which has been developed by the phonetic changes
of the language is treated in much the same way as I.-Eur. y. Thus the group
sj- (sy-} has been produced by the union under one accent of the two words
audes.
The j (y) is dropped, like I.-Eur. y in suo, in the form sodes, a form
which seems to have come into use in the period between Plautus and Terence.
For Plautus has the full si audes, e. g. Poen. 757 mitte ad me, si audes, hodie
si
Adelphasium tuam, but Terence the shortened form, e. g. Andr. 85 die,

sodes. Internal j (y) after a consonant becomes vocalic in nunc-iam (3 syll.
Plaut.), and between two vowels disappears in Hlgae for *bi-jigae from bi- and
jugum.
On
68.
aUcio see ch.
abjecio, dbjwio,
W.
I.-Eur. initial
sound which we write

spelling
iii.
is
18, ch.
ii.
48, ch.
and which the Romans wrote
v,
i.
7.
represented in Latin
and on the pronunciation of the
letter, see ch.
u.
ii.
by the
(On the
48), e.g.
I carry' (O. Ind. vaha-mi, Gk. (F)oxps, Pamph.

F\U>, O. Ir. fen for *fegn, a waggon,' W. gwain, Goth, ga-viga,
Germ, be-wege), Lat. veho. The suffix wo- after a consonant was
I.-Eur. *wegho,
'
perhaps, like the suffix yo- ( 63), vocalic in early Latin, e.g.furtms
for early *fu-suos ( 148
cLfus-cw), Minerua, a quadrisyllable in
;
Plautus (Baccli. 893)
though Syncope,
like that
Titius, &c. to *Tityu* reduced aruum, lama, rniluus

t
which reduced
(all trisyllabic
in Plautus) to arvum, larva, milvus.

Between vowels v remains,
e. g. avis, ovis ; but in the unaccented
syllable we find u for av,
ev, ov t e.g. denuo for de now (see ch. iii.
24), and before the accent
v is often dropped, e.
g. seorsum (and sorsum) for sevorswm, especially
between similar vowels, e. g. O. Lat. di(v)inus, la(v)dbrum (see ch.
îs dropped
After a consonant in the initial syllable,
53)-
in plus for *pw-lyofrom the same root as ptirus, but remains

(?)
(like y) after d, e. g. O. Lat. duonus^ Duenos, duellum ; though at
the beginning of the literary period this dv- passed into b-, e. g.
bonus, bene, bellum. Side by side with dissyllabic duonus, duellum
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
266
we
[Chap. IV.
find trisyllabic duonus, duellum, just as in I.-Eur.

'
in the words for ' two
Iiid. duva,
duw- and dwGk.
8vo)
svan-,
and
*8(/ )t9, Lat.
duo and
Gk. KV&V and Lith.
szu).
'
bis),
And
we have
and dva,
(O.
and
suvanInd.
dog (O.
side
'
by
with I.-Eur.
side
*twoi, the Locative case of the 2nd Pers. Pron. Sg.

unaccented form *toi (O. Ind. tve and te, Gk. o-ot and
we have
the
so that
rot),
when the I.-Eur. form has dropped w,

has w, and when it has uw (aw), and to determine when
the w has been dropped in the ( I.-Eur. period ' and when in the
Latin period/ An e has been turned into 6 through the influit is
often difficult to say
when
it
'
ence of a preceding
in the group swe-, e.g. soror (I.-Eur.

socer
Before a con*swesor-),
(I.-Eur. *swekuro-), &c. (see
10).
sonant (1, r) I.-Eur.
is
in
radix
for
*wrad- (cf
Latin,
dropped
e.g.
On
the weakening of unaccented we

to ii in I.-Eur., e. g.
^perut(i) (O. Ind. parut, Gk. TTC/OUO-I) from
the root wet- (Gk. fe'roj, a year, Lat. vetm), and in Latin, e. g.
Goth, vaurts, Engl. wort).
con-cutio for *-quetio, see 51, and onferbuiforfermi, ch. ii.

52.
Latin v often represents I.-Eur. g^, gh (see
139, 143), both
initial, e.g. venio for *c^myo from the root g"em- (Gk. fiaivo),
O. Ind. gam-, Goth, qima, Engl. come), and between vowels,

g. mv-em Ace. for *nigh%m (Gk. vi<pa Ace., W. nyf) from the
e.
root sneigh--
(e.
g. O. Ir. snechta,
snow,' O. SI. snegu,
snow
'
Goth, snaivs, Lith. snaigyti, to
').
In Umbro-Osc. there are separate symbols in the native

alphabets for the consonantal and for the vocalic U-sound
The rules
(written in our transcription v and u respectively).
for the use of uv and v in Umbr. have not yet been determined ;
we have arvia and (once)

von Planta, i. p. 180).
69. I.-Eur. initial w.
Arm.
aruvia, vatuva (never *vatva), &c. (see
The
I.-Eur. root weid-,
Ho know,
to see' (0. Ind.
O. Ir. fiadaim, Goth vait, O. Engl. wat, Engl.

'
wot, 0. SI. videti, to see,' vedeti, to know ') appears in Lat. mdeo ; the I.-Eur.
*weik- (O. Ind. vi^-, ves'a-, Gk. O!KOS, Goth, veihs, O. SI. visl), in Latin mcus ;
veda,
gitem, Gk.
f otSa,
'
the conjunction *we, or' <,O. Ind. va, Gk. ^-(/r )c)? ât. -ve the root wert-, to
turn' (O. Ind. vart-, Goth. vair)>a, Engl. 'woe worth the day,' W. gwerthyd,
a spindle/ Lith. vartau, O. SI. vratiti Inf.) in Lat. verto. Similarly Lat. vieo, vltis
'
'
'
'
(O. Ind. vi-, Lith. vyti, 0. SI. viti, Ir. feith, woodbine,' W. gwydd-fid) ; Lat.
with
II for In
vellus,
^
78), (Goth, vulla, Engl. wool, Lith. vilnos, 0. SI. vluna) ;
Lat. verus (O. Ir. fir, W. gwir, Goth, tuz-verjan, 'to doubt,' O. Engl. wser, 'true,'
cf. Lith. vera, 'faith,' O. SI. vera) ; Lat. vespa (0. Engl. waesp and
Germ.wahr
69-71.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF
wseps, 0. SI. vosa)
vam-, Gk.
for
l/xecj
SOUNDS.
I.-EUR.
Lat. virus (O. Ind. visa-, Gk.

Lith. vemiu).
ios
for fiffos)
Y,
W.
267
Lat. vomo (0. Ind.
*fefji-,
'
70. I.-Eur.
(and Latin v) between vowels. I.-Eur. *giwo-, alive
[O. Ind. jlva-, W. byw, 0. Ir. biu, Goth, qius, O. Engl. cwicu- (with -c- developed before u Engl. quick, Lith. gyvas, O. SI. zivu] is Lat. mvus I.-Eur.
'
-new'
Gk. ve(f)os, O. SI. novu) is Lat. novus I.-Eur.

*newn, 'nine (0. Ind. nava, Gk. ev-vea, 0. Ir. noi, W. naw, Goth, niun) is Lat.
novem I.-Eur. *yuwnko-, (O. Ind. yuvasa-, Gk. 'Yatt-ivOos, Gaul. Jovinc-illus,
W. ieuanc) is Lat. juvencus. Similarly Lat. dams (Gk. K\r](f}is} Lat. levir,
better laevir. brother-in-law (0. Ind. devar-, Arm. taigr, Gk. Sa
Lat. aevum (Gk. al(p}wv, Goth, aivs, O. Engl. a?)
Lat. laevus (Gk.
*iiewo-,
(0. Ind. nava-,
'
The question of the change of the ending -vos to -vus and -us is a difficult
one. The most natural explanation of the change of deivos to deus (the form
in ordinary use as early as Plautus) is that given in
33 (through *de(f)us),
which takes for granted that -vos became -vus when -os became -us ( 17) [cf.
Flaus on a coin of 200-150

(
19)]$
and seems
B. c
to conflict
(C.I.L.
with the
i. 277), Gnaeus, bourn, coum and cohum

fact that the spelling -vo- (with -quo-,
But it is by no means clear that

-guo-]\ is retained to the end of the Eepublic.
the spelling vo did not represent the sound vu, the spelling vo being preferred
to w, because this last might be confused with the sound u (eh. i.
9) or uv.
Velius Longus (first cent. A. D.) expressly asserts this (58. 4 K.)
a plerisque
:
'
superiorum 'primttivus' et 'adoptivus' et nominativus per v et o scripta

sunt, scilicet quia sciebant vocales inter se ita confundi non posse ut unam
syllabam [non] faciant, apparetque eos hoc genus nominum aliter scripsisse,
aliter enuntiasse.
Nam cum per o scriberent, per u tamen enuiitiabant.
The tendency to re-insert the v from other cases and cognate words, divo,
divos, diva, &c., would interfere from time to time with the natural development of the sound. (Cf. 67 on abjecio, abjicio and abicio.} On Republican
inscrr. we find v in IVENTA (C. I. L. i. 1202), &c., where vv (itv) is the orthography of the Augustan age, but that this always represents the pronunciation
(as in Pacu(v)ius also written Pdquius
Vesuvius, cf Galen x. 364) is unlikely.
'
[For examples of the spellings vo, w, v (w, vu, uv, u}, and for a fuller discussion
of the treatment of intervocalic v in Latin, see Solmsen, Stud. Lautg. sect, iii.]
The process of Syncope affected at various periods intervocalic v in different

Under the early Accent Law *avi-spex was reduced to auspex (cf.
ways.
under the Paenulcf. Gk. &IOTT]} to vita, &c.

became audere, &c. in the period of the Early Literature
aevitas became aetas, umdus became
while
udus, praevides became praedes, &c.
four-syllabled words with the first, second, and third syllables short, which
were in the second cent. B.C. still accented on the first syllable (ch. iii. 8),
may have suffered syncope within the literary period or at a much earlier
time, e. g. Aulius from Auilios (C. I. L. i. 83, Praeneste).
(On the loss of -vau-ceps),
tima
*mwta (Lith. gywata;
Law
*dvidere
through Syncope see ch.
iii.
w after a
16. 9.
Latin serius
(i) In the first syllable
Germ, schwer. heavy ') is from the root swer-, 'to
weigh (Lith. sverti) for Latin si we have in Oscan svai, in Umbr. sve
Latin sldus is connected with Lith. svideti, to shine
Lat. suf-fw, to fumigate,
with Gk. Ovca, from I.-Eur. *dhw-iyo. But swa- is Lat. sud- in suavis (a trisyllable in Vulg. Lat., cf. Ital. soave
Servius ad Aen. i. 357 says that many
persons in his day made suadet a trisyllable). Lat. dis-, apart, asunder, seems
71. I.-Eur.
(Goth, svers, 'honourable'
consonant,
<
'
'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
268
to be I.-Eur. *dis-, a
byform of
*dvria (Lat.
[Chap. IV.
Us, O. Lat. duis), &s I.-Eur. *toi
(unaccented) was a byform of *twoi (accented), though some regard Lat. dis
as the direct descendant of I.-Eur. *dwis, and O. Lat. duis
(class, bis] as the
descendant of I.-Eur. *duwis. Sdvium, a kiss, seems to represent s(u)dvium.
On
&c. for SMOS, &c., see ch. vii.
sos,
In other syllables
(2)
12.
Internal -dw- becomes
*derviosus, later derbiosus (see ch.
in suavis for *suad-vis
-v-
52), for *der-dwi-oso- (0. Ind.
ii.
dardu-
cf.
Viduus does not show I.-Eur. -dhw-, but -dhew-, for it repreEngl. tetter).
sents L-Eur. *widhewo- (0. Ind. vidhava-, Gk. ^-(f)^6(f)os, 0. SI. vidova,
'widow.') Postconsonantal u, later v, is in Vulgar and Late Latin dropped
before the accent in Jan(v)arius, Febr(v)arius, batt(v)ere, cons(v)ere, quatt(v)ordecim,
contin(v)ari,
whence
Ital.
Gennajo, Febbrajo, quattordici, &c. (see ch.
ii.
54),
between vowels before the accent (see above). The suffix -uo- remains
So
dissyllabic in the classical form of words like mortuus (0. SI. mritvii).
like v
quattuor (O. Ind. catvaras, Lith. ketveri, 0. SI. cetvero) ; tennis (0. Ind. tanvl
F.), genua (Zend, zanva, Lesb. Gk. yovva for *ôvfa\ though tenvia, genva are
found in classical poetry, and in the first cent. A. D. tennis is declared to

have wavered between a dissyllable and a trisyllable (Caesellius ap. Cassipd.
vii. 205 K.).
Late-Lat. mortvus, &c. (ch. ii.
48) became mortus, &c. (Ital.
morto), as
rlvus, &c., rius.
dw-, duw-.
name
260
Duellius (Duill- ?), consul of
to Bellius (Cic. Orat. Iv. 153
cf.
B. C M
Quint,
i.
trisyllable in the Saturnian
fragments
duonoro optumo fuise
and Naevius(?)
uiro,
eorum portant ad
diiona
ch.
was the
15)
ii.
first to
change his
duonus seems to be a
141
ri),
viz. C. I. L.
ap. Fest. 532. 22 Th.
32
simul
i.
nauis, duellum to be a disyllable (Aem. Lepidus'

K. duello magno dirimendo, regibus subigendis),
inscr. ap. Caes. Bass. 265. 25
as
(cf.
4.
always is in Plautus (e. g. Amph, 189 extincto duello maxumo), whereas

Ennius has (A. i68M.) pars occidit ilia duellis, a scansion imitated by later
poets.
(On 0. Lat. duis dui- for &^'s, bi- see ch. vi. 59 on du- in glosses,
see LOwe, Prodr. p. 363, and add DueUona, C. G. L. ii. 56.
34.)
it
72. I.-Eur.
fall; cf.
w before a consonant.
Lat. liquo, liquor stand for *vliq- (0. Ir.

be a Pres. Part, of I.-Eur. wrep- (Gk. /Je'irew, to
Lith. virpeti, 'to tremble') (but see ch. viii.
18).
wet ')
fliuch,
73.
Lat. repens
M, N.
may
In Sanscrit various kinds of nasals are
dis-
The palatal n (made palatal by the

tinguished in writing.
of
preceding j)
yajfia-, 'worship'' (Gk. ayi/o's, holy) is written
from
the cerebral n (made cerebral by the preceding
differently
r)
of mrnami,
'
'
I crush, annihilate (Gk. ndpvav.cu Mid.). And in

to the fact that y before v of ytyvoâi, &c. had
Greek, owing
to take the sound of the
come
(cf.
Dor.
yfi/o/xat),
e.g. ayKvpa, eyytA,
try vs.
63,
But
and on
Agma
(see ch.
ii.
63), *yi;wo/tzcu
y was used to express the guttural nasal,
though in inscriptions we often find avKvpa,

we have only the symbols m, n (see ch. ii.
in Latin
their pronunciation, ch.
though sometimes omitted on

in correct speech.
ii.
6 1).
they were not dropped

liag, W. llwy), is not the
inscriptions,
Ligula, spoon (cf
O. Ir.
Before a consonant,
72,73.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF
SOUNDS. M,
I.-EUR.
N.
269
same word as lingula, strap ; *nepe in Plautus should be corrected

to nemp(e).
(For other instances, see Skutsch, Forscli. i.
2.)
is Latin m, whether initial, e.
M. I.-Eur.
g. I.-Eur. *mater-
(O. Ind. matar-, Arm. mair, Dor. Gk. fJidr^p, O. Ind. mathir,
O. H. G. muoter, O. Engl. modor, Lith. mote, wife,' O. SI. mati),
'
Lat. mater, or internal,
e.
g.
from I.-Eur. root wem- (O. Ind.
vam-, Gk. (/^c/xeo), Lith. vemafai, PI.), Lat. vomo ; I.-Eur.

*termen- (O. Ind. tarman-, Gk. repjucoz;), Lat. termo, terminus
I.-Eur. rump-,
g. I.-Eur.
e.
'
-m
to break
(O. Ind. lumpami), Lat. rumpo, or final,

of the Ace. Sg., as in I.-Eur. *tom (O. Ind. tarn,
Gk.
roV, Goth. J?an-a, Lith. t, O.

Before y (i), t, s, d,
Lat. is-tum.
quomjam, and originally used
'now
SI. tu),
c
we
O. Lat. is-tom,
find
in a temporal sense
13), quan-sei, C. I. L.
class.
n in quoniam
(for
'when now,'
200. 27 (on quasi, see

ch. x.
n), altrin-secus, centum from I.-Eur. *kmtom (Lith.
e
szirntas), septen-trwnes (lit. the seven oxen,' according to Aelius
Stilo and Varro, who regarded the -trio not as a mere terminathat,' ch. x.
i.
but as a rustic word for an ox, Gell. ii. 21), septen-decim, mine
(from num, now, which survives in etiamnum in a temporal
tion,
sense,
our
but usually has the interrogative sense of 'now,' as in

is this the case? ', 'now is that true?', where 'now'
'now
has something of the dubitative significance of Lat. num) 3 pnnceps

;
though a traditional spelling is often used,
for *prim(i)-ceps
e.g. numcubi, quamtus, O. Lat. quamde, than, &c. (see ch. ii.
6]).
jo is inserted to facilitate the pronunciation of these groups in
sumptus, sumpsi for sumtus, sumsi, exemplum for *exemlum, &c.

I.-Eur. mr is Latin Ir in hlbernus from *hibr%no- ( 13), (Gk.
but
XftfjLtpLvos),
initial
loss of final -urn
by
nihilum, &c., see ch.
mr
probably became in Latin fr.
elision in sed
from older sedum,
On
nihil
the
from
iii.
52.
represents an original n before a labial, &c., e.g.
impello for inpello, an original labial before n, e. g. scamnum from
It is
the root skabh-, ' to support,' with Diminutive scabellum.
Latin
sometimes
lost in a
consonant-group,
$.iQmformus, warm.
I.-Eur. m is Umbro-Osc. m,
'
matris.'
Planta,
i.
Final
-m
is
pp. 301, 570).
e.
g. forceps for *form(i}-ceps,
Umbr.
matrer, Osc. maatreis

usually dropped in Umbrian (see von
e.
g.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
270
[Chap. IV.
other examples. I.-Eur. *medhyo- (0. Ind. madhya-, Gk.

74. I.-Eur.
;
AV((r)os, Ir. medon, 'the middle/ Goth, midjis, O. SI. mezda, 'the middle') is
'
Lat. medius ; I.-Eur. root men-, ' to think (0. Ind. man-, manman-, ' thought,'
O. Ir. men-me, 'thought,' 0. H. Gt. minna, 'remembrance,' Lith. menu, I
remember') appears in Lat. memmi for *me-men-i, mens, &c. Similarly Lat.
me (O. Ind. mam, Gk. /*e, Ir. mi, Goth, mi-k) Lat. semi- (0. Ind. sami-, Gk.
Lat. homo (Goth, guma, Engl. groom, bride-groom)
Lat. cum, com-, with
77/-)
4
Lat. mors, mortis (0. Ind. mrti-, Lith. mirtis, 0. SI. su-mriti ; cf.
Goth, maurjxr, 'murder') Lat./iwms (0. Ind. dhuma-, Lith. dumai, PI., 0. SI.
(0. Ir.
com-)
dymu).
75.
vendo,
class,
for
from
m. Lat.
On
Gk.
from com
quon-dam from quom venun-do, class.

put or make sale,' like venum eo,
pessum do, to ruin, and pessum eo, to be
atvos), lit.
'
'
'to
to go to sale (cf.
the spellings damdum, damdam
veneo, lit.
ruined).
see ch. ii.
con-tra
veno-, sale (cf.
(C.
I. L.
i.
206. 17. 49,)
&c.
64.
76. I.-Eur. ms. In Lat. tenebrae (Plur., like 0. Ind. tam^si, Kuss. sumerki)
from the I.-Eur. root tern- (Lith. temti, 'to grow dark', Ir. tern, 'dark,' temel,
darkness ') the n seems to be due to the influence of s, for 0. Ind. tamisra.
O.H.G. dinstar. Germ, finster, show that *temesra- oi-*temsra- was the old form
of the stem in Latin.
The
remains in temere Loc., in the dark (ch. ix. 5)
(cf. O. Ind. tamas- from I.-Eur. *temes-,
darkness, and Germ. Dammerung).
Another example of I.-Eur. -ms- (mes-?) is Lat. umerus (Umbr. onso-,
O. Ind. Qsa,-, Arm. us, Gk. wfnos, Goth, ams), and perhaps Lat. numerus,
Numerius (cf. Numisius, O.Lat. Numasio-,Oscan Niumsio-) and another example
of -msr- is Lat. membrum for *mems-ro- (cf. Goth, mimz, flesh,' 0. SI. m^so also
Gk. p.rjp6s for fJirjapo-, the thigh, 0. Ind. m^Lsa-, flesh,' Arm. mis.) The fewness
and the contrariety of these instances make it difficult to decide how I.-Eur.
-ms- was treated in Latin. Latin -ms- became ns, e. g. con-sentio, con-silio, &c.,
from com-, where the m might be regarded as the final letter of a separate
word, but mps, e. g. sumpsi, dempsi, where the m could not be so regarded.
<
'
'
'
'
'
'
(On the spellings sumpsi, sumsi, &c., hiems, hiemps, see Brambach, Lat. Orth.
248 the Roman grammarians approve of sumpsi, &c., but not of hiemps.}
p.
77. I.-Eur. mr, ml are equally

represented by 0p, 0\ in Greek when
difficult to trace
in Latin.
They
initial, e. g. 0por6s, @\U<TKQ), Âtrro;
are
(from
by ppp, p,ft\ when medial, e.g. d^poros, fj.efji0\a}Ka. In Irish we find

mr- to be an early spelling, which was changed later to br-, e.g.
mraich, malt,' later braich, from a stem *mraci-, and similarly ml-, later bl-,
e.g. mlicht, blicht, 'milk.' The Latin /races, olivelees, seems to be the same as
this Irish word mraich, in which case fr- will be the Latin equivalent of
I.-Eur. mr- (for other examples, see Osthoff, Morph. Unters. v. 85), and the b of
ywcAt),
initial
'
hllernus, tuber, a swelling, a truffle

ruber, &c. (
[Ital.
114), for
which /
tartufo, 'truffle,' lit.
(from tumeo, to swell), will be like the
of
found in other dialects, e.g. Umbr. rufro-.

'earth- mushroom,' from terra and tuber, a name
is
borrowed by the Germans in the eighteenth cent, for the potato, Kartoffel,
shows that the dialectal form of tuber had/ (ch. ii. 83)]. The long vowel in
hlbernus, tuber might then be explained like the long i of infero, infringo, &c.,
On the
(ch. ii.
144), and the original forms would be */mw/nno-, tumfro-.
other hand the analogy of other languages and the connexion of m and 6 in
REPRESENTATIVES OF
74-78.]
Latin would
make us
initial mr-.
A further
SOUNDS. M, N.
I.-EUR.
271
expect to find Latin br as the equivalent of I.-Eur.

difficulty is caused by gener, a word which it is hard
from Gk. yan@pos, with n(e)r for -mr-.

I.-Eur. medial -miappears in exemplum for *ex-em-lo-, lit. something taken out/ with a euphonic
and 1 in tremup inserted, while a vowel seems to have intervened between
to dissociate
'
lus,
tumulus, &c. (ch. v.
78.
N.
I.-Eur.
21).
is
in Latin n,
whether
(i) initial, e.g. I.-Eur.
*newo-, *newio-, 'new' (O. Ind. nava-, navya-, Arm. nor, Gk. veos,
O. Ir. nue, Gaul. Novios, W. newydd from *noviyo-, Goth, niujis,
O. Engl. neowe, Lith. naujas, O. SI. novu), Lat. novus, Novius, or
'
e.g. the I.-Eur. root sen-, old (O. Ind. sana-, Arm.
(3) internal
'
Gk. evr] KCU vta, O. Ir. sen, W. hen, Goth, sineigs, sinista
Superl., Lith. senas) appears in Lat. seneoc, senior, the root angh-,
hin,
'to
Arm. anjuk, narrow/ Gk.

'
choke' (O. Ind.
has-, 'need,'
'
O.
Ir.
in,
Goth,
ayx<*>,
'
narrow/ Goth, aggvus, narrow,' Engl. anger,

Lith. anksztas, 'narrow/ O. SI. azuku) in Lat. ango, angor,
angustus, or (3) final e. g. the I.-Eur. preposition *en (Gk. ci>, O. Ir.
cum-ung,
in,
Lith.
J)
Lat. %n, O. Lat. en.
Before a labial
we
find
m,
g. impello, immuto. But nm seems to have become in Latin
*
*
rw, if carmen stands for 'can-men, germen for gen-men, just as the
nm, which arose at a later time from the syncope of i in amma has
e.
become in some Romance languages rm (e. g. Prov. anma, alma,

and arma, O. Fr. anme, alme, and arme, Catal. arma and alma,
Sicil. arma, Milanese armella).
Before / it was assimilated, e. g.
corolla for *coron-la t hdmwllus for */wmon-lu$, illvgo, illex, malluviae,
water for washing the hands, from *man-luviae
and
(so before r in
katnas ;
irritw, &c.),
/,
cf Gk. KoAcovo'v), vellus (Lith. viTna, O. SI. vliina), as in Greek we
have AA for \u in eAAo?, a fawn (Lith. elnis, O. SI. jeleni), &c.
also after
e.g. collis for *col-ni-s (Lith.
In ulna, &c. a vowel originally came between

wAeVr;).
On
the pronunciation of ns as
of the preceding vowel,
e.
g. vicessimus
s,
or
*,
and n
(cf.
Gk.
with lengthening
and vicesimus from
vlcensi-
So with nf(ib.).
I.-Eur. n is in Umbro-Osc. n, e.g. Umbr. nerus, Dat. Pl._,
Osc. nerum, Gen. PL, from the same root as Gk. arrjp (cf. Nero}.
Before mutes and spirants we find n often dropped, especially in
mus, see ch.
ii.
O. Umbr.,
g. iveka 'juvencas'
e.
64.
(N. Umbr. ivenga), but in Umbr.
and aseriato, anseriato ; in

s,
Oscan before a mute in an unaccented final syllable, e. g. -et for
of all periods before
e.
g. aseriatu
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
272
[Chap. IV.
-ent 3rd Plur., iak in Ace. Sg. for iank (Lat. earn, with the particle
15) (see von Planta,
-ce, ch. vii.
79. I.-Eur.
n; other examples.
i.
p. 301).
I.-Eur. *newn, 'nine' (0. Ind. nava, Gk.
0. Ir. noi, W. naw, Goth, niun, O. Engl. nigon, Lith. dewyni, O. SI.
dev^ti with d- by analogy of the words for ten, just as Vulg. Engl. thrup'
'
pence takes its u from tuppence,' twopence.') Lat. novem [for noven ( 81) :
ev-vca,
'
'
a similar substitution of -m for -n has been found in Subj. feram, (0. Ind.
I.-Eur. *no, *nou, we (0. Ind. nau, Gk. vw, 0. SI. na cf. O. Ir. ni),
Lat. no-s; L-Eur. *nas-, 'the nose' (O. Ind. nasa Du., Lith. nosis; cf. 0. Engl.
nosu), Lat. ndris for *nas-is I.-Eur. *nau-, ship (0. Ind. nau-, Arm. nav,
Gk. vavs, 0. Ir. nau, W. noe, a dish, vessel '), Lat. navis
I.-Eur. *nepot-,
'grandson' (0. Ind. napat-, M. Ir. niae, niath Gen., W. nai), Lat. nepos, Gen.
'
'
bharani)]
'
'
'
snow' (Zend, snaezaiti, Gk. vtya Ace., aydvinQos for

O. Ir. snecht, W. nyf, Goth, snaivs, Lith. snatgo, Vb., 0. SI. snSgu),
Lat. nix, ninguit I.-Eur. *gno-to-, known (0. Ind. jiiata-, Gk. yvcaros, O. Ir.
the I.-Eur. root bhendh-,
gnath, 'accustomed'), Lat. notus, 0. Lat. gnotus
mpotis', I.-Eur. sneigh^-, 'to

*dya-ffvi(j>os,
'
'
'to bind' (0. Ind. bandhana-, 'binding,' bandhu-, 'a relation/ Gk. 7rei/0e/>os,
stepfather, -rreiffâ, a rope, for *irevO-(riJ.a, Goth, bindan, 'to bind') survives in the
with which the priest's apex was tied on,

an old word wrongly connected by some Roman antiquarians with offendo
religious term, of-fendices, the knots
[Festus 244. 2 Th. offendices ait esse Titius nodos, quibus apex retineatur et
remittatur. At Veranius coriola existimat, quae sint in loris apicis, quibus
apex retineatur et remittatur, quae ab offendendo dicantur. nam quoni ad
mentum perventum
sit,
offendit
mentum.
Paulus Diaconus, the epitomator
of Festus, has been misled by the corruption offendimentum for offendit mentum
offendices dicebant ligaturae nodos, quibus apex retineba(Paul. 245. i Th.)
:
Id
tur.
cum
pervenisset ad
mentum, dicebatur offendimentum
'
'
whence
'
offendimentum has come into our Latin dictionaries cf.

C. G. L. iv. 132. 3 offendix nodus proprius quo apex flaminum retinetur (MS.
restinguitur) et remittitur] ; I.-Eur. *ghans-, 'a goose' (O. Ind. h^sa-, Lith.
the
'
ghost-word
word means a swan, geis from

properly hanser.
The instances of a nasal (n or m) being dropped before a consonant in Latin
'
without compensation are illusory tfgula, a spoon, from lingo, to lick, is
a different word from lingula, a strap, lit. 'a little tongue,' though the two
were sometimes confused as we learn from Martial's lines on a silver spoon
2^sis, 0.
stem
Engl. gos
cf.
Gk. xh v
'
Irish the
*gesi-, originally *ghansi-), Lat. anser,

'
(xiv. 120)
quamvis
me
ligulam dicant equitesque patresque,

lingula grammaticis,
dicor ab indoctis
(see Friedlander ad loc.)
(see Georges, Lex. Wortf.
'
'
Gk. Xafjurrrjp] is the correct spelling

being probably a corruption due to
a fanciful connexion of the word with latus ; typanum is Gk. rviravov, tympanum, Gk. TVfj,iravov, &c.
;
lanterna (from
s.v.),
laterna
80. nm. How far the theory that *canmen became carmen is supported
by the comparison of cancer with 0. Ind. karkara-, hard,' Gk. teapuivos, and of
crepus-culum with Gk. KveQas is doubtful. For the change of r to n in the first
of these examples is due to Dissimilation, like the change of I to r in the first
syllable ofcaeruleus ( 84), and the second example, if correct, would exhibit
'
REPRESENTATIVES OF
79-81.]
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
M, N. 273
the same change of initial en- to cr- for facility of pronunciation, as is seen
in dialects of Gaelic, e.g. cnu, a nut' (pronounced cru with nasalized vowelj,
'
'
pronounced similarly cr- in Manx, cronk), gnath (I -Eur.

*gnoto-) (pronounced gra with nasalized a). In Latin, however, I.-Eur. cnand gn- seem to have become n- ( 119), so that crepus-culum, creper, dark/ if
'
cnoc,
a hill
they represent an earlier en-, must be dialectal. Varro makes them Sabine
words (L. L. vi. 5 secundum hoc dicitur crepusculum a crepero. id vocabulum sumpserunt a Sabinis, unde veniunt Crepusci nominati Amiterno, qui
'
'
'
'
'
'
eo tempore erant nati, ut Lucii prima luce in Reatino

crepusculum
ab eo res dictae dubiae creperae,' quod crepusculum dies
significat dubium
'
'
'
etiam nunc sit an jam nox multis dubium). The Probi Appendix censures
the pronunciation 'parcarpus' instead of pamarpus (Gk. -niy-KapiTos} (197.
32 K. the reading is doubtful, and 'prancarpus' has been proposed^
The evidence for the change of n to r in carmen, germen (cf
91 on n for r'<
is thus not very strong, and a good deal may be said for the view which
;
refers germen to *ges-i-men
from
gero for *geso, cf. ges-si, ges-tum}
and gemma
to
be connected with 0. Ind. karu-, 'a singer,' or with

caro (in Lat. a portion of meat, flesh, but in Osc. any portion, e. g. maimas carmaximae partis senatus sententia'), as O. Ir. drecht
neis senateis tanginud
Carmen
*gen-ma.
may
'
means (i) part, portion, (2) song.

(0. Ind. gas-man- Neut., 'praise,' a word
which occurs only once in the Rig Veda, comes from the 0. Ind. root sas-,
to praise,' which is usually connected with Lat. censeo).
In Compounds
with in, con-, &c. -nm- became mm, e. g. im-mitto, com-mitto, so that gemma seems
a natural development of gen-ma.
The connexion of n with seen in Provenfal alma for Lat. an(f)ma, &c.
receives an equally doubtful support from the mispronunciation censured in
the Probi Appendix (197. 24 K.) cuntellum for culidlum, and in the curious
form of the word neptis mentioned in glossaries, leptis (Lowe, Prodr. p. 340)
;
'
'
'
'
nuscicio
explained as
'
caecitudo nocturna
'
[Fest. 180. 23 Th.
cf.
nusciciosus,
nusciosus in glossaries (Lowe, Prodr. p. 17 qui plus vespere videt ')] seems
be a popular adaptation of lusdtio (-cw?) (Paul. Fest. 86. 21 Th.;, derived
from luscus, to the word nox. Conucella, the Diminutive of coins (C. G. L. iii.
i
ib.,
to
conocchia, 'a distaff,' from Lat. *conucula, Fr. quenouille, &c.),

influenced by conus. N appears as 1 in dialectal Greek, e. g. Xapva for
vapva. (K. Z. xxxiii. 226.) On the affinity of the n-, 1-, and r-sounds, see
ch. ii.
61, 96, 105, 106. (Cf. Germ. Himmel, Goth, himins, Engl. heaven?).
322. 9)
(cf. Ital.
may be
81.
The M- and N-Sonants.
For the sounds to which em,
en (me, ne) are reduced in the unaccented syllable of such a word

as I.-Eur. *tnto- (O. Ind. tata-, Gk. TUTOS, Lat.
tentus) from the
'
to stretch,' some write, m, n, others am, an

(ma, na),
the a indicating an obscure vowel sound, or else em, e n (m. 6 n e ).
In Latin these sounds became em, eu^ e.g. decem (Gk. 8e'/ca, Goth,
root ten-,
,,
taihun), tentus, the e being subject to all the changes of e for

I.-Eur. e (e. g. incertus, Gk. a*piros, unclecim, decumus, decimm^
&c.) ; in Greek they became a before a consonant [but a/u, av before
vocalic i
(y)] ; in Teutonic um, un, and so on ; so that it is only
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
274
to another I.-Eur.
by reference
[Chap. IV.
language that we can
tell
whether
We
Lat. em, en are I.-Eur. em, en, or I.-Eur. m, n.

occasionally
find ma, na in Latin words from roots in me, ne, which are
probably to be explained similarly by the weakening influence of
the accent, e.g. nactus from the root nek-, nenk-, 'to obtain'
(O. Ind. nas-, Gk. c-veyK-eiv, Mid. Ir. co-emnacar, potui,' Lith.
neszti, to carry,' O. SI. nesti).
(See Osthoff, Morph. Vnt. v. Pref.,
'
'
above,
61.) Whether Gk. vd. Lat. nd of Gk. ufjao-a (Lat.
for
*mr-ya, a duck, Lat. gndtus, and Lat. an, O. Ind. a of
anas)
Lat. antae, O. Ind. jata-, born/ are rightly called the long sonant
and
cf.
'
from roots
which has not yet been

m, n have been also referred to
a weakening of an original initial am-, an-, e. g. *mbhi beside
*ambhi (Gk. ufj,<pi), like *po beside *apo (Gk. a-no) (ch. ix. 12).
I.-Eur. m, n are in Umbro-Osc. treated as in Latin, e.g.
Umbr. desen- decem,' ivenga juvencas,' Osc. tristaamentud
nasals
settled (see
like gen-, &c. is a point
I.-Eur. initial
i).
'
'
testamento
in
'
Abl. Sg.
Umbr. antakres
Osc. anter
82.
'
Why an- should

J
integris,
appear for Lat. in-
Osc. ampnifid 'improbe,'
not quite clear (see von Planta,
inter,' is
i.
p.
(en-),
Umbro315).
Other examples of the Nasal Sonants. I.-Eur. -mn of the Nom.

men-stems (e. g. Gk. 17/10) is Lat. -men, e. g. semen the weak
Sg. Neut. of
form of the root
'
to stretch,' appears also in I.-Eur. *tanu-,

thin
Gk. raw-, stretched, of Tavv-yXcaaffos, ravv-TTrepos, raviiI.-Eur.
Trtn\os\ Lat. tennis from the Fern, form (0. Ind. tanvi) (ch. v.
47)
*kmtoin, hundred
(0. Ind. fotam, Gk. e-Karov, 0. Ir. cet, W. cant, Goth,
(O. Ind. tanu-
'
'
ten-,
cf.
'
'
hund, Engl. hund-red,
lit.
'
ioo-number,' Lith. szimtas, 0. SI. suto) is Lat.

Noun from the root g!tem-, 'to go (0. Ind.
'
I.-Eur. *g%mti-, the Verbal
centum
Goth. ga-qum)>s, 'assembly,' Germ. Her-kunft, &c.),. Lat. inventi-o

I.-Eur. *sm-, the weak grade of the root sem-, ' one (O. Ind. sa-kft,
*
I.-Eur. *mnto-, mnti-, the P. P. P. and
once,' Gk. a-7ra, d-TrAoos), Lat. simplex
Verbal Noun of men-, to think' (0. Ind. mata-, mati- Gk. auTo-âroj, 0. Ir.
'
der-met, forgetting,' Goth, ga-munds, remembrance,' 0. Engl. gemynd, Engl.
gati-,
Gk.
Paois,
'
'
'
mind, Lith. miiitas, 0. SI. m^tu, pa-m^ti, 'memory') appear in Lat. com-mentus,
Lat. ingens, lit. unmens, Gen. mentis. Similarly Lat. ensis (O. Ind. asi-)
known,' 'uncouth' (O. Eng. un-cud") from the root gen-, 'to know' Lat.
'
Lat. lingua, older dingua (Goth, tuggo, O. Engl. tunge.)

juvencus (see
64)
(On novem for *noven, see 79.) The late retention of the m-, n-sounds (as of
;
r-sounds,
92) has been inferred from patrem (beside patris), nomen (not
(but see p. 186).
83. Other examples of am, an, ma, na. Lat. gndrus from root gen-, to
know ' (O. Ind. jansmi) ; antae, pillars at door of a temple (0. Ind. 5ta-, Arm.
the
1-,
-)
'
dr-and)
j^try).
Lat. janitrices, sisters-in-law (O. Ind. yatar-, cf. Gk. tlvdrepfs, 0. SI.
by some as derived from emo, 'I take,' with
Lat. amdre is explained
REPRESENTATIVES OF
82-85.]
I.
-EUR. SOUNDS.
a reduction of the em-, as dicdre shows reduction of the
94 on
(Cf.
deico}.
and
al, ar,
3 on pdteo (Gk.
deic-
L, R.
275
of dlco (0. Lat.
TTCT-), oper.
These two sounds are often interchanged in

of l-l, e. g. caerulens from caelum,
Dissimilation
84. L, B.
(
Latin by
populd-ris
'
and
ii.
101). The same thing is found
'
O. H. G. turtula-tuba, our e turtle-dove
austrd-lis (ch.
in other languages,
e.
g.
from Lat. turtur (Gk. Ke0aAapyta and KCâAaAyt'a) and perhaps

occurred in
what
is
called the I.-Eur. period,
e.
g. I.-Eur. g"er-
O. H. G. querechela,
g-el-in the reduplicated root (L&i.gur-gul-io,
On the parasitic vowel often found between
Lith. gargaliiju).
a consonant and
r-r,
e.
(r),
see ch.
g. praest(f]lgiae (like
85. L.
I.-Eur.
is
Lat.
103, and on the avoidance of

bpv-tyaKros for 8pv-0paKToy) ib.
ii.
Gk.
e.
/,
g. the I.-Eur. root leiqS,
'
to
leave' (O. Ind. ric-, Arm. Ik'anem, Gk. AeiTreo, O. Ir. lecim, Goth,
'
leihvan, to lend/ O. Engl. Icon, Lith. leku, I leave,' O. SI. otii'
'
leku,
'
klei-,
'
hlains,
the root
appears in Latin linîo, Pft. llqvi
'
Gk.
O.
Ir.
Ind.
sri-,
K\ZVW,
cloen, awry,' Goth,
(O.
Lith. szlaitas, szle'ti, to lean '), appears in Lat.
remainder
to lean
'
')
'
hill,'
clivusy ac-clinis', suffixal -lo, -la, as in derivatives

'
dhe-,
to suck
Orikos,
O.
'
(O. Ind. dharu-, Arm. dal,

Gael, deal, leech,' O.
'
Ir. del, 'teat,'
find
II
Gk. Ârj,
beestings,'
H. G.
dele, 'leech'), in Lat. fellare forfe-lare, &c. (ch.
We
from the root
'
til
ii.
teat,'
Lith
130).
in Latin for original Id, e.g. per-cello
Gk.
(cf.
Lat. clddes), In, e. g. collis (Lith. kalnas ; cf Gk.

had
I.-Eur. -len- ; cf. Gk. o>AeV??), Is, e. g. colluw,
KoAoWs) (ulna
O. Lat. collus (O. Engl. heals, Germ. Hals M.), velle for *vel-se (cf.
K/\a5a/)os, brittle,
es-se), rl, e. g. stella
compound
verbs,
e.
So dl in
for *ster-la, agellus for *ager-lus.
for
But
a
ad-ligo.
g. alftigo
parasitic
usually
vowel was inserted to

ceded by a consonant,
facilitate pronunciation,
e.
g.pidculum orpia-clum
in the Sabine dialect (see
when
(see ch.
was
ii.
pre-
154)-
d became I
/. F. ii.
157), and
this form was sanctioned in a few words in Latin, e. g. lingua,
older d'mgua, from I.-Eur.
On
*dncjh~a- (Goth, tuggo) ( in).
facul, &c. for *facU, fac(i)le, &c., see
13; on leptis, a byform
of neptis, ch. ii.
106; on the change of e to o (u) before Latin
I.-Eur.
[except before I followed by e, i (y) or before the group If],

10, and on the various pronunciations of Latin I when alone,
when
double, and
when preceding a consonant,
ch.
ii.
96.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
<Zj6
[Chap. IV.
e. g.
Similarly we have
ligatuis 'legatis.'
6
veltu
vulto
plenis,'
Imperat. but initial 1 does
not occur in the Eugubine Tables, the chief record of the language, and it is not impossible that at the beginning of a word
I.-Eur.
Oscan
1 is
Umbr. plener
I.-Eur.
1,
'
'
Umbrian v
1 is
in
words
like vapef (IL&t. lapidesl Ace. PL),
Vuvyis (Lat. Lucius? cf. Osc. Luvkis), vutu (Lat. lawto ?) between
vowels 1 became (like d) r (rs) in karetu, carntu let him call
;
'
Lat. cdldre\ famerias 'familiae,' &c. before t it was

muta multa (' a fine,' Osc. multa-), &c., while the
Umbrian name Voisieno- (Lat. Volsieno-] x suggests that it became
(Gk.
fcaAeo),
before
'
dropped in
von Planta,
(see
86. I.-Eur.
i.
p. 285).
other examples. The I.-Eur. root leuk-, 'to shine
'
(0.
Ind.
rue-,
Aeu/co?, O. Ir. loche, lochet Gen., 'lightning,' Gaul. Leucetios, W.
lluched, Goth, liuhath, O. Engl. leoht, O. SI. luci) appears in Lat. lux, luceo,
7
lucerna
the rootghel-, green, yellow (0. Iiid. hari-, Gk. x^ wP^ s
0- I r>
??
Gk.
'
gel,
white,' 0. H. G. gelo, 0. Engl. geolo,

'
'
'
yellow,' Lith. 2elti,

in Lat. helvus, helus,
'
X^
to
grow green,'
and Tiolus. Simi-
O. SI. zelije, vegetables,' zelenii, green '),

larly Lat. sal (Arm. aA, Gk. aA?, O. Ir. salann, W. halen, Goth, salt, 0. SI. soli,
Lith. salunka, 'salt-box')
Lat.,/76s (0. Ir. blath, 'bloom,' W. blodau, 'flowers,'
;
Goth, bloma, 0. H. G. bluomo) Lat. clunis (0. Ind. Froni-, W. clun, O. Scand.
hlaunn, Lith. szTaunis) Lat. plenus, plefi-que, pletus (0. Ind. prata-, Arm. li, Gk.
I fill,' 1m, a number/ Lith. piTnas, full,' 0. SI. plunu)
ir\rjpr]s, 0. Ir. llnaim,
Lat. in-cluius (0. Ind. pruta-, 'heard,' Gk. K\VTOS, in Horn, 'heard, loud,' e.g.
famous
cf. O. Engl. hlud,
loud ').
ovo(j.a K\VTUV, Xi^ty AUTO?, 0. Ir. cloth,
;
'
'
'
'
'
B.
87.
I.-Eur. r
is
Lat.
r.
Thus the I.-Eur.
*reg-,
a king
'
(O. Ind. raj -an-, O. Ir. ii, rig Gen., W. rhi, Gaul. Catu-rlges, lit.
kings in fight ') is Lat. rex, stem reg- I.-Eur. *bhero, I carry
'
'
Arm. berem, Gk. ê'/oco, O. Ir. berim, W. ad-feru

Goth,
Inf.,
baira, O. Engl. bere, O. SI. bera) is Lat. //<?; I.-Eur.
wert-, to turn (O. Ind. vrt-, Goth. vairf>an, Engl. worth, in woe
worth the day,' Lith. versti and vartyti, O. SI. vratiti) is Lat.
(O. Ind. bhara-mi,

'
'
I.-Eur. ^Mpro- (Gk. Kairpos, boar, O. Engl. hsefer, 'goat ')

Lat. caper, stem *capro-, I.-Eur. rs before a vowel became rr in
'
Latin, e. g. torreo for *torseo (O. Ind. trs-,, Goth. ]?aursjan, to
vertere
is
'
thirst
s in
Gk.
re'po'Oju.cu).
pronunciation,
On
inscrr. of
Voisiener
p.
cf.
e.
g.
But
Asisium the Umbr.
Gen. Sing.
was assimilated
Perm pronounced
(C. I. L. xi.
5389
Biicheler, Umbrica Inscr. Min. i.,
172) corresponds to Lat. Volsienus
(xi.
to a following
*Pessa (seech, ii. 96),
5390 = 1. 1412).
The Volsienus
of no. 5390 seems to be the son of the

Volsienus of no. 5389.
REPRESENTATIVES OF
86-90.]
and I.-Eur.
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
L, R.
277
became ss, e. g. tostus for

was also assimilated to / in
The Campanian
Latin, e. g. stella, agellus for *sterla *agerlus.
town of which the Latin name was Atella has on its coins Aderl.
so that its Oscan name must have been *Aderlo, a name appa*tos8tu*,
before a consonant
rs
*torstm from
torreo.
meaning the little black town.' On the metathesis by

which ri became er, e.g. ter, terr- (*ters) for *tru, see
13.
Sometimes the cacophony of a repetition of r ( 84) seems to be
'
rently
avoided by using n for one r, e. g. cancer for *carc- (Gk. Kap/c-tVos;

O. Ind. kar-kar-a-, hard ') (but see ch. ii.
On carmen,
105).
'
cf.
and on r for d before/ v, g, e. g.

Between vowels I.-Eur. s became
arfuerunt, arvorswm, argei\
r in Latin, e. g. generis from the stem genes- [cf. Gk. ye'z>e(tr)oj], on
1
which see
I.-Eur. r is Umbro-Osc. r, e. g. Umbr. rehte
48).
*'
recte,' Osc. Regaturei
Regatori (see von Planta, i. p. 285).
In Umbrian, as in Latin, intervocalic s became r, but not in
possibly for ^can-men, see
78,
112.
'
'
Oscan
(cf.
infr.
146).
other examples. Lat. rota (0. Ind. ratha-, 'chariot,' O. Ir.

roth, 'wheel/ Gaulo-Lat. petor-ri'tum, a four-wheeled vehicle,' 0. H. G. rad,
Lat. porcus (Gk. iropfcos, 0. Ir. ore, 0. H. G. farh, Engl.
'wheel,' Lith. ratas)
Lat. vir (O. Ir. fer, Goth, vair cf. 0. Ind.
farrow, Lith. par szas, 0. SI. pras^)
Lat. serpo (O. Ind.
Lat. inter (0. Ind. antar, O. Ir. eter)
vira-, Lith. vyras)
cf.
Lat. ruber (0. Ind. rudhira-, Gk. I -pile's, 0. SI. riidru
srp-, Gk. fpiroj')
O. Ir. ruad, Goth. rau]>s)
Lat. rumpo, (0. Ind. rup- and lup-, 0. Engl. bereofan, to bereave,' Lith. rupeti, to trouble ') Lat. pr5- (O. Ind. pra, Gk. irpo,
he
O. Ir. ro, used like the augment to indicate a past tense, e. g. ro alt,
88. I.-Eur. r
'
'
'
nourished,' ro char,
he loved,' O. Bret,
'
89. ss for rs before consonant.

for
*tesst-, *terst-
from
*trist-
ro,
Lith. pra-, 0. SI. pro-).
Other examples are
(Osc. tristaamentud Abl. Sg.)
Lat. testament-urn
cena for *cesna,
*cersna (Osc. kersna-, Umbr. sesiia-).

The spelling coewa, due to
the analogy of Gk. o(i/6s, is very old. It appears on an early Praenestine
cista of the third cent. B. c. with the representation of a kitchen where cook-
from
*cessna
ing operations are going on. One servant is saying feri porod ( = feri porro)
another replies cofeci (
a third orders made mirecie ( = made mi regie
confeci)
a fifth says asom fero
or made mire, tie) a fourth misc sane ( = misce sane}
assumfero) ; a sixth conflce pisdm. The title is coenalia or coenapia (see Mel.
(
Arch. 1890, p. 303).
Similarly Lat. fastlgium for *farst- (0. Ind. bhrsti-, a
'
point
')
90.
farsio-
posco for *porcsco (0. Ind.
rr for rs
and
prchami, O. H. G. forscon, Germ, forschen).
before vowel.
fasio-; cf. 0. SI. brasino,
(O. Ind. hrs-)
porrum (Gk.
tursitu iremitu']
verres (Lith. vefszis,
'
'
Lat. farreus (Umbr.

Other examples
food'); garrio (Lith. garsas, 'noise'); horreo
:
Ind. tras-, Gk. Tpe(a}w, Umbr.

0. Ind. vrsni-, ram ') ; verruca,
cf. 0. Ind. varsman-)
Maspiter,
terreo [0.
irpdaov}
'
calf
a rising-ground' in 0. Lat. (Lith. virszus
cf.
;
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
278
[Chap. IV.
byform of MarspUer ; Tuscus (Umbr. Tursco- and Tusco-). Lat. fers has probably re-appended -s to an older *fer, *ferr for *fer-s [so ul-s has appended -s
a second time to *ul, *ull for *ol-s (ch. ix.
In Umbrian inscriptions
56).]
written in the Latin alphabet, the Umbrian d-sound (see ch. ii.
88) is
written rs, e. g. capirse (in the native alph. kapire), (Lat. capidi), Dat. Sing, of
c-dpid-, a bowl.
a
91. n for r.
Lat. crepusculum, if it has cr- for en- (compare Gk. Kvtyas),
with that change of en- to cr- which we find in some languages, e.g. Gael,
cnu (pronounced cru with nasal vowel), Bret, kraoun, 'a nut,' must be like
our 'gloaming,' a dialectal word Varro (L. L. vi. 5) makes it Sabine (see
:
On
80).
92.
the spellings menetris for m&retrix, &c., see ch.
The L- and R- Sonants.
ii.
105.
For the sounds to which
el,
er (Ie 9 re) are reduced in the unaccented syllable of such a word

as I.-Eur. *drto-, *drti (O. Ind. dfti-, Gk. bparos and baptos,
'
Lith. nu-dirtas, Goth. ga-taurj?s) from the root der-, to

some
write ], r, others al, ar (la, ra), the a indicating an
nay,'
In Latin these sounds
obscure vowel sound (also e r, e l, &c.).
bapo-is,
became
Gen. mortis (O. Ind. mrti-, Goth. maur]?r,

O. H. G. mord, Lith. mirtis, O. SI. su-mriti), fors, stem *forti(O. Ind. bhrti-, O. Ir. brith, Goth. ga-baur]?s, birth/ O. Engl. geol, or, e.
g. mors,
'
'
byrd, fate '), the o being subject to all the changes of ti for I.-Eur.
o (e, g.pulsus, Gk. TraArds from the root pel-), while before a vowel
we seem to find al, ar in saline (O. Ir. sail ; cf. Gk. IX far) with
'
cf Gk. Kecpcy) in Greek

E-grade), caro (Umbr. karu, a portion
ul ; in
became
e.
a
A
dp (pa,
they
g. Trarpacrt),
(Aa), in Teutonic ur,
Slavonic ir, il, and so on
so that it is only by reference to
'
another I.-Eur. language that

or, or I.-Eur.
I.-Eur.
we can
tell
whether Lat.
or are
ol,
also be I.-Eur.
el,
ol,
10.)
may
(Lat.
occasionally find la, ra in Latin words from roots in le, re,
which are probably to be explained similarly by the weakening
1, r.
til
We
influence of the accent, e. g. franco, fragilis from the root bhrey-,

to break (Goth, brikan, O. Engl. brecan) (see Osthoff, Morph.
Unt. v. Pref ., and above
Whether Gk. poo, pti, Lat. rd} of Gk.
3).
'
'
Kpdroy, Lat. *trdtm
rrrpwro'j, TieTrpwrat,
clddes,
and Gk.
op (ap),
Lat. ar of Gk. oropuu/ou, Lat. pars, partior, quartus, are rightly

called the long-sonant vowels from roots ster-, per-, &c. is a point
which has not yet been settled (see
There are some indicai).
tions that vocalic
languages down
and
'
pacer (pacris)
were sounds not unknown to the
to a fairly late period,
sit,'
e.
Italic
Marrucinian pacrsi
g.
'
may
she be propitious
(Zv.
7. 7. 7.
8) (cf
91-95.]
Umbr.
REPRESENTATIVES OF
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
L, R.
279
pacer, Lat. acer, acris Fern.), Sabine Atrno (Zv. 10), Osc.
PI., though how far these are merely graphic
Tantrnnaium Gen.
is
hard to decide
have in Lat.
frger,
ch.
(cf.
iii.
Umbr.
in
14)
ager,
corresponding to Gk. dypov we

so on (see ch. vi.
4). On Lat.
and
ter(r) for *tris,
I.-Eur. ], r receive
13.
facnl for fac(i)li, see
the same treatment in Umbro-Osc. as in Latin, e. g. Umbr. orto(Lat. ortns), Osc. molto (Lat. muHa^ a fine) (see vonPlanta, i. p. 314).
I.-Eur. *prk-sk6 (O. Ind.
93. Other examples of the liquid Sonants.
prchami, prcha-, 'enquiry,' Arm. harcanem, hare, 0. H. G. forscon, forsca)
Lat. posco for *porc-sco
I.-Eur. *krd-. (O. Ind. hrd, Gk. xapSia and KpaSii),
0. Ir. cride, Lith. szirdis, 0. SI. siidice Lat. cor for *cord
I.-Eur. *prka-, 'the
ridge of a furrow' (W. rhych F., O. Engl. furh F.), Lat. porca (Varro, E. R. i.
sulcus vocatur.
29. 3 qua aratrum vomere lacunam striam fecit,
quod est
inter duos sulcos elata terra dicitur porca
Paul. Fest. 77. i Th. explains the
name Imporcitor as qui porcas in agro facit arando,' the name of a deity invoked
by the flamen in the sacrifice to Tellus and Ceres, with a number of other
Vervactor, Separator, Imporcitor, Insitor, Obarator.
agricultural divinities
;
'
'
'
'
'
Occator, Saritor, Subruncinator, Messor, Con vector, Conditor, Promitor, whose

names are given by Fabius Pictor ap. Serv. ad Virg. G. i. 21. The word
porca occurs also in a line of Accius ap. Noil. 61. 19 M. bene proscissas cossiI.-Eur. km- (Gk. ttapvos Hesych., Goth, haurn), Lat.
gerare ordine porcas)
;
cornu
(cf.
Gk.
Lat. cornus, cornel,
Kpavos, Kpavov^)
I.-Eur. *prso- (Gk. irpaaov\
Certain examples of I.-Eur. 1 in Latin are not

numerous. Ulmus may stand for *lmo- (Ir. lem, Russ. ilemu) or for *elmoor for *olmo- Ô. Scand. almr)
(O. Engl. elm)
mulctus, "milked, for *mlktooc-cultus for *-A'lto- from the
(Lith. mifsztas, O. Ir. mlicht or blicht, milk ')
root feel-, to hide ; cf. sepultus from sepelio.
Lat. porrum for *porsum.
'
'
'
94. Other examples of al, ar, la, ra.

lam F. cf. Gk. ira\ap.ri\ scalpo (cf. sculpo]
from the root /celd- of per-cello}
cldmo (cf.
;
Lat. palma,
clddes (cf.
palm
of
hand
(0. Ir.
Gk. K\a8ap<js perculsus,

7
jlarus (cf. fulvus,

calo, calendae)
0. Lat. Folvius) ; Idtus, carried i^cf. tollo)
Idtus, wide, earlier stldtus, from the
root stel-, to extend (0. SI. stelj^,)
armus (0. Ind.
ardea (cf. Gk. e -poidios}
cf. Pruss. irmo)
carpo from the root kerp-,
Irmas, Goth, arms, 0. SI. rani
;
'
'
'
to cut (Lith. kerpu) (cf. Gk. Kap-rros, Engl. harvest) fasfigium for *farst- (cf.
0. Ind. bhrsti-, point,' O. Engl. byrst, bristle '), or *frast- (see ch viii.
18, on
farcio for *fracio) ; crdbro for *crd-sro (cf. Lith. szirszfl, O. SI. sruseni) craft's and
cartildgo (cf. Gk. KapraXos, basket, O. H. G. hurt, Engl. hurdle) fraocmus and
;
'
'
a birch-tree ') from the root bherg-, (0. Engl. beorc,

Lith. berzas, O. SI. breza" grdnum (0. Ind. jirna-, 'worn out' cf. Goth, kaurn,
'
'
*
corn,' Lith. iirnis, pea,' O. SI. zruno, a grain ') ; grains (0. Ind. gurta-, wel-
farnus ^0. Ind. bhurja-,
'
'
radix for *vrd- (cf. Goth, vaurts, Engl. wort); strdmen (Gk. arpwâ} from
lana for *vldna (O. Ind. Qrna, Gk. ov\os for *foXvoj).
On Lat. al, ar for
ar before a vowel, see
S. L. viii. 279, Osthoff, Durikles u. helles I, p. 52,
come')
sterno
el,
(palea, parens, varix, &c.),
and
cf.
95. Tenues, Mediae,
four varieties of each
3 onpateo (Gk.
TTCT-),
and Aspirates.
class
of
&c.
In Sanscrit we have
mutes or stopped consonants,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
280
[Chap. IV.
or unvoiced, (2) mediae, or voiced, (3) tenues aspiratae,

(i) ten ues,
by h
or tenues followed
aspiratae, or
But these
our th in 'ant-hill'), (4) mediae

(like our dh in 'sandhill').
(like
mediae followed by h
are
varieties
not
kept distinct
in
other
I.-Eur.
In Greek tenues aspiratae take the place of the

languages.
Sanscrit mediae aspiratae (e. g. dvôs, O. Ind. dhumas)
in the
;
and Slavonic families the mediae and mediae aspiratae of

Sanscrit are merged in mediae (e. g. Lith. dii-ti, to give/ O. Ind.
da-, O. Ir. dan, 'a gift, an accomplishment' Lith. dele a leech/
Celtic
'
'
O. Ind. dha-, to suck/ O. Ir. del, teat '). The tenues aspiratae
of Sanscrit are especially difficult to trace in the other languages ;
nor is it always easy to say whether they are due to some
'
phonetic law peculiar to Sanscrit, or represent I.-Eur. tenues

In the O. Ind. root stha-, to stand,' where the dental
aspiratae.
'
is found in all other languages

(Gk. torrî, Lat. sto, &c.), it
seems probable that the I.-Eur. form of the root was sta-, whereas
in O. Ind. nakha-, a nail, claw,' for which we have an aspirate in
tenuis
'
Gk.
orj>x-
the tenuis aspirata
have been with more or
'
words as I.-Eur. *konkho-, a

Lat. congius, a quart)
may
less
be original.
Tenues aspiratae
probability conjectured for such

(O. Ind. sarakha-, Gk. Ko'yx<>s,
'
shell
'
I.-Eur. skhi(n)d-, to split' (O. Ind. chid-,

Gk. o-^tC^j o7(iy8aA|Kos, a splinter, Lat. seindo, O. H. G. scintan,
the suffix of the 2 Sg. Pft. Ind. (O. Ind.
Germ, schinden)
;
and the
Lat. vul-is-ti, Goth, las-t, &c.)
same hypothesis has been used to explain the anomalous cor'
respondence of Latin h- and Goth, h- in the verb, to have/ Lat.
vet-tha, Gk. otv-Oa,
habet,
Goth, habai)? (I.-Eur. khabhe-
?),
&c.
These I.-Eur. tenues, mediae, and aspiratae were liable to

change their character under the influence of an adjoining
A media became a tenuis before an unvoiced conconsonant.
g. I.-Eur. *yukto-, P. P. P. from the root yeug-, to
Ind.
tenuis similarly became
yukta-, Lat. junctw).
join (O.
a media before a voiced consonant, [cf. I.-Eur. "^si-zd-o, the
sonant,
e.
'
'
media
reduplicated form of the root sed-, to sit (Lat. sulo)}.
t or s is in Latin and other languages treated
before
aspirata
'
like a tenuis,
e.
root wegh-), but
g. vectus, vexi (vecsi), from Lat. veho (I.-Eur.

whether this was the case in what is called ' the
'
Indo-European period
is
not certain.
More
plausible
is
the
06-98.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
P, B,
BH. 28 1
t before t or th, and perhaps d before d, dh,

produced
at
this
for a trace of this
period some sibilant sound
already
appears in every branch of the I.-Eur. family, e. g. from the root
theory that
with the P. P. P.
sed-_,
suffix -to-,,
we have Zend
ni-sasta-, Lat.
-sessus, Lith. sestas, O. Scand. sess) (for other examples in Latin,

1
see
The occasional confusion, too, which we find between
08).
tenues and mediae
Gk. aita-navr) beside Lat. scabo], mediae

(e. g.
and aspiratae (e.g. Gk. ore/xôu beside aare/oi,0?}s- O. Ind. almm
beside Gk. eycu, Lat. ego, &c.) may in many instances date from
;
the same early time.

In Umbrian a tenuis becomes a media before r in subra
'
'
supra/
'
podruhpei
utroque/ regularly after n, e. g. ivenga juvencas,'
ander inter (Osc. anter) (von Planta, i. p. 547) and we have
'
both in Oscan and Umbrian
instances of a tenuis appearing

for a media, which are by some explained as miswritings, due to
the earlier use of the tenuis-symbol only in the native alphabets
many
but are by others considered

(derived from Etruscan, ch. i.
i),
as a proof that the Italic mediae were not voiced (ch. ii.
77).
(For instances, see von Planta,
96.
Media or
Other examples are

(ch. vii.
i.
p.
555.)
aspirata assimilated to unvoiced consonant in Latin.

cet-te for *ce-date, the plural of cedo, give, lit.
give here
'
from ago scriptus from scribo

optenui (Scip. Ep.\ apscede, urps, ee ch.
ac-tus
'
topper for *tod-per (ch. ix.

7) ;
16)
On spellings like
rec-tus from veho, &c.
15), hoc(c) for *hod-ce (oh. vii.
ii.
80.
Tenuis assimilated to voiced consonant in Latin. On ob-duco

I.-Eur. d becomes t before r (unvoiced?) in
ii.
73.
Latin, e.g. dtrox, from ad-, a byform of the root od- of odium ( 113).
97.
beside op-tenui, see ch.
Interchange of tenuis and media in Latin.
(See ch.
Interchange of media and aspirata in Latin.

ing for I.-Eur.
</h,
see
On
ii.
73-77.!
g occasionally appear-
116.
P, B,
BH, PH.
I.-Eur. p is Lat. p, e. g. I.-Eur. *peku- N. (O. Ind.

Goth,
faihu, Germ. Vieh, Engl. fee), Lat. pecu, I.-Eur.
pau,
Ind.
*septm (O.
sapta, Arm. evt'n, Gk. eTrra, O. Ir. secht,
98. P.
W.
saith,
HJ e.
Goth, sibun
cf.
g. somnus for *sop-nus
summus
becomes m before
Lith. septyni).
before
assimilated
it
is
labials, e. g.
;
for *sujtmus, suffio for *supfio.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
282
[Chap. IV.
The Labial Tenuis receives a similar treatment in Umbrobut pt is in

Osean, e. g. Umbr. patre, Osc. paterei patri
Osc. ft, in Umbr. ht, e. g. Osc. serifto-, Umbr. screihto- scrip to
'
'
'
'
von Planta,
(see
i.
424).
p.
99. Other examples of I.-Eur. p. I.-Eur. *pater-, (O. Ind. pitar-, Arm.
O.-Eur. *pro (O. Ind.
irar-rip, O. Ir. athir, Goth, fadar) Lat. pater
I.-Eur.
pra, Gk. Trpo, 0. Ir. ro, O. Bret, ro, Lith. pra-, O. SI. pro-), Lat. prohair, Gk.
*serpo (0. Ind. sarpa-mi, Gk. cpTror, Lat. serpo I.-Eur. root spek- (0. Ind. spa-,
O. H. G. spehon, Engl. spy), Lat. au-spex, con-spicio
from I.-Eur. root prekLith. praszyti,
(O. Ind. pras-na-, 'a request,' Goth, fraihnan, Germ, fragen
;
come
Lat. precor, and procus I.-Eur. *nepot- (0. Ind. napat-,

Ir. niae, niath Gen., 0. H. G. nefo), Lat. nepos
I.-Eur. root pak-, pag-
O. SI. prositi)
M.
'
(O. Ind. pasa-,
Dor. Gk. vdyvvfu, Goth, fahan, to catch,' Germ. Fuge)

I.-Eur. "Tcapro- (Gk. Kairpos. 0. Engl. haefer, 'goat'), Lat.
'
string,'
Lat. pax, pcigina
caper.
I.-Eur. b
100. B.
Lat.
is
b,
e.g. I.-Eur. *pibo,
'
I drink'
Lat. b,
(O. Ind. pibami, O. Ir. ibim), Lat. Vibo for *pi6o
163).
whether from I.-Eur. b or bh, becomes m before n, e. g. scamnum
(
Latin
beside scabellum.
(cf.
r,
Gk.
114),
o-Kapuâojuai, scratch)
before
represent I.-Eur. -bh-, e. g. scrlbo

103), -dh-, e.g. ruber (Gk. ZpvOpos
e.g. kibernus
r,
ii.
On
68).
bis) (
see ch.
ch.
may
cereb-rum for ^ceres-rum
e.g.
(Gk.
ii.
52,
(Gk. xetêpiô?) (
152)^ dw-, e.g.
the confusion of
and
and on the substitution of
77), s before
bis for
*<lwu
v in late spellings,
-b for -p in sub, ab,
73.
Other examples of I.-Eur. b. Lat. balbus (O. Ind. balbala-, Gk.

Lat.
Lat. lambo ^0. H. G. laifan, 0. SI. lobuzu
cf. Gk. \dirToj')
0dp&apos)
lubricus (Goth, sliupan, 'to slip')
Lat. Idbium (0. H. G. lefs, 0. Engl. lippa).
10].
102.
mn
amnis from abh- (O. Ind. ambhas-, water,' Ir. abann,

the spellings amnuere in glosses, see Lowe, Prodr. p. 421 cf.
for bn.
On
'river').
'
amnegaverit 'C.I.L. vi. 14672).

j\6(poj)
Similarly
became mm, and was reduced
BH.
103.
medial
b,
I.-Eur.
optyavos, O.
Lat. orbus
Ir.
is
berim,
W.
Lat./m>;
(ch.
of *glub-ma (root ^leubh-, Gk.
initial
'
127), gluma.
ii.
became Latin
'
to carry
/,
(O. Ind. bhar-,
when
Arm.
ad-feru Inf., Goth, baira, Engl.

I.-Eur.
%rbho- (Arm.
orb,
Gk.
'
inheritance/ Goth, arbi, Germ. Erbe, heir '),

I.-Eur. root bheu- (O. Ind. bhu-, Gk. (^va), O. Ir.
Ir. orbe,
buith, Lith.
*bhrator-
bh when
e.g. I.-Eur. root *bher- ;
berem, Gk. <epo>, O.

I bear, O. SI. benj)
to
bm
bu-ti,
'
O.
SI.
by-ti),
(O. Ind. bhratar-,
Lat. fui,
futurm;
Gk. fodrup, O.
Ir.
I.-Eur.
brathir,
W.
99-105.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF I.-EUR. SOUNDS. T,D,DH. 283
brawd, Goth,
good example
bh
in Latin
O. SI. bratru), Lat. J'rater.

of the different treatment of initial and medial
brof>ar, Lith. broter-elis,
is
the
word
for a beaver, I.-Eur. *bhebhru- (O. H. G.

O. Ind. babhru-, brown '),
bibar, Lith. bebrus, O. SI. bebru
On mn
e.
scamnum from
g.
from I.-Eur. b or bh),

support/ with Dim. scabellum
scamillum Ter. Scaur. 14. 6 K.), see
102, and on
Lat. fiber.
(-ilium} (also
dialectal
for
for
bn (with
skabli-
'
to
a
(e.g. Aljius,
byform of Albius), see ch. ii.

I.-Eur. bh is Umbro-Osc. f, whether initial or internal,
83.
e.g. Umbr.-Osc. fust erit,' Umbr. alfo-, Osc. Alafaternum albo-/
b
'
On
'
Faliscan haba for IL&t.fada, see

104. I.-Eur
0.
*neblo-,
bh
other examples.
121, ch.
ii.
Lat. nebula (Gk.
H. G. nebul, Germ. Nebel), Lat.
fateor,
57.
ve<J>e\rj,
0. Ir. nel for
fcima (Gk. Qrjpi)
Lat.
(Gk. poQctu, Arm. arb-enam, Lith. srebiu) Lat. umbo, umbilicus (O. Ind.
nabhi-, nabhlla-, Gk. u/j.QaXos, 0. Ir. imbliu, 0. H. G. naba, nabolo, Pruss.
nabis, Lett, naba); Lat. flos (O. Ir. blath, bloom/ Goth, bloma}; Lat. albus (Gk.
Lat. ambi- (0. Ind. abhi, Gk. d/û, 0. Ir. imme for
dA(/>oj, white leprosy)
sorbeo
'
imbe, Gaulish Ambi-gatus' 0. Engl. ymb, Engl. ember-days, from O. Engl.

Lat. ambo (O. Ind.
circuit/ Germ, um for umb)
ymb-ryne 'running round,
u-bha-, Gk. dfj.(f)ct}, Goth, bai, baj-6|>s, Engl. b-oth, Lith. abii, O. SI. oba:
findo from I.-Eur. root bheid- (O. Ind. bhid-, Goth, beita, Engl. I bite)
Lat.
Lat.
fagus (Dor. Gk. (pdyos, O. Engl. boc). Barba for *farba (I.-Eur. bhardh-, 0.
163).
brada, Lith. barzda, Engl. beard) is due to assimilation (see
DH, TH.
T, D,
105. T.
I.-Eur. t
is
SI.
Lat.
t ;
e.
g. the I.-Eur. root ten-,
'
to
'
(O. Ind. tan-, Gk. reiVo, O. Ir. tennaim, Goth, uf-banja,

Germ, dehnen O. Ind. tanu-, ' thin,' Gk. Tavv-nTCfWi, O. Ir. tana,
stretch
W.
teneu, O. H. G. dunni, O. Engl. J?ynne, Lith. dial, tenvas, O. SI.

turn
tmikii) appears in Latin ten-do, tennis I.-Eur. *wert-, to
'
'
(O. Ind. vartate 3 Sg., Goth, vairban,

vartyti, O. SI. vratiti,
W.
Germ, werden, Lith.
verszti,
'
spindle ') is Lat. vertere.

initial, e.g. lotus for *tldtus, P. P. P. of
gwerthyd,
dropped when
but becomes c when medial; thus the suffix -tlo-,
which indicates the instrument with which an action is perBefore
fero,
/ it is
tuli,
formed, or the place of its performance, appears in Latin as

'
-do-, e.g. vehiclum or vehiculum, 'that by which one is carried
:
dublculum,
which one drinks/ cubiclum or

the place where one lies down,' &c., by the same
change as
is
poclum or poculum, 'that out of

'
seen in
later
Latin veclus for
vet(u}lus, in
the
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
284
English mispronunciation
'
acleast
'
for
[Chap. IV.
Mod. Gk.
at least/ in
a-VK\o from Gk. vevrXov, &c.

Before c it is assimilated, e.g.
ac for *acc from *atc, atqu(e), while tt became ss, after a con-
sonant
from
s,
from
for *pattu*
passm
e.g.
from
#/70, *saldo i versus
jpatior, sal&us for *salttus
twtfo, &c.
seems to have become -ns in the Umbro-Oscan
Final -nt
languages, for the 3 Plur. Act. ending of Secondary Tenses

(I.-Eur. -nt) appears in them as -ns, e.g. Osc. fufans 'erant'
quasi 'fubant' (ch.
viii.
The same may hold
73).
of Latin,
for quotiens, totiens suggest the O. Ind. suffix -yant of ki-yant,
how
Latin
(See A. L. L. v. 575).
atrox
beside
odium
r, e.g.
(see
large/ &c.
an original d before
represents
113).
in consonant-groups, e.g. nox for *noc(t)s,

for *ver(i)mina } see
157, and on nn for tn, e. g. annus,
the loss of
In Umbro-Osc.
I.-Eur. t
Umbr.
remains, e.g.
On
vermma
161.
tota-,
Osc.
a community, but tl became (as in Latin) kl, e.g. Umbr.

pihaklu, Osc. sakaraklum (cf Pelignian sacaracirix sacratrices,
TC^FTO,
'
pristafalacirix
praestabulatrices
106. Other examples of I.-Eur.
').
t.
I.-Eur.
*kmtom
(0.
Ind. latam, Gk.
0. Ir. cet, W. cant, Goth, hund, Lith. szimtas, 0. SI. suto) is Lat.
centum] I.-Eur. *6kt6(vO (0. Ind. asts, Arm. ut', Gk. OT<&, O. Ir. ocht,
W. wyth, Goth, ahtau, 0. Engl. eahta, Lith. asztu-ni, 0. SI. os(t)-mi), Lat.
-Kar6v
octo
*mater- (O. Ind. matar-, Arm. mair, Dor. Gk.
I.-Eur.
mathir, 0. Engl. modor. O.
mater-, Lith. motera,

I.-Eur. *wetos, 'a year' (0. Ind. vats-a-, 'calf,' lit.
SI.
woman
'
fta-n?/),
'),
0. Ir.
Lat. mater
yearling,' Gk. (/êros,
O. SI. vetuchii, 'old'), Lat. vetus-tus, vStus ; I.-Eur. *es-ti (0. Ind. asti, Gk. !<m,
Goth. 1st), Lat. est ; I.-Eur. root steig-, to pierce (0. Ind. tij-, tigma-, sharp,'
Gk. arifa, any^r], Goth, stiks, 'point of time,' Germ. Sfcich), Lat. insttgo; the
'
'
'
'
Comparative
Suffix -tero- (O. Ind. katara-,
hvajar, Engl. whether, Lith. katras, O.
'
Gk.
Trorepos, O. Ir. -ther,
SI. kotory-ji) is
in Lat.
Goth,
-tero-, e. g. uter.
107. I.-Eur. tl. Lat. laquor is I.-Eur. tloq?- (0. Ir. atluchur for ad-tluchur
in the phrase atluchur bude, I thank,' 'ad-loquor gratias '). On the spellings
'
sttis, sclis, slis
108.
for class. Us, see
150.
Verbs whose stem ends in a dental show ss (after

s, ch. ii.
127) in their P. P. P., formed with the
g. fissus from/mrfo, ausus from audeo,fisus from/z<2o, &c. (see
155
So in formations with the suffix -tumo; e. g. vlcensumus for
28).
I.-Eur.
tt.
a diphthong, &c. reduced to

suffix -to (e.
and
ch. v.
*vicent-tumo- (ch. v.
The combination
syncope,
e. g. cette
109. D.
14),
Adjectives in -osws (ch.
v.
65), &c.
in Latin appears where a vowel has been dropped

for *ce-date 2 Plur. Imper., egret{t)us, adgret(t)us ( 109).
Of
tt
I.-Eur. d, Lat.
d examples are
I.-Eur.
by
*dekm,
106-110.]
'
ten
'
REPRESENTATIVES OF I.-EUR. SOUNDS. T,D,DH. 285
(O. Ind. dasa,
Arm.
tasn,
Gk.
e/ca,
O.
Ir. deich,
W.
deg,
Goth, taihun, O. H. G. zehan, Lith. deszimt. deszimtis, O. SI.

I.-Eur. root weid-, to see, know (O. Ind.
des^ti), Lat. decem
'
'
veda,
vait,
Arm. git-em, Gk.
dialect
d became
period,
e.
O.
ot8a,
Engl. wot, O. SI. vedeti

(/. F.
Ir.
Inf.),
ad-fiadaim.
Lat. video,
ii.
and we
'
I narrate,' Goth,
In the Sabine
vldi.
find the spelling I
157)
sanctioned in a few Latin words at the beginning of the literary
;
g. Idcrwia, older dacrima,
dacruma (Gk.
ba-Kpv,
Welsh
dagr, Gotfotagr), (Paul. Test. 48. 15 Th. dacrimas' pro lacrimas

Livius saepe posuit).
became r before g in mergo, mergus (O.
'
Ind. madgu-, a waterfowl '), &c., and before v and /, though the
old forms arger, arvorsus, arfuerunt, had their d restored from ad
at the beginning of the second cent. B.C.
Initial dw- became
'
I, e.g. bet him (older duellum, always a dissyllable in Plautus), bis

for *dwis (Gk. bis), (see
68), and initial dy- became j- (y), e.g.
Jovis, O. Lat. Diovis (see
63), but internal -dw- leaves v in
sit avis
(71).
D is
assimilated to a following
in
rdmentum from
rddo, caemeutum from caedo, c in O. Lat. reccwlo, hoc for */wd-ce,

I in
rell/igio, pelluviae, water for washing the feet, grallae^ stilts,
from gmdior, but assimilates a preceding
mpercello for *-celdo
(cf. clddes), &c. (see ch. viii.

33), sallo for *saldo (Goth, salta).
It became t before r, e.g. atrox (cf. odium], and before t, this U
ss (see
108), e.g. egressws, adgressus. The forms egrettus,
adgrettus (Paul. Fest. 55. 3 Th. quotes egretus, adgretus, apparently
becoming
from some early
writer, earlier than the practice of writing the

double consonant) seem to stand f.QT*egred(i)to-,adgred(i)to-( 108).
L-Eur. d remains in Umbro-Osc., e.g. Umbr. devo-, Osc.
'
divus/ but between vowels became in Umbrian a sound

(d
88) which is expressed in the native alphabet by a sign
conventionally written by us f and in the Latin alphabet by rs,
deivo-
? ch.
ii.
e.g. tera, dersa 'det' (quasi *dedat) (Pel. dida;
cf.
Osc. didest).
For nd we have in Umbro-Osc. nn as in -nno- the Gerundive
Umbr. pihano- piandus/

(
ending, e.g.
110.
Other instances of I.-Eur.
Osc. upsanno- 'operandus/
d, Lat. d. I.-Eur. root deik-, 'to point' (0.
Gk. Sdrcwfn^ Goth, ga-teihan, ' to proclaim '), Latin cUcere, indware I.Eur. root deks-, 'right hand' (O. Ind. dakiina-, Gk. 8et6s, Se^/rtpos, O. Ir. dess,
Gaul. Dexsiva, W. deheu, Goth, taihsva, Lith. deszine, 0. SI. desinu), Lat.
dexter; I.-Eur. rootsed-, 'to sit'(0. Ind. sad-, Gk. e'So?, 0. Ir. sudim, sadaim,
W. seddu Inf., Goth, sita, 0. SI. sedlo, 'saddle '), Lat. sedeo. Similarly Lat. scindo
Ind.
dis-,
THE LATIN LANGUAG.E.
286
[Chap. IV.
Lat. cttvus (0. Ind. deva-, Lith.

(O. Ind. chind-, Gk. ^x^S-aAô?, a splinter)
divas
Lat. pes, Gen. pedis (0. Ind. pad-, Gk. irovs, iroSos Gen., ircfa, Goth.
Lat. suadeo (O. Ind. svadu-, 'sweet/ Gk. 7781^,
fotus, Lith. peda, 'footprint')
Goth, suts) Lat. Mo (0. Ind. ad-, Arm. ut-em, Gk. eSw, Goth, ita, Lith. edu,
0. SI. jadi, food ').
;
<
111. Lat.
for d. Lautia,
which usually occurs in an
alliterative formula, e.g.
Liv. xxx. 17. 14 aedes liberae, loca, lautia legatis decreta; xxviii. 39. 19 locus
inde lautiaque legatis praeberi jussa) was in Old Latin dautia, a form quoted
from Livius Andronicus by Paul. Test. 48. 16 Th. dautia' (Livius saepe posuit
quae lautia dicimus, et dantur legatis hospitii gratia lingua, for I.-Eur.
*dmjha- or *dnghwa- >Goth. tuggo cf. O. Ir. tenge) was in Old Latin dingua
linguam per 1 potius quam per d (scribamus), Mar. Viet. 9. 17 K.;
[nosnunc
'
',
littera (1 cum d) apud antiques, ut dinguam et

linguam, et 'dacrimis' et lacrimis, et Kapitodium' etKapitolium, id. 26. i K.).
(Was Aquilonia the Oscan Akudunnia-, now Cedogna ? cf. O. Umbr. akectunia-.")
Pompey, according to Mar. Viet. 8. 15 K., affected the old spelling and
pronunciation kadamitas for calamitas (perhaps from the same root as Oscan
cadeis amnud, with intent to injure/ out of malice,' Gk. KKa8fjaai, explained
by Hesychius as jSAaât, Kaitwaai, artprjaai] the di Norensiles appear on an
old inscription from Picenum as DEIV. NOVESEDE (C.I.L. i. 178) (cf. the
Marsic esos noresede, Zv. I.I.I. 39).
In many or all of these words the
preference of the byform with I can be explained by false analogy in lingua
by the analogy of lingo (cf. 0. Ir. ligur, the tongue,' Arm. lezu, Lith. l82uvis)
in calamitas by the analogy of calamus in lautia by the analogy of law, &c.
Similarly 0. Lat. delicare with the sense of indicare (e. g. Plaut. Mil. 844) may
owe its I to the influence of deKquare, to clarify. Perhaps Lat. lympha,
a Graecized form (cf. Gen. PI. lymphon, Varro, Sat. Men. 50 B.) of *dumpa, (Osc.
Diumpa-", with Lat. Ulysses, does not exhibit a Latin change of d to I, but
communioiiem enim habuit
'
'
'
'
'
'
a change which had already been made in Greek for Quintilian, i. 4. 16, quotes
dialectal Gk. 'O\vff0tvs and on Gk. vases (see Kretschmer, Gr. Vas. p. 146) we
;
have
'O\vcrevs (C.I.G. 7697), frequently 'O\vrfvs (C.I.G. 7383, 7699, 8185,

8208), while Varro, L. L. vii. 87, quotes Xv(j.(f>6\r)TrTos (cf. O. Lat. Thelis for
The exact relation of simila, simildgo, fine wheaten
trtj, Varro, L. L. vii. 87).
(cf. Germ. Semmel), to Gk. 0-fâAts is doubtful, as also that of casila
for cassitla ?) to cassis, cassida (an Etruscan word
(Paul. Test. 33. 22 Th.
according to Isidore, Orig. xviii. 14. i). The form reluvium mentioned by
Festus (370. 17 Th. recliviam quidam, alii 'reluvium' appellant, cum circa
unguis cutis se resolvit, quia luere est solvere) never ousted the form redii-ia.
flour
It does not appear to have been a phonetic variety of redivia, but rather
a separate word, perhaps a grammarian's coinage, derived from luo, as redivia,
red-uvia was derived from *oto of ind-uo, ex-uo, exuviae. Some of the forms with
mentioned above, e. g. calamitas, 'injui*y to crops,' may similarly have been

words from the d-forms. [So consilium, &c. beside praesidium, &c.
cf. Mar. Viet. 9. 18 K. praesidium per d
potius (scribamus) quam per 1;
considium Plaut. Cas. 966 (see below on solium)].
Some appear to be dialectal
I
different
or
[Greek Seacard (but cf. Xtnaarri}, according to Varro, L. L.

v. 123] was Sabine (Varro, 1. c.\ and perhaps Novensiles (id. v.
74) (cf. Paul.
Feat. 77. 7 Th. inpelimenta inpedimenta dicebant)
so probably larix for
*darix (O. Ir. dair for *darix, an oak '), and possibly laurus for *dauru-s (O. Ir.
daur for *darus, an oak ') Melica (gallina) for Medica (Varro, R. R. iii. 9. 19) (cf.
e. g. lepesta
lepista
'
'
'
'
REPRESENTATIVES OF
111.]
SOUNDS.
T.-EUR.
T, D,
DH.
287
Paul. Test. 89. 27 Th.) ; and the few modern Italian words which show this
I
may be dialectal too, e.g. cicala from Lat. cicada, ellera from Lat.
change of d to
from Lat. ires and pedes, as tiepolo is a dialectal variety of tepido

It is
(Lat. tepidus) (cf. the Dlgentia, now Licenza, in the Sabine district).
possible, but unlikely, that Lat. puUicus (Umbr. pupfriko-), Publius from pfibes,
hedera, trespolo
name whose spelling was often altered after Poplicola arid other names derived
from populus (cf. Umbr. Puplecio-), may stand for *pubdi- and exhibit that
change of d to I after a labial which is seen in these Italian forms tiepolo and
trespolo (cf. the byform impelimenta). The town-name Telesia shows d on
Oscan coins with Tedis (Zv. 1. 1. 1. 262). Other examples of I for d are levir,
a
laevir, a brother-in-law for *daever (O. Ind. devar-, Gk. darip for *5cuf 77/9,
Lith. deveris, O. SI. deveri), which Nonius (557. 6 M.) explains quasi laevus
vir ; oleo, which stands in puzzling contrast to odor from the root od-, to smell
better
'
'
(Arm.
hot, Gk. 68^57, Lith. iid2iu) (odefacit of Paul. Fest. 193. 21 Th. 'odefacit'
dicebant pro olfacit, may be a grammarian's coinage). But the other

instances usually quoted are doubtful ullgo may come from *umlis as well as
from uvidus solium and 0. Lat. sblum (e. g. Enn. Ann. 93 M. scamna solumque)
:
maybe from
* sodium
a root swel- (Gk. creA/xa, Lith, siilas, a bench '), and not represent
from the root sed-, as solum, the ground, the sole of the
'
(0. Ir. suide)
foot (cf. solea, a slipper) stands for *swolo-, (0. Ir. fol, the base, foundation ')
mdlus might be from *maz-lo-, as Engl. mast is from *maz-do-. The inter'
change of d and in lacruma, lingua, &c. was well known to the native Latin
grammarians, and was often appealed to by them to support theoretical
etymologies of words with I. Thus they explained sella (really for *sed-la
Lacon. Gk. eAAa cf. Goth, sitls, Engl. a settle, 0. SI. sedlo, a saddle ') by this
interchange (Mar. Viet. 26. 3 K.)
similarly anc'uia from ambe-cido (Varro,
L. L. vii. 43)
meditor from /*e \eraca
seliquastra from sedeo (Fest. 508. 10 Th.)
who quotes
vServ. ad Eel. i. 2) delicatus from dedicatus [Paul. Fest. 49. 17 Th.
a (suppositions) delicare, 51. 35 Th. delicare
ponebant pro dedicare cf.
Gl. Plac. 16. 1 1 G. delicare: deferre, quod et dedicare dicebant pro commercio
litterarum]. This delicare for dedicare is either an etymological coinage to
explain deUcatus, or the Old Latin delicare, to explain, inform, which was
mentioned above. Modern etymologists have adopted a similar course to
I
'
'
'
'
explain some difficult words like mutter, miles, silicernium, Indus (for other
On Latin Consonant Laws, in the Phil. Soc. Trans.
examples, see Wharton
1889 and Conway, Indogerm. Forsch. ii. 157). But the evidence rather points
to this Mike pronunciation of d having asserted itself at the beginning of the
literary period, but not having gained admission into the literary language,
except in the case of a few words where the I was supported by analogy or
:
other causes.
from
bddius, is a 'ghost-word,' the true reading

the old spelling of bajulus}.
Whether an original 1 is ever represented by d in Latin is doubtful. The
mispronunciation alipes for ddipes (Prob. App. 199. 3 K.) was probably influenced
by the Gk. d\(Kf>a, but is no argument that the Greek and Latin words are
connected the 0. Lat. sedda for sella, quoted by Ter. Scaur. 13. 14 K., seems to be
a grammarian's coinage to illustrate the etymology from sedeo, though it might
possibly be the same dialectal sedda, with a peculiar form of d, which is still
heard in S. Italy and Sardinia, where every Italian II is replaced by this cM-sound
(Latin
in Plaut. Poen. 1301
baliolus,
is baiiolus,
(see ch.
ii.
85).
(On medipontus and
112. Lat. r for d.
Priscian
i.
melipontus, see
Keil on Cato B. R.
p. 35. 2 H.) tells us that the
'
iii. 5.)
'
antiquissimi
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
288
used arvenae,
arventores,
arvocati,
arvolare,
arfines,
grammarians mention arventum (Mar.
[Chap. IV.
arfari, also arger
and other
17 K.), arvorsus, arvorsarius Vel.

Long. 71. 2aK.), aruente(Gl. Plac.), arferia Paul. Fest. 8. 32 Th. Gloss, ap. Lowe
Prodr. p. 13 vas vinarium quo vinum ad aras ferebant; cf. adferial, Gl. Cyr.).
In Cato we find arveho (e. g. R. R. 135. 7 138) and on inscriptions arfuerunt,
Viet.
9.
and arrorsum
196) in the S. C. de Bacchanalibus of 186 B. c.,

arvorsario beside advorsarium v i. 198), in the Lex Repetundarum of 123-2 B.C.,
arfuise
arvorsu (ix. 782).

old form of apud,
(C. I. L.
i.
Apur (Mar.
Viet. 9. 17 K.), apor (Paul. Test. 19. 34 Th.), the

doublet used before a word beginning
was probably a
'
'
g, v,f ^cf. apur finem in an old inscription from the Marsic territory, Zv.
but quirquir in the augur's formula for marking out a templum (Varro,
1. 45)
with
7. 1.
L. L. vii. 8) is a
doubtful example
and
XII Tabb.
arduuitur (Legg.
10. 7 Br.),
M. unlikely readings. The affinity of the sounds is seen

in the (dialectal) mispronunciation 'in usu cotidie loquentium' (Consent.
and r (or else d~, the
392. 15 K.) peres for pedes (cf. arvenire Diom. 452. 29 K.")
M-sound of our 'this,' 'then') takes the place of Italian d in the dialects of
S. Italy and Sicily, e. g. dicere and ricere for Ital. dicere in the Abruzzi
ar
me
Lucil. ix. 30
Neapolitan rurece for
and
Ital. dodici,
(like Consentius' peres) pere for Ital.
piede, &c. Arger persisted in Vulgar Latin (Ital. argine. a dam,' Span, arcen,
a parapet.') Arbiter, from the root get- of Lat. veto (0. Scand. at-kvaecta,
a decision ') seems to be dialectal 0. Umbr. ad"putrati, in Lat. arbitratu ') (cf.
'
'
'
<
moneriUa, the form used by Plautus, classical monedula with the termination of
acredula, fl cedilla, querquedula, nitedula, alcedo and the glosses maredusfor mddidus,
;
marcidat (Lowe, Prodr. 352

The
Opusc. 142).
change of d to r in 0. Lat. arfuerunt (preserved in the formula SCR. AKF.
scribendo arfuerunt}, &c. was often mentioned by the native grammarians, who
solerare for solid-are, marcerat for
regarded a reference of any r to an original d as a legitimate device in

framing etymologies. ThusVeliusLongus(7i.23K. N derives auricula from audio,
and meridies (older meridie Adv.) from medius and dies. This explanation of
meridies is probably right, the r being due to dissimilation (cf. Cic. Orat. xlvii.
157 jam videtur nescire dulcius. ipsum meridiem cur non medidiem
Varro,
L. L. vi. 4, says that medidies was the old form, and that he had seen it on
a Praenestine sundial meridies ab eo quod medius dies, d antiqui, non r,
in hoc dicebant, ut Praeneste incisum in solario vidi), though a good deal may
be said for the derivation from merus (cf. mero meridie, Petr. 37. p. 25. i B.), and
the Praenestine D seen by Varro may have been merely an old form of the letter
R, as I.ADINOD, LADINEI on all coins c. 250 B.C.) of Larinum (modern Larino)
Isidore
(C. I. L. i. 24) may show the Oscan D, the symbol of r, as R was of d.
merula antiquitus 'medula' voca(Orig. xii. 7. 69) similarly explains memla
batur, eo quod moduletur and Varro (L. L. v. no) derives perna 'a pede.'
'
'
Modern etymologists explain in the same way gldrea (Gk. x^Sos), possibly
a dialectal form, simltur (ch. ix.
8) beside simitu, and other words of doubtful
origin (see Wharton, Latin Consonant Laws, in Phil. Soc. Trans. 1889, on cdreo,
But the available evidence hardly allows us to ascribe any r to
an original d in a Latin word except before g, v, /. Caduceus, a loanword from
Gk KrjpvKiov (Dor. Kdp-} may owe its d to a fanciful connexion of the word with
In Umbrian ar- is found for the Preposition ad in compounds
cddilcus.
ploro, &C.).
perhaps only before f-,

adfertor (von Planta,
'
v-,
e. g.
'
i.
p. 408).
arveitu
'
advehito/
(On Lat.
of ar- for ad-, see Schoell, xii Tabb., p. 81.)
arcesso
arfertur
(and
arsfertur)
and other doubtful exx.
112-115.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF
SOUNDS.
I.-EUR.
T, D,
DH. 289
Lat. citrus was the old form of Gk. tteSpos, for Naevius has
while cedrus is not found till Virgil Cassantra and Alexanter were
the old forms of KaavavSpa, A\eav5pos, according to Quint, i. 4. 16 [we find
113. tr for dr.
citrosa vestis,
'
Alteentrom (C.I. L.
i.
nutrio is for *noud-rio
geniessen)
an
(i. 1501), on old inscriptions from

Lat. Hydruntum, is modern Otranto, Lat.
50), Alixente(r~), Casenter(a)
So Gk.
Praeneste].
'Tfipovy, -OVVTOS,
42) (Lith. nauda, 'use/ Goth, niutan, 'to enjoy,'

so uter, Gen. utris (Gk. vSpia)
taeter for *taed-ro- (cf. taedet}
Germ.
;
lutra,
be a malformation of *utra (O. Ind. udra-, Lith. udra, Engl.

The group dr is not found in Latin, except in quadru-, quadra, &c. (but
otter).
cf. triquetrus}. The name Drusus (cf. Gloss ap. Lowe, Prodr. p. 398 drusus patiens,
rigidus, contumax) is declared by Suetonus (Tib. iii.) to be a Gaulish name
Drusus, hostium duce Drauso comminus trucidato, sibi posterisque cognomen
invenit andruare and drua (Paul. Fest. 7. 15 Th.) are very doubtful spellings
may
otter,
and
of antruare (antroare)
DH.
114.
became
found
e.
Lith.
dumai
-pv0po?
rubro-
1.
17).
dh became /"in Latin, which in proximity

word between vowels
I.-Eur. *"dhumo- (O. Ind. dhuma-, Gk. 6v\i6s,
but in the middle of a
g.
PI.,
O.
SI.
riidru
I.-Eur. rudhro- (Gk.

O. Ind. rudhira-), Lat. ruber, stem
dymu), Lat. fumus
SI.
cf.
I.-Eur. root bheidh- (Gk. Treiflco for *(/>ei<9oo), Lat. fldo.

d may have all three developed from an older rf-sound,,
This/",
O.
(ib.
I.-Eur.
to r
is
trua
b,
the sound of our tk in
of
fir
'
this/
that/
then
'
;
but whether Sicilian
a survival of the <f-stage is uncertain.

to fr br may be compared with the change of
\Crpa (for Lat. libra)
The change
'
is
t
sr tofr, br in tenebrae for *tenes-rae, &c.
(
152).
in IJnibro-Osc.fj whether initial or internal, e.g.
faciat,' Umbr. rufra
rubra/ Osc.
fagia, Osc. fakiiad
I.-Eur.
Umbr.
dh
is
'
'
'
'
mediae (von Planta, i. p. 451). This f for Lat. (internal)

found in some dialectal words, e.g. crefrare for cribrare,
dialectal f for Lat. (internal) b from I.-Eur. bh (see ch. ii.
mefiai
A, b is
like
83).
Other examples of I.-Eur. dh. (i) Initial I.-Eur. root dhe-,

Arm. d-nem, 'I place/ Goth. ga-de-J>s, Engl.
deed, Lith. de-ti, 0. 81. dg-ti, Ho lay'), Lat. fac-io, but with dh medial, condo
(fdc- shows the weak grade of dheTc-) I.-Eur. root dhe-, dhey-, 'to suck,' (0. Ind.
115.
'to place, do' (Gk. Z-Orj-v, Z-0r)K-a,
dhayami, Arm. diem, Gk. efjaeai, 0. Ir. dlth 3 Sg. Pret., Goth, daddjan, 'to
Simisuckle,' 0. 81. det^, an infant '), Lat./sfo, usually spelt fello, fllius ( 7).
larly Lat./orww (Lith. dvaras, 'court,' 0. 81. dvorii) Lat. foveo, Jdmlla from the
I.-Eur. root dheghS-, 'to burn' (O. Ind. dah-, Lith. degu, Gk. rt^pa for *0t(ppa,
ashes) [the original meaning of foveo was lo warm (see the dictionaries,
and cf. Paul. Fest. 60. 15 Th. a fovendo, id est calefaciendo) hence foculum,
'
'
'
a fire-pan,
Plaut. Capt 847 foveri foculis ferventibus].

(2) Medial: from I.-Eur. root reudh-, 'to be red' (0. Ind. rohita-, 'red,' loha-,
e. g.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
290
[Chap. IV.
metal/ Gk. f-ptv6ca, 0. Ir. ruad,' red,' strong,' Gaul. Koudos, W. rhudd, Goth.
*
*
rau>s, 'red/ O. H. G. rost, rust/ 0. SI. rudeti, to blush/ ruda, metal/ ruida,
rust ') come Lat. raudus, rodus and rudus, unshaped metal, rudis, unshaped, and
'
'
'
'
with &, besides ruber mentioned above, rubeo, robus, robur, ro&/o,whlle rufus with/,
is dialectal from I.-Eur. root.bhendh-,Ho bind' (O. Ind. bandhana-, Gk. ireiaâ
for *irtv6ffn<i, irevdepos, Goth, bindan), Lat. offmdix (
79) with d, while Lat.
lumbus shows & for dh (or dhw ?) (0. SI. l^dvija, 0. Engl. lenden), and b
;
appears for
dh
of the suffix dhlo- (see ch. v.

26), in trl-bulum, stabulum, &c. as
dhro- in cri-brum, verte-bra, &c. ; I.-Eur. *medhyo- (0. Ind.
-brofor I.-Eur.
'
Goth, midjis), Lat. medius I.-Eur. root aidh-, to burn

(O. Ind. edha-, 'firewood/ Gk. aWoj, 0. Ir. aid, 'fire/ 0. Engl. ad, 'pyre)/ Lat.
Similarly Lat. vidua (0. Ind. vidhava, 0. Ir. fedb,
aedes, house, lit. 'hearth/
madhya-, Gk.
'
jj.cff(a)os,
SI. vidova)
fulelia (Gk. mflo?)
grddus (Goth, gri^s) vddes
(Goth, vadi, Germ. Wette, Lith. vaduti, 'to redeem') uber (0. Ind. udhar, Gk.
combretum, a bulrush (cf. Lith. szvendrai PI.) barba for
ovOap, 0. Engl. uder)
Goth, viduvo, O.
arbos (O. Ind. ardh-,

*farba ( 104) (Engl. beard, O. SI. brada, Lith. barz-da)
to grow, thrive ') ; glaber (0. H. G. glat, ' smooth/ Engl. glad, Lith. glodiis,
;
'
'
smooth/ 0. SI. gladukii)

116.
verbum (Goth.vaurd, Neut., Lith. vafdas, 'a name').
The Gutturals. There are
three series of Gutturals, viz.
some languages Sibilants, e.g. O. Ind. satam, Lith.

3
O.
SI.
szimtas,
suto, hundred
corresponding to Lat. centum)
(i) Palatals (in
'
(3) Velars,
better
called
Gutturals
(Gutturals in all
of the cuckoo, O. Ind.
proper
languages, e.g. the onomatopoetic name

'
koka-, Gk. KOKKU, Lat. cuculus cf. Lith. kukuti, to cry cuckoo ')
followed by a w-sound (in
(3) Velars with Labialisation, i.e.
;
some languages Labials,

'
petora,
e.g.
Horn. Gk. TnVupe?,
W. pedwar^
four/ corresponding to Lat. quattuor].
They
Osc.
most
are
conveniently written, (i) k, g, &c., (l] k, g, &c. (3) q^, (j^ &c.,
while the symbols k, g, &c. may be reserved for Gutturals
}
whose exact nature
we might
for the
is
So far as Latin is concerned,

k, g, &c v and (3) as kw, gw, &c..
represents the k of centum and the k of
doubtful.
write (i) and (2) as
same
letter c
tw
of equus^ &c. (O. Ind.

asva-) present a different appearance from the q* of quattnor,
I.-Eur. t and k became Lat. c (k), g and
sequor (O. Ind. sac-).
and
became a guttural spirant, which was
Lat.
g,
gh
g
gh
carpo (O. Ind. krp-), nor does the
I.-Eur. q is Lat. qu
written g with a consonant, elsewhere h
is Latin gu, gv (gw\ which
write
we
kv,
might
kw), g
(which
became g before a consonant, but lost its g when initial just as
;
dj- (dy-}
when
initial
became^'- (y-\ or as Teut.
gw
from I.-Eur.
lost its g also when

gh- became w in warm,' snow/ &c. It
I.-Eur. gh- became a guttural spirant
medial between vowels.
'
'
REPRESENTATIVES OF
116.]
I.-EUR.
GUTTURALS.
291
followed by a w- sound, which was written with a consonant gu or

but elsewhere became Jiw^ this Jiw developing at the beginning
of a word into
[just as the Greek 7^-sound from I.-Eur.
g,
sw- seems to have developed into some /-sound (ch. i. 3)],

but in the middle of a word into v (w}. (For examples see below.)
The I.-Eur. Gutturals offer considerable difficulty. It is not
initial
only that
we
species of
Mute, between Tenuis and Media
find occasionally the confusion,
and Aspirate, &c.
found with every
75), Media
(ch. ii.
Media seems to replace the
from the root leigh-, to lick '
g. the guttural
e.
'
Aspirate in Lat. Ugurrio (cf. lingo),

'
(Gk. Aetô)), Lat. adagio, pr ocUgium, from the root agh-, to say
(O. Ind. ah-), Lat. figura (cf fingo) from the root dheigh-, to
'
'
mould,' (O. Ind. dih-, to smear,') just as we find the labial Media
replacing the Aspirate in Gk. or//,j3o> beside dore/x^?}?.
'
We
apparent confusion of one series of Gutturals with

thus
in Greek (and perhaps in other languages) the
another;
of
the
vowel u seems to change a Guttural of the
proximity
find
also
third into a Guttural of the second series,
e. g.
yvvr]
(Boeot.
fiavd, O.
ban), XVK.OS (dial. Lat. lupus) ; and very often the
want of a cognate word in a language which treats one series
differently from another, prevents us from ascertaining to which
series a Guttural properly belongs, e. g. whether the c of collum
is a palatal or a true guttural.
We are also confronted with an
Ir.
apparently I.-Eur. dialectal change of q~ to p, perhaps made in order

to avoid that similarity between two successive syllables which
sought after in Latin ( 163). Thus the I.-Eur. word for

may have been *qenq"e in one dialect (O. Ind. panca,
Gk. 7TtvT, &c.), *qenq~e in another (Lat. quinque, O. Ir. coic) ;
was
'
five
so
'
cook/ peq~- (O. Ind. pac-, Gk. -TreWo)).

q"eq"- (W. pobi, with^> from I.-Eur. q", Lat. coqum\ and even
the root meaning
'
to
What of Gk. dpro-KOTroj ?). The same

(Lith. kepu.
explanation has been suggested for the q- of Lat. quercus beside
the p- of O. Engl. furh, Engl. fir, and for the p- of Goth, fidvor,
q~ep-
Engl. four, beside the q~ of other languages, e.g. Lat. quattuor.

Latin Guttural, to whatever series it belongs, combines
with a following s into x, e.g. vexi from veho (I.-Eur. gh), before
t becomes the
group ct, e.g. vectus, actm, which in late Latin
1
So
w; is
dropped before the w-sound in Engl.
U 2
'
two.'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
292
came
to
ôôuêd
group .;, j,,i

from KVKPOS.
e.
ft
(Ital. atto),
?
^-
Initial
froi^
v.
aie
becomes the
a,,
ord cygnus
But
Ulna does not stand for *lucna,

'
shining,' Pruss. lauxnos,

(Zend
as we see from the old form on a Praenestine mirror,
'
stars'),
(O.
before n,
became n- at the beginning- of the
second cent. B.C., e.g. ndtus.
but for *lucsna

Losna
? 7 '^,
[Chap. IV.
raoxsna-,
i.
55), just as velum, a sail, stands for *vex-lum
a rudder'), as we see from the Diminutive form
that Gk. Xvyvos has been declared to represent
(C. I. L.
SI. veslo,
vexillum, so
*XVKSVO<$
(M.
appearing in
ardnea
(Gk.
exagmen see
8.
L.
vii.
Another instance of Greek yy
91).
Latin as n with long vowel

apd^vr/).
Class.
Exdmen
Rev. v.
is
the (loanword
?)
beside
agmen, amb-dges (on

294), contdmino beside contdgium;
sub[contrast propagmen (Enn. Ann. 587 M.) beside propdgo, and cf.
temen from texo beside subtegmen, e. g. Virg. Aen. iii. 483], have
been variously explained by hypotheses that have as yet failed
to establish themselves, such as (i) that the Guttural is assimilated (like d in caementum from caedo) after a long vowel,
becoming *exdmmen, exdmen, while ag-men remains
*escdg-men
agmen;
(2)
that the Guttural
is
assimilated in the unaccented
syllable (under the earlier Accent Law), whence exdmen but

dgmen (3) that the unassimilated forms had originally a con;
necting vowel, e.g. ag(i)men)
(cf.
jugumentum, a joining, Cato,
Another theory, that these forms add an

R. R. xiv. i and 4).
s to the final Guttural of the root, exdmen for *ex-ax-men from
*ag8-men- (cf. *ax-la ax-is), connects the forms with a known
y
law of Latin phonetics, and
is preferable on that account.

major, aio show g in Latin, e.g. magnus,
magis, adagio, prddfyium, but the guttural Aspirate in other
I.-Eur. languages (O. Ind. man-, ah-) ; so it is better to refer
The cognates
of
law that Latin k may be dropped between

than
to
vowels,
posit a new law that the guttural Media was
before
Major will thus come from an older *mahior
dropped
y.
them
O. Ind. mahiyas-) ; puleium, fleabane, apparently from pulex,

P. P., with i for
flea, may be dialectal, like Umbr. muieto P.
(cf
to the ordinary
brevis (Gk. fipaxvs) will

palatalized g, beside mugatu Imperat.
represent an older trisyllable brehuis, and Urns (Gk.
;
what of
\a<ppos ?)
an older
*lehuis,
while pinguis (Gk.
REPRESENT AT WES OF
117-119.]
I.-TUR.
GUTTURALS.
293
where the Aspirate is preceded by the consonant n, rll represent

an older trisyllabic form *pingu'is (see
127).
Aspirate Tenues, which are difficult to trace (see
95), have
been found in unguis (cf. O. Ind. nakha-, Gk. ovi>x~, O. Ir. inge,
Lith. nagas, O. Engl. naegel) (see B. B. xvii. 133), congius (O.
On dat. for
a shell,' Gk. Koy\r], Lett, sence).
Ind. sarakha-,
'
-tl-, e.g. poc(u)lum see

105 ; on cc for tc, e.g. ac for*#fc,
hoc
for
109; on the mispronunciations ss, sc
atque,
*hod-c(e\
I.-Eur.
for #, e.g. coa&im, ascella, ch.
ii.
117.
In Umbrian the combination
kt,
when due
to Syncope, seems
to be differently developed according as the k represents on the

one hand an I.-Eur. q or on the other an I.-Eur. k (or k) ; in
the former case it becomes kt, e.g. fiktu (Lat. flgito for Jivito,
In Osc.
it, e.g. deitu (Lat. dlcito).
fruktatiuf
facito,'
g.
fru(v)itationes/ factud
while I.-Eur. q"t (not due to Syncope) is Umbro-Osc. kt, and
I.-Eur. kt, kt (not due to Syncope) is Umbro-Osc. ht (for
ch. viii.
7),
both are kt,
in the latter,
'
e.
'
examples see Buck, Vocalismus Osk. Sprache,

117.
panxi
x for Guttural with

Gk. mî/tyw)
(cf.
coxi
from
W.
gwlyb).
finxi
s.
from
Vexi
from
fingo (I.-Eur.
dheigh-)
from liquor for

Before most consonants x became s,
coquo
p. 145).
veho (I.-Eur. root
lixa, pro-lixus, e-lixus
wegh-,
ii.
125), while before m, n, I it
for *quas-lus, cf. qudsillus,
151) dropped
*pax-lus
(Dim. paxillus)
ala,
to carry
')
'
*vliquor (O. Ir. fliuch, wet,'

e. g. sesceni for *sex-ceni, (as
after r in mers for merx, sparsi, tersi, &c.,

158), but not before
sextus, &c. (but lustro, to illuminate, illustris, &c. from *lucs-tr- ;
see ch.
'
nix for *(s)nigh^s
in
on
was (like s for I.-Eur.

with Compensation,'
'
wing, shoulder, for *ax-la (Dim.
dexter, dextra,
Sestius, mistus,
s, e. g.
qualus
palus for
e. g.
axilla), like axis,
an
ag- of ago (0. H. G. ahsala, 'shoulder,' W. echel, 'an axle,'

Engl. axle) ; telum, for *tex-lum, from texo, to shape (0. H. G. dehsala, an axe/
0. SI. tesla) ; tela, for *tex-la, from texo, to weave (Ter. Heaut. 285 texentem
telam) ; talus, for *tax-lus (Dim. taxillus) seni for *sex-ni aula, Dim. auxilla.
axle,
from the root
'
Guttural with t. Vectus, with vectis, a lever, from veho (gh)

panctum and pactum from pango (g ?) fictum from fingo (gh) luctus, grief, from
After
coctum from coquo (qS)
cf. co-nlveo (gh).
liigeo (g)
nicto, to wink
a consonant c was dropped in course of time
157), e. g.fortis, in O. Lat./orcfa's
118. ct for
[in the
XII Tables forctes was the name given

who had swerved from their
sanates to those
to the loyal neighbours of Kome,

but had returned to it,
loyalty,
'
forctes
Fest. 524. 15 Th. ; cf Paul. Fest. 59. 26 *

forctis ') frugi et
(leg.
bonus, sive validus] ; quintus, in the older spelling quinctus, the older form
being long retained in the names Quinctilius, Quinctius, Quinctilis, &c. (see
.

ch.
ii.
95,
and
cf.
s. v.).
On
Vulg.
and
Late-Lat.
'
it
for
ct,
e. g. brattea,
see
Rhein. Mus. xlv. p. 493.
119. gn, gm for en, cm. Like ilignus from Ilex are larignus from Idrix, salignus
from salix similarly segmentum from seco dignus, usually explained as *dec-nus
;
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
294
from
decet,
a P. P. P.
but better as *dic-nus
NO-stem from the
(0.
[Chap. IV.
Scand. tiginn, 'high-born/ tign, 'rank')
root deik- of
indware, &c.
dlcere,
Aprunus
is
a late
aprinus is an entirely different formation (see Georges,

Lex. Wortf. s. v.).
After a consonant the Guttural is dropped, e. g. quernus for
*querc-nus from quercus farnus for *farg-nus, a byform offraxlnus. though not in
spelling of aprugnus
Compounds with
ad, &c.
e. g.
When the consonant is a Nasal,
agnosco.
combine with the following Nasal,

might stand for *con-tang-mino as well
in,
show
con
both
Initial Latin gn
'
Engl.
gnat
'),
became
e. g. nosco,
TratSoTToirjaai, C. G. L.
e. g.
with
gnosco gives ignosco, con- with gnosco

gives conecto, &c. (cf. ch. ii.
130).
at the beginning of the second cent. B. c. n (as in
different spellings
conosco, as con-
and
cognosco
seems
it
quini for *quinc-ni, so that contamino

as for *con-tags-mino.
Compounds with
to
in-
with
necto
older gnosco (gn-), natus, older gnatus (gn-) (gnatare

cf. O. H. G. hnigan,
;
35. 10), nixus, older gnixus (kn-
ii.
Germ, neigen), ndrus, older gnarus (gnaritur yvcapifrrai, C. G. L. ii. 35. 12), navus,
older gnavus, Naevius (cf Gk. Ncuos on the Mon. Anc.) beside Gnaeus (cf. Gnaivod,
For instances of the older forms, see
Abl., on a Scipio epitaph, C. I. L. i. 30).
and Lowe,
s.
of 186 B.
196. 27,
c., C.I.L. i.
Repetundarum
vv.,
Prodr. 354: e.g. gnoscier
but nationum,
of 123-122 B.
c.,
i.
198
on the
natus Part,
Bacch.
on the Lex
S. C.
noverit (beside gnatus Part.)
on the Sent. Minuciorum
of 117 B. c., i. 199. Plautus and Terence use, as a rule, natus for the Participle,
gnatus for the Substantive the g of these forms appears in the compounds
;
agnosco, agnatus, ignarus, ignavus, &c., and strangely also in agnomen, cognomen ;
for nomen (so in S. C. Bacch.) was not originally *gnomen (cf. O. Ind. nama-,
and
for the various
Gk.
ttvctyas,
see
120. Lat.
forms of the
root, see B. B. xvii. 132).
On
crepusculum
and
80.
h dropped between vowels. Blmus for
old,' like Engl. twinter, a two-year old beast (cf.
*bi-himus, lit. two winters

a PS) goat, lit. i a winter
'
xw
Scotch gimmer, a yearling lamb) nil (so always in Plautus), for raMZ,
nlhtium from ne and hllum (cf. Enn. A. 8 M. nee dispendi facit hilum
old,'
M. hilo non sectius vivas Lucr.
830 nil igitur mors est ad nos

neque pertinet hilum), hllum being explained as quod grano fabae adhaeret
(Paul. Test. 72. 10 Th.) ;praebeo for praehlbeo cors for cohors. On the h of ahenus
(aenus~) for *ayes-no-, and on the question whether h was used in vehemens,
&c. to indicate a long vowel (as in Umbrian, e.g. comohota 'commota'),
Lucil. xiv.
11
iii.
'
'
see ch.
ii.
56.
121. Dialectal f for h. In Spanish, Latin /has become h, e. g. hablar, 'to

speak' (L&t.fdbulari, 0. Lat./aZmZare), and an interchange of h and/shows traces
of itself in the dialects of Italy. We find the form/asewa for hdsena ascribed to
the Sabine dialect by the grammarians (Vel. Long. 69. 8 K.), along withdraws
(cf. the name of a citizen of Reate mentioned by Varro, Fircellius] and fedus.
Similar forms roughly classed by the grammarians as Old Latin we may

believe to have been dialectal, e. g. fordeum for hordeum, folus for holus, fostis for
hostis, fostia for hostia, &c., though some of them may be mere coinages to
'
'
strengthen the argument for the spelling with h- (see Quint, i. 4. 14 Ter.
Scaur, pp. n, 13 K.
Vel. Long. p. 81 K.
Paul. Test. 59. 21 Th. &c.).
A Faliscan inscription has foied for hodie (Not. Scav. 1887, pp. 262, 307) foied
uino pipafo kra karefo hodie vinum bibam, eras carebo,' but a Sabine inscription has hiretum, apparently from the root gher- (?gher-) (Osc. heriiad, Gk.
Xcu/>o>, &c.), and Ter. Scaurus (13. 9 K.) quotes haba (Lat. faba, 0. SI. bobu,
;
REPRESENTATIVES OF I.-EUR. SOUNDS.
120-123.]
I.-Eur. bh-) as Faliscan.
on the interchange of
Forschungen,
*hel (cf.
C.
iii.
GH. 295
von Planta, i. p. 442 Lowe, Prodr. p. 426 and

and h in Etruscan inscriptions, Pauli, Altitaliscke
(See
f
K, G,
Lat. fel has been explained as a dialectal
p. 114).
Gk. x<^*)) and fovea for *hovea
(G-k.
the gloss
*) ( c f-
l<
'
form
fuma
for
'
terra,
G. L. v. 296. 50).
122.
The Palatal Gutturals: K,
&H, KH.
G-,
These
were in Latin, as in Greek, Celtic, and Teutonic, guttural sounds,

while in the Asiatic languages and Slavonic they were sibilants.
K. I.-Eur. k, Lat. c, is seen in I. -Eur.*km torn/ hundred '(O.Ind.

satam, Gk. e-KaroV, O. Ir. cet,W. cant, Goth.hund, Lith. szimtas),
'
Lat. centum
*swekuro-, step-father (O. Ind. svasura-, Arm.
'
skesur F., Gk.
l/cvpo?,
O. Corn, hwigeren, hweger F., Goth, svaihra,

szeszuras), Lat. socer ; *okto(u), eight
(krco, O. Ir. ocht, W. wyth, Goth, ahtau,
'
'
Germ. Schwaher, Lith.

(O. Ind. astau, asta, Gk.
O. Engl. eahta, Lith. asztum, O. SI. osmi), Lat. octo.

I.-Eur.
in qu, the representative of I.-Eur. q" ; thus
kw was merged
I.-Eur. *ekwo-,
'
horse
'
(O. Ind. asva-
&c.) is Lat. equu8.

I.-Eur. k is Umbro-Osc. k,
e.
g.
cf.
Lith. aszva,
Umbr. kletram
'
mare/
y
'
Ace., a litter
the root kleu-
&c.), Kluviier, Osc. Kluvatiium from

Gk. KAeoj, &c.), (von Planta_, i. p. 326). In Umbrian
k (whether from I.-Eur. k or k) was palatalized before e, i, and
was written in the native alphabet by a sign which we conventionally express by 9, in the Latin alphabet by s (sometimes s),
(Gk.
/cAiVo),
(Lat. clueoy
e.
g. 9ersnatur, sesna (Lat. cena, Osc. kersna-) (ib. p. 359).

123.
k.
From
I.-Eur. root weik-, 'to enter'
(0. Ind. vi-, vela- M., 'a tent,'Gk. ôf/cos, Alb. vis M., 'a place,' Goth, veihs,
'a village,' Lith. veszeti, ' to be lodged,' 0. SI. visi, ' a farm'), Lat. mcus I.-Eur.
;
W.
ieuanc, Goth, juggs),

Lat. juvencus ; I.-Eur. *krd-, 'heart' (0. Ind. irad-dh^,-, confidence,' Arm. sirt,
Gk. itapSia, 0. Ir. cride, Goth, hairto, Lith. szirdis, 0. SI. sridice), Lat. cor, credo
*yuwnko-
(0. Ind. yuvasa-,
Gk.
"Yaic-ivOos, 0. Ir. oac,
'
hear' (0. Ind. ru-, Gk. Av<w, O.-Ir. cloor, cluinim, W.

clywed Inf., Goth, hliu-ma, 'hearing,' 0. SI. sluti, to be famous'), Lat. clueo
I.-Eur. *porko- (Gk. iropuos, O. Ir. ore, 0. Engl.fearh, Engl. farrow, Lith. parszas,
0. 81. prase_\ Lat.porcws
I.-Eur. ki-, a Demonstrative Pronoun-stem (Arm. -s,
Gk. -KI, Alb. si-, 0. Ir. ce, Goth, hi-mma, Lith. szis, O. SI. si), Lat. cfe, citer, citra
I.-Eur. klei-, 'to lean' (0. Ind. Iri-, Gk. K\tvoj, O. Ir. cloen, 'awry,' Goth, hlains,
I.-Eur. root kleu-,
Ho
Lith. sztaitas\ Lat. ac-clinis, clivu$ I.-Eur. *dekui, 'ten' (0. Ind. daa,
tasn, Gk. Sc'tfa, O. Ir. deich, W. deg, Goth, taihun, Lith. deszimt, O. SI.
'
deseti), Lat. decem ; I.-Eur. root deik-, to point, say' (O. Ind. dii-, Gk. dfifcvvfti,
'
hill,'
Arm.
Goth, gateihan, 'to proclaim),' Lat. dicere, indfcare I.-Eur. root prek-, 'to ask'
(O. Ind. prai-na-, 'a question,' O. Ir. imm-chom-arcim, 'I ask,' 0. W. di-er;
THE
296
ATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. IV.
chim, Goth, fraih-na, Germ, frage, Lith. praszau, 0. SI. pros^), Lat. prgcor.
Similarly Lat. crdbro for *crasro (cf. Lith. szirszu, 0. SI. sruseni, Engl. hornet)
dcus, deer, &c. from the root at-, to be sharp (0. Ind. airi-, edge,' Arm. ase\n,
'
'
'
'a needle,' Lith. asztrus, 'sharp,' O. SI. ostru, &c.)

O. Ind. siras-, N., 'head,' Gk. d/>d, &c.).
cerebrum for *ceres-rum
(cf.
124. I.-Eur. Srw. Lat. combretum, bulrush, from the stem kwendhr-, seen
in Lith. szvendrai PL, has been compared to soror for *swesor- ( 68) ; but it
more probably shows the 0-grade of the stem, *quombr-etum (cf. 0. Scand. hvonn
with reduction of
'angelica'),
125. &.
quo- to co- as in colo for older quolo (cf.
137).
Of I.-Eur.
roots gen-, gno-,
'
g, Lat. g, we have examples in the I.-Eur.

know, learn (O. Ind. ja-na-mi, jnata-, Arm.
'
to
can-eay Aor., Gk. yt-y^w-o-KO), yywros, O. Ir. gnath, accustomed,'

W. gnawd, O. Engl. cnawan, Engl. to know, Lith. zin-oti, O. SI.
'
'
zna-ti), Lat. gno-sco, gno-tus
Gk. apeXya), O.
wipe off/
meizu, O.
melg-, to milk
Ir.
'
(O. Ind. mrj-,
'
to
bligim, O. Engl. melee, Lith.
mluzaj, Lat. mulgeo.

I.-Eur. gw would be indistinguishable in Latin from I.-Eur.
SI.
gS ; thus umclus (cf Gk. vypos), if connected with the root weg-,
1
to be strong' (cf. Gk. vyir\s) } shows v between vowels for gw.
In Umbro-Osc. I.-Eur. g is g, e. g. Umbr. ager ' ager/ Osc.
.
'
'
aragetud argento Abl. (von Planta, i. p. 329). In Umbrian g,

whether I.-Eur. g or g, suffers before e, i palatalization, and is
written i, e. g. muieto, P. P. P. of a verb whose Imperat. 3 sg. is
mugatu (von Planta,
i.
p. 372).
'
Gk.
126. Other examples of I.-Eur. g. I.-Eur. geus-, ' to taste (0. Ind. jug-,
I.-Eur.
jfvoj for *yfvff<u, 0. Ir. to-gu, I choose,' Goth, kiusa), Lat. gustus
'
'
reg-,
to stretch, rule
'
(0. Ind.
or raj-an-,
king,' o-pfy<a, 0. Ir. rigim,

rhi, Goth, uf-rakja, Lith. riji&au), Lat. rego, regis
rj-, raj-
rig Gen., Gaul. Catu-riges, W.

Gen. ; I.-Eur. gen-, 'to beget' (0. Ind. jan-, janas-,
Arm. cin. Gk.
yi-yvofMii, ycvos,
W.
geni, genid, Goth, kuni, 'race,' Engl. kin), Lat.

e
cf. 0.
gi-gn-o, genus.
Similarly Lat. argentum (Zend er zata-, Arm. arcat'
Ind. arjuna-, 'white,' Gk. dpyrjs) Lat. glos (Gk. yd\ocas, 0. SI. zliiva) ; Lat.
ago (0. Ind. aj-, Arm. acem, Gk. 0170;, 0. Ir. ag-, 0. Scand. aka), Lat. grdnum
O. Ir. genar Pft., gein,
(0. Ind. jlrna-, 'crushed,' Goth, kaurn, Lith. 2irnis, 'a pea,' 0. SI. zrino) ; Lat.
genu (0. Ind. janu, Arm. cunr, Gk. yovv, Goth, kniu N., O. Engl. cneo N.) ; Lat.
vegeo, vegetus (O. Ind. vaj-, 'to be strong,' Zend vaz-, Gk. 1/7*175, Engl. I wake,
Germ, wacker) ; Lat. gelu (0. SI. 2l6dica) (on el instead of ol, see 10).
127.
GH.
a consonant,
I.-Eur.
gh
is
in Latin h, but g before or after
g. I.-Eur. *ghorto- (Gk. x.ops, O. Ir. gort, Lith.

Lat.
hortus
I.-Eur. root wegh- (O. Ind. vah-, Gk. oxos,
;
zafdis),
Goth, ga-viga,
waggon, Lith. wezu,
.^1.
e.
124-120.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS. K,G,GH. 297
<
Lat. veho-, I.-Eur. root angh- (O. Ind. ^has-, nee d,'
c
Arm. anjuk, narrow,' Gk. ciy^co, O. Ir. cum-ung, narrow,' Goth,
aggvus, O. Engl. ange, Germ, eng, O. SI. ^zukii), Lat. ango, angor,
0.
SI. vezaj,
'
Lat. grando (O. Ind. hraduni-).

good example of the
for
from the root
h
and
is
beside
*meiho,
mingo
g
mejo
Lith.
Gk.
Ind.
mih-,
m[zau,
6-^txeco).
meigh- (O.
I.-Eur. ghw was in Latin merged in I.-Eur. cjh", e.g. I.-Eur.
angustus
rule for
'
*ghwer-/ a wild animal (Gk. Orip, Thess. $eip, Lith. zveris, O. SI.
a wild
zveri), with which is connected Lat. ferus, Fern, fera,
animal.
(But Engl. deer, Germ. Thier, Goth, dius point to some
I.-Eur. original like *dheuso-, cf Lat. furo for *fuso ?).
I.-Eur. gh is in Umbro-Osc. h, as in Latin, e.g.
.
1.
On
436).
above 121.
p.
Umbr.
from the root of Lat. Immus (von Planta,
kondra, Osc. huntro-
h for
Sabine fasena
in
'
harena/ &c., see
Other examples of I.-Eur. gh. Lat. hiems (O. Ind. hima-, Arm.
0- Ir. gam, O. W. gaem, Lith. 2ema, O. SI. zima)
128.
^?
jinn, Gk. xt>", X* 1

Lat. humus (0. Ind.
'
jma-
F.,
Gk. x a Mat Lith. zeme, O.

5
SI.
zemlja)
Lat. holus,
older helus, hehus

10) (0. Ind. hari-, 'yellow,' 0. Ir. gel, 'white,' 0. Engl. geolo,
Engl. yellow, Lith. 2elu, I grow green,' O. SI. zelije, vegetables ') ; Lat. lingo
(O. Ind. lih-, Arm. lizum, Gk. Aet'x<y, Goth, bi-laigo, Lith. leXiu, 0. SI. 112$) ;
Lat. (ti)anser (0. Ind. hasa-, Gk. x^j 0. Ir. geis, a swan,' Engl. goose, Lith.
(,
'
'
'
i^Lsis) ; Lat. jingo (0. Ind. dih-, to smear,' dehi, a wall,' Arm. dizem, Gk. TXOS,
O. Ir. dengaim, 'I fasten,' Goth, deigan, 'I mould,' daigs, 'dough,' Germ.
Teig) ; Lat. Mare (0. H. G. glen, Engl. to yawn, Lith. -2i6ti, 0. SI. zijati).
l
129.
'
The Gutturals Proper: K, G, GH, KH.
These
The fact that

appear as Gutturals in all the I.-Eur. languages.
the I.-Eur. onomatopoetic name for the cuckoo shows this form
of Guttural (O. Ind. koka-,
Gk. KOKKV, Lat.
W.
to cry cuckoo') indicates
cog
Guttural
;
K.
crt-
cf.
it
Lith. kukuti,
cuculus,
O.
Ir.
what
cuach,
sort of
was.
I.-Eur.
kata-,
'
k is
Lat.
c, e.
g. I.-Eur. root kert-
'
5
to plait' (O. Ind.
'mat/ Gk. Kaprakos, basket, Goth, haurds

'
F.,
door,'
'
Engl. hurdle), Lat. crates, cartildgo I.-Eur. kerp-, to cut, reap

(O. Ind. krpana-, a sword/ Gk. Kapiros, fruit, Engl. harvest, Lith.
kerpu, I cut '), Lat. carpo (on ar, see
3).
;
'
In Umbro-Osc. I.-Eur. k remains as in Latin,

kanetu canito ' (von Planta,
'
suffers palatalization before e,
i.
p.
(see
327),
though
above
in
e. g. Umbr.
Umbrian k
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

130. I.-Eur.
meat,' Gk.
hreaw,
'
k other examples.
[Chap. IV.
Lat. cruor, crudus (0. Ind. kravis- N.,
raw
O. Ir. cru, gore,' W. crau, Lith. kraujas, 0. SI. kruvi, 0. Engl.

Lat. cottis (Goth, hallus M., Lith. kaTnas; cf. Gk. KoXcavos} Lat.
'
tcpeas,
raw ')
'
cldvus (Gk. K\TJIS, O. Ir. eld M.,
a nail,'
Germ,
schliessen, 0. SI. kljuci,

a hook, a key') ; Lat. ancus, uncus (0. Ind. aiDka-, Gk. dytcwv, oyttos, 0. Ir. ecath)
Lat. capio (Arm. kap, 'a fetter,' Gk. Kairr), 0. Engl. haeft, captive,' Lett, kampu,
clavis,
'
'
'I seize')
Lat. coxa (0. Ind. kaksa-, 0. Ir. coss, 'the foot,' W. coes, 'the leg,'
bend of knee, hough') Lat. cupa (0. Ind. kupa-, 'a pit,' Gk.
M. H. G. hahse,
'
Lat. seco (0. Scaiid. sigctr, 'a sickle,' 0. Engl. sage, a saw,' 0. SI. seka, 1
cut'), O. Lat. depo (Gk. K\TTTOJ^ Goth, hlifa, Engl. shop-lifter, Pruss. au-klipts,
hidden') Lat. vinco (0. Ir. fichim, I fight,' Goth, veiha, Engl. wight, Lith.
/ct
'
71-77)
'
'
I compel ')
Lat. scando (0. Ind. skanda-mi,
veka,
strength/ ap-veikiu,
I spring,' Gk. aKavSaXrjOpov, a springe, 0. Ir. ro-sescaind, 'he sprang').
'
'
W.
Of
G.
131.
to shout
gar-,
'
'
gawr, O. H.
garrio
I.-Eur. g, Lat. g, examples are

I.-Eur. root
'
Ind.
O.
Gk.
Ir.
gr-,
yripva),
gair, a shout/
(O.
Gr.
chirru,
I.-Eur. ^yiigo-,
Goth, juk, O.
I.-Eur.
SI. igo),
is
'
I shout/ Lith. garsas,
a yoke
'
'
noise'), Lat.
(O. Ind. yuga-, Gk.
(vyov,
lu&k.jugum.
also in
Umbro-Osc. (von Planta,
but an Umbrian g, as we have seen,

before the vowels i, e, &c. ( 125).
is
i.
p.
330)
palatalized (written
i)
132. Other examples of I.-Eur. g. Lat. grus (Arm. kfunk, Gk. 76/301/09,
Gaul. Tri-garanus, W. garan, O. Engl. cran, Lith. gerve,
Lat.
SI. Seravi)
tego (0. Ind. sthaga-mi, Gk. crreyoj, or^yos, and reyos, 0. Ir. teg, O. W. tig,
Engl. thatch, Germ. Dach, Lith. stogas) Lat. augeo (0. Ind. ojas-, 'strength,'
.
Gk.
0. Ir. og, 'entire,' Goth, auka, 'I multiply,' Engl. eke, Lith.
I grow'), 0. Lat. e-rugo, of which e-ructo is the Iterative form (Paul.
avgdvcu,
augu,
by Ennius, Ann. 593 M.
Test. 58. 30 Th.), used
contempsit fontes quibus ex erugit aquae
comes from the I.-Eur. root reug- (Gk.
uis,
epeifyo^cu, Lith. rilgiu,
0.
SI. rygaj^).
I.-Eur. gh, like I.-Eur. gh, became h in Latin,

or
before
after a consonant, when it became g.
except
Examples
are
I.-Eur. *ghosti- (Goth, gasts, Engl. guest, O. SI. gosti),
133. G-H.
Lat. kostis, hos(ti}pes (O. Lat. hostis, stranger/ Varro L. L. v. 3);

I.-Ear. root ghred- (O. Ir. ingrennim,, c I pursue/ Goth, grifs, e a
I come'), Lat. grddior (on a, see
step,' O. SI. gr^d^,
3), gradus.
'
'
In Umbro-Osc. also I.-Eur. gh is h (von Planta, i. p. 438).

On f for h in some dialects, such as the Sabine, see above, 121.
134. I.-Eur.
'
I find,' gendem,
gh
'
Germ. Gerste) Lat. haereo (Goth, us-gaisja,

Lith. gaisztii, I tarry ').
gari,
'
other examples. Lat. pre-hendo (Gk. xav VCt} Alb.

i,
found,' Goth, bi-gita, Engl. I get) Lat. hordeum (Arm.
am
'
I frighten,' Engl.
gaze,
130-135.] REPRESENTATIVES
OF I.-EUR. SOUNDS. Q~,g~,gH~. 299
Velar G-utturals with Labialisation. These appear

in some languages, and as Labials in others,
and show this divergence even on Italian soil, e. g. Umbr.,
135.
Gutturals
as
Osc. pis, Lat. quls.
(On the
treatment of the Gutturals
Italic
of this series, see von Planta,
I.-Eur.
Q~.
pp. 331 sqq.).
Lat.
for
on
the
classical qui
Dvenos inscripq
gu (but qoi
Before u we find c, e. g. secutus from sequor, a change
tion).
which may have been very ancient (see
IT 6).
Before o this
i.
is
qit,
though often retained in writing, seems
to
have come
to
sound like c; hence quoquo-, a cook, was written coquo- as well

as quoquo-, and on the other hand the Preposition cum, older
com [for kom or kom (Osc. kum, Umbr. -kum)], was written
till
quom
the time of the Gracchi, and the P. P. P. of occnlo, from

(W. celu), appears with the spelling oquoltocl
a root kel- or kel-
on the
186 B.C.
S. C. de Bacch. of
(C. I. L.
i.
196).
When
in
a final consonant, came to be

universally changed in spelling (see
20) to ^, we find the spelling
quo (guo) replaced by cu (gu\ so that equos became ecus (Gen.
the eighth cent. A. u.
equi),
c.
o before
quoquos or coquos became cocus (Gen. coqui).
marians of the
first
cent.
The gram-
were puzzled by the want of
A. D.
analogy between ecus Nom., and equi Gen., &c., and reconstituted
Instances of I.-Eur. q~ in Latin are
the Nom. as equus, &c.
:
I.-Eur. root seq~ (O. Ind. sac-, Gk. eVojuat, O. Ir. sechur, Lith.
seku), Lat. sequor ; I.-Eur. root leiq-- (O. Ind. ric-, Arm. e-lik }
he left,' Gk. AetVo), O. Ir. lecim, Goth, leihva, I lend/ Germ,
c
'
leihe, Lith. leku), Lat. linquo
Gk.
TL for *ri8,
O.
SI. ffl-to
I.-Eur. *q*i- (O. Ind. -cid Neut.,

'what?'), Lat. quU Indef.; I.-Eur.
*q"e (O. Ind. ca, Gk. re, O. Ir. -ch, W. -p, Goth, -h), Latin -que.
Before a consonant this qu became c, e. g. socius, older *socyofrom the 0-grade of the root seq", with the adjectival suffix -yo(O. Ind. sacya-, Gk. a-oo-o--T/rr}/), with
*oclo- from the root oq"-, 'to see (Gk.
aar
for K^)
oculus, older
'
oWe, with a-o- for Ky, o)u//a

for *o7r-juta, Lith. akis, O. SI. oko) with the suffix -lo.
I.-Eur. q"w has been postulated for the initial u (v) of ubi
(Osc. puf, Umbr. pufe), ut, uti (&L Osc. puz, Umbr. puze) (with
cu in the middle of a word, e. g. sl-cubi), vapor (Lith. kvapas),
m-vUus and
invite
'),
in-vito
(Pruss. quaits,
&c. (see K. Z. xxxii. 405).
'
will
Lith. kvecziu,
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
300
[Chap. IV.
In Umbro-Osc. I.-Eur. q~ is p. (On the date of the change,

von Planta, i. p. 331). Latin popina, lupus, &c. are dialectal,
see
just as Pontius and Pompeius are the dialectal names corresponding to Lat. Quintms, and Petreius to Lat. Quartius. (A full
list
of examples in
von Planta,
I.
<?.)
qu other examples. Lat. quattuor (0. Ind. catvaras,

q
Arm. Sork', Ion. Gk. reo-crepes, Aeol. Gk. irlavpes, 0. Ir. cethir, W. pedwar,
Gaulo-Lat. petor-ritum, Lith. keturi, O. SI. cetyrije) Lat. quinque (0. Ind.
136. I.-Eur.
l
,l,
Lat.
Arm.
hing, Gk. rrevre, 0.

quam, &c. (O. Ind. ka-, Gk. Tr60ev,
kas, O. SI. ku-to).
pafica,
Ir.
TTTJ,
coic,
0. Ir.
W. pump, Lith. penki)

cia, W. pwy, Goth, hvas,
Lat. qui,
hve, Lith.
(i) Before u arcus (Goth, arhv-azna, an arrow,' 0. Engl.

beside arquitenens, arqmtes, the old word for sdgittdrii (Paul. Fest.
the change to -CM- appears to be Italic and not merely Latin, if
15. 32 Th.)
Umbr. ar^lata- (cf. Paul. Fest. 12. 15 'arculata' dicebantur circuli, qui ex
farina in sacrificiis fiebant) comes from arcus from quinque come quincunx,
'
137. c for qu.
earh),
from sesque comes sescuplus (but cf. Lowe, Prodr. p. 403).

Lat. nee for neque, ac from *atc for atque, with
(a) Before a consonant
torculus from torqueo
36)
Syncope of -e before an initial consonant (ch. iii.
coculum from coquo. On ct for q-t, x for qU-s, see
116.
colo (older quolo
we have qolunt in the Ambrosian Palimpsest
(3) Before o
of Plautus, Pseud. 822, and quolundam on the inscription of the Faliscan
collegium coquorum,' which also has ququei for coqui, Zv. 1. 1. 1. 72) beside
The fact that quo (I.-Eur. qSo
inquillnus
colus, a distaff (Gk. iro\os, an axle).
or kwo) had come to be pronounced like co (I.-Eur. ko or ko) explains why qu
seems not to offer the same resistance to the Brevis Brevians law in the Early
quincuplex
'
Poets when it precedes o, as when it precedes other vowels, e.g. coquo but
only loqui (ch. iii. 42). But the indiscriminate spelling of every quo as co is
not found till the fifth cent. A. D., e. g. cot, corum, condam, locor (see Bersu, die
Gutturalen, p. 90) and the analogy of the other cases and persons kept quo as
the spelling in the Nom. Sg. of equos, &c., and the 3rd PI., sequontur, &c., until
the o, hitherto preserved in spelling by the preceding u, became in the eighth
cent. A. u. c. u (ch. iii.
17), when ecus, secuntur were adopted as the proper
In words where the analogy of other forms played no part (e. g.
spelling.
sesconciam, C. I. L. i. 1430) the spelling co is found much earlier. Similarly the
first syllable of the stem coquo- shows co earlier than the second syllable ; we
have qu- however in the older period (e. g. in all the MSS. of Plaut. Pseud. 382
cf. ququei on the inscription of the Faliscan
collegium coquorum,' Zv. J. I. /.
72). Puns are unsafe evidence of pronunciation ; but the punning reply may
be quoted of Cicero to the cook's son who asked for his vote ego quoque
;
'
spelling equus, &c. was instituted by Velius
tibi favebo (Quint, vi. 3. 47).
The
Longus in Trajan's time. (On
this transition of orthography -quo-,
-cu-, -quu-.
see Bersu, die Gutturalen, who quotes a large number of instances of these
spellings, as also of the use in the time of the Gracchi of q for c before u, e. g.
and has collected those passages of the grammarians

which bear on the subject. A list of the instances of the spelling quom for
cum in the MSS. of Plautus is given by Probst, Gebrauch von ut bei Terenz,
I.-Eur. que did not, as is often stated, become quo, co in Latin (as
p. 178 n.)
oqupare, pequnia, &c.,
'
'
136-140.]
REPRESENTATlVESOFI.-EUR.SOUNDS.Q~,g~,gH~. 301
did in Celtic, e. g. Ir. coic, W. pump, but Lat. quinque) and though -we after other initial consonants appears as o in Latin socer (swek-), soror (awe's-),
for the evidence points to kw, gw,
&c., it probably did not after a palatal
&c. having been merged in q, o/A in Latin.
Combretum, bulrush, may show
the 0-grade of the stem kwendhr- of Lith. szvendrai PI. (cf. O. Scand.
1
it
hvonn angelica
<
138. Lat.
').
origin.
I.-Eur. *ekwo-,
The
q2,
'
have already seen that I.-Eur.

horse
kw
'
(0. Ind. asva- , cf. Lith. as2va,

guttural of Idcus (Gk. \atttcos, 'a tank,' O. Ir. loch),
but
when
followed by a consonantal u
we
find qu in
The
occasional spelling st&rquilmium (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.)

be like that usage of Late Latin orthography, whereby qui is written for
aquear.
may
e. g.
not I.-Eur.
lacunar, is
We
qu of other
became qu in Latin,
'mare '), Lat. equus.
Greek
meant
KV, e.g. quinicus, helquisticon, liquiritia (see ch. ii.

28), the ui being
to express the zi-sound of Greek u, or possibly the qu being meant to
In Italian, Latin qu before e, i has

ch), e. g. chi, che, retaining the labial affection (the
indicate the hard unpalatalized guttural.

this
hard sound (written
following w-sound) before a, e.g. quale (see ch. ii.

91), though in cinque,
five,' where two Latin labialized velars stood in successive syllables, the first
'
seems to have
lost its labialization in
139.
Qu. I.-Eur. gand before a consonant g.
jiva-,
1
O.
Ir. biu,
is
Vulgar Latin.
in Latin
Thus
Lith. gyvas)
is
v,
but after a consonant gu,

'
I.-Eur. *g"iwo-, alive (O. Ind.

Lat. wvus ; I.-Eur. root ong~-,
'
'
'
(O. Ind. anj-, O. H. G. ancho, butter ; cf O. Ir. imb,
'
butter/ W. ymen-yn) is Lat. unguo Lat. gravis is cognate with
Before n I.-Eur. g"
O. Ind. guru-, Gk. Qapvs, Goth, kaurus.
to anoint
was replaced by g in Latin, a change probably of a very early

date, e. g. gurges (Gk. vTrd-jSpvxct, viro-jSpvîos), though the u may
be often regarded as a weak form of the we of #we (see
51).
Before
o,
Latin gu
(gv)
seems to have come in time to sound like
quo came to sound like

minations had come to be written
Latin
g, as
GO
u,
137).
After
o in
ter-
even when preceded by
v,
we
find spellings like distingunt, extingunt, for which distinu,

guunt, extinguunt, &c. were afterwards restored by the analogy of
the other persons, distinguwms^ &c.
Empire have
verbs in -guo and
when
The grammarians
of the
determining the proper spelling of

and generally follow the rule of writing -go
difficulty in
-go,
the Perfect ended in
-xi, e. g. extingo,
ungo.
140. I.-Eur. gS, Lat. v other examples. Lat.vemo (0. Ind. gam-, gach-,
Arm. e-kn,'hecame/Gk. jSatVcy, j8aovu, Goth, qima, Engl.Icome, Germ.komme;
Lat. voro (O. Ind. gr-, Arm. ker, 'food,' Gk. 0op<i, frPpduffKou, Lith. geriu, 'I
:
drink/ 0.
SI. Sirfi,
<
I swallow ')
nudus for *novedo- (Goth, naqafs
Lat. vfru (0. Ir. bir N., a U-stem, W. ber) ; Lat.

cf. 0. Ind. nag-na-, Lith. niigas, 0. SI. nagii).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
302
An
gw of later origin
intervocalic
is
[Chap. IV.
similarly treated in mdvolo (*mavvolo) from
*mag(e)-volo.
In Umbro-Osc. I.-Eur. g is b, e. g. Umbr.

from the root of Lat. venio. So Lat. bos, &c. seem to be
rustic (see von Planta, i. p. 335).
141. Dialectal b.
ce-bnust
Osc.
benust,
dialectal or
142. g for I.-Eur. g%. (i) Before consonant Lat. agnus (Gk. d/nvos for
O. SI. jagn^) (on avillus, see
19) ; Lat. migro (Gk. d-/*tj8cu, 0. SI.
miglivii, 'mobile'); Lat. glans (Gk. /SdAaro?, Arm. kaAin, Lith. gile, O. SI.
:
*d/3vos,
i\
(On the spellings distingunt, &c., see Bersu, die Qutturaleri).

(On the spellings distingo, &c., see Bersu, die Gutturcden}.
Similarly gu from I.-Eur. cih is written g before o in ningo.
(2)
(3)
Before
Before
143.
vowels
u.
o.
gH~.
is Latin/, when initial, but between

gu (before u reduced to g\ and before
Thus ~La,t.formu$ (O. Ind. gharmd-, heat,' Arm.
I.-Eur. gh~
after a consonant
#,
a consonant
'
g.
jerm, Gk. 6ep^6s, Engl. warm for *gwarm, Pruss. gorme, heat ') ;
nwem Ace., O. Lat. nlvit [Gk. viQa, vtyei (vei-) ; cf. Zend snaezaiti,
'
'
'
snow,' Lith. snaigyti Inf., O. SI. snegu, snow,'

W. nyf] ; ninguit (Lith. sninga) from the root sneigh--, ' to snow.'
I.-Eur. gh- is f in Umbro-Osc. whether initial or intervocalic,
Goth, snaivs,
&c. (see von Planta,
i.
447, for examples).
p.
144. I.-Eur. ghK in Latin
other examples.
Lat. co-nweo
from the root
kneighU- (Goth, hneivan, Germ, neigen) tergus (Gk. orefxpos, refxpos) Lat.
to warm
foreo, the original meaning of which is
(e. g. Plaut. Capt. 847
foueri foculis feruentibus) from the root dhegh^-, 'to burn' (Lith. degu), and
;
'
'
from the same
145.
root, Lat. fdvilla (.Gk. rtypa for *0e<t>pa).
The
Sibilants
S, Z.
In Sanscrit, besides the
(I.-Eur. k), which corresponds to a guttural in Greek, Latin,

&c. (e. g. O. Ind. satam, Gk. t-Karov, Lat. centum] we have s
(I.-Eur. s) which corresponds to s in other languages (e.g.
O. Ind. sapta, Lat. septem, O. Ir. secht, Goth, sibun, Lith. septyni), and s (like our sh) which appears after i- and u-, r- and ksounds,
e.
g. usta-, Lat. ustus.
Sanscrit ks
is
the equivalent of
Greek KT in fksa-, Gk. apKroj, &c., of Greek f in aksa-, Gk.

The exact
a(jw, &c., and even of Greek ^0 in ksam-, Gk. xO&v.
number and nature of the I.-Eur. sibilants have not yet been
determined, but we can at least discriminate an unvoiced and
'
a voiced sibilant, which we may call S and Z (cf. Engl. use
'
REPRESENTATIVES OF
141-146.]
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
S, Z.
303
'
Noun and use Verb), without precluding the

S and Z representing more than one variety of
'
Latin
146. S, Z.
The
unvoiced or hard.
possibility of this
sibilant.
was, as we have seen (ch. ii.

117),
voiced or soft sibilant, for which the
Z may have
been used in early times (ch. i.

5) passed
between vowels (cf. Engl. forBefore a consonant the
lorn/ Mid. Engl. forloren, beside lost ').
voiced sibilant was dropped with lengthening of the preceding
symbol
'
in the fourth cent. B. c. into r
'
vowel, e. g. I.-Eur. *mzdo (O. Ind. nida-, Arm. nist, situation/
6
a
net
An
initial
sibilant
O. Ir.
M.,
nest/ Engl. nest), Lat. nidus.
was often dropped in I.-Eur. ; thus we have a root teg-, ' to
roof (Lat. tego, Gk. reyo?, O. Ir. teg/ house/ Engl. thatch),
as well as a root steg- (O. Ind. sthag-, Gk. o-reyco), the roots
cover,
without
in -s
(cf.
being perhaps those used after words ending

Tcucrreycu? for TOLLS crre'yais on the Gortyn inscr., bvcrTr]-
initial
s-
and it is not always easy to say whether

;
Latin words, which lack an initial sibilant that is found in cognate words of other languages, have lost it through the phonetic
laws peculiar to Latin, or represent an I.-Eur. doublet/ Ldtus,
vos for *bvcr-(TTr]vos, &c.)
broad, from the I.-Eur. root stel-/to extend '(O. SI.

in
ii.
Old Latin in the form stldtus,

130); and we have stlo-cw,
locus, Us, just as in

fjiiKpos,
&c.
An
Greek
steljjj),
appears
stldtaria or stlattaria navis (ch.

sttts
<TJUU/C/OOJ,
initial sibilant is
(slis)
as the old forms of
&c. are the older forms of
not found in Latin before m,

o-juepSaAe'oy, O. H. G.
e.g. mordeo from the root smerd- (Gk.

{
smerzan, to feel pain,' Engl. to smart), before

I.-Eur. ^snuso- (O. Ind. snusa. Arm. nu, Gk.
snur), before
slabnas,
n, e. g.
nurus from
vv(cr)6s,
O. H. G.
g. labo for *slabo (O. H. G. slaf, loose/ Lith.

Before r in the middle of a word a sibilant
'
I, e.
'weak
').
(Lith. seserynai, PI.), from

I.-Eur. *swesor-, 'a sister/ probably from an earlier/ (
114)
whether it becomes at the beginning of a word, e. g. frigus
becomes
#, e.
g. sobrinus for *swesrimi
(Gk. ptyos), or is dropped, e. g. repo for *srepo (cf. serpo), or

becomes str-, e. g. stringo (O. Ir. srengim, f to draw '), is uncertain.
After r and
zis
cf.
heals,
I it is
assimilated,
e.
g. verres for *verses (Lith. vers-
O. Ind. vfsa-), collum, O. Lat.
Germ. Hals).
Initial ps-,
s-
col/ns, for *col*o- (O.
Engl.
appear to have become #-,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
304
e.
sand (Gk.
g. sabuluw,
'
ksip-,
to throw
^dôs
for
[Chap. IV.
*\//-a<-joios),
dis-tipo (O. Ind.
').
often represents an original dental sound, e. g. adgressus formed from the stem of adgredior with the
participial ter-
Latin
This change was probably very old, so that the

-to-.
form adgrettus (written in the earlier orthography adgretus),
quoted from Ennius by Paul. Fest. 5. 6 Th., probably represents
mination
double ** (gener108).
*ad-gred(i)tm (like cette for *ce-Mte,
from tt, ts ; cf our ' gossip ' for god-sip) was after
a diphthong or long vowel (see ch. ii.
129) reduced in the
ally arisen
Early Empire to single
In
U89U8.
e.
(i.
sesceni)
from
158)
c-s) (see
g. fusus, older fussus, usus, older

the second s represents an original x
s, e.
sex,
and x reduced to
s is first assimilated,
then
dropped with lengthening of the vowel, in words like telum, older

On initial s- for sy-, e.g.
tellum, for *teslum, *texlum (
117).
On ns, see
71.
65 ; for sw-, e. g. wdor,
on I.-Eur. ms, above,
76.
In Umbro-Oscan I.-Eur. s remains when initial,
guo, see
"
but when intervocalic became
'
sent, Osc. set
sunt,'
(written in Oscan in the native alphabet

e.
'
g. Fluusai
into
ss
r, e.
Florae,'
kuratu
f
egmazum rerum
'),
'
ch.
e.
ii.
66,
&. Umbr.
O
first
voiced s
in the Lat. alph. z,

which in Umbr. passed
s,
'
(Pel. coisatens curaverunt '). I.-Eur.

tt if the Perfect ending -atted 3 Sg., -attens 3 PI.
g.
became
curato
'
Osc. prufatted
prufattens
probaverunt ') is
in
with
the
Future
Lat.
-sso, e. g. amasso (ch.
rightly compared
(e. g.
viii.
3)
sr
probavit,'
probably became fr (Lat.
br) (cf
mod. Neapolitan
remain, e.g. Umbr.

OttobreJ October'); sn, sm,
snata P. P. P. (Lat. nare), Osc. Slabiis c Labius (cf. Lat. Stlalo'
in Osc. sometimes as r with compensatory
rius) ; rs appears
Uttrafe for
Ital.
si
'
'
lengthening, e.g. teerum 'terram,' sometimes as rr, e.g. Kerri,

Umbrian sometimes as rs (s), e. g. tnrsitu, tusetu (cf. Lat.
in
terred),
sometimes as
became
Osc.
-ss,
in
'
ros
'
rf , e. g. (perfu-
ns in the middle of a word
Umbr. menzne mense ' ; when final it

Umbr. -f, e. g. Osc. viass vias,' Umbr. turuf
-nts is in Umbr. (and Osc. ?) -f e. g. Umbr.
c
nts,
final
sedens.'
e.
'
(On
von Planta,
i.
is
g.
the treatment of I.-Eur.
p.
472.)
in
'
in
tauzeref
Umbro-Oscan,
see
REPRESENTATIVES OF
147,148.]
147. I.-Eur.
Arm.
sana-,
the month,
sen-ex.
Gen.
Latin
s,
bin, Gk.
0. Ir. sen,
evrj
W.
I.-EUR.
SOUNDS.
S, Z.
305
'
KOL
other examples. I.-Eur. *seno-, 'old (0. Ind.

the old and new day,' i. e. the last day of
i/ea,
i
hen, Goth, sinista Superl., Lith. senas), Lat. sen-ior,

clothe' (O. Ind. vas-, vastra-, N., 'cloth-
senis; I.-Eur. root wes-, 'to
Arm. z-gest, Gk. tff-Orjs, Goth, vasjan, vasti F.), Lat. ves-tis I.-Eur. *aks(i)-,
'axle' (O. Ind. aksa-, Gk. afav, O. H. G. ahsa, Lith. aszis, O. SI. osi), Lat.
axis; I.-Eur. *potis Nom. Sg. (0. Ind. patis, 'master,' Gk. TTOCHS), Lat. potis.
ing,'
Intervocalic
148. Lat. r for intervocalic sibilant.
and was dropped,
became h in Greek,
ytveos, yevovs Gen.

but in Latin it appears as r, e. g. uro, generis, having
probably passed through the stage of voiced s (z), a stage at which the sibilant
remained in Oscan, e. g. esum esse,' while it suffered rhotacism in Umbrian,
The grammarians often quote Old Latin forms with
as in Latin, e. g. erom.
intervocalic s, e.g. lases, Valesii, Fusii (Quint, i. 4. 13 cf. Ter. Scaur. 13. 13 K.
Fusius, asa, lases}; dasi, arbosem, robosem, helusa 'holera,' loebesum 'liberum'
r pro s littera saepe antiqui
71. 12; 86. 30 Th.)
(Paul. Fest. 48. 19; n. 20
e. g.
cvoj
for
vhca (I.-Eur.
*euso),
e. g.
(I.-Eur. *genes-6s),
'
pignosa (id.
posuerunt, ut maiosibus, meliosibus, lasibus, fesiis (id. 359. i Th.)
260. ii Th.) (for other passages see Miiller ad Paul. Fest. p. 15), and often
refer similar forms to the Sabine dialect (e. g. Paul Fest. 6. 36 Th. aurum
alii a Sabinis translatum putant, quod illi
ausum dicebant id. 18. 3 Th.
;
'
Aureliam familiam ex Sabinis oriundam a Sole dictam putant, quod ei

publice a populo Romano datus sit locus, in quo sacra faceret Soli, qui ex
hoc 'Auseli' dicebantur, ut 'Valesii,' 'Papisii' pro eo quod est Valerii,
Papirii
Varro, ap. Vel. Long. 69. 8 K.
Varro
(cf. L.
L. vii. 27)
gave/asewa as Sabine
quotes examples of this older spelling from

the Carmen Saliare Livy speaking of Sp. Furius Fusus, the consul of 464 B. c..
says that some of his authorities spelt the name Fusio- (Hi. 4. i Furios Fusios'
on the inscription with the Carmen Arvale (C. I. L. i. 28 ]
scripsere quidam)
for Lat. harena.
(L. L. vii. 26)
'
we have Lases
enos, Lases, iuuate in the most ancient piece of Latin

preserved for us, the Praenestine fibula, Numasioi Numeric (xiv. 4123 Manios
med fefaked Numasioi), and in the Dvenos inscr. Toitesiai 'Tuteriae.' But words
of the literary period with intervocalic s are either (i) dialectal, e.g. amdsius,
'
Lares'
'
a gallant (Sabine?, see Nettleship, Contributions,

e. g.
gaesum (Gaulish
cf. gaesati,
s.
v.),
or (2) foreign loanwords,
Gaulish mercenaries,
C.
G. L. v. 71. 23, 0. Ir.
gai) (so asmus, laser, rosa, siser, &c.), or (3) had originally ss, whether derived
from I.-Eur. tt, e. g. caesus for *caet-tus from caedo, from ns (I.-Eur. ntt, &c.),
ii.
66), formosus, older formonsus (&.), from
older quaes-so, a different word from quaero (ch. viii. 33).
e.g. vicesimus older vicensumus (ch.
I.-Eur.
ss, e. g. quaeso,
This older ss was

nasus, older nassum, or from some other consonant-group.
after a long vowel or diphthong written s after the close of the Republic, but
was the spelling of Cicero

20 quid quod Ciceronis temporibus paulumque infra, fere
littera media vocalium longarum vel subjecta longis esset, gemina-
Quintiliaii tells us that caussae, cassus, divissiones, &c.
and Virgil
quotiens s
batur ? ut
quoque
(i.
'
7.
caussae, cassus, divissiones
scripsisse
manus eorum
uncommon in the MSS.
'
decent),
quomodo et ipsum et Vergilium

and this spelling is by no means
of Plautus, Virgil, &c. (see ch.
ii.
129).
After a short
remained, e. g. fissus. Qudsillus, pusillus (cf. pusus] are said to show the
same reduction in the pretonic syllable as ofella (beside offa), mdmilla (beside
mamma) (ch. ii. 130) rather the Dim. quasillus was formed from *quas-to8.
vowel
ss
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
306
[Chap. IV.
Khotacism had ceased to operate miser (on the spelling myser see ch. ii.
p. 29) has been explained as a loanword from the Greek (nvaapos).
like other adjectives expressive of nuances of feeling, e.g. hilaris older
hilarus (Gk. I\ap6s}.
An initial s is not rhotacized when it comes after the
final vowel of a preposition, &c., in a compound, e.g. po-situs from po-,
a byform of ab (I.-Eur. *apo) and the P. P. P. of sino, but the final s of
a preposition, &c., in a compound is rhotacized before an initial vowel, e. g.
dir-imo from dis- and emo, diribeo from dis- and hdbeo. Furvus points to an
earlier trisyllabic fus-uo- (cf. arvum from trisyllabic aruum,
68), a byformation offus-cus, and Minerva to *Menes-ua (the word is a quadrisyllable in
Plaut. Bacch. 893, Attius, Trag. 127 R.), but before consonantal v we have s
dropped with Compensation in dl-vello, dl-vendo, &c. Other examples of forms
with r beside forms with s are maereo (maestus), gero (ges-si, ges-tum), haurio
but quaes(s~)iri, quaes(s~)ltum come from
(haus-(s)i, haus-tum), quaero (quaes-tus
quaes(s}o, ch. viii
33), Etruria (Etrusci), awn's (aus-culto), ndres (nas-(s)wm), and obafter
16,
'
'
lique cases of S-stems, e. g. funeris (funes-tus'), oneris (onus-tus), verberis (subverbustam Plaut. ap. Test. 444. 15 Th.), honoris (honestus) ; by analogy of these oblique
cases r has found its way into the Nominative of honor (older hows'), arbor
7).
(older arbos; cf. arbustum and arboretum), odor (older odos), &c. (ch. vi.
(For a fuller list of examples of the Latin and Umbro-Oscan treatment of
I.-Eur. intervocalic
vocalic s to r is a
to Gothic z in
and
words
in Polish a
that
is
s,
see
Con way, Vern&r'sLaw
common
word
like
in Italy}.
occurrence in language.
The change of interEnglish r corresponds
ore' (Goth, aiz-, I.-Eur. *ayes-, Lat. aes, aeris Gen.),

can,' has a trilled sound of the voiced sibilant
like moze,
'
hardly to be distinguished from
r (see B. B. xv. pp.
270 sqq.).
149. Initial Sibilant before Consonant: (i) before unvoiced consonant

I.-Eur. root sta-, 'to stand' (O. Ind. stha-, Gk. aTaais, Goth. sta)>s, O. SI. stati
:
I.-Eur. root sper-, <to strike with the feet' (O.Ind. sphur-,
Engl. spurn, Lith. spiriu), Lat. sperno I.-Eur. root skand-, to spring'
(O. Ind. skand-, Gk. aKav8a\r)Opov, a springe, 0. Ir. ro se-scaind, he sprang '),
Lat. scando. Similarly we have sir-, e. g. in Lat. stratus, strdmen (cf. Gk. OT/XUTOJ,
'to scrape'), while
<rrpojfj.a), spr- in spretus, scr- in scrobis, a ditch (Lett, skrabt,
Inf.),Lat.sfc*re, statio
Gk
'
airaipca,
'
stldtus, stldtaria (stlatC) navis has become class. Lat. I- of Idtus, broad.
Before voiced consonant: I.-Eur. rootsneighS-, 'to snow' (Zend snaeSaiti,
Gk. vtiQei, dyd-vvt(f>os for *dya-avi^>os, O. Ir. snechta, W. nyf, Goth, snaivs, Lith.
I.-Eur. root sna- (0. Ind. sna-, to
sn%as, 0. SI. snegu) Lat. nwem Ace.
of 0. Lat.
stl-
(2)
'
bathe,' Gk. vrjx^j I swim, O. Ir. snaim), Lat. ndre I.-Eur. root sleg- (Gk.
\a77aa;, to slacken, ^1770;, to cease, O. Ir. lac, 'weak/ W. llag, 0. H. G. slach,
Engl. slack), Lat. langueo; I.-Eur. root sleub- (Goth, sliupan, Engl. to slip),
;
Lat. lubricus; I.-Eur. root smerd- (Lith. smirdeti, 'to stink'), Lat. merda;
Gk. (a^fuKpos, Lat. mica. If we may infer from the treatment of an internal
sibilant before a voiced consonant, e. g. nidus for *nizdo-, it would seem that
the initial sibilant was first assimilated, *nnix for *snix (cf. Gk. Âo-^/mgiys
for
*</>tAo-ff/itS?7s)
(3)
Before
r.
then dropped,
The use
of
nix.
in Latin, e. g. dter, stem dtrovoiced, so that it is better to consider

The instances are
initial sibilant before r.
for I.-Eur.
for *ddro-, suggests that Latin r
d with
was not
separately the treatment of an

unfortunately few and uncertain.
~L&t.frlgus goes naturally with Gk. piyos,

but it has also been connected with Gk. typiaaca, while Lat. rigor, rigidus has
been assigned to ^yos Lat. frdga, strawberries, has been referred by some to
;
REPRESENTATIVES OF
149-151.]
-EUR. SOUNDS.
S, Z.
307
Gk. pdj a grape, by others to fragro, and certainly Lat. rdcemus goes more
naturally with /5a than frdga. Whether Greek piyos, /5a originally began
with ff or f is a moot point. Lat. repo goes naturally with serpo, but Lith.
to go,' suggest an I.-Eur. 'doublet' without the initial
replioti, Zend rap-,
sibilant. The I.-Eur. root sreu-, to flow (0. Ind. sru-, Gk pt(f}u, Lith. sraviu,
'
'
sruaim, a stream,' 0. H. G. stroum), has been sought in the Latin words

rumen, (fiats) Rumma, Rumon, the old name of the Tiber (Serv. ad Aen. viii.
'
Ir.
63. 90) and in the name Roma itself; Lat. rdtis has been connected with sero,
Lat. rubus with Germ. Ge-striipp, and so on (for other examples see Osthoff,
M. U. v. 62). On the other hand Latin forms with initial r which have in
'
other languages a sibilant before the r, may come from an I.-Eur. doublet
which lacked the sibilant, as tego comes from I.-Eur. teg-, a byform of the
'
root steg-, 'to cover/ roof.

Another possibility is that sir- may be the Latin
It is not always easy to decide where
equivalent, as in our stream,' &c.
Lat. sir- and str-, sr-, in other languages, represent an original str- or an
original sr- ; and similarly 0. Lat. stl-, of stlocus, stlis and slis may have been
'
originally
si-
and not
150. O. Lat.
The
O. Lat. forms.
stl-.
stl, si, scl.
old form
time
stlitibusjudicandis in Cicero's
of 123-122 B.C.
(C. I.
L.
i.
Quintilian (i. 4. 1.6) quotes stlocus and stlites as

was retained in the legal phrase decemviri
stlis
198)
on the Lex Repetundarum

but usually Us, and SL. IVDIK
(x. 1249) cf. stloc\_us~] (v. 7381 }.
(Cic. Or. xlvi. 156);
we have once
slis
c. 130 B. c. (i. 38), sclitib

sdoppus (v. 1.
quoted from Lucilius (Paul. Test. 455. 4 Th.)
stloppus}, is used by Persius (v. 13) to indicate the sound of slapping the cheek
when distended (cf. Ital. schioppo)
.
Stlembus, slow, is
nee scloppo tumidas intendis rumpere buccas.

In dialectal names these combinations are preserved, e. g. Stlaccius (C. I. L. vi.
26863, &c.) (cf. Lat. lacca,a, swelling on the leg?), Stlaborius (Wilm. 1913, PomIn Latin the t of stl- (or c, for tl became
peii) (cf. Lat. Za&or?). Oscan Slabio-.
cl,
105) would be dropped, as it is in the name Foslius (cf. Fostuhcs, Faustulus),
C.
L. i
p.
130)
then
(see above),
(cf. for(c)tis,
157), leaving
si-,
which would become
*M-
1-.
voiced consonant in middle of word. Lat. audio

byform of auris Lat. pedo from I.-Eur. pezd- (M. H. G.
Lat. sulo
fist, Pruss. peisda, podex') with o-grade of root in podex for *posd-ex
for *si-sdo from the weak grade of the root sed-, to sit,' with i-reduplicatiou
Lat. siidus for *sus-dus from the root saus-, to dry (0. Ind.
(ch. viii.
9)
151. Sibilant before
from
for *aus-dio,
*aus, a
'
'
'
'
Lat. malus for *mas-lus or for *mas-dus

suS-,
in) (Engl. mast) Lat. dumus (0. Lat. dusmus}, dumdum, dummetum in the
(
earlier spelling, e. g. in Virgil MSS. (see Ribbeck's Index) for *dusmetum (cf.
0. Ir. doss, a bush ') (the dialectal name Dusmia is found on inscriptions, Eph.
Epigr. viii. 128. 820, both from Teate Marruc). Lat. comis (cosmis on the Dvenos
Gk. avos, Lith. sausas, Engl. sear)
'
Lat. primus for *prismus (cf. priscus, pristinus, Pelign. prismo-) Lat.
inscr.)
pomerium for *pos(t}moerium (Varro, L. L. v. 143 cf. Paul. Fest. 327. 13 Th.)
Lat. prelum for *pres-lum (cf. pres-si
a Latin *preso must have existed beside
Lat. qudlus for *quas-lus (cf. quasittus
premo, as Gk. T/>e(<7)a; beside rp^ca)
;
Lith. kaszius, 0. SI. kosi)

Lat. cdnus for *casnus (cf. cascus, Osc. casnar, an
old man) ; Lat./amm for *fasnum (cf. Osc. fiisna-, Umbr. fesna-, from stem
Lat.
*fesna- ; on d-e, see
Lat. fes-tus, feriae from fes-lae, Osc. fiisia-)
54)
;
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
308
[Chap. IV.
pone for *pos(f)-ne Lat. pono for *po-s(i)no, a compound of po-, a byform of ab,
ap- of aperio (cf. 0. Ind. apa, Gk. ano), and smo [cf. the P. P. P po-situs, and
;
Pft.
Ind. originally po-sivi, then by false analogy of pos-itus, posui (ch.
aenus, ahenus for *ayes-no-,
Umbr.
ahesno-),
and
so
with
many
viii.
stems in
39)]
-eno-,
-mo-, -elo-j &c. In some of these examples the sibilant is a development from
earlier group of sounds, e.g. from st in pomerium, ponej from s(i) in pono ;
an
similarly from (i) cs, x in liina, written Losna on an old Praenestine mirror
'
stars ') ;
(C.I. L. i. 55), for *lux-na (Zend raoxsna-,
shining,' Pruss. lauxnos,
'
semenstris (cf. ses-ceni\ for *sexni, *sex-menstris ; tela from fero, &c. (other
examples in 162' ; (2) ns in (ti)alo for *anslo (0. SI. achati, 'to be fragrant')
sent,
The older
spelling showed a double consonant in these

cases. Thus velatura, the carrying trade, for *vex-latura, from veho, was probably
spelt vellatura by Varro in a passage (R. R. i. 2. 14) where he connects the word
pllum from
2Jmso.
a sibilant which came at a later time to

vella, the rustic form of villa
stand before a voiced consonant was similarly treated, e. g. dlvello for dis-vdlo,
dlmota for dismota (S. C. Bacch. C.I.L. i. 196), dimitte ('dismitte' non dicas,
Caper, 97. 7 K.), dl-numero, dl-luo. In the same way the form e arose from ex
with
in collocations like
e-moveo, e-mitto,e-numero. e-luo (seech, ix.

29) viden for
to viden (ch. iii. 42). Camillas (Camelio on old Praenestine
e-vello,
was shortened
rides-ne
i.
1501 a) was derived by the Eomans from a Greek
74
Etruscan ?) do>uAos, meaning a servant of the gods (see Varro, L. L.
vii. 34
Macr. iii. 8. 5 Paul. Test. 44. 33 Th. cf. Virg. Aen. xi. 542). Varro
refers Camena to an earlier Casmena, which he connects with carmen (L. L.
How Casmillus and Casmena (if the word ever existed in this form)
vii. 26).
The group rsd became rd
failed to become *Camillus, * Camena is not clear.
(through *rrd, for rs becomes rr), e. g. hordeum (cf. 0. H. G. gersta, Germ.
Gerste) hmlus (Lith. strazdas, 0. Ir. truit, Engl. throstle). The I. -Eur. proto-
epitaphs, C.I.L.
(or
type of custos (Goth, huzd, Engl. hoard), hasta (Goth, gazds, 'a sting,' Germ.
Gerte, Engl. yard, O. Ir. gat) may have had sth-, not -zdh-.
Qudsillus from *quas-los (class, gudlus) shows that si remained later than the
change of intervocalic sto r ( 148). Dusmus Adj. occurs in Liv. Andronicus
(end of third cent. B.C.) (Trag. 39 K.) dusmo

videsne, ain for aisne, &c. show that the law was
152. Sibilant before r in
Plautus' viden for
in loco.
operative in his time.
middle of word.
Lat. cerebrum for *ceresrum
'the head') Lat. crabro for *crasro (Lith. szirszu, 0. SI. srusem) ;
fibra for fisra (cf.fllum for *fislum, Lith. gjsla. 'a sinew'); Lat. tenebrae for
*tenesrae (0. Ind. tamisra, from tamas-, 'darkness,' Germ. Dammerung);/Mne&re's
(0.
Ind.
Siras-,
for *funes-ris.
Lat. farreus for *farseus

153. Assimilation of sibilant to preceding r, 1.
Goth, barizeins, made of barley') ;
farsio-, cf. 0. SI. brasino, 'food'
(Umbr.
'
Lat. torreo for *torseo (0. Ind. trs-, Gk. repô/tai}; Lat. ferre for *fer-se; Lat. velle for
*velse; Lat. erro for *er.so(Goth.airzjan, 'to mislead,' Germ, irren); Lat. garrio for
*garsio (Lith. gafsas, 'noise') ; Lat. porrum from I. -Eur. *prso- (Gk. -npaffov} ;
Lat. terruncius for *ters-, older *tris- (Gk. rpii). This rr from rs was when final
reduced to r, e. g. ter (scanned as long by position in Plautus) (ch. ii. i33),/ar,

Gen. farris. Before the s kept its place, and the r was dropped, e. g. testdmentum
for *tersta- from older *trista- (Osc. tristaamento-) tostus for *torstus,
An s (ss), arisen out of an earlier ts, &c. was not assimilated, e. g. versus for
Latin rs was
rwsus and reversus for *reverttus, ars beside far.
*verttus,
;
152-157.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF
CONS.-GROUPS. 309
I.-EUR.
pronounced like ss, as we see from, the pun in Plautus, Pers. 740 Persa me
pessum dedit, and often came to be written ss, and after a long vowel, s
hence russus and rusus, introsum, prosa, &c. (see ch. ii.
129).
154. Assimilation of preceding dental to the sibilant. Lat. sucisi for

from suddeo ; conciissi from conctitio, &c. ; possum for *p6t(e)sum.
*sudssi
Similarly in the final syllable, hospes for *hospets, miles for *milets this -es is
short in classical poetry, but probably long by position in Plautus (ch. ii. 133).
155. Lat. ss for
Before r
tt.
we
find
st
for
e. g.
tt,
pedestris for *pedet-tris
Fern, of assessor, and perhaps at the end of

a word, e. g. est, 3 Sg. Pres. of Mo. But in other cases tt became ss, e. g. usus,
older ussU'Sj from utor (older oitor, oetor) for *ut-tus, usio for *ut-tio, *oit-tio (Osc.
from
pedes,
Gen.
'
peditis, assestrix
beside Pel. oisa 'usa
'
is best explained as*oit(i)tions)

so/assws
from
sedeo, morsus from mordeo, perculsus from per-cello, *per-celdo,
27) to the root of
&c., all formed by adding the participial TO-suffix (see ch. v.
the verb. In the second cent. B. c. some verbs whose root ended in a guttural
oittiuf
usio,'
fdteor, sessus
from
followed the analogy of these verbs, owing to the similarity of their Perfect
Indicative Active, e.g. spargo, sparsi made sparsus, as ardeo, arsi.made arsus;
But in the period of the
tergo, tersi made tersus, as mordeo, morsi made morsus.
older literature these false forms in -SMS
had not established themselves
Paul. Fest. quotes mertat for mersat
16 Th.
'
(57.
cf.
26)
89.
Quintilian
'
'mertare atque pultare dicebant and Nonius (179. 4 M.)

(i. 4. 14) says
quotes from Varro tertus for tersus, and from Accius mertare for mersare. Exfuti,
explained by Paul. Fest. 57. i6Th. as exfusi (cf. con-futo, futtilis, futilis) has been
'
referred to *futus, P. P. P. of a verb *fuo, to shake (0. Ind. dhu-) if it comes from
it must represent an older *jud(i)tus, a byform of *fud-tus as al(i)tus of
;
fundo
al-tus
so mattus,
adgrettus
109).
drunk
ama-tis, ama-te, &c.

viii.
(the Romance forms attest tt) for *mad(i)tus, like

&c. from edo, to eat, must be due to the analogy of
Estis, este,
;
so com-estiis beside comessus.
Ferunto, &c. for *feront-tod (ch.

2) retain
57), vehementer, if for *rehement-ter (ch. ix.
in the
same way.
156. Other groups with a sibilant. When a sibilant came between two
labials or gutturals, the first was dropped, e. g. asporto for *abs-porto, disco for
*dic-sco (cf. di-dic-i), sesceni for *sex-ceni, *secs-ceni.
Similarly pst becomes st in
ostendo (but 0. Lat. obstinet)
As
rs
became
rr,
and
Is
beside obstrudo, obstmo.

tt, so rs, Is before a consonant become
became
e.g. hordeum for *horsdeum, alnus for *alsnus (Lith. elksnis), perna, the
r,
Z,
ham,
'
from I.-Eur. *persna-, the heel (Gk. wTtpi/a, Goth, fairzna, 0. Engl. fyrsn,
Germ.Ferse cf. 0. Ind. pi^rsni-), but an unvoiced consonant preserves the sat
the expense of the r, I, e. g. toslus for *torstus posco for *porsco (0. H. G. forscon,
Germ, forschen), properly for *prksko from the root prek- of precor, &c. (On
'
these groups see the next paragraph.)
157.
Loss of Consonant in Group.
It
is
convenient here
to bring together the various examples of the loss of consonants,

other consonants, or in some un-
when they occur between two

pronounceable combination
'
'
'
'
(cf.
Engl.
'
Satur(n)hal(f)penny,'
It is not always possible
day,' be(t)st,'
go(d)spel ').
cas(t)le,'
to decide whether the consonant was already ejected in
what we
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
310
Ir.
'
Indo-European period,' e. g. misk-, to mix (Lat. misceo,

mescaim, W. mysgu Inf., O. H. G. miscu), for *mik-sk>,
'
call the
O.
[Chap. IV.
'
from the root meik-,

miszti, to get mixed
'
mix (O. Ind. mis-ra-, mixed,' Lith.
to
'
su-
with the addition of the Inceptive suffix

'),
is due to the
phonetic laws
(ch. viii.
21), or whether its ejection
of Latin, e. g. luna (on an early Praenestine mirror Losna) for
'
'
shining/ Pruss. lauxnos, stars ').

consonant between two others is dropped in such groups as
*lu(c)sna (Zend raoxsna-,
(1) l(o)t, l(c)s, r(c)t, r(c)s, r(t)c, s(o)t, s(t)l, s(c)l, o(t)s, r(t)s
or r(d)s,
forctis
e.
g. ultus for *ulctus, mulsi for *mulc8i, fortis, O. Lat.
1 1
8),
tortus for *torctus, torsi for *torcsi 3 corculum for
*cort-culum from cor(cl\pastum for *pasctum 9 O. Lat.
slis, class.
Us
(
i$o),nox for *noct8, ars for *arf$, arsi for *ardsi.
iirna for *urgna (cf.
(2) r(g)n, r(g)m, r(d)n, r(d)m, r(b)m, e. g.
from
for
tormentum
*torgmentum,
torqueo^ orno for *ordno
wrceiis),
for stlis (sells)
(Gk. crr/ooô?, Paul. Test. 571. 12 Th.)

for *verdmina from #rfo, sarmentum for *8arhmentum from sarpo.
The first consonant is dropped in groups like
(cf.
ordtno), vermlna, gripes
e.
(3) (t)sc, (c)sc, (p)sp, (p)st, (p)sc, (s)ps, (n)gn, (r)st, (r)sc,
g. ^c for *etsca from edo, disco for *dicsco ( 156) (cf. d%-d%c-i),
asporto for *apsporto
from r^^
(ch. ix.
12)
and /wfo, ostendo for
*opstendo from c^ and feWo (but ofetitndtus, O. Lat. obztinet, &c.),

O*CM, older Opscus (Obscus) (see Test. 212. 24 and 234. 29 Th.),
^}?5e
for *ispse, ignis for *engnis (I.-Eur. *n^ni-, O. Ind. agni-,

ugms, O. SI. ogm. See M. S. L. viii. 236), fastigium for
Lith.
*farstigium (cf. O. Ind. bhrsti-,

(Umbr. Tursco- and Tusco-}.
'
a point/ Engl.
bristle),
Tnscus
or (g)sn, (c)sl or (g)sl, (c)sm or (g)sm, e. g. luna for

(4) (c)sn
*lusna (Praen. Losna) for *lucsna, telum for *te8lum for *tecslum,
dla for *asla for *agsla, mbtemen for *8ubtesmen for *subtecsmen.
The group %<?^ is preserved
in junctus, defunctus, anteclass. qiiinc-
Lat. defuntus (C. L L.

santus
81
nantus
&c. (see ch. ii.
70,
(v.
36),
2137),
(iii. 1635. 4),
cf
conctione
miswritten
for
contione
on
the Lex Eepetunand
95),
tus,
but drops the
c in class, quintus, late
iii.
darum,
i.
198. 18).
The group
158. Other examples.
On
ncs remains. e.g,planxi, lanx.
the forms
cals for *caZ(c)s, calx,
and mers
for
125; they are like/am for *farcsi, fulsi for*fulcsi, mulsi

*mer(c)s, merx, see ch. ii.
for *mulcsi.
Like for(c)tis isfertum, O. Lat./erc^wm, a sacrificial cake, from a lost
158,159.]
verb
*fergo,
REPRESENTATIVES OF
to bake
from
(cf.
I.-EUR. CONS.-GROUPS. 311
0. Ir. bairgen 'bread
tergo, sartus
from
')
alsofartus from/ara'o, O. Lat.
Cf.fulmentum for fukmentum, quernus,

for *qu&rcnus. The b of*ambe, around, is dropped in am-termim, am-caesa, am-segetes,
&c. (seech, ix. 16), and the loss of the d in indu- in similar circumstances probably led to its being ousted by in, e. g. imperator, ingredi (0. Lat. induperator,
15). The sibilant is dropped in hordeum for horsdeum (0. H. G.
indugredi, ch. iii.
tertus (
155)
sarcio.
gersta), turdus for *tursdus (Engl. throstle ; cf. Lith. strazdas), perna (Goth.
'
i
fairzna. the heel ; 0. Ind. parsni-), alnus (cf. Lith. elksnis for *elsnis) (see
156)
also in inquam, coinquo if these stand for *ind-squam, co-ind-squo, but

exta if this stands for encsta (Lith. inkstas,
kidney'). Like asporto,
remains in
&c. are suscipio for *sups-dpio,

Posco represents *por-sco (O.
like *mi(k)-sko-.
(Charis. 237. 2 K.) for apstulit (abstulit).

G. forscon, Germ, forschen), I.-Eur. pr(k)-sko-
astulit
H.
The group
remains in monstrum, &c. but becomes st

Like fastlgium is testdmentum for *terstamentum
nst
between vowels, e. g. mostellum.

(Osc. tristaamentud Abl.).
The weakening of a root often produces an unpleasing consonant-group

which has to be changed and often becomes unrecognizable. Thus the I.-Eur.
weak-grade of deft- (of the numeral Hen/ I.-Eur. *dekm) appears in the word
for hundred as dk-, which is changed to k- (I.-Eur. *kmtom for *dkmtom,
ch. vi.
76
Lat. centum beside
decent^)
the weak-grade of the root gen-, 'to
be born,' appears in Lat. gndfus, which in class. Lat. lost its initial g
'
Similarly *tldtus from the root tel- of tollo, &c., became latus, carried
119)-
105),
'
and stldtus, from the root stel- of 0.

same form latus, 'extended, broad'
avoided in Latin are
SI. stelj^,
(
146).
dr-, en-, dl-, sw-, wl-, wr-,
1 extend,'
Other
was reduced
to the
initial
consonant-groups
&c, (see this chapter passim \
159. Assimilation of Consonants.
The
a consonant
loss of
group is often really due to assimilation. Thus the loss of

# in hordeum for horsdeum can hardly be separated from the
assimilation of s to r in the group rs, e. g. horreo for *horseo. In
in a
the case of Assimilation, as of Ecthlipsis, it is often difficult to

the I.-Eur.
say whether the Assimilation already existed in
in
a
Assimilation
the comor
not.
period'
plays
great part
'
pounding of Prepositions with verbs, e. g. accurrere for ad-currere, O. Lat. ommentans for ob-mentans, pellege (Plaut.) for perlege, al-Ugare for ad-ligare (the assimilated form had so established
itself
by the time of Pliny that he
treats
it
as a simple verb and
with ad, ad-alligare\ but the unmodified forms

re-compounds
of the preposition were often restored in spelling at least (thus
it
Servius ad Aen.
i.
616 says that applicat was the spelling
for-
merly in vogue, adplicat the spelling of his own day), a restoration which went hand in hand with the restoration of the
unweakened form of the vowel in verbs

intel-lego,
&c. (see ch.
iii.
31).
like e-neco (older enico),
Examples
of Assimilation are:
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
312
e.
pc,
g. oc-caeco, suc-curro; pf,
e.
g.
[Chap. IV.
of-fwlna (O. Lat. ojn-Jicina),

bm, e. g. ommentans (quoted
g. og-gero, sug-gero
suf-fwio ; bg,
from Liv. Andron. from Festus 218. i4Th., and explained by obmanen#, 'waiting'; cf. C. G. L.v. 37. 3 ommentat'. expectat), summitto,
e.
dmitto (for ammitto, ch. ii.

127) (but omitto), gluma for *glub-wa
from glubo.
is assimilated to r in Prepositional Compounds like
surripio, and before n becomes m in scammim (cf. scabellum),
amnegaverit (C.
I.
L.
vi.
ab-nego',
cf (rather
14672), &c.
102),
spelling with b
Compounds the
tional
157),
c(s)f,
ac-curro, hoc for *kod-ce
e.
is
g. effero
e.
g. affero
e.
g.
though in Preposi-
usually retained,
from
ex-fero
e.
g.
tc, e. g.
dg, e. g. ag-gero ; dl,

e. g. al-luo, pel-luviae, water for washing the feet, lapillus for
*lapid-lus ; dm, e.g. amentum from rddo ; dn, e.g. an-nuo, mercennarius from mercedtp, e. g. ap-pdreo
tq, e. g. quicquam
;
tf,
dr
(tr),
e.
g. ar-ruleo
katnas), but ulna
(Gk.
co/Veznj)
Id,
ds
(ts),
as-Meo
In, e. g. collis (Lith.
had originally a short vowel between I and n

e. g. per-cello (cf clddes), but valde from valMe,
.
calda from calida',
e.g. collum, O. Lat. collus (Goth, hals

Masc.), t/W/^ for *vel-se (cf. ^-*e) ; m and ^ are assimilated in
Compounds of the Prepositions com-, in, and the Negative Prefix
e.
in-,
Is,
g. col-laudo, il-ldbor, illaudabilis, cor-ruo, ir-rno, ir-ntns,
and similarly the final -m

(ch. ii.
65) before an initial n,
con-necto or cdnecto, im-mitto, im-memor,
of eliam,tam,&c.
e.
was often written n
Engl. enleven),
lus
(cf.
rl_,
non
'
e.
e.g. A fella
'
nl (as in Engl. eleven,' Mid.

for
corolla
*coron-la, homullus for *homong.
g. etian-num tan-ne (ch.
ii.
135)
(Osc. Aderl-), agellus for *agerlus
superlex/ Probi App. 198. 14 K.)
Gk.
tion of
(cf.
supellex
rs, e. g. torreo for *torseo
On the Assimilaferre for *fer-se (cf. 0*-$0).

and
the consequent
a following voiced consonant,
repo-ojuai),
s to
lengthening of the preceding vowel by

qudlus (older quallus) for *quas-lus
a like treatment of n before s or f,
Compensation/
ib. }
e.
g.
151, on
and on the Assimilation
(cf. quasillus),
see
Mediae to Tenues (e. g.scriptus for *scribtus),cet-te for *ced(i)te\

Tenues to Mediae, e. g. ab-duco from ap- (I.-Eur. *ap5), see 95.
In dialectal Latin nd became nn as in Osc. upsanno- operando-/
whence dispennile and distennite (Plaut.) (see ch. ii.
71); on
of
'
the pronunciation
104-
ss for rs (cf.
russus
for
rursus),
see ch.
ii.
REPRESENTATIVES OF
160.]
I.-EUR. CONS.-GROUPS.
313
compounded with Verb. The passages

dealing with this subject are enumerated by
Brambach, Lot. Orth. pp. 294 sqq. Lucilius declared it to be immaterial
whether one wrote d or c in adcurrere, accurrere (ix. 25 M.)
160. Assimilation in Preposition
Roman grammarians
of the
'
dne an
non
c,
est
adcurrere
'
quod quaeras eque
scribas
labores,
but seems (though the reading is doubtful) to have insisted on the necessity
of distinguishing ad-Were (from ad and baeto*) and ab-bitere (from ab and baeto}
(ix. 27 M.)
:
abbitere
'
d
(absimilis
siet
an b
multum
'
est
seems to have been discarded in Latin for dissimilis, through fear of

he pronounces in favour of 'pellicio (ix. 32 M.)
confusion with adsimilis]
in praeposito per
'
pelliciendo,'
hoc
est
inducendo, geminato
1.
Similarly Priscian (i. 50. 7 H.) quotes pellege, pellucet from Plautus.
The MSS. of Plautus and Terence show great prevalence of Assimilation
Plautus puns on adsum and assum, Poen. 279
Milphio, heus ubi tu es?
Assum apud
eccum. At ego elixus
te
where however the MSS. read adsum, and

derived as-siduus 'ab asse dando (Cic. Top.
'
sis uolo,
Stilo (end of second cent. B. c.)

ii. 10).
It is quite a mistake to
suppose the unassimilated forms to be the older, and the assimilated the more
recent (see Dorsch in the Prager philol. Studien, 1887). In the Herculanean
papyri the preposition is generally not assimilated, e.g. 'adsiduo,' 'inridens,'
'inlita,' adfini,' but
imminet/ 'imperiis' (Class. Rev. iv. 442). The byform
a of ab originated in an assimilated form, e. g. before/- in the verb a-fluo, to be
abundant (cf. ab-undo'), often confused in MSS. with af-fluoj to flow to (see
Nettleship, Contributions, s. v. ajffluo), and before m-. v-, e. g. a-mitto, d-vello, the
forms ammitto, &c. being avoided apparently through fear of confusion with
compounds of ad in classical spelling ad is assimilated usually before c-, e. g.
'
'
ac-dpio (sometimes before q-, e. g. ac-qmro}, before g-, e.g. aggr8dwrB.nd ad-gredior,
before 1-, e.g. altigare but adluere, adloqui (Velius Longus, p. 61 K.), before p-.
e. g.
ap-pono, rarely ad-pono, before
as-sideo
1-,
and
e. g. col-legium, col-loco
before
c-,
and
t-,
e. g. at-tribuo
before
con-loco,
d-,f-< g-,j-,n-,q-,s-,t-, v-;
and
e.g. arripio
r-,
ad-sideo, ad-sum, before
ad-ripio,
com-
r-, e. g.
is
in- is
s,
and becomes
cor-rigo,
on ex see ch.ix.29;
before
e. g.
assimilated before
cow-
assimilated before
m-, e.g. im-mitto (becoming im- also before b-, #-), occasionally before r-, e. g.
and in-ruo, not so often before 1-, e. g. in-ludo and il-ludo o&- is assimilated
ir-ruo
before
c-,
e.g. oc-curro, before/-, e. g. of-fendo, before g-, e. g. og-gero, before^-, e. g.
and occasionally before m-, e. g. ob-mdneo, 0. Lat. om-mentare per- is

assimilated before 1-, e.g. pel-licio, pel-lego and per-kgo sub is assimilated before
op-perior,
c-, e.
g. suc-curro
before
m-, n-,
e. g.
tra-do (trans-dere attested
our MSS. have
tradere)
before
/-, e. g. suf-fero,
and optionally before m-, e.

npui (contracted surpui) and sub-ripui
sup-pono,
before^'-
we
g.
;
g-, e. g. sug-gero,
sum-mitto
and
trans- often
by Donatus
find
co-
spelling ofperjerare (see Georges, Lex. Wortf.
becomes
before p-,
andr-,
tra-
before j-,
for Terence, Phorm.
2,
e. g.
e. g. sur-
d-,
1-,
where all
a later
coicio, &c., pe- in pejerare,
v.) (cf. peiiuri Plaut. True. 612 (B) )
in
s.
sub-mitfo,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
314
[Chap. IV.
(cf. Ital. Gennajo for Lat., Januarius).

(See Brambach, Lat. Orth. pp. 296 sqq.
on the Assimilation of Prepositions on Inscriptions, and the Indices to C.I.L.)
161. Other examples of Assimilation.

If Festus (252. 7 Th.) is right in
saying that both petna and pesna were O. Lat. words for a wing,' we must
suppose penna to be the development of the former, while the latter (from
annus is most naturally
*petsna-*) would become *pena (cf. luna for *lucsna)
derived from *at-no- (G-oth. aj>n Neut., 'a year'). The assimilation of c to
'
a following t was a feature of dialectal

'a bug') and Late Latin (see ch. 11.
95).
(e. g.
blatta for *blacta, Lett,
blakts,
Like gluma from glubo is rumentum

(glossed by abruptio' Paul. Test. 369. 12 Th.) from rumpo like ramentum from
rado is caementum from caedo.
(On the reduction of mm after a long vowel or
diphthong to m, e.g. *caemmentum to caementum, see ch. ii. 127). For dp we have
'
0. Lat. topper (see ch. ix.
7) for *tod-per
(on quippe, quippiam, see ch. x.
sometimes spelt iccirco (see Brambach,

became mm, e. g. gemma, or rm, e. g- germen,
is
s.
Hulfsbuchlein,
Idcirco
7).
Whether nm
and whether
v.).
is discussed in
80,
exdmen represents *exagmen or *ex-ags-men in
116.
In the Probi App.
amiddula
the gd of Jrig(i)dwt
(198. 26 K.) we have: amygdala non
Ital.
(frigda Probi App. 198. 3 K.) became dd (cf. fridam, C. I. L. iv. 291
'
'
freddo, &c.).
162. Lengthening by Compensation.

with the Assimilation of Consonants is what
Closely connected
called the Com*
is
'
pensatory Lengthening of Vowels, where the assimilated consonant lends itself rather to increase the length of the preceding
vowel, so that the loss of the consonant is, as it were, compensated
by the
additional quantity of the vowel.

'
'
maid/
lady/
'
'
rain/
thane/)
(English examples are
Qualm, for *quas-lm
(cf.
in the older spelling quallus, anhelus for

*anhenslm is anhellus, velum for *veoclum (cf. vexillum) is vellum,
aitla, a pot (later olla), for *auxla (cf. auxilla) is aulla, &c.; the
quas-illus,
148),
is
Adjective ending -dsus for *o-went-to-
(ch. v.
65)
in the older
is
spelling -onssus,
(see Brambach,
p. 268, and the
Indices to Ribbeck's Virgil and Studemund's Apograph of the
Ambrosian Palimpsest of Plautus) ; dumetum for *dumetum is
-ossus
in Virgil
winuo
[cf.
(On the
Orth.
MSS. dummetum,
dirrumpo,
'BaccJi.
as dlminuo
is
in Plautus
441 (C D), but
disr- (B)],
spellings with double consonant in the
MSS.
MSS.
and
dim-
so on.
of Plautus,
Virgil, &c., see ch. ii.

127-133, where the question is discussed
how far a long vowel with a single consonant might be substi-
tuted for a short vowel
On
with
a double consonant in Latin.
the lengthening of a vowel before ns, see ch.

additional examples of the loss of s, oo with
lengthening.
151 above.)
ii.
144, and for

'
'
compensatory
161-163.]
REPRESENTATIVES OF L-EUR. SOUNDS.
315
163. Assimilation of Syllables.

The change of the older
Perfect-forms cecurri, memordi, peposci, pepugi, &c. to cucurri, momordijpoposciipupugi, &c. (see ch. viii.
43) shows the partiality of
Latin for the complete assimilation of two neighbouring syllables.
The
'
I.-Eur. dissimilation of *q~enq%, five/ to *penq~e ( 1 1 6)
(O. Ind. paiica, Lith. penki, &c.) is not seen in Lat. quinque ;
quercus (for ^querguus), querquetum may be another example, for
O. Engl. furh, our ' fir/ points to I.-Eur. *perq~- (cf Mbo from
I.-Eur. pib-, O. Ind. pibami, O. Ir. ibim).
The same similarity
.
of initial
and following
syllable,
whether an original similarity

by the Latin partiality for
preserved in Latin or first produced
a repetition of the same sound,
is
seen in words like cincinnus,
a curl (Gk.
KIK.IVVOS),
for *farba
(Engl. beard, O. SI. brada), querguera, ague, mur-
mur (Gk.
turtur, &c.
fjiopfjivpa)),
But
in
qwsqitiliae, shreds (Gk. Koo-KuA/xarta), barba
npupa (Gk. iro\jf), furfur tintinno, cucumis^

Vulgar Latin we find qu becoming c when
a following syllable has qu,
',
e.
g. cinque for quinque, cesquo for
quiesco (Bersu, die Gutturalen, p. 98).
CHAPTER
V.
FORMATION OF NOUN AND ADJECTIVE STEMS.

1.
I.
We
STEM-SUFFIXES.
have seen
how
the several
sounds of the Latin language were written
(ch. i.), and proand

what
or
(ch. ii.),
original
Indo-European sounds
We
have
now to see how Latin words
they represent (ch. iv.).
were formed, and how the Latin process of formation was related
nounced
to the
'
'
'
Indo-European/
For the forming of words we find sounds combined into
and these developed into stems thus the sounds t, e, and
combined into the root teg-, to cover (Lat. teg-o, teg-men,
;
roots,
g, are
'
'
tectns
with O-grade of root), which is further

into
the
stems
developed
toga- (Lat. Nom. Sg. toga, earlier *togd,
Gen. PI. toga-rum., &c.), tegmen- (Lat. Nom. Sg. legmen, Gen.
for
*teg-tus,
tdg-a
tegminis, earlier *tegmen-es, &c.)
by the addition to the root of
the stem-suffixes -a-, -men-.

It is these stem-suffixes, used in
the making of Nouns and Adjectives, which will be the subject
of this section.
2. Suffixes
First
ending in
(Nouns and Adjectives of the
-6, -a
and Second Declension).
-6-, -A-.
rather be called the e-o-suffix, since
it
-6-, which should
alternates with e
(e.
g.
I.-Eur. Voc. Sg. of Masc. o-stems ended in -e, *ekwe, '

horse/
Gk. iVTre, Lat. eque, &c.), is associated with the Masc. and
Neut. Gender.
-A-, which should rather be called the a-suffix,
alternates with a (e.g. I.-Eur. Voc. Sg. of Fern, a-stems

ended in -a, *ekwa, c
mare
cf Horn. Gk. vvâ), is associated
since
it
with the Fern. Gender.
'
Hence the
o-
and
a-suffixes
were used
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
1, 2.]
in Adjectives,
STEMS.
-6-, -A-.
317
newo-, Masc. and Neut., *newa-,
e.g. I.-Eur.
Fern. (GJs...v4(F)os i v(F)ov} vt(F)a, Lat. novos, novom, nova, &c.).
Special circumstances
of Fern, o-stems and
are Fern., being
(fyrjyos
it
passed from
the
concrete
have however produced a few instances

Masc. a-stems.
Thus Lat. foff us, Gk.
names
of trees;
and Lat.
*veavia-, youth, vtavias, a youth).
Of
the
affricola,
when
original abstract sense of 'field-tillage'' into

sense of a ( field -tiller/ became Masc. (cf. Gk.
its
many
particular notice
(See ch.
uses of the o-suffix, two
:
(i)
Abstract
in
vi.
I.)
may
be selected for
Nouns (Nomina
.Actionis),
these having the accent on the root, e.g. I.-Eur. *gono-, 'pro3
duction (O. Ind. janam, Gk. yovos), from root gen-, ' to produce ;
'
(2)
in
Nomina
Agentis, these having the accent on the suffix,

a piercer' (Gk. rope's ), from root ter-, 'to
e.g. I.-Eur .v*t6r6-j
'
pierce'; I.-Eur. *proko-, 'an asker' (Lat. proem, a suitor), from

'
root prek-, to ask/
The root in all these examples shows the
o-grade (ch.
iv.
51).
similarly used in Abstract Nouns (Nomina

'
I.-Eur.
*bhuga, 'the action of fleeing (Gk. $1777, /
Actionis), e.g.
Lat./%), from the weak grade of the root bheug-, to flee/
The
a-suffix is
'
How far these simple suffixes -o- and -a- have been combined
with others to form the large number of suffixes which end in
the letter
-tro-, -tra,
6,
or the letter a, e.g. -io-,
-ia-, -to-, -ta-, -tuo-, -tua-,
&c, need not be discussed here.
In Latin we find
them more used
in the older stages of the language, while fuller

to be required in the classical period; thus per-
suffixes seem
mcus (from the root weik-, to fight/ Lat. vinco) is O. Lat. for
The Verbal Noun
per-vicax, and squdlus, Enn., became squalidus.
used as Infinitive by the Umbro-Samnite nations was probably
a Neuter o-stem, e.g. Osc. ezum, Umbr. erom from root es-, 'to
'
Osc. deicum corresponds to Lat. dwere, Osc.

be/ Lat. esse
moltaum to Lat. multare) and at all periods of Latin we see
;
a tendency to make rough-and-ready coinages of words with the

help of these simple suffixes, e.g. Carna, from *car(o)n-, flesh,
whom a temple was dedicated

Carda (or Cardea), from *cardon-,
a hinge, the goddess of hinges, nola, ( a say-no from nolo, in
Caelius' punning description of Clodia (Quint, viii. 6. 53).
the goddess of the vital organs, to
by Junius Brutus
in
510
B.C.,
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
318
Latin
and
[Chap. V.
other examples.
Lat. uncus from *oncos
from the root ank-, to bend
Lat. dolus (G-k. SoAos),
perhaps the O-grade of a root del- Lat. jugum (0. Ind. yugam, Gk. vy6v,
Goth, juk Neut., 0. SI. igo Neut.) from the root yeug-, to join
Lat. plaga
con-viva from vivo, to enjoy oneself
(Gk. irXrjyr)) from the root plag-, to beat
3.
6-
(0. Ind. arakas,
Gk.
a-suffixes
'
'
fry/cos)
'
'
'
(e.g. Catull. v.
Non.
M.
14. 16
Plant. Pers. 30 uiues mecum so vita Plaut. Trin. 477 ; cf.

nunc est in summa laetitia, vivere eum dicimus)
;
'
sicuti qui
parcus from parco with lengthened root col-lega (cf. teg-ula, reg-ula, and celdre,
if from *tega, *rega, *cela, Verbal Nouns from the roots teg-, reg-, /eel- cf.
23).
Of early forms, and occasional coinages, may be mentioned condus and prdmus
from condo, promo, e. g. Plaut. Pseud. 608 condus promus sum, procurator peni
traha, a harrow, for which Virgil substituted (invented ?) the form trahea (cf.
the note of Servius on G. i. 164 traheaeque Epenthesin fecit causa metri, ut
nam non habet
navita.' traha autem vehiculum est a trahendo dictum
from aio was
rotas), fromiraho, like sera, the bolt of a door, from sero, to join
formed Aius Locutius, the god to whom a temple was dedicated in gratitude
for the supernatural warning against the attack of the Gauls, 390 B.C.; from
pando, Panda, the goddess of opening, after whom was named the Pandana
2)orta (Varro, L. L. v. 42), the Oscan name of the goddess being Patana-.
Nonius quotes permcus, stubborn, persistent, from Accius (Trag. 158 R.)
;
sed peruico Aiax animo atque aduorsabili,
we may
derived from pervinco, to be stubborn, persistent, as

assonance of Ennius (Trag. 408 R.)
see
from the
peruince pertinaci peruicacia
and
quoted from Caelius by Quintilian (viii. 6.

53): quadrantariam Clytemestram, et in triclinio coam, in cubiculo nolam
so perhaps confeta sus, for sus cum fetu, explained by Paul. Fest. (40. 28 Th.)
quae cum omni fetu adhibebatur ad sacrificium Domi-duca, Pro-nuba (an
coa
and
no/a,
from
coeo
nolo are
epithet of Juno), Juga (another epithet of Juno), Lua, Vica Pota, nocti-luca,
sangm-suga.
Scnba was the early word for
'
a poet
'
(Fest. 492. 19 Th.).
It is difficult to distin-IO-, -I A- (-YO-, -YA-).

suffixes
in
the
I.-Eur.
Latin
guish
(i) -yo- -ya-, (2) -iyo-,
-iya- (by some written -ayo-, -ay a-), for as we have seen (eh. iv.
4.
65)5
vocalic
y
i
after a consonant
in
in the middle
of a
word became
*medh-
Latin, so that Lat. medius from I.-Eur.
yo- (O. Ind. madhya-, Gk. /me(a-)o-os) is, unlike the O. Ind.
and Greek forms of the word, a trisyllable. The weak grade of
I.-Eur. -yo-, -iyo- (or -ye-, -iye-,
^^
g. Goth, bruks,
2)
seems to have been
-i-,
'
useful/ for *brukis, I.-Eur. ^bhrugî-,

(
from
the
root bhreug--, to use, enjoy (Lat.
^bhrug"yo- (-ye-),
'
fruor) ; Goth, hairdeis, a herd, shepherd,' for *hairdis ; and this
-I-
e.
'
opened the way to a confusion of io- stems with i-stems. Another

byform seems to have been -iyo-, -Iya-, e. g. O. Ind. trt-iya-, third/
'
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
3,4.]
Horn. Gk.
7jy>o0i7z-frJ,
STEMS.
-IO-, -IA-.
319
a form which would in Latin shorten the
before the following vowel, and become identical with I.-Eur. -iyo-.
These IO- suffixes have three chief uses in I.-Eur.
(i) to
:
form Verbal Adjectives, especially Gerundives, the Neuter and

Fern, being often employed as Verbal Nouns, e.g. I.-Eur.
1
'
requiring help or
*soq~-yo- }
Gk.
saciya-,
'
accompany
'
company
(Lat. socins
cf
a-oo-o-r/TTJp from *6o-(ro-) from the root

(O. Ind. sac-, Gk. eVojuat, Lat. sequor).
O. Ind.
'
seq~-,
to
Similarly
Latin eximius in the sense of eximendus (e.g. Ter. Hec. 66 utin
am I to make no exception ? ')

eximium neminem habeam ?
Lat. studium from studeo, Lat. exuviae from exuo pluvia from
pluo} (2) as a secondary suffix of Adjectives, the Neuter and
'
often too in ComFern, being often used as Abstract Nouns

e.g. I.-Eur. ^patriyo- (O. Ind. pitriya-. Gk.
;
pound Adjectives;
Lat. patrius) from the noun "*pter- (I.-Eur. pitar-, Gk.

Lat. somnium (O. Ind. svapnyam, O. SI.
Lat. pater)
sumje, sunije) from somnus, stem *somno- (O. Ind. svapnas,

O. SI. sunu) lu&t. falsi-jurius fromfal&us and^V*, discordia from
discors
(3) in Adjectives which have a sense of comparison or
;
indicating a special locality, direction, &c., e. g.

*medhyo- (O. Ind. madhya-, Gk. /^(o-jo-o?, Lat. medius) ;
distinction,
I.-Eur.
I.-Eur.
*alyo- (Arm.
Gk. 8eio'j has this

the -tero-
suffix,
ail,
suffix,
Gk. aAAoy, Lat. alius, Goth, aljis);

while Lat. dexter (Gk. eftrepo'j) has
which has the same force
Ordinal Numbers, e.g. Lat. tertius

O. SI. tretiji, ch. vi.
61).
(cf.
16).
So
in
some
O. Ind. trtiya-, Goth.
]?ridja,
A notable
use of this suffix in the Italic languages
formation of Proper Names.
While
in
all,
is
in the
or most, of the other
Compounds were used for Proper Names, the

Compound slightly varied from the father's (e.g.
I.-Eur. languages
son taking a
Gk.
son of Atzô-KA^?, Teut. Walt-bert, son of

the
Italic
stocks employed simple stems with this
Wald-ram),
IO- suffix, e.g. Lat. Lucius, Statins, &c., which correspond to
some contracted or 'pet '-names in the other I.-Eur. nations,
Aivo-Kpdrrjs,
a familiar shortened form of Toutio-rix, Gk.

more ceremonious Ze^-tTnros, &c., Aev/cis beside
e.g. Gaul. Toutius,

,
for the
TTTos,
&c. (see Fick, Personennamen).

inscriptions enable us to distinguish
The Oscan
two
varieties
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
320
[Chap. V.
Patronymics (or family names), which cannot

be
distinguished in Latin: (i) -yo-, in Patronymics
easily
derived from praenomina (what we call Christian names ') in
this suffix in
of
so
'
Osc.
e.g.
-o,
from Lat.
The Oscan
Lat.
IJhtavis,
Octavus\
Ocfdvius, the
patronymic derived
from a praenomen *Stato-.
Osc. Statis
suffix is in native characters written -is
Latin characters
derived from
in
-is,
Gk.
praenomina in
-19
-yo-,
(2)
e.
(i.
e.
-is),
in
-iyo-, in
g.
Patronymics
a patronymic
This suffix is in
Statiis,
from the praenomen Statis (stem *Statyo-j.

Oscan characters -iis, in Latin characters -ies, in Gk. -te?. To
these we may add a third variety, -iyo-, apparently the unThis is used in ceremonious language on
shortened form of -iyo-.
of magistrates, &c., and is written
names
the
inscriptions bearing
both quaestors. How far
Gk.
Viinikiis,
'AFSetes,
-etes, e.g.
-iis,
Latin spellings like Clodeins, Publeius, Vareius, if they are genuine

Latin forms and not dialectal, may be distinguished from the
normal forms
Clodftus,
The diphthong
ei
Publms, Varius
in O. Latin
as
is
hard to determine.
we have
seen, represent
may,
weakening of an original -ai- (-oi-) in the unaccented
it
syllable, e.g. occeido, as well as an original -ei-, e.g. deico
the
also be a graphic expression of the long simple vowel i,

for this -ei- came to be pronounced, and in time spelt, in the
may
same way as I and before another vowel I would be shortened

Thus Osc. Bovaiano- was in Latin Bowanum through
*.
*Bovianum from *Boveianom Osc. Pumpaiians is Lat. Pom;
to
peianus
Umbr.
Lat. Marms (cf

Mareio-,
'in
front/ postraio-, 'behind,' in Lat. antlcus,
pernaio-,
;
Osc.
Maraio-,
Falisc.
is
Analogous to the Oscan -Tyo- as opposed to -iyo- is

posfwus).
Latin use of the full ending -ius, as opposed to the
the
perhaps
(with -1- like Osc. -is ?), in names of magistrates
for example, on the S. C. de Bacchanalibus (C.I.L. i. 196) the
consuls' names are Marcius and Postumius, but the names of the
shorter
who
clerks
As
-is
or
'
-i
scribendo arf uerunt
the lO-suffix
is
'
are Claudi, Faleri, Minuci.
often added as a secondary suffix to Verb-
stems (e.g. pinsio and pinso, ch. viii.

15), so it is added to
Nouns. O-stems either drop their final vowel before it, e.g.
somn-ium, or show -eyo- which became -eo- (ch.
aureus.
(On
rustic -eofor -io-, see ch.
ii.
10).
iv.
66), e.g.
This ending
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
4.]
STEMS.
-IO-, -IA-.
321
was often assigned to other stems, Q.g.flammeus (A-stem),
augmented by
Nouns
corneits
The TER-stems
(I-stem), to denote material.
-io- produce in Latin a numerous class of Neuter
vtteiis
(U-stem),
indicating the place or instrument of an action, with the
-torio- corresponding to Greek -TTJ/HO-, e.g. audi-torium,

the place of hearing,' cleversorium for *devert-torium, a lodging-
ending
'
'
an instrument for scratching ' (Martial

Gk. (3ov\v-TT)piov, pya(T-TTipLov, both indicating
'
scalp-torium,
place,'
xiv. 83).
(Cf.
instrument for burning/ Kpi-rripiov, means of

Fern,
-toria in Late Lat. see Ronsch, Collectanea,
deciding '). (On
we
have -monium, -monia from MEN-stems,
p. 197.)
Similarly
'
place, Kavv-rripLGv,
e.
and attmonium
g. alimonia
aUmentiim)^ jldmonium (on the
(cf.
spelling, see Nettleship, Contributions, s.v.) $.iomflamen} an ending

extended to tristt-monia, sancti-monia, &c. The Adj. ending -drius
(from dsios, ch. iv.

later Latin (ch. iii.
60) was to some extent supplanted by -arts in

16), though the popular speech retained the
which should perhaps be restored

Langen, Beiircige, p. 324 e. g.
Pseud. 1049).
The same may be true of -alms and
e.g. manualium: ^y^Lpibiov (Gl. Cyrill.), ovUium (ib.)
older forms (e.g. vinarius), forms
to various lines of Plautus (see

militariis,
-alls, &c.j
A common
laetitia
51),
we
576
ending of Abstract Nouns is -itia (often -ities), e. g.

laetms, like m'ditia from miles (see also YE-stems,
From N-stems
e.g. servitium, flagitiuwi, Idnitium.
from
-%ium
e.
have,
g. colonia, in
O. Lat.,
'
a dwelling-place
'
(Plaut.
AnL
ut conmutet coloniam).
and
-ariovinarius
-ari-, -alio-
and
-all-.
Caper
(p. 103.
9 K.) approves the old form
Vasa istaec vinaria sunt, vinaria cella

Vulgus adhuc retinet de prisca verba loquella
:
and similarly atramentarium (p. 108. sK.) but Probi Appendix (p.
primipilaris, non primipilarius.'
(For other examples of -arms,
3
Ronsch, Collectanea, pp. 196, 208 Neue ii p. 158.)
;
198. 7 K.)
'
-alius,
see
Other examples of lO-stem Compounds. From jus and ago was formed
so lltigium
from dico, jucticium, indicium from eo, comitium, exitium,
imtium (cf.
77)
similarly praemium from emo, incendium, suspirium, disddium,
jur(f)-gium
lecti-sterniiim, stilU-cidium, obsequium [wrongly

declared (Cicero ap. Quint, viii. 3. 35 but cf. Lael. xxiv. 89) to be a coinage of
Terence, for it is used by Plautus (Bacch. 1082) and Naevius (Don. ad Ter.
Andr. i. i. 40)] and exsequiae, exciibicte, suppetiae, vindemia from vmum and rferno,
connubium, subsidium, aedi-ftcium,
incuria
from
cura, &c.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
322
[Chap. V.
-UO-, -TJA-. Here again the two I.-Eur. forms of the
5.
suffix,
are difficult to dis(i) -wo-, -wa-_, (2)- uwo-, -uwa-, (or -owo-,, &c.)
after a consonant in the middle of a
tinguish in Latin, where
word became
vocalic
u at
first,
though
might afterwards become
it
a consonant by the process of Syncope described in ch. iii.

13,
must
have
been
which
trisyllabic, fusuos (cLfns-cus),
e.g.furvus,
when
at the time
between vowels became r
in Latin.
An
original -awo-, -ewo-, -owo- would also become -$#-, and in time
-vo- in Latin (ch. iii.
24, p. 174), so that the exact origin of the
Latin
suffix -uo-,
confusion
-vois
Another element of
often doubtful.
weak grade
see
2) was
that the
is
of the I.-Eur. suffixes -wo-,
-uwo- (-we-, -iiwe-,

u, which opened the way to
these stems coalescing with u-stems.
The UO-suffix is much used in Latin and in Teutonic in
Lat. hehus (O. H. G. gelo, Engl.
Greek Verbal
*jrhel-wo-),fiirvus,Jldinis, rdvus, &c.
adjectives denoting colour,
yellow, from
Adjectives
in
-reo?
for
e. g.
*-TtFos,
with Gerundive
force,
e.g.
6io>Kreo9, requiring to be pursued, capable of being pursued (cf.

O. Ind. kartva-, kartuva-, 'requiring to be done'), are in Latin
represented
by formations
in -nns,
e.
g. caeduus, excipum, prae-
consjncmts, while another class
ctpuns,
denoting state or condition,
end in
of
-tlvus,
e.
Verbal Adjectives,
g. ndtivus, captivus,
These Adjectives in -tivus seem to be derived from

Verbal Nouns with a TlO-suffix or a Tl-suffix (cf. furtivus
vdtivus.
stem seen in Adv.fnrtim, ch. ix.

4; sementivus
Late Lat. sementinm, Ronsch, Collect, p. 209),
though some have tried to connect them with Sanskrit Gerund(
ives in -tavya-, e. g. O. Ind. kartavya-, requiring to be done/
from
from
*furti- a
t
sementis,
-io, p. 41 ; von Planta, Gramm. Osk.while

Verbal
Adjectives of the same sense in
p. 169),
cadivus
e.
reculivus
-wus,
g.
(morbus), the falling sickness,'
[cf
in Gaulish Latin, e. g. Marc. Emp. xx. 93], sub-secivns, O. Lat.
(See Thurneysen, Verlta auf
Umbr.
i.
'
from vocare (classical vacare), may come from Verbal

Nouns with an lO-suffix. The forms de-ciduus, vacrnts are not
vocivos
developments of these, but follow the

Gerundive Adjectives like caedmts, excipuns, &c.
phonetic
6.
I.-Eur. Stems in -wo-.
O. Ir. biu,
W. byw,
analogy of
I.-Eur. *gyi-wo-, 'alive, lively' (0. Ind. jiva-,

I.-Eur.
SI. 2ivii), Lat. vivus
Goth, qius, Lith. gyvas, O.
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE STEMS.
5-7.]
-UO-, -UA-.
323
*laiwo-, 'left' (Gk. Xat(/^)os, O. SI. leVu), Lat. laevus, probably connected with
Engl. slow, from Teut. *slaiwa-. Similarly Lat. calms (0. Ind. kulva-) Lat.
scaevus (Gk. o-ai(/r )os)
Lat. cllvus (Goth, hlaiv Neut. tomb/ O. Engl. hlaw,
hlsew, hill/ esp. 'grave-hill,' Sc. law) from the root klei-, to lean, slope.'
;
'
'
'
The thematic vowel is inserted in I.-Eur. *widh-e-wo-, unmarried, widowed

'
'
a
cf. Goth, viduvo (n-stem), 0. SI. vidova,
[0. Ind. vidhava-, Gk. rj-iOfos
widow,' 0. Ir. fedb, W. gweddw], Lat. viduus, from the root weidh-, to
separate/ of Lat. dl-mdo, &c.
'
'
7.
Latin Verbal Adjectives in -uus,
relicuos) is
word
Rettcuus (rather
-ivus, -tlvus.
of four syllables in Plautus, and indeed in all the Republi-
can literature, though
it
afterwards became
and
reliquos
finally relicus
similarly delicuus, &c. (see Bersu, die Gutturalen, p. 59). This ending -uus (-MOS),
indicating state or condition, is seen in contmuus, ingenuus, assiduus (whence
the Adverb assiduo, for the sake of a pun with which Plautus coins the form
accubuo, True. 422), extguus, ambtguus [though we find other Compounds like
prodigus from ago (prodigivus in the Comm. Lud. Saec.), indigus from egeo with the
O-suffix]
from
first conj.
we have druus, irriguus (irrigwus Cato), vacuum

we have Lnuus. Derivative 10-stems from these
verbs
from ineo
(vocwus Plaut.)
are e.g. reliquiae, deliquium.
;
Examples of Adjectives, &c. in -uu-Sj derived from

annuus from annus (0-stem), Minerva for *menes-ud (cf. 0. Ind.
manas-vin-, intelligent ') from *menes-, 'intelligence' (0. Ind. manas-, Gk.
MfVeo--), a quadrisyllable in Plautus (ch. iv.
148), strenuus (cf. Gk. arprjvos,
nouns, are
'
health, Engl. stern, Pruss. sturnawiskan, 'earnest' ;, patruus frompdter (R-stem).

Another example of a Gerundive Verbal Adjective in -uus is pascuus, fit for
pasture, intended for
ploughing
(True. 149)
pasture,
with which Plautus contrasts
noii aruos hie, sed pascuos ager est

(cf. Cic. de Rep. v. 2.
3 agri arvi et arbusti et pascui),
O. Lat. aruae Plur., a field for ploughing.
for
whence arvum, with

-ivus,
of Adjectives in -uus
(reci-
from delicuus^ relicuus)^ examples

are internecivus (cf. internecio and internecium) from necare, subsidvus [cf. i(ri)sicium, feni-sicium] from secare. (Subsicivus denotes what remains over and above
a division of land, &c., hence subsicirus ager, spare land, subsicivum tempus,
divus
from
fit
Of Nouns and Adjectives in
which some would make Derivative 10-stems
-iva,
aruus,
reciduus
but
cf.
deliquium, reliquiae
spare time,
whence the proverb
subsicivis open's,
Cic.
de Orat.
ii.
89. 364).
Another word often confused with this last, viz. succisivus, from succido, shows
the more usual mode of derivation, from a Verbal Noun TI- or TlO-stem (cf.
succisio}, like passivus,fugitivus. Lixivus, whence the derivative lO-stem Kxivius,
comes from lixius, derived from Uxa, water, lye, *lzxare (Ital. lessare), to boil,
words connected with the root wleiq^ of Lat. liquor, 0. Ir. fliuch, wet (see
'
The
word
'
6 Th. 'sonivio/
sonant!) used in the augur's phrase sonivium tripudium (Serv. ad A. iii. 90
cf. Test. 422. 19 Th.), will, if the second syllable is long, be similarly related
Class. Rev.
v. 10).
O. Lat.
sonivius (Paul. Fest. 409.
;.
to sonare, as lixivus to *lixare, subsicivus to subsicare, &c. [Nocivus, Plin. Phaedr.,

from noceo, I.-Eur. *nokey6 (ch. viii.
23), has been compared to 0. SL
&c.
chodi-vu, 'wandering,' from chodi-ti, 'to go/ ljub!-vu, 'loving/ from ljubi-ti r
'to love'].
The I.-Eur. suffixes -two-, -twa-, or -tuwo-, -tuwa-, closely connected with
the Verbal Noun suffix -tu- ( 47), are frequent in 0. Ind. and Slav. (e.g.
Y 2
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
324
[Chap. V.
requiring to be clone,' kar-tva-m, a task' cf. Gk.

-Te(f}osof 8icaK-TfoSj &c.), but hardly appear in Latin e. g. mor-tuus (0. SI. mriFd-tuus another name of Faunus, the god of prophecy, derived from
-tvu)
fa-ri (butfatuus, foolish, with short a, means literally 'gaping,' from fatiscor,
&c.). In mutuus the t belongs to the Verb-stem (cf. Lett, meetot, to exchange,
0. Ind. kar-tuva-, kar-tva-,
'
'
'
Goth, maijjms,
'
a gift
')
The
-NO-, -NA-.
8.
I.-Eur. suffix -no-, Fern, -na-, seems
to vary with the higher grades -eno-, -ena-, and -ono-, -ona- ;
sometimes a vowel-sound seems to precede the nasal, representing some such variation as -ano-, -ana- (ch. iv. 81). Its chief
use is in the formation of Verbal Adjectives, usually with the

force of a Perfect Participle Passive ; thus in Sanscrit a certain
number of Verbs have P. P. P. in -na-, the others in -ta- (I.-Eur.
-to-,
27),
and likewise
in Teutonic
'
and Balto-Slavic,
e.
'
O. Ind.
g.
'
bound/ O. SI. danu, given.'

filled,' O. Engl. bunden,
In Latin, as in Greek, the P. P. P. suffix is -to-, but traces of
a similar use of -no- are found in words like plenus, full (cf. impurna-,
while of Verbal Nouns formed with this suffix we have,

donum
g.
(O. Ind. dana- N., O. Ir. dan), somnns from the root
to
sleep
swep-,
(O. Ind. svapna- M., Arm. k un, O. Ir. suan,
An
cf. Gk. VTTVOS, O. SI. sunii).
O. Engl. swefen, Lith. sapnas
N-stem which passes into the O-declension shows this suffix
thus regnwm (ch. ii.
144) may be from stem *regen- (cf. O. Ind.
pletus)
e.
'
'
rajan-, ^rule"
).
The
suffix is
preceded by
s in
lima for *hixna
(cf.
on an old Praenestine mirror, C. L L. i. 55) (Zend raoxsna-,

(
In Greek we find some
shining,' Pruss. lauxnos PL, stars').
losna
'
Adjectives of
in
Time
in -Ivos, derived from a Locative Case ending
iv.
e.g. êi/xept-ô^ (L&i.hibernus for *fiimr%-no- 9 ch.
77), eaptv6$ (Lat. vernu#), tairepi-vos (cf. Lat. vespema), &c.

Adjectives in
-mus in Latin \\k.Qfdgmus,JMncmus show an I.-Eur. suffix -mo-,
i,
denoting material or origin,
e.
g.
Gk.
(?jy-i>os,
made
made
In Latin,
of papyrus, &c.
wood, /SvjSAfoos,
in
of
vowels
unaccented
syllables, -mus
weakening
an older -ano-,
of beech-
owing
to the
may represent
and, owing to
same formathe
represent
-eno-, -ono-, &c., as well as -ino-
the syncope of such vowels, -nus may

It is however often possible to distinguish between
tions.
made of
original -no- and original -ino-, &c. ; thus popnlnus,
I
poplar- wood, must have had originally a vowel between the
and the n, for original In becomes II in Latin (e. g. coliis for
8.]
-NO-, -NA-.
325
cf. Lith. kainas; see ch. iv.

The suffix -Ivos in
;
78).
Greek, denoting species, occurs frequently with names of animals,
*colnis
e.g. beXtycLK-ivr]
from
SeAc/mf, KopaK-lvos
from
/copaf
and similarly
Latin we have lovinus^ equlnus^ minus (Goth, sv-ein, Engl.

swine, O. SI. sv-inu^Jibrinus (O. H. G. bibir-m; cf. Zend bawr-
in
bebr-mis), &c., the feminine often being employed

Latin
with ellipse of caro, as vttwlina, veal, suina, pork, &c.
-inus is often due to the addition of the NO-suffix to lO-stems,
aenis, Lith.
from Latium (though, when the suffix -mo-, and

added, we have -ienu#,e> g. aliemts from alius, laniena
from lanius, with the same dissimilation of the i- and e- vowels,
e.
g. Latinus
not -no-,
is
as in pietas instead of *piitas, medietas instead of ^mediitas, &c.,

'
Engl.
'
yet/
yes,' for
yit/ yis
'),
mare, piscina from piscis, omnino
the transference of an
(cf.
or to I-stems, e.g. marinus from

It is often seen in
from omnis.
lON-stem
55 on epnlonus beside
into the
epulo), e.g. in
6- or A-declension
names of gods like
'
qui conjuges jungit,' from jugdtw, Potina, the goddess worshipped when a child first took milk (Non. 108. 17 M.),
from potio, &c. Lat. -mo may also represent an earlier -aino-,
Jugatinm,
&c., for ai in the
into
2,
unaccented syllable, became
ei,
which passed
but Osc. deiv-ino-^ &c. proves an original
dimnus, &c.
The
-ino-
for
suffix -Units of din-tinus, cras-tinm, pris-tinns,
corresponding to the O. Ind. suffix -tna-, -tana- used to form

Adjectives from Adverbs of Time, e. g. diva-tana- and diva-tana-,
&c.,
daily,' nii-tna-,
&c.,
may
nu-tana-,
'
of the present time,' pra-tna-,
be connected with O.
Ir. tan,
'
time,'
and
'
former/
so be
more
strictly the second element of a compound than a mere suffix,

just as -gnus in privi-gnus, bignae, twins (Paul. Test. 24. 25 Th.),
The -gnus of Hirepresents the root gen-, of genus, gigno, &c.

gnus, salignus, larignus on the other hand shows the suffix -no-,
the g being the development before n (ch. iv. 1 19) of the final c
of the stems itic-is, satic-is, laric-is, and was by their analogy ex-
tended to other tree-adjectives like abiegtm$romadies,Gen.abiet-is

[ferrngtnus (cf. aurigineiis, fuligineus] adds the O-suffix to the
stem of ferrugm-is]. Similarly -dnns, the ending of Adjectives

formed with the NO-suffix from A-stems, e. g. silvdnus, arcdnus,
is extended to
By
Adjectives from other stems, e. g. urldnus.
the addition of this NO-suffix to
Nomina Agentis
in -or
we get
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
326
[Chap. V.
while
-urnus, e.g. tacttnrmis (and -urnius, e.g. Plausurnius)
ES -stems give -enus ; e. g. akemts, Umbr. ahesno- from aes,
;
'
'
I.-Eur. *ayes- ; venenum, lit. philtre/ love-potion/ for *venesno- (cf Venus) ; egenus (cf. eges-tas), &c. ; we have -mia from
common use of the NO-suffix in Latin
a U-stem in lacuna.
.
is
form Distributive Numerals,
to
(see ch. vi.
e.
g. quaterni, bini, trim, terni
59, 61, 63).
NO-suffix.
I.-Eur. *oi-no-, 'one' [Gk. 00/77, the ace on dice,
Cypr. oTfos, alone, has the WO-suffix, like Zend aeva-, oiva-),
O. Ir. oen, W. un, Goth, ains, Lith. v4nas, 0. SI. inu), Lat. unus. Similarly
Lat. cdnus for *casnus (cf. cascus), Osc. casnar, an old man
Lat. urna for
9. I.-Eur.
(though
ofos,
Lat. quernus for *qu&)'cnus

Lat. agnus (Gk. d/ii/o? for
cf. 0. SI. jagn)
Lat. grdnum from root ger-, to
*d/3-i/oy, O. Ir. uan, W. oen
rub down, wear out' (O. Ind. jlrna-, 'rubbed down,' Goth, kaurn, 'corn,'
*urcna
(cf.
urceus)
'
O. SI. zrino).
10.
Latin -nus.
Other examples are pater-nus, mdter-nus, from K-stems

pronus from the preposition pro, as Osc. amno-,
alter-nus, infer-nus, exter-nus ;

'
a circuit, from the preposition am- (Lat. ambi-\ Osc. com(o)no-, Umbr. kumno-,
corresponding to the Latin comttium, from the preposition com mdterinus from
from U-stems tribunus, (cf. pecunia). The suffix -eno-,
materies (-in- probably)
-ono- appears in 0. Lat. Duenos, bene (cf. benignus, bellus for *ben-lus), 0. Lat.
honour.' From sarcio
duonus, bonus from the same root as 0. Ind. diivas-,
'
'
we have
stina,
sardna,
a prop
(cf.
from pango
(compdges), pagina, from ango, angina,

destmdre, like lancinare, &c., ch. viii.
10).
From
from
sto,
de-
A-stems, names of animals,
we have aqmlinus, forml&c.,and from names of persons,

Other examples are from
Agrippina, Jugurthinus, Messdlina, Sibyllinus, &c.
from an K-stem, sobr-inus (for *sosr-inus from soror,
O-stems, div-inus, mcinus
I.-Eur *swesor-)
from U-stems, gmuinus dens, from *genus, the jaw (,Gk.
from Verbs in -io, officina, fodina. (For a list of
7eVus), veruina from veru
11.
Latin
-Inus.
cinusj noctuinus, mustelinus, columbinus, vtpermus,
Nouns
in -ma, see Ronsch,
Collectanea, p. 199).
Latin -anus. (See A. L. L. i. 177.) From town-names of the first

declension we have Romanus, Cdpuanus, &c. Names of persons in -anus are
usually derived from place-names, and often preserve the names of lost towns
12.
e.g. Apscillanus points to a
tive Adjectives
from the
from undecima,
sc.
town
fern, of
*Apscilla (Eph. Epigr.
ordinal
pp. 25-92). Deriva-anus, e. g. undecimani
ii.
numbers show
So dedmanus from decima, sc. pars, the tenth

part, tithe, e. g. ager dedmanus, land paying tithes, an adjective which somehow acquired the sense of large, huge, e. g. decumana scuta, decumanus Jluctus,
decumana ova, all quoted by Paul. Fest. (3. 31 50. 27 Th.), dedmanus adpenser,
Lucil. iv. 6 M.
The same ending appears in some names of gods which are
derived from Verbs of the first conjugation, e. g. Levana from levdre, to lift,
the goddess who protected the newly-born child when first lifted from the
ground, Tutana from tutdri, Praestana from praestdre, &c. The ending -idnus,
legio, cohors.
properly affixed to ia-stems, e.g. Octdvianus from Octdvia, sc. gens (the cognomen
of a person who had passed by adoption from the gens Octavia to another
9-13.]
-MENO-, -MENA-. 327
gens), was much affected with N-stems, e.g. Cicermianus, Plsonianus, which
seem to have pleased the Koman ear more than *Ciceron-cmus, *Pison-anus, and
was in time extended
to other Proper Name-stems, e.g. Caesarianus (but

Caesannus in Cicero. &c.). The ending -Itanus, e.g. Abderitanus, was produced
by adding the Roman termination to the Greek -rr^?, e. g. 'A^Srjphrjs so
The ending -icdnus often denotes a resident
Nedpolitanus, Panormitanus, &c.
alien as opposed to a native, e. g. Africanus, an Africander, opposed to Afer,
;
Gallicanus, to Gcdlus. (Varro, L. L.
i.
32. 2
'
legumina Gallicani quidam legarica
'
appellant.)
The Romance languages point

Vulgar and Late Latin,
e. g.
to a great extension of the -anus endings in

from *certdnns, moyen from *mediam(x.
Fr. certain
Other grades of this suffix were

13. -MENO-, -MENA-.
-mono-, -mona-, and -mno-, -mna-, &c. In Latin -meno- and
-mono- would both become -mmo- or (by Syncope) -MHO- (cf.
The suffix was used in the Middle or
lamna, earlier lammina).
Passive Participles of Thematic Tenses of the I.-Eur. Verb
(e.
g.
O. Ind. bhara-mfina-, Gk. </>epo-êi>os) ; and although the Pres.

Part. Passive was lost in Latin, traces of this formation remain
in the 2 PI. Pres. Ind., e. g. legimini for legimini estis (while
2 PI. Pres. Imper.,
leffimini,
may
equally stand for the Inf., Gk.
used in Imperatival sense see ch. viii.

81), ahimnus,
6 Tp(f)6(jLvos (sometimes a nurse, as in the Ciris, 441 :^commu-\
nis alumna omnibus, of the earth), fe-m'ma from the rooV(Jhe(y V/
Aeyef*ez>ai,
'
to give suck,' Vertumnus^ the
Valumnus,
verto,
volOj
*calumnus
the deity
(cf.
god of the changing seasons, from

children, from
who guarded new-born
calwnnia) from calu-or, calvor, to deceive.
Analogous, but irregular, formations seem to be O. Lat. pilumnoe

poploe, hompilum, a javelin, used of the Romans in the Carmen
Saliare (Fest. 244. 24 Th.),like classical pildni,
deities,
?)
in
We
per quern
-mo- (from an earlier

Umbro-Oscan Imperative forms like Umbr. persni-
vivescat infans/ from vtta, &c.
-mno-
and the names of
Pilumnus, from pilum, a pestle, Vitumnus,
find
'
'
supplicate/ Osc. censamur censetor ; cf Lat. praefaantestdmino

Sometimes the suffix is
mind,
(see ch. viii.
60).
used in the transference of a
or MON-stem into the 6- or
liimu
MEN-
a-declension,
g. ctilumna, beside colnmen (cf. columella for *columen-la), terminus, beside termen arid termo (quoted by Festus, 550.
22 Th., from Ennius, e. g. A. 591 M. qua redditus termo est).
e.
The ending -mnus
in Latin often arises
from the addition of
the suffix -no- to a stem ending in a labial consonant,
e.
g.
som-
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
328
mis for *opnus
scabellum), &c.
(e.
(cf. sopor),
damnum
(cf.
Gk.
[Chap. V.
bairdvr]),
scamnum
(cf.
14 -MO-, -MA-. This suffix was used to form Adjectives

Gk. <pvifj.ot from '(frvgis, Xvo-iôs from \va-is) and Nouns,
g.
Masculine
especially
Abstracts in
nouns, but
-/xos like
A.I-JUOS,
sometimes Fern.
Examples
Aot-jutoj).
Gk.
g.
(e.
are I.-Eur.
*dhum6s
(O. Ind. dhumas, Gk. ^v/otoy, Lith. dumai PL, O. SI.

Lat.
I.-Eur. ^gh-ormos,
fnmus, from the root dheudymu),
Ind.
Arm.
gharmas, warmth,'
*cjh"ermos (O.
jerm, warm/ Gk.
;
'
'
Oepfjios, Engl. warm), Lat. formus, from the root gh~er-.

It was also used to form Superlatives (with Comparative in
-ero-, ch. vi.

52), e. g. Lat.
s-upero- (O. Ind. upama-, with
summus
for *#-np-mo, with
Comp. upara-;
cf.
Comp.
O. Engl. yf(e)m-
In Latin pulcerrimus for *pulcersimus^ *pulcrisimus^
est).
it is
Comparative suffix -is- of magls, &c. The more

usual Superlative suffix however was -temo- (-te mo-) (with Com-
affixed to the
'
parative
intero-
in -tero-, ch.
Lat. Superlative see ch.

like the
52), e.g. Lat. i}i-timus,with
vi.
(O. Ind. an-tama-, with
Comparative
vi.
'
54.)
Comp/
(On the
Comp.-' an-tara-).
-tero- (ch. vi.
But originally this suffix,

52), had the sense rather of
likeness (O. Ind. go-tama-, lit. ( like an ox '), or position (Lat.

The
marttimns, older mari-tumus, lit. 'placed by the sea').
Ordinal Numeral ending
-mm
of decftmus, &c.
may owe
its
-temo-
appears in
Other Examples (i) of the Noun- or Adjective-suffix.

Lat. fdma (Gk. ^77-^77)
Lat. pal-ma (Gk. ira\a-fj.ij,
(Gk. ai/e-ôs)
Lat. animus
to the final of the Cardinal

vlcesimus.,
&c. (ch. vi
Numeral stem
but
74).
15.
0. Ir. la-m
Fern., 0. Engl. fol-m Fern.) ; Lat. culmus (Gk. a\a-ôs, O. Engl. healm, Lett,
sal-ms, 0. SI. sla-ma Fern.) ; Lat. dumus, 0. Lat. dusmus Adj. (Liv. Andr.
dusmo in loco) (cf. O. Ir. doss, ' a bush') ; Lat. Hmus (0. H. G. lim, Engl. lime).
Of the Superlative
(2)
*bre#hu-
(cf.
Gk.
fipaxvs)
suffix, (a)
alone
Lat. minimus, bruma
Lat. infimus beside inferus.
(&)
With
from
-is-
brevis for
celerrimus,
The suffix -temo- (-t e mo-) has its original sense in

fim-timus, legi-timus, aedi-tumus, a temple attendant, which was changed in
Varro's time to aedi-tuus, through a false reference of the word to tueor (Varro
facillimus, simillimus, &c. .
ab aeditimo, ut dicere didicimus a patribus nortris, ut

i. 2. i)
Ultimus
cf. Gell. xii. 10).
corrigimur a recentibus urbanis, ab aedituo
E. R.
'
'
(Osc. ultiumo-)
is
Superl. of
ulterior, citimus of
citerior,
&c.
-BO-, -BA-. This suffix in its various forms was used

to form Adjectives and Concrete Nouns, e. g. I.-Eur. *rudhro-,
16.
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
14-16.]
f
red,'
-RO-, -RA-.
from the root reudh- (O. Ind. rudh-ira-, Gk.
rudru
'
'
40) became
-ns,
iii.
-pv6pos, O.S1.
'
Goth, akrs), Lat.
dypo'j,
329
O. Scan, rodra Fern., blood '), Lat. ruber ; I.-Eur.

'
a field,' from the root ag-, to drive (O. Ind. ajra-, Gk.
cf.
*agro-,
ch.
STEMS.
15
-er,
The
(8)].
In Latin the ending
ager.
as
-ros
seen in these two examples
is
and
suffixes -er5-
(and
[cf
which in Latin
-tero-.
lose the e and appear as -ro-, -fro- have

been already mentioned as Comparative Suffixes, corresponding to
e
Their original
Superlatives in -mo- (-mmo-), -tmmo- (-t mo-).
might through Syncope
was rather that
sense however
greater degree,
e.
of
than of
likeness, of
g. O. Ind. vatsa-tara-,
lit.
'
equal
like a calf
'
(cf.
Lat.
and similarly O. Ind. -tama in go-tama-, lit. 'like an

and in O. Ir. the suffix -tero- retains this sense, e. g. dem-
mdtertera),
ox.'
&c.
'
'
equally certain' (not more certain'), from demin, certain,'
while in O. Ind. and Greek it has developed into a regular Com'
nithir,,
parative suffix (but
cf.
Horn. 0r}\VTpos, dyporepoy).
W&efiliaster, matraster, patraster have this

-as- (see Ascoli, Suppl. Arch.
Glott.
i),
suffix
Latin nouns
with a prefixed
while in mag-is-ter, mm-is-, not to
is-ter, the Comparative sense belongs to the suffix

the suffix -ter citer, exter, &c. are not Comparatives
(On the Latin Comparative,
eos-ter-ior^G. are.
Latin Adverbs in
(see ch. ix.
2)
ci-ter-ior,
see ch. vi.
53).
have probably this suffix, e. g. Premier

though some have explained -tier as the noun
-iter
a way, so that brev-iter would correspond to the German

adverb kurz-weg.
It is used in Possessive Pronouns in Latin,
vtery
e.
g. vetter, as in Gk., e. g. v/uterepos, and in various pronominal
and locative Adjectives, with the sense of like/ in the direction
of,' e. g. al-ter, %-terum, sup-ems, to which Adverbs with -(t)ro*
'
This suffix -tero-, in Lat.

correspond, e. g. Intro (ch. iii.
15).
-tero- or -tro-, must be distinguished from the I.-Eur. suffix -TRO-,
which was used to form Neuter nouns indicating an instrument,

&c., e. g. ard-trum, an instrument for ploughing,' a plough, and
from the Latin suffix -cro- which represents the stem cero-,
'
making, from the root ker-,
'
to
make
'
(cf Lat. Cerns, creare, &c.),

.
by assimilation for -do- (I.-Eur. -tlo-) when

an /precedes, e. g. involu-crnm for *involu-clum (ch. ii. 101). This
-do- (I.-Eur. -tlo-) is a suffix closely associated with -tro-, forme.g. ludi-cer, or stands
ing Neuter Nouns which indicate a tool or instrument.
Another
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
330
suffix, -dhro-, is
also the
[Chap. V.
used in the same way, though in Latin
it affects
Feminine gender,
-bra for *-frd^ *-d/trd (ch. iv.

114), e. g.
a
from
to
a
bore
tero,
;
terebra,
cribrum, sieve, from
gimlet, borer,
Latin
cerno, to sift.
&c. stands for -oso-
-drus, of honorus, clecorus, canorus, odorus,
74)
we have -ems in
Other examples of the RO-suffix.

with the weak grade (ch. iv.
17.
e.
g. severus, procerus.
Lat. pro-sper, stem pro-spero- for

51) of the root of spes (O. Ind.
*pro-spdro-,
Lat. vir (0. Ir. fer, Goth, vair, Engl. wer-wolf ; cf.
sphira-, O. SI. sporu)
0. Ind. vlra-, Lith. vyras)
Lat. tenebrae for *temes-rae (0. Ind. tamis-ram,
;
H. G. dinstar)
Lat.
Lat. caper (Gk. dw-pos, O. Engl. haefer)
;
Lat. ple-ms, gna-rus, in-teger, gldber for *gladhro- (cf. O. SI.
'
gladuku, smooth '), cerebrum for ^ceres-rum (cf. 0. Iiid. siras-, head '), mdtu-rus
(cf. penuria).
(On Fut. Part, in -turns, see ch. viii. 86.)
tamis-ra, 0.
mdcer (Gk. pax-pos)
Examples of I.-Eur.
18.
and
-tero-
Latin
-ero- in
(i)
attached to
Adjectives formed with this suffix from Nouns seem to have passed
into i-stems in Latin (cf.
34)
they have often a locative sense and correspond to Adjectives in -timus like maritimus, fmitimus e. g. camp-es-ter, silv-es-ter,
&c. which take -es- by the Analogy of Neuter ES-stems (cf. Gk. opta-rcpos, &c.)
Nouns.
eques-ter for *equit-tri-, pedester for *pedit-tri-
The
pdluster for *palud-tri-, tellus-ter.
of Nouns or Adjectives, especially in Vulgar or colloquial Latin

giovinastro, poetastro), derived from Nouns or Adjectives, implies
likeness, and is often used contemptuously in the sense of a poor imitation
of ; tagof,' e. g. pedttaster, of which Plautus uses the Diminutive in the sense
-aster
ending
(cf. Ital.
rag and bob-tail soldiery
'
in Mil. 54
at peditastelli quia erant, siui uiuerent,

Antoniaster (Cic. fragm. orat. pro Vareno, 10)
oleaster, wild olive, and similarly apiastrum, wild parsley, &c. flliaster, a stepson, mdtrastra, a stepmother,
;
patraster,
defects,
grey
(v.
tives
a stepfather
such as
1.
gravastellus
show
surdaster,
calvaster, daudaster,
;
-ast(r)lnus,
cf.
Gk.
e. g.
with other Adjectives indicating bodily

and the diminutive rdvastellus from rdvus,
-ypavs ?)
Derivative Adjec-
in Plaut. Epid. 620.
and
mediastinus
mediastrinus, oleastinus, JUiastinus.
(On these formations in -aster, see A. L. L. i. 390.)

Lat. supero- (O. Ind. upara-, Gk. vvcpos,
(a) Attached to Prepositions, &c.
Lat. inter-ior
0. Engl. ufer-ra with -ra for Goth, -iza), sup-er and sub-ter
:
(0. Ind. antara-,
Gk. tvrepov, the entrails, 0.
SI. jetro
'
Neut.,
exter (0. Ir. echtar), postero-, postn-die, contra, praeter (ch. ix.
words are
(3)
d-ter (Goth, hi-dre,
hither
Forming Pronouns: Lat.
'),
dex-ter
the liver')
2).
(Gk. 5et-Tfpos),
Lat.
Other locative
stn-is-ter.
Osc. potoro- (cf. O. Ind. katara-, Gk.

tterum, for another time, again, fromiYero-,
u-ter,
Goth, hvajar, Lith. katras)

other (O. Ind. itara-, 'other'). The suffix often expresses that a pair of persons
or things is spoken of, e. g. al-ter, the other (of a pair), but alius, another (of
many). The Possessives our/ your' take -tero- in Latin, nos-ter, ves-ter, and
iroTtpos,
'
'
Greek
jj/xe'-repos,
vê-repos,
19. I-Eur. -tro-.
W.
but -ero- in Teutonic,
Lat. ara-trum
arad(r) from aro (aratus)
(cf.
spectrum
e. g.
Goth, unsar. Germ, unser.
Gk. apo-rpov, Arm. aror, Ir. arathar,

rutrum from ruo
specio (spectus)
from
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
17-21.]
(rutus)
from
from
veretrum
tonOj tonitus
vereor (ceiitus) (so fulgetrum
-LO-, -LA-.
from
fulgeo
331
from
cf. tonitru
mulctrum, a milkpail, from mulgeo (muldus) rostrum

find -stro- in Lat. capistrum, a halter, from cdpio (or for *capit-
A. L. L.
We
rodo.
STEMS.
in)
i.
trum from caput?}, monstrum from woneo (cf. 0. H. G. gal-star Neut., a song,'
from galan, <to sing'), &c. The Dim. of monstrum is mostellum (ch. iv. 158).
l
20. I.-Eur. d-hro-. The Greek and 0. Ir. cognates of Lat. terebra show
a
the suffix -tro- (Gk. reperpov, 0. Ir. tarathar Neut.)
so 0. Ir. criathar,
sieve,' for *kreitron (cf. Lat. palpSbra and palpetra).
'
whence the name
-bra are dold-bra,
from
bella, late-bra, lit.
'a place for hiding,'
from
lacio,
to allure
Jld-brum from
flare,
doldre,
from lateo,
from KJ]\fca\
(cf. tcfjXr]-9pov
(originally a nickname) Doldverte-bra
from
vertere, pel-lece-bra
of Lat. -brum are
Examples
O. Lat. polubrum (quod Graeci xepvifiov, nos trullum vo*po-luo in the sense of ab-luo (cf. ch. ix.
12),
camus, Non. 544. 20 M.) from

delub)-um, ventila-brum
from
forms to the
-dhlo-, see
suffix
(On the
ventila-re.
possibility of referring all these

-bro-, -bra- also represent an
Latin
26).
original -s-ro-, -s-ra- (ch. iv.

152), e.g. tenebrae (O. Ind. tamisra-) from *temis,
*temus darkness (cf. temere), cerebrum (cf. 0. Ind. siras-, the head') and some
'
would explain
seen in Inf.
21.
for
terebra,
ter&re
from the Verbal Noun-stem
teres-
71).
-LO-, -LA-.
This
suffix in its various
forms was used
Nomina Agentis (Nouns and

denote an
to
&c. as *teres-ra,
Adjectives), and often came

as
a secondary suffix it was
while
instrument,
form Diminutives. Thus Engl. shovel, literally

an instrument with which one shoves/ meant originally the
'
Latin examples are
shover ; Engl. throstle, is a Diminutive.
specially used to
'
'
lego^ pendulus, hanging, from pendo,

a
bond, an instrument for binding/ from
pendeo, mnculum,
In Latin, since every
vincio, mensula^ a little table, from mensa.
short vowel in a syllable which had not the accent under the
legulus,
a picker, from
'
early
Accent
Law
(ch.
iii.
5)
became before
the
short
w-vowel, it is impossible to distinguish -elo- (e.g. Gk. i/eê'A??,

Lat. nebula), from -ulo- (e.g. Gk. iraxvXos, O. Ind. bahula-),
Further, owing to the tendency to insert a short u- vowel
&c.
between a consonant and

102),
suffix
it is
was
I to facilitate pronunciation (ch. ii.

not always possible to decide whether the original
-lo- or -elo-, -ulo-, &c.,
though in words
&c. (as contrasted with words like tremulus, &c.)
vowel intervened between the

the
LO- suffix.
The wave
like eosemplum,
it is
clear that no
final consonant of the root
and
Syncope which passed over the

these formations in Late and Vulgar
of
Latin language reduced all

Latin to -lus, -la-, -lum (e.g. aun-co-la, formed by adding the
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
332
Diminutive Suffix
classical
[Chap. V.
Diminutive Suffix
-la to the
Latin auricula, became
auricla,
-co-
oricla,
31), in
whence
Ital.
From
these
orecchia and orecchio, Fr. oreille, &c. (ch. iii.

13).
formations with the two Diminutive Suffixes -co-
and -lowe
must distinguish Neuter nouns formed by the suffix -tlo-,
denoting the instrument with which an action is performed, or
the place of
its
This took in Latin the form
performance.
-clum, or with parasitic vowel -culnm, e.g. velii-clum (ve/iiculnm),

that by which one is carried/ po-clum (poculwn), that out of
'
'
which one
'
the place where one

and
we
have
seen
ii.
down';
(ch.
154) that Plautus
makes
this
suffix
and
the Diminutive
generally
monosyllabic,
drinks,' cwbi-clum (culticulum},
lies
veMclum, periclum, but corculum, uxorcula.

Latin -lulum) had much the same function
-co-lo- dissyllabic, e.g.
The
suffix -dhlo- (in
as -tlo-, e.g. sta&ulum, 'a place for standing.'

The presence of
I in the stem of the word causes a dissimilation of -clum to
an
-crnm, -blum to -brum in ambuld-crum,
'
Beside Neuters in -bulum
(ch. iv.
84).
tives in -bills
a place for walking/ &c.

we have Passive Adjec-
with much the same sense as the Passive Adjectives

from ago,
',
in -Us, e.g. agt-bilis, that can or ought to be driven,

like agilis,
that can easily be driven,' nimble.
22. Adjectives formed by the LO-suflix.

Other examples of Adjectives
expressing the action of a Verb are Lat. bibulus from bibo, credulus from credo,
from tremo, garrulus from garrio. emmulus from emmeo, pdtulus from pdteo.
a passive sense they become I-stems in Latin, and indicate capacity,
<
suitability, &c., e.g. agilis (0. Ind. ajira-), easily driven/ nimble, from ago,
tremulus
With
to drive, docilis
is
from
from frango,
same sense to P. P.
from fissus, flexilis from flexus.

In Adjectives derived from Nouns,
Xos) from humus, herbttis from herba,
from
bibilis
doceo, frdgilis
often added with the
P. stems,
bibo.
This -li- suffix

from coctus,
e. g. coctUis
fissilis
Active Verbal Adjectives in

tense, e. g. zna-lu jesmi,
1
to know.'
23.
-lo-
I have known,'
lit.
'
am
acquainted,' from znati,
Nouns denoting the Agent
a potter, from fingo

tives of *tega, *rega
outlook,
we
find -U-, e.g. humilis (Gk. \0ap.a(Gk. 6/xaAos) (on these see
40).
are used in 0. SI. in the periphrastic perfect
&c.,
similis
and
tegula
from
cf. col-lega
tego
cf.
or the Instrument, e. g. Lat. figulus,

from rego (unless these are Diminu3) ; cdpulus from cdpio
specula, a place of
regula
from specio, to look torculum (with Adj.

cingulum and cingulus,
torcular), from torqueo
speculum, a looking-glass,
a wine-press (later
a girdle, from cingo jdculum, (i) a javelin, (2) a throw-net (rete iaculum, Plaut.
True. 35), and jaculus, a kind of snake, from jdcio
sella for *sed-la (Lac. Gk.
torcuhis),
eAAa) from sedeo
grallae
from
grddior
pllum for *pinslum, a pestle, from
pitiso.
22-25.]
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
STEMS.
-LO-, -LA-.
333
we have the terminations -slo-, -sla-, e. g. -alum for *ans-lum, from ansO. SI. ^ch-ati, to be fragrant '), a byform of the root an-, 'to breathe'
pdlus for *pax-lus (cf. Diminutive paxulus), from pango velum, a sail, for *vexlum
(cf. vexillum), from veho (cf. 0. SI. veslo, 'a rudder'). Nouns in -eta may be derived
Often
'
(cf.
from Neuter es-stems (e g. qutrela for *queres-la, sequela for *seques-la] or may have
had originally e (e. g. ci-dndela, a glow-worm, from candeo, cande-re, like Gk.
These nouns in -ela were in Late and Vulgar Latin
p-ifir]X6s from /ufie'o/tai).
confused with Diminutives and became querella, sequel! a, &c. (see ch. ii.
130"),
just as camelus became camellus, cuciilus became cucullus, anguila (A. L. L. viii. 442)
became anguilla. We have -rum for -lum by dissimilation of I in scalp -rum
from scalpo, &c.
24. Diminutives.
(Germ. Ferkel)
Lat. cistula
servolus
ftliolus
auxilla
llneola
from aula
(olio)
lactucula
from
for *aux-la ; porculus

lactuca
loquac-ulus
from asmus
gemellus from gemmi
lapillus from lapid-. Sometimes this termination is added
a second time, e. g. cistella from cistula ollula from olla porcellus from porculus
asettulus from asellus
Sometimes it is added to the'
gemellulus from gemellus.
Diminutive suffix- co-, e. g. olli-cu-la, serm-cu-lus. cor-cu-lum, legiun-cu-la, cdnl-cu-la
muellus (occasionally miserulus)
JêWa (Osc. Aderla-)
asellus
(cf.febri-culosus, m.etu-culosus'), api-cu-la, valle-cu-la, die-cu-la, corpus-cu-lum, arti-cu-lus.
The Diminutive retains the Gender of the simple Noun, unlike Greek Diminutives in -iovj which are Neuter (A. L. L. iv. 169^.
This suffix -ciilus gives to
Adjectives the sense of 'somewhat,' e. g. melius-culus. 'somewhat better,' and
other Comparatives like plus-culus, majus-culus, &c. also grandi-culus, dulci-culus,
With the Diminutive suffix -lo-, familiar or pet names are often
levl-culusj &c.
;
formed in I.-Eur. languages,
e. g. Gk.
pacru-Aoj, the familiar form of QpaavThe gradual weakening of the diminutive force of
these suffixes, which is to some extent accountable for the doubling of the
suffix iupuellula, cistella, &c. (cf. aneUus from anulus, Dim. of anus, a large ring,
e. g. Plaut. Men. 85 anum lima praeterunt) is seen in words like nncilla
(Fern,
of servus), which had ceased to be a Diminutive as early as the time of Plautus.
paxos, Goth. Vulfi-la.
always differs from adulescens in Plautus, but in Terence is hardly

Diminutives were a feature of Vulgar Latin, as we see from
the forms censured in the Probi Appendix juvencus non juvenclus' (197.
Adulescentulus
distinguishable.
'
non
'catellus' (198. 2), auris non 'oricla' (198.

cf. Ital.
'
fax non facia (198. 23) neptis non nepticla,' anus
orecchio, Fr. oi-eille)
29 K.)
catulus
'
'
non 'anucla' (199. i) mergus non 'mergulus' (199. 7). The ending -Sllus,
as we have seen, may denote a Diminutive of a LO-Diminutive, e.g. dnellus
(on -ell-, see ch. iv.
10), Dim. of dnulus, or the Diminutive of a Noun with a
RO-suffix, e.g. agellus from agro- for *agro-lo- (ch. iii.
15. 8), or of a Noun
with e in the penult, e.g.femella from femma (earlier -mena}.
Similarly we
;
have -illus for
-ul-lus
in
lapillus, -ella
for -en-la in
catella,
-ilium for
-m-lum in
villum,
-ullus (older -ollus) for -on-lus in homullus, -olla for -on-la in corolla, -ullus for
lus in ullus, -dllus for -dn-lus in Hispallus, &c. (cf. nltedula and mtella).
Neuters formed with the Suffix

mulierum ante frontem dividit
-un-
Lat. discerniculum (' acus quae

dictum a discernendo/ Non. 35.
29 M.) pidclum (pidculum), 'a means of appeasing the gods/ a victim, then
'a sin for which the gods must be appeased,' from pidre
receptdculum from
receptdre
pavicula, a mallet, from pdmre; sediculum from sedeo ('sediculum'
25.
capillos
-tlo-.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
334
sedile, Paul. Fest. 500.
bathing,' from lavare

26.
The
9 Th.)
from
operculum
operio (opertus)
We have -crum by dissimilation of
sepeUo (sepultus).
l-l
from
sepulcrum,
in Idvd-crum,
'
a place for
involucrum from involvo, &c.
-dhlo.
suffix
[Chap. V.
Lat. Idtlbulum, 'a place for hiding,'
from
lateo
an instrument for hunting,' a hunting-spear, from vetulri -yecâbulum (quod nunc vehiculum dicitur, Non. 54. 26 M.)
concilidbulum i^locus ubi
i
vendbulum,
We
in concilium convenitur, Paul. Fest. 27. 9 Th.) cf. fdbula, subula.

may
have -brum by dissimilation of l-l in Idvdbrum ; and it is possible that some, or
all, of the examples of Lat. -brum (I.-Eur. -dhro-), quoted in
20, had
;
Just as I-stem adjectives with

originally -bio- and not -bro-, e. g. po-lubrum.
a Passive sense like dgilis, ' easily driven,' are connected with Neuter Instrumentals in -lo- like dgiilum (' agolum,' pastorale baculum, quo pecudes aguntur,
Paul. Fest. 21. 37 Th.), so we have Passive I-stem Adjectives connected with
the suffix -dhlo-, e. g. amd-bilis, horri-bilis, fle-bilis, volu-bilis, mo-bilis, intelKgi-bilis,
&c. (cf. Umbr. fa9efele 'facibile'), sometimes derived from the P. P. P. stem,
e. g.
persudst-bilis, flexi-bills,
-bilis,
when an
precedes,
sensi-Wlis,
e. g. dlebris
and sometimes showing
(and
dtibttis), ancldbris.
-bris
For a
in -Mis in early authors (e.g. nobilis, known, Plaut. Pseud. 1112

nobilisfui cf. Pacuv. Trag. 221 R), seeHanssen in PhiloL xlvii. 274,
;
that they ever have a transitive sense,
(i)
e. g. incogitabilis,
'
(-ber)
list
for
of Adjs.
neque
who
illis
denies
thoughtless/ Plaut.
This I.-Eur. suffix was used to form

27. -TO-, -TA-.
Verbal Adjectives, which in Latin and some other languages
have the function of perfect participles passive, e. g. geni-tus from

the root gen-, while with the negative particle prefixed they
(
e.g. I.-Eur. *nmrto-,
incapable of
immortal
Gk.
Ind.
amfta-,
(O.
being killed/
apfipoTos) ; (2)
Ordinal Numbers,, and when added to the Comparative suffix
may
-is-
express
incapacity,
76), Superlatives; e.g. I.-Eur. *seksto- (O. Ind. Sas-thd-,
Goth, saihs-ta, an N-stem), Lat. sextus I.-Eur. *6kIn Latin this formation
is_to- (O. Ind. as-istha-, Gk. WKICTTOS).
but
of Superlatives is not found,
another, e. g. ociswmus (ch. vi.
Gk.
CK-TOS,
Abstract Nouns in -ta- are found beside Verbal Adjectives

54).
1
which
in -to-, e.g. Gk. -yeyer?}, birth, Goth, junda 'juventa'
,
occasionally pass into a concrete sense and become Masculine,

e. g. yeueYr]?, tTTTrorTjy (cf. Lat. eques from an earlier Abstract
Fern. *equitu
-tudo, &c.
?),
though the
67).
suffix in
I.-Eur. -to-
is
Latin was ousted by
often seen added to the
sense of 'period of youth' and 'a

of young men.' (Fleck. Jahrb.
tion
seems to be a formaon the analogy of senecta (sc.

aetas), for juventus is the form used
number
by the oldest writers, both in the
an inscription
Lat. juventa
-ids,
MEN-
Suppl. 1891.)
We have aetate iuenta on

(C. I. L.
i.
1202).
26-28.]
-TO-, -TA-.
335
suffix (
54) in neuter nouns, e.g. Lat. cogno -men-turn beside
cogno-men, such forms being apparently the Neuter of Participles
or Verbal Adjectives, formed not from verbs but from nouns,
e. g.
*cogno-mentus beside cogno-mindtus, like scelestus beside
scelerdtus (cf Engl.

.
where the
like
'
'
bare-footed/ black-headed/
added to the nouns foot/ head ').
compounds
'
participial suffix
is
'
The forms with -mentum
are, as a rule, those used by prose

-men
the
forms
with
writers,
being relegated to poetry. With
-menta
has
Plur.
been
-mentum,
compared Gk. Plur. -/zara, e.g.
(Lat. strdmenta), Kacrcrvâra

Participles in -tus.
28.
I.-Eur. verbal adjectives in
-to-,
(cf.
Lat.
The weak grade of the root is used with

and the suffix is accented, e. g. I.-Eur. *klu-t6-,
to hear,' [0. Ind. sruta-, Gk.

of, famous,' from the root kleu-,
which perhaps retains the old sense of 'heard,' 'loud' in such Homeric
phrases as K\vra prj\a, 0. Ir. cloth, from *cluto-, 0. H. G. Hlot-hari (from
O. H. G. hari, Germ. Heer), the name Lothair, corresponding to Greek
K\vTo-aTparas cf. Zend sruta-, O. Eng. hlud, 'loud'], Lat. in-dutus though
with the noun we often find the high-grade and the accent on the root, e. g.
Gk. Ko'nrj from Kfifiat, OITOS from elfu, &c. In Latin -sus replaced -tus when the
occaverbal stem ended d or t (ch. iv.
155), e. g. salsus from sallo for *saldo
sionally the P. P. P. took -sus when the Perfect Ind. had -si, e. g. tersus from
'heard, heard
'
tfAvro?,
(Perf. Indie, tersf), though the older spelling appears in the earlier155).
literature, e.g. tertus (Varro) (see ch. viii.
92 ; ch. iv.
Examples of Latin participles in -tus are stratus (from the root ster- r
tergeo
0. Ind. strta-,
mitsztas)
Gk. or paras, O.
SI. -stritu)
com-mentus from the root
mulctus
men-
from the root melg-
(Lith.
Ind. mata-, Gk. avro-âroy,

Lat. gnatus from the root gen-,
(0.
Goth, munds, Lith. miiitas, 0. SI. me_tu)

*gna- (0. Ind. jata-, Goth, -kunds) Lat. sutus for *syuto- (O. Ind. syuta-,
Gk. vo-KarTVTos, Lith. siutas, O. SI. Situ Lat. gnotus (0. Ind. jnata-, Gk. "yvcaTus,
;
0. Ir. gnath)
Lat. junctus (cf. O. Ind. yukta-, Gk. ^CI/KTOS). The different
treatment of the stem vowel before the suffix is exemplified by amcttus, domitus
;
first conj. Verbs

vietus, vegetus, exercitus (but ar(c)tus), momtus (but
dlitus and altus, cultus, factus (but jacetus]
Moneta), mulctus from second conj.
from
from third
conj.
see ch. viii.)
fmltus and
opertus
from fourth conj.
(On these Verb-stems
Words
like plldti,
barbatus (O. SI. bradatu), aurltus, cinctutus,

the existence of verbs, *pllare, *barbare, *aurire, &c.
Of similar
aegfo-tus,
argu-tus, inclu-tus, cltus
and
dtus.
armed with the pilum,'

course imply
do not of
Lat. llbertus beside

formations from Noun- or Adjective-stems examples are
and the words indicating
liberatus
onustus beside oneratus
scnectus from senex
a place planted with trees, &c., e. g. arbus-tum, salic-tum, the Neuters of arbustus,
:
'
provided with trees (arbustus sive silvestris, Columella), &c. (Arboretum is

a quasi-participle from *arboreo, arboresco, like acetum from acesco ; so nuc-etum,
The -cetum of ilicetum, &c. and the -ctum of salictum, &c.
pln-etum, Wic-etum.
were extended by false analogy, e. g. bucetum, mrectum). For a list of Adjec'
tives in
Collect,
-estus,
p. 217,
-ustus,
and
cf.
-utus
with this sense of 'provided with,' see Konsch,

me honore honestiorem semper
Plaut. Capt. 392: qui
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
336
[Chap. V.
Latin participles in -to- have often become nouns, e.g. tectum,

or Adjectives (ch. viii.
92), e.g. sanctus, latus, broad
from the root stel-, to extend/ O. SI. stelja.).
fecit et facit).
legatus, repulsa, senecta,
'
(for *stlatus,
Nouns in -ta (-sa,. The Fern, of the Participles repulsus,

used in an abstract sense repulsa, defeat at an election,'
29. Abstract
deprensus, &c. is
'
'
genus militaris animadversionis, castigatione major, ignominia

minor' (Paul. Fest. 50. 30 Th.). These Abstracts must be distinguished from
Concretes like torta (sc. placenta), a roll, expensa (sc. pecunia), a sum expended
(for a fuller list, see Konsch, Collect, p. 195). The Fern. Abstract *eguita, horsemanship,' seems to have been made a Masc. Concrete in 0. Lat. with the
sense also of <a horse'; thus Ennius (A. 249 M.), describing a charge of
deprensa,
'
cavalry and elephants, says
denique ui magna quadrupes eques atque elephanti

proiciunt sese,
a usage imitated
by Virgil
iii.
(G.
116)
equitem docuere sub armis

insultare solo et gressus glomerare superbos,
and commented on by Aulus Gellius

30.
(poet.)
cf.
Non. 106. 24 M.).
Neuters in -mentum. Other examples are augmentum beside augmen

funddmentum beside fundamen (poet.)
mtegumentum beside tegumen,
termentum and tnmentum beside
tegmen
cognomentum beside cognomen
argumentum, from arguo, a making clear/ a proof, then 'the subject of
;
tegimen,
terimen
(xviii.
'
a story, picture, &c./ e.g. Virg. A.
vii.
791
argumentum ingens
Prop.
iii. 9.
argumenta magis sunt Mentoris addita formae vesttmentum, from vestio

caementum for *caed-mentum (ch. iv.
161) from caedo ; jugmentum (et paries,
C.I.L. vi. 24710), and jugumentum (Cato) jumentum from juvo, according to
Augustine, Quaest. in Heptat. iii. 2 and v. 38 momentum beside momen (poet.)
from moveo. Numen, cnmen, culmen (cf. dMmeri), &c. have no byforms in -mentum
implementum, incrementum, monumentum,, &c. have no byforms in -men.
13
31.
'
angry/
-KO-, -KA-.
I.-Eur. -to-, the -y of Engl. 'stony/
&c., is rarely -ko-
(O. Ind. yuvasa-, O.
Ir.
(with palatal k), e.g. I.-Eur. ^yuwnkooac, W. ieuanc, Goth, juggs), Lat.
It is used as a primary
juvencus, but usually -ko- or -q-o-.
suffix, e.g. cascus (cf. cdnus for *casnus, Osc. casnar) fuscus (cf.
furvus for *fu*HU*), but mainly as a secondary suffix employed
in the formation of Adjectives from Adverbs, e. g. antlcus (of

place), antiquus (of time) from ante (cf. O. Ind. antika-), Nouns,
e. g. belfflcus, cimcus, and
Adjectives, e. g. O. Ind. nagnaka-,
c
naked,' beside nagna-, having often a diminutive significance,

is in Latin denoted
by -culus ( 24), the addition to -coot the other diminutive suffix -lo- (
21), e.g. nigncidus beside
which
31-33.]
-KO-, -KA-.
337
mger, ovicula (O. SI. ovica), [albicare and nigmcare are Verbs
(ch. viii.
33 (7)], (cf. homun-c-io
with the Diminutive KO-suffix
and liomun-cu-hiS) seneca, Non. 17.18 M., senecio and senwwlus), as

Gk. by -ICTKO- of TTCUÔ-KOS-, &c. We also find it preceded by
e.
i,
g. etpoou-tKo'j, Lat. Iiistrion-icus (without the vowel we should
have had tyiistriuncus), often -tico-, e. g. rns-ticus, kerbd-ticus,
in
errd-ticus after the
analogy of Participle-stems in -toGoth, mahteigs, mighty/ Lat. amicus, pudiciis
'
by
is
I, e.
g.
attested for mencticiis
by Plaut. End. 1305
see ch. iv.
28);
not ei
34)
by
Adjectives in -ako- had the sense of English

e.g. merdcus.
in
e.
-ish,
g. Lith. satdokas, sweetish/ and came in some
adjectives
a,
languages to acquire the force

'
saldaks,
sweeter,'
W.
'
of
Comparatives,
e.
g.
Lett,
fairer.'
glanach,
In Latin the -ko- and -q~o- suffixes seem often to have been
confused, e. g. antlcm and antiquus, tesca or tesqiia^ lit.
dry
places/ for *tersc-, from the root ters-, to dry (cf. torreo, Gk.
'
'
'
and, as in Greek, &c. there are often byforms of the

Consonantal declension, e. g. bllidx, &c. beside merdcus^ fetix, &c.
repo-o/^cu),
Greek
beside pudicus^ &c. like

5
For
and
TJ\L
(O. Ind.
/uapa
Ât/cos,
we have
-wins in aediU-cius triliuriicius,pamaryaka-j.

tmcius, aclventlcius, commenddtlcim , &c. ; for -dcus we have -dceus
-icus
anmdmdceiis, &c.
in herhdceus, galUndceus,
From
32. Adjectives with, the K6-suffix.
have
reti-procus,
while
(Ehein. Mus. xliii. 402)
adds the
procul
;
the adverbs
and
re-
pro-
we
lo- (li-) suffix to *prociis (0. SI. prokii)
postwus is the opposite of antlcus
pns-cus
(cf.
primus
for *pns-mus}.
From the numeral unus we have unicus (Goth, ainahs, O. SI.
From nouns patricus (cf.
inokii cf. 0. Ind. dvika-, Gk. Siaaos for *8/r t/cjo?).
hosticus, used in Plautus like hostilis (hostica manus, Capt. 246
patricius)
:
manus, Capt. 311) clvicus (beside clwlis). (Cf. Porph. ad Hor. C. ii. i. i
adtende autem non 'civile' sed civicum dixisse antiqua figura. illi enim
civica' et hostica,' deinde civilia et hostilia dicebant. denominationes
Other noticeable forms are
autem hae fere liberae sunt apud doctos).
lingittdca, verbenaca
caducus, manducus (cf. fuluc-ia from *fiducus, and pannucia)
hiulcus, petulcus from hiare and petere with the (diminutive ?) LO-suffix.
[For
hostilis
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
Nouns in
-uca, e. g. verruca, a wart, in 0. Lat. a hill (Cato ap. Gell

Quint, viii. 3. 48 and viii. 6. 14), from the root wers- of Lith. virszus,
the top,' 0. Ind. varsman, a height,' see Stolz, Beitrage, p. 6, who points out
the connexion of this ending with the ending -ugo, e. g. Verrugo, a Volscian
town in Latium.]
gloss has manubrium, quod rustici 'manicum' dicunt
list
iii.
7.
of
'
'
(manico- in Romance, e. g. Ital. manico, Span, mango, Fr.

Paul. Fest. qiiotes olentica 'mali odoris loca' (223. 4Th.).
(C, G. L. v. 115. 17)
manche)
33. Adjectives in -icius.
Denominatives
Z
(i.e.
derivatives from
Nouns
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
338
[Chap. V.
or Adjectives) have -i-, e. g. patriclus from pater, natalicius from ndtalis Derivafrom P. P. P. in -to (Vb. Nouns in -tio-, -ti-) have -I-, e.g. dediticius from
deditus, insiticius (cf. insitlvus} (also novicius).
(For a full list, see A. L. L.v. 415.)
;
tives
34. Suffixes
Declension).
ei
and
stems
i
(Nouns and Adjectives of third
In the declension of these stems i varies with
ending in
-I-.
oi (see ch. vi.).
4),
The I-stems
with I-stems
51),
are often confused with
and with YE- stems
IO51).
Examples of the primary suffix -i- are Lat. anguis (Lith. angis,
O. SI. azi, Arm. auj), and another I.-Eur. word for a snake,
*eghi- (O. Ind. ahi-, Zend azi-, Arm. iz, Gk e^ts).
Neuter I-stems in I.-Eur. (like Neuter R-stems, &c., see
56)
seem occasionally to show a heteroclite declension, a nasal
replacing the vowel in oblique cases, e. g. O. Ind. aksi, aksnas
t
'
Gen., the eye/ asthi, asthnas Gen., a bone,' which may have led
a
to
confusion of I- and N- stems in such words as I.-Eur.*aksi-,
an axle (Lat. axis, Lith. aszis, O. SI. osi but Gk. afcoy). As
'
'
a secondary suffix
sense,
adjectival
-i-
is
used in
in
especially
many languages
the formation
of
to give
an
Compound
Adjectives from Nouns, e.g. Lat. exsomnis from somnus, O. Ir.

essamin for *exomni-, from omun (*omno-), fear,' though we
often find in the early Latin literature the O-stem, e. g. mermus,
class, inermis (so Gaulish Exobnus, Exomnus for O. Ir. essamin).
'
In Latin the I-declension has been greatly extended; thus

consonantal stems of the third declension often take the i-stem
case-suffixes,
e.
ending in o or
I-stem,
e.
g. ped-i-bus, ferent-ium, &c.

ii
passes
g. similis
(Gk.
o/xaAoy), humllis
(I.-Eur. ^nau-, O. Ind. naus,
Gk.
and a stem-suffix
be an adjective, into an
readily, if it
(Gk.
vavs), brevis (cf.
\6afj.a\6s), ndvis
Gk.
f3pa\vs), levis
The Greek
O. Ind. raghus, Gk. e-Xaxys, Lith. lenguris).
loanword kilarus (tAapo?) is also hilaris by the time of Terence.
(cf.
Other examples of I-stems.
35.
trudo (root treud-, Goth. us->riutan,

'
trudu,
toil
'
')
Lat. rudis, unworked,
to be red'
Lat. fr-w&'sfrom
Lat. ensis(0. Ind. asi-)
to trouble,' Engl. thrust, threat, 0. SI.
rude, originally of metal, from the root
;
'
unworked metal,
ch. iv.
41)
jugis,
continual,
from jungo Lat. scobis from scabo Lat. mare (O. Ir. muir Neut.,
O. H. G. meri Neut., Germ. Meer Neut., Engl. mere).
for *mori,
reudh-,
(cf.
raudus,
36. Adjective I-stems
from O-stems.
Other examples are
0. Lat.
sublimus, e.g. Enn. Trag. 2 R. deum sublimas subices, Lucr. i. 340 sublimaque
caeli (see Munro's note) ; 0. Lat. sterilus, e.g. Lucr. ii. 845 sonitu sterila (cf.
Paul. Fest. 463. i Th. 'sterilam' sterilem). Greek avarrjp6^ had the same
tendency to the I-declension in Latin as Greek t'Aa/Joj, for Caper gives
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
34-40.]
STEMS.
-I-, -RI-, -LI-.
339
a caution against the form austeris (p. 108. 4 K.). Nonius (494. 26 M.) quotes
from Varro (Men. 391 B.). On 0. Lat. forctus, see ch. viii. 92.
The Noun ton-is from the root ters- (Gk. rfpaoâi cf. Lat. torreo for "torseo,
pronis
ch. viii.
23)
'hie torris'
.
recessit ut
'
was in 0. Lat. torrus (Non. 15. 22 M. Serv. ad Aen. xii. 298

ita nunc dicimus nam illud Ennii et Pacuvii penitus de TISU
;
hie torrus, hujus torri
an E-stem become an I-stem

ing, read
viii.
dicamus), but
by Lachmann in Lucretius
587).
On
37.
-NI-.
common
'
is
rather to be explained as
torres F., a burn-
The form
51).
(like sordes,
iii.
hilarus beside hilaris, see
917 (MSS. torret}

3
Neue, ii p. 149.
doubtful (A.
is
L. L.
varying with -eni-, -oni-, &c. is more

in those languages which have extended the use of the
This
P. P. P. in -no-
8)
suffix,
than in Latin.
Examples
are
Lat. ignis
dm
is
(cf. O. Ind. agni-, Lith. ugms R, O. SI. ogni M.), Lat.
in
Ind.
O.
Scand.
Lith.
sroni-,
hlaunn,
(O.
Adjectives
szTaunis).
-nis may have been originally NO-stems (
36), e.g. immdnis
from O. Lat. mdnus, good (with a bystem in -ni-, Mdnes, lit.

the good deities'') cf. Janis, a byform of Janus, in Carm. Sal.
c
(Tert. Apol. 10).
Other examples of Latin
38.
abann), Lat. amis for
39.
-MI-
is
Lat. vermis (O.
still
rarer suffix than -ni-.
H. G. wurm), a word the
I.-Eur. *q"rmi- (O. Ind.
kirmis) is not quite clear.

suhllmis were originally
489.
M.
Lat. amnis for *ab-nis
-nis.
(cf.
0. Ir.
*crisnis (cf. Lat. crista), panis for *pasni8 (cf. Lat. pastillus}.
gives
kfmi-, O.
Ir.
An
example is
which to
relation of
cruim,
W.
pryf, Lith.
Latin Adjectives in -mis like mermis,
thus Nonius
-MO-stems (cf
36)
some examples of sublimus from the older
.
literature (cf. Georges, Lex. Wortf.
40. -B1-, -LI-.

suffixes as -ro-, -lo-,
s.
v.).
These are not nearly so common I.-Eur.

e.
g. O. Lat. ocris, a hill (in Umbrian, &c.
used of the citadel) (Gk. oKpis, a point, CIK/H?, a hill; cf. O. Ind.
asri-, but also Gk. aicpos), Lat. tdlis qudlis (O. SI. toll Adv., kolT
t
Adv.
Gk.
but
-li- is
fairly frequent in the
Slavonic languages, where the P. P. P. in -lo- is much in vogue.
In Latin, Adjective -RO- and -LO- stems often show -ra, -Us, e.g.
;
cf.
rr/Xt-Ko?, 7n]At-/cos);
O. Lat. sdcres, used of animals for sacrifice (e.g. Plaut. End.

1308 stint domi agni et porci sacres) beside sacer (cf. Manes
beside O. Lat. manns, good), simzlis (Gk. o/uaXos), hunnlis (Gk.
And the use of -li- and -ri- for Adjectives derived
Xâ/xaXos).
from Nouns
is
very widely extended in Latin, far more widely

Z 2
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
340
g. mtdlis from vita, dldris

Greek Adj. Sav/nArj?, when
assumed the form dapsilis.
Dialectal
than in any other I.-Eur. language,

for *alalis(?)
from
borrowed by
Latin,
e.
ala, so that the
'
examples are Osc.
[Chap. V.
luisarifs,
while Osc. Fiuusasiais
'
*lusaribus,' Sab. Flusare
Florariis
'
has -asio- (Lat.
'
Florali/
-ario-,
4).
41. Other examples of Latin -li-, -ri-.

uter, a skin, for *ud-ri-, beside
Verbal Adjectives in -Us
uterus (O. Lat. uterum)
deer, sharp (cf. Gk. a/epos).
are, as we have seen ( 22), byforms with Passive sense of Active Verbal
;
'
-lus, e.g. agilis,

easily driven,' Ubttis, easily drunk (beside
sometimes
easily drinking,' inclined to drink), docilis (like dodbilis}
from the Perf. Part. Pass., e.g. ficKlis, fissttis, flexilis (and flexibilis],
i
Adjectives in
btbiilus,
formed
saxdtUis (Plaut. RucL 299), missilis.

ei, to judge from old inscriptions,
hdmdtilis
et
I.-Eur.
not
This
I,
-His
(proper to I-
and 10-stems)
as well as
The ending
e. g. C. I.
-alls
L.
i.
-Ills
61
of aedllis has
aidilis (cf. ib.
(proper to A-stems)
is
3i\
often
extended by analogy e.g. dnlUs (for *anulis) by analogy ofseriftis vernlUs is from
from ver from libra, a pound, we have librilis and librdlis from
from manu not *manulis, but manudlis (so dorsudlis from dorso-].
scurra, scurnlis
Examples of -elis a,Tcefidelis from fide-, crudelis (cf. fame-Hcus, contume-lia) as well
as patruelis and matruelis.
Like tribulis (from tribu-\ Idulis (from zdu-} is edulis.
From O-stems we have puerllis, vmlis, herilis, servttis, &c. anndlis, fdtdlis, &c.
from Cons. -stems capit-al-is, virgm-dlis, hosptt-dlis, juvendlis guidjuveriiUs, &c.
;
verna, verndlis
As
was the
I.-Eur. suffix of Verbal Adjectives,

especially of the Perfect Participle Passive, so -ti- was the suffix
of Verbal Nouns (Nomina Actionis), e. g. Gk. THOTOS and mo-m.
42. -TI-.
-to-
These nouns were of the feminine gender, had the weak form of
the root, and are accented sometimes on the suffix, and sometimes on the root, e. g. O. Ind. mati- and mati- for I.-Eur.
*mn-ti- (Lat. mens) from the root men-, to think.' In Latin, as
'
in Celtic,
we
find this suffix enlarged
compound
suffix,
by an EN-suffix,
e.
g. Lat.
-mitiu-, -mitin Ace., and this

which in Latin supplanted almost entirely the
mentio, Ace. mentionem, O.
Ir.
appears also in other languages, e. g. Goth. raj?jo (Lat.

The supratio), Gk. gwri^rj (cf. Lat. datio, Ace. dationem).
the
change
planting may be accounted for, wholly or partly, by
older
-ti-,
which the phonetic laws of the Latin language would produce

in the Tl-suffix, a change which would often make the suffix
From the root men-, the Verbal Noun *mntiunrecognizable.
became mens in Latin and from the root bher-, the Noun ^bhrtibecame fors, while from meto we have messis for *met-tis, from
the
wes-, vestis, from satidre, satids, &c., forms whose

similar
formation has been obscured past recognition.
root
common
41-44.]
-TI-.
341
explanation has been offered for the fact that in Teutonic also
the same suffix -ti- ceased to be a living suffix, namely that
under the working of the Teutonic phonetic laws it would
assume the various forms
-J?i,
-di, -ti, -si,
The
&c.
older suffix
remains in Adverbs like raptim^furtim^ &c. (see ch. ix.

4).
Occasionally the feminine abstract passed into a concrete
noun and might change

1
a guest,' O.
SI. gosti)
Lat. agncola, a
its
may
meant
field-tiller,
The secondary
Thus Lat. hostis (Goth, gasts,

have been originally abstract, just as
gender.
'
originally
suffix -tati- (or -tat-),
field-tillage
2).
used to form feminine
Abstract Nouns, derived from Adjectives and Nouns, and the

similar suffix -tuti- (or -tut-) exhibit this suffix -ti- added to the
suffixes -ta- and -tu-, e.g. Lat. juventds beside juventa (see
27).
The suffix -tati- (-tat-) is found in O. Ind., Greek, and Latin, while
Celtic, and Teutonic, e. g. Lat.
tinitds
Lat.
z/ecmjs),
(O. Ir. oentu), Lat. juventus
in
In
addition
to -tuti- (-tut-), which is
Ir.
Latin,
(O.
oitiu).
much less in use than -tati- (-tat-), we find a form augmented
-tuti- (-tut-) is
found in Latin,
nomtas (Gk.
by an
N-suffix, -ttido,
liilantiido
(so
Gen.
-tudinis,
e.
g.
servUudo beside
servittis,
which (with
in Plaut., not
Mlaritas), bedtitudo,
was a coinage of Cicero (Quint, viii. 3. 32).

Other examples of the suffix -tiin Latin. Latin veclis, a lever (cf.
to plait, weave
Lat. messis (cf.
vectio), from v8ho Lat. mtis from the root wei-,
Lat. fors (0. Ind. bhrti-, 0. Ir. brith, Goth. ga-baurf>s,
messio) from meto
fate ') from fero
Lat. mens (O. Ind.
0. H. G. giburt, 0. Engl. gebyrd,
mati- and mati-, Goth, gamunds, ana-minds, Lith. at-mintis, O. 81.
to think
Lat. gens, from gigno
(cf. mentio)
pam^ti) from the root men-,
beatitas)
43.
'
'
'
'
for *gnatio)
Lat. mors (0. Ind. mrti-, O. Lith. mirtis, 0. SI.
Lat. dos (0. Ind, dfiti-, Lith. dutis, 0. SI. dati)
su-mriti) from morior
from root do- (cf. datio, Gk. Scarivr)} so Lat. cos beside cdtus (ch. iv. 54) Lat. ars
(cf.
natio
(O. Ind. rti- means 'attack ') ; Lat. pars (cf. portio) ; Lat. grates beside grains ;
Lat. quies beside quietus (inquies for inquietus is due to the tendency to turn
Compound Adjectives
meant
the raiment
44.
Lat. vestis from the root wes-, to clothe,'

clothing,' the act of arraying oneself, then
into I-stems)
originally, like our
word
'
'
itself.
Examples of Lat.
-tion-.
Lat. msio
(cf.
0. Ind. vitti-, O. SI. -visti
from the root weid-, 'to see, know' Lat. -ventio (cf. 0. Ind. gati-,
Gk. 0dffts, O. H. G. cunft, Lith. -gimtis) from the root gSem-, 'to come' Lat.
to throw,
satio (cf. Gk. dv-cffis, Goth, -sefs, seed,' Lith. s6ti) from the root se-,
throw seed
Lat. con-ditto foi-*con-datio (cf. 0. Ind. -hiti-, Gk. Oeois, Goth, -deps,
'a deed,' 0. SI. -dgti) from the root dhe-, 'to put, place '; Lat. dd-eptio for *ad-aptio
and
v&sti)
'
'
'
(cf.
0. Ind. apti-) beside aptus Lat. ex-pletio (cf. 0. Ind. prati-, Gk. tr\7](ns\
'
Lat. notio for *gnotio (cf. 0. Ind. -jnati-, the act of knowing,'
beside ex-pletus
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
342
[Chap. V.
an acquaintance/ Gk. yvwais, O. H. G. ur-chnat, 0. SI. po-znati, Goth.

ga-kun)>s, ga-kunds, Germ. Kunst, O. SI. z^ti, 'son-in-law') beside (g}notus; Lat.
dictio (cf. 0. Ind. diSti-, Gk. Seffts, 0. H. G. -ziht) from the root deikLat.
'
jnati-,
O. Ind. sthiti-, Gk. ardats, 0. H. G. stat, 0. SI. -stati) from

Lat. in-tentio (cf. 0. Ind. tati-, Gk. raais) from the root ten-, ' to stretch'
stdtio
cf.
junctio (cf. O. Ind. yukti-,
stare
;
Lat.
Gk. &vis, Lith. junkti) fromjungo.
45. Adjectival -ti- for -to- in Latin. The same tendency to turn O-stem
Adjectives into I-stems, which we have seen in similis (Gk. oâAos), humilis
(Gk. x^
/-"1
appears in an adjective like
5 )?
horctum
Fest. 73. 9 Th.
from the root dhergh-,

older spelling
forctis
'
et
fortis,
in 0. Lat. forctus (Paul.
forctum pro bono dicebant), originally a P.
to establish
'
occurs in the clause of the
P. P.
The
XII Tables quoted by Festus
(0. Ind. drdha-,
'
stablished, firm
').
(524. 15 Th.), which provided: ut idem juris esset Sanatibus quod Forctibus,
the Sanates being allies who had revolted but had returned to their allegiance,
quasi sanata mente,' the Forctes being those who had never broken faith [cf.
Paul. Fest. 59. 26 Th. forctis (MSS. forctes), frugi et bonus, sive validus]. The
'
word
shows a similar transference to the I-declension of the P. P.

and throws light on the termination, -as 0. Lat. -atis (see ch. iii.
which indicates the country or the party to which one belongs, e. g.
Sanates
sanare,
P. of
16),
optl-
mates, infimatis (Plaut. Stick. 493), Arpinates.
46. Other examples of Lat. -tat(i)-, -tut(i)-, -tudin-. The tendency of

the I-stems to encroach on the Consonant-stems in Latin (mentioned above,
34) makes it difficult to decide when -tat-, -tut-, and when -tati-, -tuti-
were the
e. g.
'
e. g. Gen. PI. cwitatum and civitatium.

In 0. Ind. -tatcompleteness ') is rarer than -tati- (e. g. sarvatati-), while in
is found.
Other Latin examples of -ids (see A. L. L: viii. 321)
suffixes used,
'
sarvatat-,
Greek only
-tat-
commumtas (Goth, garnaindujjs), bomtas from bonus,

from em's, ubertas from uber, facultas and fadlitas from
fdcilis, voluptas from volup(e), tempestas from tempus (cf. temperi), voluntas from
volens.
Examples of -tus senectus from senex, virtus from vir 0. Lat. tempestus
(Varro L. L. vii. 51 libri augurum pro tempestate
tempestutem dicunt
supremum augurii tempus). Examples of -tudo altitudo from altus, latitudo
from latus, solUcUudo from sollicztus.
are scaevitas (Gk.
libertas
from
atcaioTrjs),
clmtas
liber,
'
'
Suffixes ending in -u (Nouns of fourth Decl.).

In the declension of these stems ii varies with eu and
47.
-IT-.
ou
(see ch.
I.-E^r. Adjectives in -u- usually show the weak

root, and are accented on the suffix, e.g. *pltu-,
vi.).
form of the
'
(O. Ind. prthu-, Gk. vXaTvs, Gaul. litu-).

They formed
f
their Nom. Sing. Fern, in -wi; e. g. *swadu-, sweet/ with Norn.
'
broad
Sg. Masc. *swadus (O. Ind. svadus, Gk. fjbvs), Nom. Sg. Fern.
*swadwi (O. Ind. svadvi). In Latin these Adjectives, aided by
the analogy of the Fern., have followed the tendency of O-stem
Adjectives, and have passed into the I-declension (as in Teutonic
*t e nu- thin became Jmnni- by influence of the fem. *t enwi) thus
;
'
sudvis for *9vdfai9t tenuis
(O. Ind. tanu-,
Gk.
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
45-49.]
O.
SI. tinii-ku), levis

(cf.
STEMS.
-U-.
343
O. Ind. raghu-, Gk. ^-Aa X ^, O.
ligu-ku), brevis
(Gk. /3pax^y), gravis (O. Ind. guru-,
Goth, kaurus).
Of nouns with the
Gk.
SI.
fiapvs,
U-suffix examples are I.-Eur.

Goth,
faihu
Ind.
N., 'property,' O. H. G. fihu,
*pelu- (O.
pasu- M.,
O. Engl. feoh, Germ. Vieh, Engl. fee), Lat. pecu and pecus ;
Lat. locus (O. Ir. loch, a Neuter U-stem) with the rarer NUThe -ru- of Gk.
suffix, Lat. cornu and cornus, manus, plnus.
baKpv is augmented by the suffix -main Lat. dacruma, lacruma.
;
The Romance languages show us that U-stems had come in

Vulg. Lat. to be merged in the O-declension ; and even as early
as Plautus Noun-stems in -u retained little of a distinctive
declension in ordinary speech.
-TU-. As we have seen -ti- used to
form feminine Verbal
Nouns (Nomina
Actionis), connected with the P. P. P. in -to-,

-tuwas
used for masc. nouns of the same kind, somesimilarly
times with accent on the root (strong grade), sometimes with
weak grade
of root
and the root unaccented,
itva,
from the I.-Eur. root
'
ei-,
e.g.
O. Ind. etum but
The Latin
to go.'
first
Supine
the Accusative of a TU-stem, used with a verb of motion, e. g.

msum it (cf. O. Ind. vettum eti, O. SI. videtu ideti), and the
is
is another case
88) of a similar stem.
(ch. viii.
Occasionally these Abstract Verbal Nouns become concrete, e. g.
In Greek (they are mostly conLat. magutratw, a magistrate.
fined to the Ionic dialect) they are feminine, e.g. dprvs, a fitting,
second Supine
a connexion (Lat. artus, M., a limb) (cf. O. Lat. metus F.).

48. Other examples of U-stems in Latin. Lat. genu (cf. 0. Ind. janu, N.
Gk. yovv N., Goth, kniu N.) veru (O. Ir. Mr, a Neut. u-Stem, W. ber).
;
49. Interchange of IT- with O-stems. This interchange is found also

in Uinbro-Osc. Thus Osc. senateis shows the same Gen. Sg. suffix as an
0-stem (e.g. sakarakleis 'sacraculi'), Umbr. maronato 'magistratu/ the 0-stem

In Plautus the U-stems appear mostly in the Nom. Ace. Abl. Sg., and
so are hardly to be distinguished from O-stems the Dat. Sg. is usually in -ui
Abl.
but the Gen. Sg. is normally in -i (ch. vi.

in the Plural
21)
instances are comparatively seldom and almost only in the Nom. Ace. and
Abl. the only certain instance of a Gen. PI. is mille passum. On the S. C.
Bacch. of 1 86 B. c. we have Gen. Sg. senatuos, but at the end of the same
(ch. vi.
27),
century senati (C.I. L. i. 199, 200, 547), and Quintilian (i. 6. 27) states that it
impossible to say whether senati or senatus is the Genitive form. Nura for
nurus, socra for socrus, forms censured in the Probi Appendix (198. 34 and
nurua,
199. i K.) occur on late inscriptions (nura, C. I. L. viii. 2604. 4293, &c.
is
v.
2452
3895,
vii.
socra,
ii.
2906, 3994 ; xiv. 526, &c. ; socera, iii.

worn, socera or socra are the prototypes of ItaL nuora,
530, 2936
229, &c.)
and
iii.
655
viii.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
344
[Chap. V.
On Greek inscriptions the only fourth

suocera, Span, nuera, suegra, &c.
Decl. Nouns found are Idus, tribus, and the forms used are Nom. PI. eiSot (iSot),
Gen. PI.
elSvcav
Eckinger,
p. 134).
Domus
(second cent.
B. c.,
but later fidow) Abl. Sg.
rpifiov
declined only according to the second Decl. in Plautus and
is
Sulla (see Langen, Anal. Plant, ii. p. 5). Quintilian

about whose declension there might be doubt.
(i.6.
(see
till
mentions it as a word
5")
We find in the older writers
humu
(Varro, Men. 422, 531 B.
the gender of humus
is
Masc. in O.Lat., see
(fourth Decl., Georges s. v.), sonus (fourth Decl.,

in a quotation from a Law of Numa (ap. Fest. 212. 17 M.)
s.
v.), lectus
Georges s. v.), and

occurs the form Jdnui Dat. Sg. Janui Quirino agnum marem caedito. Priscian,
discussing the interchange of second and fourth Decl. forms (i. p. 256 H.),
mentions the variants fastos and fasius in Hor. C. iii. 17. 4, cibus Gen. Sg.
arcus is Fern, in 0. Lat.),
(doubtful), arci Gen. Sg. (Cic. Deor. Nat. iii. 20. 51
as well as the parallel forms specus and specum, penus and penum, flco and
For statistics of the O- and U-declension of such words see Neue, i 2
ficu, &c.
:
Names
pp. 509 sqq.
(Varro L. L.
ix.
80
of trees like laurus, fagus, &c.
show
this uncertainty
dicunt cupressus, alii cupressi, item de ficis platanis

an uncertainty perhaps due to the rarity of fern. O-
alii
et plerisque arboribus),
stems
(e. g.
50.
fagus,
Gk.
in I.-Eur. (see ch.
(prjyos F.)
Other examples of -tu-stems.
vi.
Lat. esus
i.
from
p. 369).
edo (0. Ind. attu-,
Lith. estu, O. SI. jastu) ; Lat. vitus, the felly of a wheel (Gk. fn/s F.) Lat.
actus, (i) a driving, (2) a road for driving (Paul. Fest. 13. 17 Th. iter inter
vicinos quattuor pedum latum), (3) the space over which something is driven,
;
a measure of land, like our

plough -gate,' (Plin. xviii. 9 in quo boves
agerentur cum aratro uno impetu justo) ; Lat. fetus, a brood (cf. Gk. rpo<prj,
'
e. g.
Soph.
0. T. i)
O.Lat. metus
F., e. g.
Enn. A. 526 M. nee metus ulla tenet.
51. The Suffixes -YE- (Nouns of fifth Decl.) and -I-. The
Stems in -E. As the feminines of O-stems were formed with
the suffix -a- ( 2), so the feminines of other stems appear with
the suffix -ye-, e.g. Lat. temperies from the ES-stem tem_pus,or
-i-, e. g. O. Ind. datri, fern, of datar- (in Latin with c added, e.g.
datri-no,
stem datnc-
cf
Gk.
avXrjrpib-
with added dental and
or -ya-, e. g. Lat. temperia (cf. Gk. a'Aêta for *aAr70eo-i),

*
far these differences are due to
ya, boTeipa for
8orep-â).
a variation of -ye- with -T-, as in the Optative, e. g. Lat. sies, sltis
short
How
55), or to a confusion of I-stems (thus O. Ind. napti-,

Lat. neptis, may be an I-stem corresponding to the IJ-stem, O. Ind.
svasru-, Lat. socrus, O. SI. svekry), has not yet been satisfactorily
(ch. viii.
determined.
It
is
possible that the e-vowel of Latin
and the
Balto-Slavic languages (e.g. Lith. zem-e- for *zem-ie-, 'land,'

O. SI. zem(l)-ja- for *zem(l)je-, whence the name Nova Zembla,
connected with Lat. humus and Gk. \0&v)
may
be a modification
50,51.]
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
STEMS.
-YE-,
-I-.
345
of an original a under the influence of the preceding y-sound (cf.

Vulg. Lat. -Jenuarius for Jdnuarius, ch. ii.
3), so that O. Lat.
keriem Ace., a
Junonis (Gell.
word occurring
in the liturgical formula heriem
will exactly correspond to Osc.

xiii. 23.
2),
heriam
[on an execration-tablet, Zvet. I. I. I. 129. I ; the i (not ii) of

the Oscan word probably indicates a y-sound (ch. iv. 63)] Verbal
Nouns with -ye- are a feature of Latin, e. g. pro-genies, rabies,
.
and permities
scabies, permcies,
[in fades, species the
(y) appears
also in the Pres.

stem].
Other examples of these suffixes are: of U-stems, O. Ind. svadvi,

Gk. ^8eta for *o-/r d8e/rya (cf. Lat. mavis M. and F., 47), fern, of
I.-Eur. *swadu-
of N-stems, O. Ind. yum, fern, of yuvan-,

;
Plautine
iuuenix, Mil. 304 points to Lat. junix being
young (the
rather a contraction of a stem *"yuwem- than a direct develop'
'
ment
stem yfmi-), O. Ind. rajiii (mod. Ranee), fern, of

rajan-, a king ; of NT-stems, O. Ind. bharantl, fern, of the Pres.
of the
'
Part, bharant- (Gk. Qepovo-a for *(/>eporr//a
Lat. praesentia,
cf.
&c.).
Other fifth Decl. stems are

Gen. from the root
suffixless, e.g. re-s
(O.Ind. ra-s. ray-as
from a stem d(i)yew47) ;

a
of
Ind.
Nom.
dyaus
(O.
byform
Sg.),
d(i)yew-, sky, day (ch. iv.
Some
seem
E-sumx as is seen in
to
have
the
same
Verbal
48).
3
rei- (ch. iv.
dies
'
'
verbs like cale-facio, cande-facio [ch.
viii.
33 (9)], e. g.fdm-e-s
Gk.
for
from
which
is
(cf.
yaiva
t-\av-T]-v
really a fifth
âjuô)),
Decl. noun like/^r/- e-s (cf Gk. t-TriO-rj-v). Another noun declined
.
according to the fifth Decl. is sordes, Abl. sorde, Lucr. vi. 1271,
Gen. PI. sordernm, Plaut. Poen. 314 (cf. sordeo). So from *oleo,
to grow, proles for *pro-oles, sub-oles, ind-oles
(cf ol(e)-facio from
oleo, to smell); from luo lues, from struo strues from ruo rues
.
['rues' ruina, C. G. L.
iv.
281. 5;
cf.
lue rue,
luem ruem'
(?)
on the Carmen Arvale].

labe-facio is
vowel
is
spes
(cf.
Against the association of lobes with

the different quantity of the root-vowel.
long
seen also in moles (moles-tus),
may be
of similar formation
he extends himis used by Plautus
O. Ind. sphayate,
self,
increases');
it
'
secies
(sedeo),
treats it as an
potis sunt
(cf.
variants spes
Nom.
(Nom.
Ace. PI.
(spes).
But Ennius
S-stem in Ann. 448 M.
spero, si speres
only in Nom. Ace. Abl. Sg. and in
PI.)
amb-dges (ago),
quicquam prodesse
119 M.).
With the
and speres, compare

and vires.
vis
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
346
contdges
(tango),
The cognates
[Chap. V.
propdges and compdges (pango), rupes (rumpo).

Gk. eos, vtyos have suggested the refer-
moles-tus,
ence of moles, sedes, nudes (though the u is difficult to explain) to

ES-stems ( 71), with the same -es that we see in Gk. dAj/d???
Dor. \a6os (cf. e\adov}. But perhaps a better exof

is to
sedes
piation
regard it as a Plural of an I-stem sedis, used
as a Singular (cf. O. Ind. vayas, ' a bird,' properly c birds/ and for
the long vowel Gk. JJLTJVLS, &c.) ; for a good many of these nouns
from
\rj6os,
in -es were
more used
bages (O. Ind. aji-,
'
in the Plural than the Singular, e. g. am'

contest,' Ir. ag, contest '), aedes, vepres, and
byforms of the Nom. Sg. occur with -is,

880 (cf. nubs, Liv. Andr.), saeps, Cic.
vdtis (cf.
O.
Ir. faith for
e.
g. nubis, Plaut. Merc.
(cf.
prae-saepe Neut.),
clddis, aedis (C. I. L.
i.
*wati-),
to
206. 30), caedis, molis, sedis.
of
them
poetical
belong
Many
diction ; e. g. neither Plautus nor Terence use sedes (the usual
word for a seat being solium or sella), rupes, tabes, caedes, &c. ;
ve/iis,
and they must have been liable on that account to confusion of

Number. A certain amount again of Nouns in -es are fern. 1
names of animals, e. g. canes (F., beside cams M., in O. Lat.), feles,
The last two, perhaps all,
meles, vulpes (cf. vulpecula), palumbes.
are dialectal, so that this -es
-eis,
a byform of the
Nom.
be the dialectal expression of

Plebes has
Sg. suffix of I-stems.
may
it is more persistently
than any of the
pkbeius),
(cf.
often the only Singular case found in use
been called an ES-stem like v\TJ6os, but

declined
others,
after
the fifth Decl.
whose Abl.
is
(e. g. ambage, vepre, Ovid, &c.) ; pubes (cf puber-tas, im-puber-es

Nom. PI.) has a better claim, although the Abl. jpube, Plaut.
Pseud. 1 26, would have to be explained as due to a false analogy
.
of the
Nom.
Sg., such as has produced requie Abl., requiem Ace.
from reqmes, -etis.

The declension of a good many of these Nouns with Nom. Sg.
Plautus makes
in -es wavers between the third and fifth Decl.
the Gen. PI. of sordes sorderum (Poen. 314), like rerum, but we
find sordium in late Lat.
Cicero (Top. vii. 30) says that specierum,
speciebus are impossible
Priscian
adip- F.
;i.
pp. 168. 15.
implies a
Nom.
Sg.
forms (nolim enim, ne
169, 9,
aclipes.
and
321.
si
Latine quidem
19 H.) seems to think that
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
52, 53.]
'
STEMS.
-YE-,
-I-.
347
'
'
specierum et speciebus dicere), and so prefers

to
Yet speciespecies as a translation of the Greek eiôs.
forma
rum and speciebus are common in late authors, e. g. Apuleius, and
dici
possit,
367; 23 H.) quotes facierum from a speech of Cato.

Quintilian (i. 6. 26) expresses the doubt felt about the declension
Priscian
(i.
of progenies
and
plurali spes
spes
facie
fc
quid progenies genetivo singular!, quid

(For statistics of fifth Decl. forms, see
And the use of -ies itself in the Nom. Sing.
Neue, i pp. 370 sqq.)

seems to have been a matter of gradual extension. Plautus has
fades, pertmties, mdteries (but materiam on the Sententia Minu.
199), segmties, vast/ities, and possibly

caesaries, inluvies, intemperies, rabies (but eff%gia t &c.), to which
ciorum of 117
B.
Terence adds
molttties,
C.
c.,
I.
L.
i.
Lucretius notUies, spurclties, &c.
These
ye-forms are generally confined to the Nom. Ace. Sg., while in

other cases ya-forms are preferred, e.g. intemperiae Nom. PI.,
materiae Dat. Sg., luxuriae Dat. Sg., mollitiis Abl. PI., in Abl.
Still Plautus
Sg. darbarid, Poen. 598, mollitid, Vidul. 35.
adheres to the fifth Decl. type for fades (Nom. Gen. Ace. Abl.
Sg.), and apparently acies (Ace. Abl. Sg.), permities (Nom. Ace.
Abl. Sg.), species (Ace. Abl. Sg.), though he does not use these
words in the Plural. Pliny (ap. Charis. p. 118.15 K.) allowed plamties,
1
luxuries, mollities,
because the Plural
but not amidties (amicitiem, Lucr. v. 1019),

amicitiaef while Charisius (p. 57. 3 K.)
is
confines cdmties to poetry,
form.
(For
fuller
and makes
statistics,
found also in Umbr.,
e.
canitia the proper prose-
see Neue.)
g. uhtretie
The
-tie-stems
are
'
'
auctoritate/ kvestretie,
in
the quaestorship/
Other examples of Latin Ferns, in
52.
-ic,
-i,
&c.
Latin comix
(cf.
Gk.
genetnx (0, Lat. janitrl, Gk. yevtretpa); from mereor comes meretnx, but
medeor the name of the deity Meditnna, whose festival, the MeditrinaJia,
Kopuvrf)
from
mentioned by Varro (L. L. vi. 21) and Paul. Test. (88. 36 Th.) in connexion
with the curious Roman custom of hallowing the first taste of new wine
with the words novum vetus vinum bibo novo veteri morbo medeor
canicula (cf. 0. Ind. iuni)
davis, -im Ace., -I Abl. (cf. Gk. K\r}is, stem
is
and -i-. Adsculus, a small pickaxe (there was a Roman familyValerius Acisculus), has been referred (with supposed 1} to acies (Rhein.
Mus. 1891, p. 236)
the Probi Appendix (p. 198. 12 K.) censures a large
number of forms in -is beside forms in -es, e. g. vatis beside vates, and among
53. -ye-
name
them/ac'j's for fades
(cf.
facitergium Isid. beside facietergium Greg. Tur.).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

Suffixes
54.
-EN-,
-YEN-,
stems in -o-
in
ending
-WEN-,
-yo-
(-e-),
-n
(Nouns
-MEN-.
(-ye-),
[Chap. V.
-wo- (-we-)
Decl.).
Mase.
4,
2>
find masc. stems in -en- (-on-), -yen- (-yon-),
The
third
I.-Eur.
of
Beside
we
5),
-wen- (-won-).
between the two seems to be that the O-stem
relation
the Adjective, but becomes an N-stem when

e.g. Lat. multi-Ulms Adj., but Mho Subst.
is
a Substantive,
An
adjective
denote one individual, in other words

which becomes definite from indefinite, takes this suffix, e.g.
which
restricted
is
to
Lat. rufus, red, but Rufo,
'
the
Red 3
(cf
Gk. or pa/36 s and Srpa-
which has been more consistently carried

(3c*)v)
out in the Teutonic languages than in any other, is still seen in
;
and
this process,
'
the
German weak
PL
indef. (strong decl.), die rothen
'
(Goth, raudai and
declension
of the Adjective,
raudans).
]?ai
Nom. PL
g. rothe
e.
def.
(weak
Nom.
decl.)
This early connexion between

an N-stem in a Compound is
O- and N-stems explains why

often replaced by an O-stem, e. g. Gk. aKjuo'-tferoz;, stithy, compounded of aK/xwy and rfttyjiu, and why an N-stem in one language often corresponds to an O-stem in another, e.g. Gk.
aevom (also explained as *aiwon), Goth, ga-juk-a

to Lat. con-jug-us (O-stem), or in the same language,
ai(F)u>v to Lat.
(N-stem)
e. ff.
o
Lat. lanio to Lat. lanius, incubo to incubus.

*
In the declen-
Masc. N-stems, n varies with en, on, en, on, &c.,

also
with
in, and wen also with un.
They are sometimes
yen
transferred by the addition of -o- or -a- into the O- and Asion of these
declension,
(
13).
e.
beside termo
g. Lat. epulonus beside epulo, terminus
Neuters in -n are connected with neuters in
-r, &c.,
the
n apparently being proper
to the Oblique Cases, e. g. Lat./mw,

They are therefore better considered in the
Gen.feminis ( 56).
paragraph which deals with the R-suffix
(56).
Neuters in -men are Verbal Nouns (Nomina Actionis), and
are used in various languages as Infinitives (like -sen-, e.g.
O. Ind. nesani from m-),
fjLtv-ai
(perhaps Lat. 2
Infinitive
e.
g. O. Ind. vid-man-e, Horn.
PL Imper.
Pass.,
form with Imperative sense
e.
g. legimmi,
see ch. viii.
is
Gk. t-
a similar
81).
They
have usually the E-grade of root, e. g. teg-men, but the Latin law
of Syncope seldom allows us to decide when there was a connecting vowel,
when an
preceded, &c.
(cf,
regimen, integumen-tum ,
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
54-56.1
STEMS.
-N-, -R-.
349
jugmen-tum and jugumen-tum^ augmen-tum, sumeu from sugo, and

see ch. iv.
116 on agmen and exdmen). Their byforms with
-mentmn, in Latin, e. g. alftmentum, have been mentioned in
and the extension of MEN-stems by the YO-, YA- suffixes,
alimonia, alimonium, in
30,
e.
g.
4.
Fern. Verbal Abstracts in -yen-, -tyen- (-tien-) in
Lat v
Celt.,
usu-capw, captio have become fern, by the

analogy of other abstract nouns.
They sometimes appear as
A-stems with the ending -ma, -tma, e. g. Patina, the goddess
e.
Teut.,
g.
Lat.
worshipped when a child

'
Statina,
ruina
(cf.
first drank
(Non. 108. 15 M..) horn potto,
statuendi infantis/ offwina (opi-fficina Plaut.), rapina,
8).
Gen. lienis shows -en, and pecten,

but the usual form is -o in the
Nom. Sg., -on- or -m- (with i for older 6 ore) in the oblique cases, e.g. edd,
Gen. edonis from the verbal root ed-, to eat,' homo, Gen. hommis from the nounstem hwno~, the ground. The Fern, cciro, Gen. carnis, is exceptional in reducing
the stem-suffix in the oblique cases to n. In Umbr.-Osc. the word has the
same declension and gender, but retains the older sense of a part/ a 'share/
e. g. Osc. maimas carneis senateis tanginud, which would be in Latin,
maximae
and originally the word seems to have been
partis senatus sententia
a Verbal Abstract (Nomen Actionis), the act of cutting or dividing/ whence
the feminine gender. (On the variation of gender in cardo, margo, cupldo, grando,
2
Abstracts in -go, like ongo, are fem., and
uligo, farrago, see Neue, i
p. 654
Nouns indicating defects or ailments \ikeferrilgo, aerugo, caligo, prurlgo).
Nouns in -o, -onis Gen., used of persons, belong as a rule to plebeian or
colloquial Latin and express contempt, e.g. dleo, bibo, Capita, Naso in the earliest
period they are derived only from Adjectives, e. g. strabo, but later from
Nouns and Verbs, e. g. commilito from miles, lanio from Idnius, erro from errare,
saturio from saturire. The more respectful formation was in -onus, e. g. patronus
(but irarpan- always on Greek inscriptions, as early as 150 B. c., Eckinger, p. 135);
55.
Masc. en-stems in Latin.
Gen. pectmis (Gk.
KTC'IS
for *ITKT(VS
Lat.
lien,
shows
?)
-en,
'
'
'
'
Paul. Fest. quotes 0. Lat. epolonus for epulo (55. 15 Th.), centurionus, curionus and
decurionus (34. 36 Th.) so Dor. Gk. AO.TOJ became Ldtona. (On these nicknames,
&c. in -o, -onis, see Fisch, Lat. Nomina Pers. auf -o, -onis, 1890.)
;
56.
-B-.
Suffixes
ending
I.-Eur. Neuters in -r
in
(-r)
-r
seem
of third Decl.).
have substituted n for r
(Nouns
to
O. Ind. udhar,
the udder^' udhnas Gen., which has led to confusions of E-- and
N-stems, e.g. ~L&t.jecnr, but O. Ind. yakan-, and to such curious
in the oblique cases,
e.
g. lu&t. femur, (jen.feminis,
'
declensions in Latin as it-m-er-is^jec-m-or-is, a,ndjoc-in-er-i$, &c.
Neuter K-stems. Many of these are names for parts of the body,
femur, jecur, uber.(Amer. Journ. Phil. xii. i). On 0. Lat. aser, blood (0. Ind.
asr-k Nom., asn-as Gen.) and on other Neut. R.-stems, see ch. vi.
15.
57.
e. g.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
350
As
-EH- and -TEB-.
58.
times -ero-, sometimes -tero-
the Comparative suffix
we
16), so
[Chap. V.
find -er
is
and
some-
-ter as
the suffix for forming words of relationship, and masculine
mina Agentis [with

with
varies
fern, in -(t)rl, -(t)ria, &c.,
51].
-(t)r-, &c.,
-(t)or-, -(t)er-, -(t)or-,
No-
This
-(t)er-
Gk.
7raT?jp,
e.g.
Ace. irarepa, and (^parcop, Ace. $paropa, Gk. 5or?jp beside 8corft>p,
The Nomina Agentis in Latin show
jSonjp beside /3a>ra>p, &c.
-tor-, e. g.
Gen. actons (Gk.
actor,
Abstracts in
-rjpoj).
OLKT^P,
-or, -oris Gen., often
-opos
and
eTr-ctKTTJp,
connected with Verbs
and Adjectives in -ulus (e. g. calor, beside caleo, calidus\

are not R-stems but S-stems, and had in O. Lat. -os in the Norn.
Sg., e.g. calos, though in the classical period the r, into which
intervocalic s in the oblique cases had passed by the phonetic law
in -eo
of Latin (ch. iv.

(see ch. vi.
148), forced its
way
into the Norn. Sing, also
7).
Nouns of relationship. Lat. pater [0. Ind. pitar-, Arm. hair, Gk.
O. Ir. athir, Goth, (rare) fadar] Lat. mater [0. Ind. matar-, Arm. mair,
Gk. /^TT/P, O. Ir. mathir, 0. Engl. modor (in Goth. ai)>ei, mother/ atta. 'father')
59.
TraT-fjp,
'
Lat./rafer (0. Ind. bhrStar-, Arm. eXbair, Gk. Qpurcap and (pp&Tijp,
a clansman, O. Ir. brathir, a brother,' W. brawd(r), Goth. bro)?ar cf. 0. SI.
Lat. soror (O. Ind. sv^sar-, Arm. k oir, O. Ir. siur and fiur, Lith.
bratru"
0. SI. mater-]
'
sesft
Goth, svistar, 0.
cf.
SI. svestra)
Lat.
levir
better
*laevir, for *laever
by
*daiwer-, 0. Ind. devar-, Arm. taigr with g for w,

Gk. Sarjp for *8ai^r]p, 0. Engl. tacor, 0. H. G. zeihhur cf. Lith. dever-is,
0. SI. dever-i).
Anal, of
vir
(I.-Eur.
Nomina Agentis. Lat. praetor for *prae-itor (0. Ind. pura-etar-,

goes before,' 'a guide') ; junctor (0. Ind. yoktar-, Gk. ^tvKT-fjp} (cf.
con-cHtor for *con-cldtor from the root dhe-, 'to put, place' (0. Ind.
60. Latin
'
he
who
junctus]
dhatar- and dhatar-, Gk.
Gk.
irorrjp}
genitus)
(cf.
potus)
with Fern, genetnx
textor (0.
Ind.
condttus)
Oerrjp') (cf.
(0. Ind. jaiiitrl,
Gk.
'
tartar-,
potor (0.
Ind. patar- and patar-,
gemtor (0. Ind. janitar-, Gk. yeverrjp
carpenter')
(cf. textus)
and
ycvfTcap)
(cf.
19)
(on e see ch. iii.
esor (0. Ind. attar-, Gk. ojfj.rjaTr]p)
'yevfTflpa)
(cf. esus).
61.
Suffixes
third Decl.).
ending in
-T-.
-t
(Nouns and Adjectives of
Latin stems in
-t
are probably of various
A compound like com-es
(stem *com-%t-) from cum and

a
has
the
of
sense
which
ire,
Participle Active, going along with,'
reminds us of the use of this suffix in O. Ind. with verbal roots
ending in vowels, &c., when these roots form the second part of
a compound, e. g. O. Ind. viva-jit-, all-conquering,' from ji-, to
origins.
'
conquer.'
To
this category
'
belong Latin ^-sterns like anti-stes
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
58-62.]
STEMS.
-T-.
351
from the root sta-, to stand/ mcer-dos from the root do-, to give.'
On the other hand adjectives of passive meaning like man-sues,
Gen. mansuetis, accustomed to the hand/ tame (beside mansuetus),
not known/ huge (cf. Engl. uncouth),
in-gens, Gen. ingentis,
may be for *mansuetis, *ingentis with that transference of the
'
'
'
Adjective to an I-stem which
we have
seen in O. Lat. Sanates,
beside sanati, forctis (class, fortis) beside forctus ( 45).

It has
further been suggested ( 29) that nouns like eqnes, Gen. eqmtis,
may be connected with Greek formations like iTrTroYr??, the fern.
Abstract *equita> horsemanship, becoming masc. eques, a horseman, just as aniutita fern, is related to antistes masc.
Again Feminine /-stems

'
a covering,'
for *sog-,
'
seges,
Gen.
sow '),
to
Gen.
like teges,
segetis,
a crop,
'
lit.
'
merges, a sheaf,
lit.
tegetis,
a mat,
a sowing
a dipping
'
lit.
(W. hau
'
(if merga,
a pitchfork, be rightly explained by Paul. Fest. 89. 13 Th. quia
messores eas in f ruges demergunt, ut elevare possint manipu:
or
los),
Fern.
'
a plucking
'
Gk.
(cf.
a-juepyoo),
Tl-stems (Nomina Actionis),
may have
like
been originally
messis
for
*met-tis,
a reaping,' harvest ( 42), and may show that confusion of the

TI- and the T-suffix which is shown by words formed with
-tut(i)-, -tat(i)-,
But Greek nouns

the root kel-,
'
and adjectives
'
'
to shine
forms in
46),
and bystems
like
/ce'Ar??,
to run,
-TJTO?,
'
like
Gk. WKT-, Lat.
a horse,
nocti-..
lit.
(O. Ind. car-
runner,'
cf.
from
Lat.
go quickly
celer),,
and apyer-, bright, from the root arg-,
;
like apyryr-
cf. Lat. argentum], rather point to by(O. Ind. arjusual

beside
the
Pres. Part, stems in -nt, just as
-t,
;
Greek compounds like a'yWj, -oiroj, (i) unknowing, (2) unknown,

and ayrcooros, 7rpo/3A?79, -TJTO?, a headland, beside
beside ayz/coros
irpofiXrjTos, thrown forth, suggest that Latin mansnes, &c. may

be quite separate forms from mansiiefais,&c,.,ax\di not sprung from
*mansuetis, still less produced by Syncope of the last syllable of
mansuetus
(cf.
ch.
iii.
16).
Other examples of Lat. T-stems. Lat. teres, Gen. teretis, from tero
tudes (cf. tuditare},
hebetis
ales, Gen. atttis, with the, sense of aldtus
an old word for a hammer (Fast. 530. 30 Th. Paul. Fest. 531. 12. Th.), from
and the origin of I.-Eur. *nepot- (0. Ind.
tundo, is a rather doubtful form
cf. Horn. Gk. i/tVoSes), Lat. nepos, with
napat-, M. Ir. niae, Gen. niath, W. rxai
62.
hebes,
Gen.
cognate *neptl (O. Ind. napti-, Goth. ni(f)J>jis, kinsman/ 0. SI. ne(p)tiji-,
nephew/ &c.), Lat. neptis is not clear. The termination -es was much in vogue
its
'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
352
in the earlier period, e. g. caeles, -ttis,

4, 51)
-ities, &c. (see
Nouns in -itia,
dicebantur,
cum
[Chap. V.
circes, -itis.
From
(cf. axttiosi,
Paul. Fest. 2. 34 Th.
it
were formed Abstract
plures una quid agerent facerentque, from axites
mulieres sive viri dicebantur una agentes. The adj. axitwsus

Varro, L. L. vii. 66 from the Asiraba of Plautus
a.
a.
factiosi
id. 3. i
is
Th.
quoted by
axitiosae
63.
annonam caram
The
-NT-.
e uili concinnant uiris).
suffix -ent-, -ont-, -nt-, &c. plays
an im-
portant part in the I.-Eur. languages, being used in the formation of all Active Participles, except the Perfect (ch. viii.
89).
In the thematic conjugation we have -ont- in all the cases in

Greek ((frtpovr-os, (fxEpovai for *(j>povTcn, &c.) and other languages ;
and O. Lat. forms

where
like flexuntes (?), as well as the classical euntes
have been quoted as proof that Lat. ferent-is,

an older *feront-, with change of the
&c.
represent
ferent-em,
short vowel before double consonant in the syllable unaccented
e precedes,
under the early Accent-law (ch. iii.

5) into e (but see ch. viii.
have
often
become
These
Participles
adjectives and nouns,
90).
'
friend (Goth, frijonds, lit. loving '), fiend (Goth, fijands,

hating,' Germ. Feind), Gk. apxuv, Lat. rudens, sometimes
Engl
e.g.
'
lit.
with transference to the O-declension, e. g. Lat. ventus (Goth,

vinds) beside the Participle, O. Ind, vant-, Gk. aeis for *aFvrs.
64.
ferens (O. Ind. bharant-,
Gk.
Lat. tigens (0. Ind. ajant-, Gk. erycw)

Goth, bairands, O. SI. bery) rudens
vehens (0. Ind. vahant-, Goth, gaa rope
-ent.
(pepcav,
'
'
(O. Ind. rudant-), (i) 'roaring/ (2)

vigands, Lith. ve2^s, O. SI. vezy) benevolens
the Comedians, and
is
often a
Noun
(cf.
benemerens) in
with the Adjective benevolus, so that

benevolentior and benevolenter have taken the place of the Comparative and
Adverb of the latter, as magmficentior, magnificeniissimus supply a Comparative
and Superlative to magnificus. Other Nouns are pdrens (beside the verb pdrio),
serpens, ddulescens
is
closely connected
other Adjectives,
eloquens, sapiens, innocens.
The addition
these participles in Greek (e.g.

(ftepovoa for *(f)(povTya} forms Abstract derivatives in Latin, e. g. benivolentia,
praesentia, eloquentia (all of these first used by Terence), confldentia, malwolentia,
patientia, sdpientia, poUentia, &c. (all used by Plautus), sententia (beside the verb
of the ya-suffix,
which forms the
fern, of
On the rare ending -entium, e.g. silentium, see Ronsch, Collect, p. 208.
Fluentum and cruentus probably originated in Neut. PL fluenta, cruenta (cf.
The ending -lentus of
silenta loca Laev.), a formation like Gk. <ptpovra, &c.
sentio).
opittentus
(beside opulens\ violentus (and
violens), truculentus, esculenlus, v1rulentus,&c.
cf. grddlentus (the o of vmolentus,

comes from an Adj. -stem in -lo (-U
21)
somnokntus has been explained by popular etymology from mno lentus, somno
;
'
'
lentus
see ch.
65.
iii.
21).
-WENT-.
This
suffix, like
our
'
-ful/ added to
Noun-
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
63-67.]
STEMS. -WENT-,
-D-.
353
stems to form Adjectives, with the sense ' possessed of/ abounding
in/ and occasionally
resembling/ e. g. O. Ind. agni-vant-,
'
'
'provided with
fire/
x aP^
*x a P F
f r
VT $> possessed of grace,
graceful, (rrovoeis (Corcyr. a-rovoFea-av, Ace. Sg. Fern.), woeful,

is in Latin augmented
by the TO-suffix, e. g. dolo-sus (Gk.
from ^dolo-went-to- or ^"dolo-wnt-to-,

it was often added to the
krta-vant- from krta-, P. P. P. of kr-,
SoAoeis) for *dolo-venssus

riivosus
(Gk. nô'eis).
TO-stem
P. P. P.
'
to
e.
g.
In O. Ind.
do/ and came to be used in the sense of a Perfect Indicative
(with omission of the Substantive Verb), e.g. sa tad krtavan,

he has done this/
'
66. Other examples of Lat. -osus. Lat. vlrosus (cf. 0. Ind. visa-vant-)
mnosus (cf. Gk. olvoas'}. (i) full of wine, (2) like wine; cdddverosus, like a dead
body. From U-stems, -uosus, e. g. aestuosus (but fastosus, and from the stem
from I-stems -osus, e. g. piscosus (Virgil's rendering of

Incuriosus (from incuria) produced, curiosus
ixQv6cts\ (but blliosus).
(instead of*curosus) cdldmitosus stands for *calamitatosus (ch. iii.
13, p. 176).
mont-, montuosus), but
Homer's
On
the change of *-ovenssus to -osus

see ch. ii.
The older spelling
53.
(cf.
from retroversum, &c.),

Brambach, Orth. p. 268,
Studemund's Apograph of the
retrorsum, retrosum
is -onssus, -ossus
(see
and the Indices to Eibbeck's Virgil and to

Ambrosian Palimpsest of Plautus).
Gellius (ix. 12) comments on the
Active and Passive sense of these Adjectives ut formidulosus dici potest et
'
'
'
qui formidat et qui formidatur, ut 'invidiosus et qui invidet et cui invidetur,

ut suspiciosus et qui suspicatur et qui suspectus est, ut ambitiosus et qui
ambit et qui ambitur, ut item gratiosus et qui adhibet gratias et qui
admittit, ut laboriosus et qui laborat et qui labori est, &c.
'
'
'
'
'
Sufllxes ending in -d
67.
'
'
'
(Nouns of third Declension).
D-suffixes are not frequent enough in the I.-Eur. languages to

enable us to determine the formation of Latin <:/-stems like
Gk. AeTras ?), merces, fieres, nor to trace the passage of

D-stems
into other stems.
The -a8- of Gk. x P^)
original
a reef, like a hog's back/ TreAetas, a wild dove, has been
lapis (cf.
'
first part of the Latin -astro(for *-ad-tro-) of

a
'a
wild
'like
&c.
Lat. -edula
olive/
poetaster,
poet/ oleaster,
declared to be the
occurs in names of birds, &c. e.g.ficedula (andfcellal), a beccafico,

acredula, querquedula, nUedula and nttella (cf. alcedoj ; Lat. -edo
in names of ailments like frlgedo, r&bedo* gravedo (and gravido)
resembles the -r^5w^ of Gk. a%6r)u>v, yja.iprib&v.
Lat. -dus of
5
Adjectives beside Verbs in -eo and Abstract
Nouns
in -or,
palttclus (beside palleo &nd. pallor), splendidus (beside splendeo
Aa
e.
g.
and
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
354
[Chap. V.
splendor], squdffidus (O. Lat. squalus) (beside sqndleo and squalor),

has been referred to the root do-, to give' (cf. O. Ind. jala-das,
'
'
giving moisture,' like

benefit,' but see ch. iii.
15.
lit.
'
Lat. imbrt-dus, artha-das,

giving
and
the
termination
of
Gerun(8))
;
dives like laudandus, &c. has been similarly explained (*laudamdus, praise-giving ') with the Ace. Sg. of a Verbal Noun as the
*
94), as well
part (cf. vin-dex) of the compound (see ch. viii.
as Verbal Adjectives in -bundus, e. g. errdbundm, pudil>undiis,furifirst
and
bwuhis, gemebundus, mdnbundiis, lascivibundus (-lb- probably)
-cundus, e.g.jucundus, rubicundus, vereciiwhis, fecundus, irdcundit,

The termination
(On these also, see ch. viii. 94.)
fdcundus.
been called the amplification of the stem

-tut- by an N-stem, *tut-n- producing *tud-n- (but see ch. iv.
161), but it may also be derived from a tu-stem, as rubedo
-tudoy Gen.-tud%nis, has
from an e-stem.
68. Other examples. Lat. pecus, -udis beside pecus, -oris Lat. cassis, an
Etruscan word, according to Isidore (Orig. xviii. 14. i), with transference to
the A-declension in the byform cassida.
;
69. Suffixes
ending in a Guttural (Nouns and Adjectives
These also are infrequent in I.-Eur.

and
as we have seen (
often
have,
languages,,
31), byforms
with added -o-_, e g. Gk. aAco-n-r^ (O. Ind. lopasa-), Gk. juetpaf
of third
Declension).
(O. Ind. maryaka-), Gk. vka^ (O. SI. novaku), Lat. senex (O.
Ind. sanaka-, cf. Goth, sineigs; perhaps with the Diminutive
'
be for *geneci*, oldish/

with that transference to the I-declension so frequent in Adjec-
suffix
-ko-, so
tives
cf. seni-
that
Lat. senex
may
from I.-Eur. ^seno-, O. Ind. sana-, Gk.
eVoj,
O.
Ir.
Latin Adjectives in -doc express tendency

sen, Lith. senas, &c.).
or character, e. g. bibdx, dwax, rapax, permcdx (O. Lat. pervious)
;
we have
fellx from *fela, Gk. 6t]\.j\, the

breast, pernix (properly of horses, &c. A. L. L. viii. 453) from
perna ; -trlx is the fern, ending (O. Ind -tri, Gk. -rpya) of Masc.
Nomina Agentis in -tor, e. g. genetrix (O. Ind. janitn, Gk.
of adjectives in -Ix
yVTipa,
51); -ox appears in the derivatives from Adjectives,
ferox (from ferns), solid
(from
sollus), atrox
(from *atro-
cf
odium), and in veldx, celox, which suggest connexion with ocior.

We have O-stem Adjectives with -dens, e. g. merdcus, and -icus,
e.g. mendicus, amlciis (
31), and A-stem Nouns with -lea, e.g.
68-71.]
-ES-.
355
and -tica, e.g. lactuca ( 32). The Latin termination

names of ailments, e. g. vertigo^ depetigo, impetigo, cdligo,
may be due to the addition of an N-suffix to Adjectives in -r,
*9erffic-n-, *calic-n-, &c., and the somewhat similar -ugo of
ferrugo (cf. rob'igoj, aerugo, Idnngo, and in names of plants, e. g.
lectica,
-igo, in
mollugo (-igo\ asperugo may similarly represent -uc-n-, the c

becoming g before n by the phonetic law of Latin (ch. iv.
119).
Other examples.
70.
Lat. pulex, -ids, a flea, but pulegium, fleabane Lat.

Gk. \drayes cf. Grk. oprvy- but 0. Ind. vartaka-) Lat.
Lat. vervex, a wether Lat. natrix, -wis, a watersnake (O. Ir.
latex,
PI. latices (but
vertex
from
verto
nathir, nathrach Gen.).

Words like aureax (a. auriga, Paul. Fest. 6. 27 Th.), aurifex, &c. do not show
the Guttural suffix, but are Compounds of ago, facio ( 78).
The number of words ending with -x that indicate parts of the body is
e. g. calx, faux, coxendix, cervix (or rather cervices Plur., for the Sing,
cf. Varro, L. L. viii. 14 and Quint, viii. 3. 35), matrix,
poetical usage
bird-names in -ix
pantex, podex, also bodily marks, e. g. varix, vlbix, famex, &c.
are, e. g. cornix, coturnix, spinturnix.
Adjectives in -ax from second Conj. Verbs
noticeable,
was a
are audax, tenax

perspwax.
dlcere
(cf.
retmaculum'}, mordax, &c. ; from 10- Verbs cdpax, efftcax,

with dicax cf. dica-re beside
cf. falla, 0. Lat. for fallacia
With fallax
with cdpax,
oc-cupa-re.
71. Suffixes ending in -s (Nouns and Adjectives of

third Declension). -ES-. The suffix -es-, varying with -os-,
-s-, &c. was used to form Neuter Abstract Nouns, with E-grade
of root
and accent on the
*genes- in Oblique Cases,
root, e.g. I.-Eur.
*genos Nom. Sg.,
from the root gen- (0. Ind.
janas,
Gk. yero? Nom., yeê(o-)-o? Gen.), Lat. genus Norn., gener-is for
These Neuter-stems became adjectives by trans*gene8-es Gen.
ferring the accent to the suffix and substituting -es for -os in
Nom. Sg. Masc., -es in Nom. Sg. Neut., e. g. Gk. e^-yeyTJs
Masc., -ves Neut.
Fern.
Nouns with
Beside them
-6s in
great favour in Latin,
Nom.
e.
we
find occasionally Masc. or

which came into
Sg., a formation
g. tenor
Masc. for *tenos, beside tenus
Neut. (Gk. TWOS, a string), from the root ten-/ to stretch'; tepor
Masc. for *tepo% (cf. O. Ind. tapas Neut. for *tepos), from the
root tepto be warm.'

case of these Neuters is used as the
Infinitive in various languages, e.g. Lat. vlvere Loc., O. Ind.
jivase Dat, to live (see ch. viii.
83).
'
'
72.
-es-
'
Neuter ES-stems in Latin. The original declension with -os Nom.,

and Derivatives, is sometimes departed from, e.g.tempus,
in Oblique Cases
A a 2
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. V.
Velius
tempes-twus}
onus, onustus (but cf. oneris, onerare)
K.) calls attention to the discrepancy between faenoris and
We have the 0-grade of the root, e. g. in
faeneratorem, fdcmoris and facinerosus.
modes-tus (by analogy of the 0-stem modus) from *modes- 1 from the root med-on's
(but
Longus
cf. temperi,
(p. 73. i
(but
Umbr. mers
fidus,
e. */etY7os,
'
foedus quod
for *mecZ(o)sNeut., the right, the due, is normal), foedus [also

to judge from Varro Z. Z. v. 86 per hos (Fetiales) etiamnunc
fidus'
Ennius
dictum
cf. Paul. Fest. 64. 3 Th. fidusta

erant] from the root bheidh-, pondus
by analogy of pondo- (Abl. pondo) from pendo. Minerva was in earlier times
*Menes-ua ( 7), a derivative of the Neut. stem *menes- (0. Ind. manas-, Gk.
fit
a fide denominata, ea quae
from the root men-.
/xVos),
scribit
maximae fidei
From
other than E-roots
we
e. g.
have,
opus
The
(0. Ind. apas and apas, 'work,' especially 'a religious performance ').
ending -nus is seen in fddnus (cf. Gk. Sd-z/o?), &c. The -r of robur (0. Lat.
robus, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) may be due to the Masc. by form robor (cf.
quoted by Paul. Fest. n. 20 Th.) cf. color Neut. (Plaut.
The weak grade of the suffix, -s-, is seen in the derivative
0. Lat. robosem Ace.,

Merc. 860).
0-stem O. Ind. vats-a-
meaning 'glamour,'
'a philtre')
tergus
'a calf,' lit. 'a yearling,' from *wetos,

Other examples are Venus (originally Neuter and
for *wetso-,
'a year' (Gk. feros), &c.
like 0. Ind. vanas-
(Gk. are/xpos
and
venenum for *renes-num, properly
cf.
re/oôs).
Of the transference of a Neut. S-stem into an

73. Adjective ES-stems.
Adjective a good example is Lat. vetus, which is nothing but I.-Eur. *wetos
(Gk. [fro*,, a year) used in apposition as a predicate (cf. Horn. Gk. map, Lat.
The ordinary way of making an Adjective from a Neuter S-stem
uber, &c.).
was by adding the suffix -to- ( 27), e. g. vetustus, to which however, owing to
the cacophony of the two similar syllables, vetus was preferred in the Positive
and veterrimus in the Superlative, though vetustior was the Comparative in
vogue (cf. Varro, L. L. vi. 59 a vetere vetustius ac veterrimum), onus-tus,
Perhaps another way was to add the suffix -o-, e. g.
sceles-tus, funestus, jus-tus.
and perhaps ftinerus (beside funereus) (see Fleck. Jahrb. iQgf,
The veter used
both forms are doubtful) (cf. decorus from decor,
74).
by Ennius (Ann. 16 M. cum ueter occubuit Priamus sub Marte Pelasgo) and
Accius (Trag. 481 R.) may be of this formation, or of the third Decl. like
puber (beside pubes Adj. ) and the Compounds degener, bworpor, &c.
0. Lat.
p.
676
scelerus,
Masc. (and Pern.) ES-stems. The usual termination is -or Nom.,

Gen. (older -os, -osts), e. g. decor (beside decus with Adj. decorus, O. Lat.
decorem Accus. cf. indecorem beside indecorum') angor (0. Ind. g,has Neut. with
74.
on's
Adj. angustus)
arbor F. (with Adj. *arbustus, cf.

honor (with Adj. honestus)
'
paedora is Vulg. Lat. for paedores (C. G. L. iv. 270. 4 paedora
;
'
arbustum,
28)
The -s remains in Jlos [like Flora F. beside jlos M. is aurora
sordes).
beside I.-Eur. *ausos (Gk. ijws F.)] while some have found -es in the Fern,
;
aurium
nouns sedes, beside I.-Eur. *sedos (0. Ind. sadas, Gk. 6os), pJebes (Gk. ir\r)0os\
and perhaps aedes beside aedis (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) (0. Ind. edhas,
These Masc. Nouns in -or are widely used as Verbal
Gk. cuflos) (but see
51).
Abstracts, connected with Verbs in -eo and Adjectives in -idus, e. g. pallor
and for a list of examples
67
(patteo, pallidus), timor (timeo, timidus) (see
;
Plaut. Cure. 200 immodestis tuis modereris moribus.
73-77.]
A.
L. L. viii.
(cf.
313)
O. Ind. kravis-,
with/aror
'
Other S-stems.
75.
0. Ind. siras-, 'the
357
The Verb in -eo is not found withy/wor, fluidus, cruor, crudus

raw flesh/ Gk. tcpeas) the Adj. in -idus is not found
a coinage of Cicero's time (Quint,
(fdveo),
-YES-.
viii. 3. 34).
Lat. cerebrum for *ceresrum points to an S-stem like

Lat. tmebrae for *tenesrae (cf. O.Ind.
tefpa.s, a horn
head/ Gk.
'
cf. Lat. temere, lit.

in the dark ') Lat.
tamis-ra beside tamas, darkness
dnis M., sometimes F., resembles Gk. KUVIS F. in its termination
Lat. far,
farris Gen. for *fars, *farsis has a derivative farina for *farisna, Fern, of an Adj.
'
'
*farisnus (cf. Goth, bariz-eins,
-YES-.
76.
'
F., -ioris
suffix,
use of -yo-,
Comparative
M.,
This
'made of
Gen., -ius
barley').
used to form Comparatives (cf. the

4), appears in Latin as -ior Nom.
Nom. N.
(older -ids,
-iosis,
-ids),
e.
g.
The variations of the suffix are not

sudvior, sudvioris, sudvms.
the
amid
to
determine
variety of forms in the various
easy
O.
Ind.
svad-iyas-_, with Nom. svad-Iyan, Gk.
languages (e.g.
fjbiav,
Ace.
778100
sald-es-nis, &c.),
for ^6too-a, Goth, sutiza for %ut-izen-, Lith.
but
it
is
certain that the
prefixed to the suffix -to- (-tho-
?)
to
weak grade
form Superlatives
-is-
was
in various
Gk. TÎOTO?, Goth, sutists),

though in Latin this formation was ousted by -issimus (cf.
however magis, magis-ter, &c.). These suffixes were originally
affixed to the root without the suffix of the Positive stem (so
Lat. oc-ior, O. Ind. as-iyas-. Gk. WK-UOZ; from a Positive stem
languages
(O.
but
*-6ku-),
Ind.
svad-istha-,
we have
also
in Latin, e.g. temi-ior, sudvior for
^suadv-ior, asper-wi\ &c.

For other details of the formation of Comparatives and Superlatives in Latin, see ch. vi. section 2.
Suffixless
77.
Forms.
Nouns formed
directly
from the
without any suffix except those of the cases, are especially

frequent as the second element of a Compound, and take in this
position the function of a Nomen Agentis, e.g. Lat. au-spex,
root,
seer of birds/
a share/
They
from the root
'
'
to see/ parti-ceps, taking

are also found independently, e. g. O. Ind. spas-,
spek-,
'a spy/ often with a high grade of vowel,
e.
g.
Gk.
O-KW\/A,
an owl
51, p. 254), both from the same root spek- (skep-).

The passage of such forms into the vowel declension is a very
near one, so that we find bystems with and without a suffix in
(cf. ch.
iii.
the same
language, e.g. Lat. auspex beside exti-sjncus (a late
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
358
form of
eseti-spex),
Gk. vavs beside Lat.
[Chap. V.
or in different languages, e. g. O. Ind. nau-,

ndv-i-s, O. Ind. ud-anc- beside Gk. Trod-aTi-o-s,
Lat. prop-inqu-o-s. The Latin Inf. Pass., e. g. agi, seems to be a

case of a suffixless Verbal Noun (cf O. Ind. nir-aje, drse, Inf.
of drs-, c to look '), just as the Inf. Act., e. g. agere, seems to be
.
the Locative case of a Verbal

Suffixless stems at
78.
con-jux
(cf.
Stem
in -es- (see ch.
viii.
83).
end of Compounds in Latin. From

and con-junx (0. Ind. yunj-
0. Ind, sg,-yuj-, Gk. <rv-v}
jungo,
beside
from facto, artifex, carmfex, dpi/ex, &c. from capio, manceps, auceps,
yuj-)
for *formi-ceps, pnnceps, &c.
from dico, judex, vindex from sedeo, deses, res
;
Beside these we have

beside ju-dex, prod-igus beside rem-ex, 0. Lat.
hosti-capas (hostium captor, Paul. Fest. 73. 10 Th.), urU-cdpe Voc. (Plaut. Mil.
1055) beside auceps, &c. The presence of suffixless stems in the second part of
Compounds in other I.-Eur. languages forbids us to regard the third Decl.
from
cane, cormcen, fulicen
often O-stems, &c.,
from
ago, remex, aureax, &c.
e. g. jun-dtcus
forms as due to Latin syncope of the 0-suffix in the Nom. Case, *avi- cap(o)s,
But in some adjectives original O-stems may have
16).
(cf.
34), and the Nominative form may be due to syncope
or to the analogy of consonant-stems (just as pars Nom. for *parti-s, with
Gen. partis, is due to syncope or to the analogy of rex Nom. with Gen. reg-is,
&c. (see ch. iii.

become I-stems
&c.),
e. g.
praecox beside praecoquis
The Feminines add
and praecoquus,
a, e. g. exti-spic-a,
cohors for *cohortis
from
hortus.
fidi-dn-a.
79. Latin Independent suffixless stems. Lat. rex (0. Ind. raj-, 0. Ir. rig
Gen.) from the root reg-, of rego lex from lego pes Nom., ped-is Gen. (cf. 0. Ind.
16)
pad-, pad-am Ace., Dor. Gk. TTOVS Nom., -rroS-os Gen., &c.) fur for *for (ch. iv.
(Gk. (f>wp) from the root bher- res (0. Ind. ras) hiems (Zend zyl, Gk. x"^)
mus (0. Ind. mus-, Gk. pvs, 0. H. G. mus) die-is
os, the mouth (O. Ind. as-)
Gen., in the phrase dicis causa, for form's sake (O. Ind. diS-, 'direction') from
the root deik-, of dlco nix (Gk. vi<p-a Ace.) sal (Gk. a\s) SMS, subus Dat. PI.
dux from duco prec-es Plur. from root prek-, to ask
(Gk. 5?, O. H. G. su)
vox (0. Ind. vgc- F.) beside TOCO.
(On the long vowel, see ch. iv. 51, p. 254.)
;
'>
two
intact
words
like
'
COMPOSITION.
80. II.
able into
Compounds
Gk.
are seldom resolv-
AIO'CT-KOU/DOI, apr^t-âroj, slain
in battle, Lat. sendtus-consullum, paires-fam/il'mrum, juris-jurandi,

res-pultica, O. Engl. Trwes-dseg,
one
element
Tuesday/
is
reduced
Sometimes, as in
almost beyond
reduplicated words,
'
recognition, either the second element (in broken or curtailed
Reduplication), e. g. Lat. lal-b-us (cf. O. Ind. bal-bala-karomi),
gur-g-eSj a whirlpool (cf. O. Ind. gar-gara-), or more usually
'
the
first,
e.
g. ci-cinde-la, a
glow-worm, while Lat.
gur-gul-io,
the throat, quer-quer-us mur-mur, &c. give equal prominence to both

But generally the full stem without the case suffixes
elements.
y
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
78-80.]
STEMS. COMPOUNDS.
359
is used in the first part of the Compound, e. g. patn-cula

(contrasted vi\fa patres-familmrim\juri-(licm (contrasted with^mThe treatment of these stems which begin the Comjurandi).
pound
is
the special subject of this section.
Owing- to the weakening of unaccented vowels in Latin,

every vowel in the final syllable of such a stem was liable to
change under the early accentuation of the first syllable of each

word (ch. iii.
It is therefore often necessary to call in the
5).
aid of other I.-Eur. languages before one can determine the
original vowel in a Latin Compound, e. g. dU-ger from tila may
be shown to have been originally *alo-yer by Greek Âo-ro'/xos,

#A.T7 (
82), though, so far as the Latin form goes, it
&c. from
might equally well have been
*ala-ger, *ale-ger, &c., while
in
forceps for *formi-ceps the vowel has been suppressed altogether

by Syncope (ch. iii.
13), in arcubii for arci-cnbii by Dissimilation
(ih.
p. 176).
Not only
is
the I.-Eur.
'
Composition.- Vowel
'
par
appear in O-stems, but it is often

added to Consonant-stems, and sometimes takes the place of the
-a of A-stems.
In Latin post-tonic o (like a and other short
excellence.
does
it
18, u before labials

vowels) became, as was shown in ch. iii.
and
i
before
other
consonants
(later ),
single
(except r), so that
i is
the
'
'
Composition-Vowel
mammia
Plaut.,
of Latin as o of I.-Eur. (cf
Oinu-mama on a Praenestine
inscription,
Uno-
um-
mamma, an Amazon).
The second part
of a
Compound
often scarcely to be dis-
is
Thus the second part of imbri-dus (cf.

tinguished from a suffix.
O. Ind. jala-da-, lit. moisture-giving,'
67) is often called the
'
'
suffix
'
do-
and the form taken by the final vowel of the stem

is often determined by the same laws as before
before a suffix
the second element of a
Compound (eLf&ltd-ginuswithfabd-ceuSj
For
fabd-tus, fabd-rius, fabd-lis ; imbn-dus with imbm-cus).
these laws with suffixes, laws often disturbed by the influence of
analogy,
e.
g.
anUis (from ami-) for *anHlis by analogy of
senllis
(from seni-), see the preceding section.
Composition does not play so great a part in Latin as in
Greek
u. 4 quos
'
'
androgynos vulgus, ut
faciliore
ad
verba
Graeco
sermone, appellat).
pleraque,
duplicanda
The early dramatists and other imitators of Greek poetry incurred
(cf.
Liv.
xxvii.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
360
[Chap. V.
the censure of Quintilian for their attempts to reproduce Greek

compounds like K.vpravyj}v in Latin (Quint, i. 5. 70 sed res tota
magis Graecos
decet, nobis
minus succedit
nee id
natura
fieri
mirati simus,
puto, sed alienis favemus, ideoque cum Kvpravêva
incurvicervicum vix a risu defendimus, alluding to Pacuvius'
'
'
line:
Nerei repandirostrum inciiruiceruicum pecus)
and Virgil uses a periphrasis like (Averna) sonantia silvis (A. iii.
442) where an earlier poet might have employed a compound like
silvisonus (cf. silvifmgus, used by Lucretius, who however com'
plains that the
patrii
reproducing the
sermonis egestas
'
prevented him from
The
6/xotojuf/>ta, i. 832).
of other I.-Eur. languages are, as we
replaced in Latin (and Umbro-Oscan) by
Greek compound
compound Proper Names

have seen
4),
Adjective lO-stems, such as Lucius [on the compound Opiter,

The Latin language does not therefore give
16 (9)].
see ch. iii.
the same occasion as the Greek for a study of the I.-Eur. types
of
Compounds,
or the various irregularities
which disturbed the
normal course of Composition; and a brief account of these

types and irregularities will suffice.
I.-Eur.
classified
Compounds, Nouns and Adjectives, are sometimes

according to the scheme of the Sanscrit grammarians
[Dvandva or
Collectives,
Bahuvrihi or Possessives, Tatpurusha

Karmadharaya formed of Adj. and
or Determinatives (including
Noun, and Dvigu formed of Numeral and Noun), Avyayibhava

or Adverbial Compounds], sometimes by the more rational
criterion of the change or retention of the meaning of the
'
second element (thus the Possessive longt-manus, possessing long

hands/ long-handed/ changes its second element from a Noun
'
to
an Adjective, while the Determinative
'
perenn/i-servus,
a con-
stant slave/ retains the Noun- meaning of servus), these two

main classes being subdivided according to the nature of the
first element [a Noun or Adj. stem as in longi-manus^ a Particle
as in in-certu$) ve-sdnus, a Preposition as in con-servus, a Noun or
Adj. Case as in vin-dex, legislator, jurisdictio (contrast /ft/^-d&rcw),
the last being, as we have seen, rather Word-groups than Com-
pounds
cf
par ce-pfdmus Plaut., bene-volu$,paen-msMla (contrast
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
80.]
STEMS. COMPOUNDS.
361
Of Possessive Compounds (Sanscr.

Um-densis, solU-citu$)\, &c.
(
are
angm-pes, possessing a foot which is
Bahuvrihi) examples
'
1
a snake/ snake-footed
pudon-color possessing the colour of
'
'
'
shame/
'
shame-coloured/ sicc-ocwlus, possessing dry eyes/ dryOf Determinatives with first element consisting of (i)
eyed.'
a governed Noun (Sanscr. Tatpurusha)

v%ffi-sator
planter of
the vine/ arffi-fex, aqui-hx', (2) Adjective qualifying a Noun
i
O. Lat. albo-galerus the white cap of

(Sanscr. Karmadharaya)
the Flamen Dialis, sndvl-sdvidtio Plaut., v we -radix Cato, Idticldvus (the Adj. contrary to rule follows the Noun in Pliny's
:
a wild horse; cf. ovifer, a wild sheep); (3) Numeral, tri(For other examples of Numeral Compounds, see ch.
sect. iii.) Coordinate Compounds (Sanscr. Dvandva, e.g. agni-
equifer,
nummus.
vi.
dhumau,
fire
Derivatives,
fice
e.
and smoke') are not found in Latin, except in

g. su-om-taurttia (but not *sn-ovi-taums), a sacri-
of a swine, a sheep,
offered
'
and a
struem et fertum/
bull, stru-fer(c)tarii, those
Scaliger's
rule
that a
who
Noun
is
never compounded with a Verb was a law of I.-Eur. Nouncompounds, and is not broken in good Latin, though Tertullian
coins vinci-pes by false analogy of midi-pes, whose first element
he conceives as a verb, 'qui pedes nudat' (de Pall. 5 quern enim
non expediat
et ardore rigere nudipedem quam in

and
Verti-cordm was a name under which
?),
Venus was worshipped. As we have seen in the chapter on the
Latin Accent (ch. iii.), the line is often hard to draw between
a Word-group (united under a single accent) and a Compound,
e.g. afatim (from ad fatim), demw (from de novo), Juppiter (from
in
algore
calceo vincipedem
*Ju- pater, Voc., ch. vi. 32). From the group per noctem has been
formed the Compound Adj. pernox, much as meri-die [a single
word like O. Lat. diequinte or dieqmnti, ch. iii. i2 a (9)], which is
only found in this form in the earlier writers, gave rise to the
Compound Noun meridie*; from Sacra Via we have the derivative Sacravienses ,
quartadecimdni
from quarta decwia
(cf
our
(sc.
'
get-at-able/
1
These Possessives were originally
used in Apposition, e.g. angui~pes,
Snake-foot.' Hence in Greek -o? is
&c.
legio)
the derivative
formed
retained in the Fern, of

like
'
finger.
/5o8o-Sd#TvAos
from
the
Compounds
('Hws),
'Rose-
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
362
[Chap. V.
Rolusatrum differs from a word-group by

phrase to get at ').
the fact that the first element remains undeclined in holusalri
Gen., &c. ( 85) ; vin-dex, by the fact that -dex (-dix) is not used
as a separate word, though the first element shows the Noun in
its proper Case
(for a similar explanation of laudan-dus, &c.,
Similarly the Case instead of the Stem
95).
in
the
first
of centum-peda (cf. Gk. lKaroju,-7re6os),
element
appears
beside cenft-peda (but see ch. vi.
76), while the reverse is seen
see ch. viii.
in the
forms multi-modis
(for
multis
omnl-modis (for
modis),
omnibus modi*), which are used by Plautus. Plautus is especially

fond of whimsical compounds coined on the Greek type, and
often half-Greek, half-Latin, e.g. Pers.
7025
Uaniloquidorus Uirginesuendonides
Nugiepiloquides Argentumextenebronides
Tedigniloquides Numwosexpalponides
Quodsemelarripides Numquameripides em
:
tibi.
Cavaedmm may stand
for cav(um) aeclium, domnaedium Accus. for

as
ammadverto for anim(iim) adverto (ch. iii.
aedium,
donmn(um)
has
53) (ariimaeqmtas
similarly been referred to anim(i) aequitas);
Lucr. uses ordia prima f or pr imordia ; and summopere, magnopere^

Greek
&c. represent snmmo opere, magno opere, and the like.
compounds
like apKTTo-\eip (with a Superlative as first element),
avro-xei-p (with
a Pronoun) are alien to the spirit of the Latin
language.
These
Noun and
Adjective Compounds sometimes retain the
stem of their second element unchanged,

times add a suffix (on opifwus, &c. beside
Compound O-stem
become I-stems,
e.
e.
g. sicc-oculws,
opifex^ &c., see
some77).
Adjectives, as we have seen ( 34), tended to

g. O. Lat. inermus, class, inermis ; and Com-
pound Nouns (and Adjectives) affected the IO- suffix, e. g. Idticldvium beside Idticldvus (so the Vulgar Compound formed from
the Word-group terrae motus assumed the form terriwotium,
Prob. App. 198. 32K.).
Often the selection of a suffix for a
is
determined
Compound
by the usage in Derivatives from the
transmarimis
from trans mare, like marinus
simple word, e.g.
from mare, dubingenwsus from dubius and ingenium, like ingeniosus
from ingenium, simpltididrius (cf. ludiarins).
Compound Verbs have normally as
their first element a Prepo-
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
81, 82.]
STEMS. COMPOUNDS.
Whether the Negative
sition (see ch. ix.).
Particle in
363
might be
used,
g ig-nosco, 'not to notice/ to overlook or pardon, is
doubtful (see ch. x.
But Com18
cf. ne-scio, ne-queo, &c.).
e.
pounds like aediflcare from aede-s sm&facio are really Derivatives

from Compound Adjectives or Nouns, aedijicus or aedifex
so
;
that Scaliger's law (see above) is not violated (cf. Gk. oiKoSojueco,
&c. from olKobojjios) ; so ndmgare from *navi(jiis^ opitulari from
from pUlosoplms). (On these Deriv.

21, 33.)
Benefacio, male/ado, &c. are
and
so
are
really word-groups,
calefacio, arefacio, &c. (cLfacit, are
Credo
comes
from
an
I.-Eur. word-group (O. Ind. srad
Lucr.).
*opitulus (like philosophari
Verbs, see ch.
viii.
'
dadhami, I set the heart to/ see ch. viii.

27).
Adverbs like derepent& desuMid are discussed in ch.
9
Compound
Prepositions like
a fuller treatment of Latin
Compound
ix.,
and
Vulg. Lat. abante (Fr. avant).
also
(For
Compounds than can be permitted
within the limits of this book, see Skutsch, Norn. Lat. Comp.].
81.
Eeduplicated Nouns and Adjectives in Latin.
Lat.
gur-g-es,
throat (0. Ind. gar-gar-a-, whirlpool/ Gk. yap-yap- coy,

uvula, yep-yfp-os, throat, 0. H. G. quer-chal-a and quer-ch-a, Germ. Gurgel)
bal-b-us (O. Ind. bal-bal-a-karomi, 'I stammer,' Gk. 0dp-&ap-o-s}
quer-quer-u-s,
i
whirlpool,
gur-gtil-io,
cold, shivering (frigidus cum tremore, Paul. Fest. 343. 5 Th., who quotes from
Lucilius febris querquera, the ague) (cf. Horn. Gk. Kapfcaipa}), has reduplicated
form like other words for trembling, shivering, such as Germ, zittere from
*ti-tro-mi
can-cer (cf. ,0. Ind. kar-kat-a-,
mar-mar-a-, Gk.
words mentioned
'
Gk.
ap-/ctV-o-s)
Lith. mur-m-iu)
ta-ta, like
in Martial's witty epigram (i. 100)
fj.op-fj.vp-ca,
mur-mur
mamma,
(0. Ind.
children's
mammas
dici et
'
atque
tatas
'
habet Afra
sed ipsa tatarum
mammarum maxima mamma
potest,
and found on children's epitaphs, e.g. C.LL. vi. 25808 destituisti, Vitilla
mea, miseram mammam tuam (cf. ch. ii. p. 118 ri), qtii-squtt-iae, shreds of
leather, &c. (Gk. Ko-<jKv\-p.ana) (Caec. Com. 251 R. quisquilias uolantis, uenti
spolia) ; fiber (the I.-Eur. name was *bhe-bhr-u-, O. Ind. ba-bhr-u-, 'brown.'
H. G.
'
a beaver,' Lith. be-br-u-s, 0. SI. be-br-u). Reduplication is

in onomatopoetic words, e. g. cu-culus (cf. Gr. KOKKV, Lith. ku-kii-ti,
'to cry cuckoo,' &c.), up-up-a (cf. Gk. CTT-O^), ul-ui-a (cf. 0. Ind. ul-ul-i-, Gk. 6\The Latin tendency is to assimilate the first to the subsequent
o\-v^rj')j tur-tur.
0.
bi-bar,
common
syllable, e. g. cin-cin-nus (Gk. K'I-KIV-VOS) (cf. mo-mord-i for earlier me-mord-i, &c..
see ch. iv.
Often a reduplicated Noun is a derivative from a redupli163).
cated Verb-form,
like
Gk.
e. g. ci-cinde-la
from
from *d-cmde-o, a reduplicated form of candeo,

from Ke-rcpdy-a. V 0n these redupli-
St-5a<my, Kf-Kpay-pos
cated Verb-forms, see ch. viii.
9.)
82.
8i-8ax-rj
A-stems show sometimes
a,
but usually 6 in I.-Eur. compounds,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
364
(e. g.
Gk.
probably seen in fdbd-ginus,
is
and Nt/fd-/xaxos, 0. Ind. urvara-jit- and ukha-chid-, Lith.

and galva-raisztis, Gaul. Teuto-bodiaci, Goth, airâ-kunds),
The long a
tubi-cen, dli-ger, &c. must have been originally o.
vitti]-(f>6pos
szikszno-sparnis
so that Lat. i of
ris.
for
[Chap. V.
oled-ginus, as
before suffixes like Bomd-nus, dld-
Stems in -ia seem to show a similar divergence of forms,

io
4), and before a suffix via-ticus.
with
tlbl-cen
(_
O-stems appear with
83.
Gk.
-o in
Gaul. Devo-gnata, Epo-
i7r7ro-5a/xoy,
redia, Teut. Austro-valdus, &c., so that Lat.
of
magni-ficus, earlier
belli-ger,
before a labial, e. g. magnu-ficus, is probably a weakening in the unaccented

0. Lat. spellings (mostly before a labial), like Uno~
syllable of original 6.
mammia (Plaut. Cure. 445 cf. Oinu-mama, an Amazon, on an old Praenestine
;
L L.
1501), sescento-plagus (Plaut. Capt. 726), albo-gdlerus (Paul. Fest. 8.

6 Th.), Aheno-barbus may thus be genuine relics of the oldest spelling, though
late compounds like mdlo-grdndtum must be imitations of the Greek.
Before
cista, C.
i.
a vowel this -6
is elided in Latin (as in Greek, &c., e.g. iirir-aycayos), e.g.

magn-dmmus, aequ-ammitas, forms like multi-angulus being late. Lat. -10-stems
show -ie-
for
&c., but
tas,
-ii-I-
by Dissimilation
in Lucilius, &c.
13) before a suffix in socie-tas, anxie-
(ch. iv.
(cf. hostt-Us
from the I-stem
Like
hosti-\
sescento-
pldgus, &c. is 0. Lat. socio-fraudus or sociu-fraudus in Plaut. Pseud. 362.
Palatine MSS. have
o,
the Ambrosian Palimpsest
w.)
(The
Latin ro-stems show
by rule [ch. iii.

15. (8)], e. g. sacer-dos, but sometimes
law by which -ri- became -er- had been forgotten.
-er-
-rl-, e. g. sacri-fex,
after the
84.
and
ch.
I-stems had
in I.-Eur.
Gaul, tri-garanus, 0. Engl.
rp'urovs,
so Lat. tri-ennium, tri-gemmus,
iii.
15. (8)1,
became
-er-
was
e,
ter-geminus,
u, e. g. dcrufolios
0. Ind. tri-pad-,
and before a
Cato (E. E. xxxi.
Before a vowel this
legerupa Plaut.
e. g.
e. g.
(e.g.
Gk.
Lith. tri-kojis, 0. SI. tri-z^bu),

rule -ri- [at least unaccented -n-,
though by
in Latin,
by the older spelling properly

it
compounds
)?ri-fete,
labial
i),
(now become
was
as before r
y)
might be
dropped, e. g. fun-ambulus (coined by Messalla to express Gk. ffxo

Porph. ad Hor. S. i. io. 28), from *funy-ambulus, sem-ermis for *semyermis.
U stems
had
originally u (e.g. 0. Ind. svadu-rati-, Gk. j)

H. G. Hadu-mar, Lith. virszu-kalnis), so that the older
From
spelling mdnu-festus preserves the earliest form (class, mdm-festus}.
diphthongal U-stems we have nau-frdgus (see ch. iv. 46), bu-caeda beside bovicidium, bu-star and bo-star, an ox-stall (ch. iv.
42), ju-glans (Gk. Ato? @a\avos}
Dies-pitris (C. L. L. xi. 3259), Dies-pitri Arnob. ii. 70 (cf.
(Macr. iii. 18. 3).
85.
Gaul. Catu-riges
0.
Macrob. i. 15. 14 ut diei patrem ') may be a case of the declension

only of the second part of a word-group, like holus-atri for holeris atri ( 80), or
pronouns like alter-uter, alter-ufrius Gen. (ch. vii. 29). On Juppiter, see ch. vi.
<
Dies-pitrem,
32-
86. N-stems show, as we have seen ( 54), their close connexion with
O-stems, by substituting -6 for -n whether in the first half of a compound,
e. g. Gk. a.K(j.6-OfTov, stithy, from a#^cui/, Lat. homi-clda, from homo
(cf. Goth.
guma-kunds, of male sex'), or in the second, e. g. Gk. OJMUÔS beside 6/j.aifjicav.
We find also n in Gk. dvo[j.d-K\vTos, so that the en of Lat. nomen-cldtor, &c. was
l
originally n
also the
'
Composition vowel
Lat. lmagm-l-fer.
'
-6-
added
to the stem,
e. g.
Gk.
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
83-90.]
STEMS. COMPOUNDS.
365
B-stems, like N-stems, take the weak grade of the stem suffix before
g. 0. Ind. pitr-s'ravara-, Gk. rtrpa-yvos, Goth. broj>m-lubo),
(e. g. 0. Ind. pitr-artham, Gk. TraTp-cavvîos). and often add
the 'Composition vowel' 6 (e.g. Gk. -naTpo-tyovoi). Since Latin -or- for
I.-Eur. r), -ri- (for I.-Eur. -ro-} would generally become in the unaccented
For
syllable -er-, it is not easy to decide on the origin of -er- in each case.
cf. acertas on the
patri-clda, patri- CMS, &c. we should expect *patertida, *patercus
Aes Italicense. (C. I.L. ii. 6278, 1. 36, of 176 180 A.D.)
87.
a consonant, r (e.
before a vowel, r
Dental and Guttural Stems.
88.
nantal with I-stems in Latin

ped-i-sequus, teg-i-fugium,
which
The frequent interchange
34), suggests
may have been
that the
original
i.
of conso-
of dent-i-frangibulus,
It may also have been the
-i-
Composition vowel,' with these stems, in other

Gaul. Carant-o-magus,
languages [e. g. Gk.
paKovr-6-p.a.\\os, i^-o-ySoAos,
cf. 0. Ir. cing,
a warrior/ from cingim,
Cinget-o-rlx (lit. king of warriors
I march')].
Before r we should have e, e. g. legerupa (Plaut.), and before
a labial u (o) in the older spelling (see ch. iii.
18).
o,
is
often used as
'
'
'
89.
show
vowel
sition
The S-stems,
S-stems.
e. g.
like other consonant-stems in Latin, often
mur-i-cldus, jur-i-dicus, whether the i of I-stems or the Compo'

But we find also the normal stem,
6 it is not easy to decide.
'
The ES-stems took -es- in I.-Eur. com(cf. Gk. fj.ia-(f)6vos\

Gk. aattff-<p6pos (the poetical form), Goth, sigis-laun and so
before suffixes in Latin tempes-tims, hones-tus, &c., though -MS-, by Analogy of the
Nom. Sing., is found in omts-tus, &c. In Latin compounds the stem suffix is
e. g.
mus-cipula
pounds
[e. g.
either displaced by
',
-t
[the o of Gk.
ITTO-TTOJOS
(the prose form),
0. SI. Sudo-toclnu], e. g. foedi-frcigus, or augmented by it,

honor-i-ficus (cf. 0. SI. cudes-o-tocinu, Goth. aiz-a-smij>a).
a\rj96-/j-avTis,
e. g.
&c.
foeder-i-fragus,
90. Stem-suffixes and Composition in Romance. The Latin suffixes

have for the most part remained productive in Romance (e. g. Ital. cannonata
with the TO-suffix), though their meaning has sometimes undergone a change.
Thus -mo-, which has ousted -e(y}o-, the suffix denoting material ( 4), e. g.
Fr. ferrin, ivoirin, has acquired in Italian and Portuguese a Diminutive
-dceo- has taken the sense of large
sense, e. g. Ital. tavolino, Port, filhinho
size or inferior quality, e.g. Ital. corpaccio, acquaccia. And new suffixes have
been gained from other languages, such as -issa (from the Greek), a fern, suffix
used especially in titles, e.g. Ital. duchessa. Fr. duchesse -itto- with Diminutive sense, e.g. Ital. biglietto, Fr. amourette -ia (from the Greek), denoting
;
(For a full
Abstracts, e. g. Ital. villania, Span, villania, cortesia, and so on.
account of the Romance suffixes, see Meyer- Lubke, Rom. Gram. ii. pp. 448 sqq.)
Of Composition these varieties are noteworthy Word- groups like Fr. pour:
Bahuvrihi Compounds like Fr. rouge-gorge Dvandva Compounds

like Ital. acqui-vento, wind and rain
Verb with Noun (violating Scaliger's
rule\ e. g. Fr. garde-robe, Ital. guarda-boschi, becca-fico, lit. peck-fig,' with
boire
'
'
'
the Verb apparently in the 2 Sg. Imperat. (see Meyer-Liibke,
ib.
pp. 577 sqq.).
CHAPTEB
VI.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
1.
The
three
Nom
I.
NUMERALS.
DECLENSION OP NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

Noun had
three Genders, Masc., Fern., and Neut.,

Numbers, Sing., Dual, and Plur., and at least eight Cases,
v Gen., Dat., Ace., Voc. (if the Voc. may be called a Case),
I.-Eur.
Abl., Instrumental, and Locative (the Dat., Abl., Instr., Loc. are
not always easy to discriminate in the Plural). The three
Genders are retained in Latin, but of the Numbers the Dual has
disappeared, though traces of

59); Oc 1o
(1ft-
^ wo se ^ s
it
remain
^ four
'
?),
in the
Numeral forms duo
and in the Pronoun form
l
(On vi-ginti, see 74.) Of the Cases the
29)
Voc. hardly survives except in O-stems ( 31), and the Instr. has
left only doubtful traces of itself in some Adverb forms (
36) ;
the Locative became by the operation of the phonetic laws of the
amJbb (ch. vii.
language indistinguishable in A-stems from the Gen. Sg., while

in O-stems it seems to have ousted the Genitive ( 17), and in
Cons. -stems the Ablative
The
33).
I.-Eur. Cases were indicated sometimes
by the addition
of
suffixes, e. g. -s for Nom. Sg. Masc._, -m for Ace. Sg. sometimes

by modification of the stem, e. g. *p#ter Nom. Sg. of stem ^p^ter-,
}
a father/ sometimes by both, e.g. ^patr-os, ^patr-om Gen. Sg.,

This modification (called by the Germans
of the same stem.
PL
1
With the gradual
loss of these
peculiar
(in Plautus ambos
has begun to oust ambo Ace., and in
Late Latin ambis ousts ambobus) we
may compare our plural 'shoes/ with
disuse of the older suffix of 'shoon/
suffixes
a suffix
still
The Dual
retained in
'
oxen/ &c.
is
rapidly disappearing
at the present time in the Prussian dialect of Lithuanian, though
it is better pre-
in the other dialects

served.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS, ETC.
1.]
'
Abstuf ung
367
of the stem
is due to the different accentuation of

and the I.-Eur. cases have been divided into
'
Strong Cases, viz. the Nom., Voc. M. and F. of all
(i)
Numbers, and the Ace. M. and F. of the Sing, and Dual, along
with the Loc. Sing.; (2) 'Weak' Cases, where the accentuation
of the suffix weakened the stem, e.g. ^patr-os (Gk. jrarp-os).
This alternation of unweakened and weakened stem is a feature
of the Sanscrit declension, but has been effaced in most other
')
the different cases
'
languages by the natural tendency to make one Case like another

in everything but the suffix (cf. Horn. Gk. irarepos on the
Trarepa), Lat. patr-em, on the analogy of pair-is), and
often the only trace left of it is the existence of varieties of the
analogy of
same stem
e. g. the varieties polen;

(Lat. polen-td] and poll- f or
*poln- (Lat. poll-en) may be due to a former declension with the
stem polen- in the strong, and the stem poln- in the weak cases.
[The variations homen-, e.g./wmmis, Jiemon-, e.g. O. Lat. hemonem
(Paul. Fest. 71. 1 8 Th.),
and homo(n}- have been similarly ex-
The appropriation of different stems to different cases

plained.]
thus iter- is the
leads to what is called Heteroclite declension
;
stem appropriated to the Nom. Sing., itiner- the stem appropriated to the other cases in Latin [so senec- (ch. v. 69) Nom. Sg.,
but
sen(i)-
stem
(ch. v.
in the other cases, supelleg-, for super -leg-, a suffixless
77) in the
Nom.
Sg., supellectili- for super -lectili- (an
Adjectival Li-stem, ch. v. 40) in the oblique cases]. Lat. femur

~Nom.,femmis Gen., &c. retain a very ancient type of heteroclite
declension of Neuter Nouns, in which the consonant R was the
mark of the Nom.,
Ace., the consonant
N of the Gen., Dat., &c. (see
Noun it will
56). In discussing the declension of the Latin
be better to put aside the conventional division made by the native
grammarians, and to class nouns rather according to the final letter
of their stems as A-stems, O-stems, &c. The heterogeneous comch. v.
position of the fifth declension (res stem rei-, fides stem Jul-e-^
tristtties
51)
stem
tristitid-
(?))
has been already pointed out (ch.

Consonant and I- stems (ch.
also the close connexion of
v.
v.
cf. below,
46, on cimtatium^f&rentium^ auddcium, &c.), and
the absorption of the U- into the O-declension (ch. v.
49).
used
when
a
O-stems had, as we saw (ch. v.
tendency,
34),
34;
as Adjectives, to
become I-stems,
e.
g.
mermis, O. Lat. inermus,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
368
from the stem anno-
and
in
[Chap. VI.
Vulg. Lat. we find a similar confu-
sion of I-stem Adjs. with O-stems, e.g. tristis non 'tristus,' Pfob.
App. 198. ^K.(c,i.trista N., Rossi, i. 842,, of 472 A.D._, Ital.tristo).
'
In the Romance languages the Latin Declensions have been

'
to a much greater extent than the Latin Conjugations,
levelled
owing
to the fact that the distinction of the Cases
came
to be
The
expressed rather by Prepositions than by Case-suffixes.
of
the
Genitive
was
the
of
the
Dative
de,
ad,
Preposition
sign
and so on ; and these Prepositions ceased to retain their classical
construction [as early as the first cent. A. D. we have on a
peian graffito (C. I. L. iv. 275) Saturninus cum discentes].
PomThus
the Cases have been reduced in most languages to one, though

O. Fr. and O. Prov. retain the distinction of the Nom. and Ace.
(e.
g. O. Fr. chars
Nom., char Ace. of Lat. earns
suer
Nom.,
serour Ace. of Lat. soror), and in Roumanian we see the Dat.

Fern, in roase Dat. (Lat. rosae] beside roasa Nom. (Lat. rosa),&c.
More important was the distinction of Singular and Plural ; and
two Numbers are always distinguished, except (in pronunciation) in French, though a Latin Plural has often become
so the
Romance Singular, e. g. ligna, Ital. legna, liblia, Ital.

The fourth Declension has been merged in the second, a
a
which shows
itself
of Plautus (ch. v
bibbia.
process
very strongly even in the conversational Latin

in the third or first ; and forms
49), the fifth
like Span, polvo (Vulg. Lat. *pulvu& for pulvis), Ital. serpe (Vulg.
Lat. serpi- for serpens) illustrate how the 'levelling'' influence of

Analogy gradually removed the distinctions of declension. (For
particulars of the
Rom. Sprach.
ii.
Romance
declension, see Meyer-Liibke, Gram.
pp. i sqq.).
As regards Gender, the laws according to which one Noun was

Masculine, another Feminine, and a third Neuter in I.-Eur. have
not yet been determined.
The Neuter Gender seems to have
Thus while names of
been restricted to things without life.
trees were masc. (in O. Ind., e. g. bhurjas, a birch ') or fern, (in
*
Greek and Latin,
^yo^fd^ns, a
'
e.
g.
were Neuter
beech''),
names
of fruits
'
O. Ind. amram, mango-fruit/ beside amras,

(e. g.
'
mdlum
Lat.
beside mains) (see Delbruck in Brugmango-tree/
mann's Gmndriss, iii. ch. i.) ; the difference between the gender of
names of
rivers in O. Ind. (fern.)
and in Gk. and Lat. (masc.)
1.]
may
GENDER.
369
be due to the different gender of the word for river

'
'
in
these languages (O. Ind. nadi F., Gk. ôra/xos M.), just as the
names of the months, winds, &c. in Latin are really Adjectives
agreeing with mensis, ventus
(e.
Martins
g. Jdnudrius, Felruarius,
But the proneness of nouns to take

a new gender by analogy of a noun which had a similar terminCaum$, Favonius).
Auster,
ation, or a
kindred meaning, or with which they were often
1
makes it impossible to trace the original
joined in speech
of
each
and
The feminine gender seems to
gender
every noun.
have been associated with Abstract Nouns, e.g. Lat. optio,
,
'
But
choice.'
crete, it
'
if
an Abstract
might change
a centurion's assistant
its
'
Noun came
gender ; and so
was masculine.
optio in the sense of
Similarly agrwola,
'
is
lit.
'
and
became masc. in the sense of a field-tiller
the
reason
which
associated
were
A-stems,
probably
why
field-tillage,'
this
Con-
to be used as a
with the feminine gender in I.-Eur., are often masc. in the

various I.-Eur. languages (ch. v.
O-stems were similarly
2).
associated with the masculine (with Nom. Sg. in -6s) and the
neuter gender (Nom., Ace. Sg. in -6m); but we have feminine
O-stems in the various languages, e. g. Gk. 6809, Ke'Aevflo?, Aiôs,

and names of trees like (/>77yo'?, &c. In Latin (as \ve have
\lsr)(j)os,
49) we seem to detect a tendency of these feminine
O-stems to pass into the fourth declension. Thu&fdgus is treated
umbrosaelike a U-stem (fourth Declension) in the Culeas, 1. 139
seen, ch. iv.
que patent fagus (cf. Varro ap. Charis. p. 130. 5 K.) and the
declension of domus (an O-stem in the earlier literature, ch. v.
;
coins (Gk.Tro'Aos), nurm (Gk. vvos for ^vvcros)

has been so explained.
The confusion of masculine and neuter O-stems may be illus-
49
cf.
Gk.
bofjios ),
by the words collum, which in Plautus is collus (I.-Eur.

Mso-, Germ. Hals M.), and uterus which in Plautus is utemm
2
(Other exx. in Neue, i p. 529.) (On
(cf. O. Ind. udaram).
In Late and Vulgar Latin the
locus, loca Plur., &c., see
45.)
masculine seems to oust the neuter in these stems, as we see from
trated
1
Thus the fern, gender of dies
has been ascribed to the analogy of
O. Slav, domu is a U-stem, but

in Slavonic the O- and U-declensions
nox.
have been mixed up, as in Latin.
Bb
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
370
[Chap. VI.
the precepts of the grammarians [e. g. Caper (first cent.) censures pratus 105. 6 K., solius 94. 19 K., and expresses himself
forcibly about cereber 103. 6 K. hoc cerebrum est nam 'cereber'
:
'
'
qui dicunt sine cerebro vivunt], and from the sermo plebeius
of Petronius (e.g.fatus, 42, p. 28. 13 B.).
On plebeian epitaphs
we find collegium (e. g. C. I. L. xi. 4579. 4749), monimentus (e. g.
19319), and especially fatus in the stock-epitaph of the

lower classes (like our Affliction sore long time he bore ')
id. vi.
'
noli dolere
mater eventum meum.

hoc voluit fatus mihi.
properavit aetas
(On the
disuse of the
Neuter in
later Latin, see Appel,
De genere
neutro intereunte in lingua Latino, , Erlangen, 1883).

it
In the Romance languages the Neuter has disappeared, though

has influenced the formation of the Plural.
Thus O. Prov.
pratz points to pratus for pratum, but Ital. tempora Plur. (tempo
Sg.), braccia Plur. (braccio Sg.) retain the Neut. Plur. formation
5
(On change of gender see Meyer-Liibke, ii. 416.)

The Adjective Declension took advantage of the connexion of
O- stems with the masculine and neuter, and of A-stems with
tempora Jtracchia.
the feminine gender,
e.
g. I.-Eur.
N. (Lat. novuSj -a, -um) (see

formed their feminine with the
*newos M., *newa

ch.
v.
F.,
*newom
Consonant- stems
2).
*nepti F.
I-suffix, e. g. I.-Eur.
M. (Lat. neptis beside nepos.] (On the I-suffix, see

51, and on other feminine formative suffixes, as in Lat.
gall-ma beside gallus, reg-lna beside rex, consult the same chapter.)
The Greek extension to the Feminine of the masculine suffix -os
beside nepotch. v.
in
Compound
sition, is
Adjectives, which were originally
not found in Latin,
e.
Nouns
g. poSoSa/criAos 'Ha>9,
though we have
in
lit.
Appo-
Dawn
Lat. lupus
Rose-finger'
80),
&c.
in
the
A.
femina, agnus femina,
story of
59 M.,
(e. g. Ennius,
the nursing of Romulus and Remus, has
(ch. v.
in O.
indotuetur ibi lupus femina).
But a usage peculiar to Latin is the extension

the S -suffix of the Masc. and Fern., not merely
to the
Neuter of
in Present Parti-
like ferens, where ferens Neut. may represent an older

*ferewt (ch. iv.
105), and in vetus, which was probably originally
ciples
2.]
NOM. SING.
371
a noun (Gk. feros,

55), but also in Adjectives like auddx (facinus audax, Plaut.), dives (dives opus, Ovid). It is to be compared with the extension of Derivatives in -trix (properly
e. g. victrices lauros,
Virg.) to Neuters, e. g. victricia
arma, Virg., though victrix Sing, is not used with a Neuter Noun
3
till Late Latin
and cf. below,
The
p. 40
(see Neue, ii
16).
1
distinction in El-stems between the Nom. Sg. Masc. in -er, and
feminine,
the
Nom.
authors
Sg. Fern, in -ris is not always found in the earlier

has somnus acris, A. 400 M., and acer hiemps,
(e. g. Ennius
A. 471 M., and Virgil himself Ici&salacris Masc., A. vi. 685), and
not rigorously enforced even in classical Latin, e. g. mediocris
is
3
Masc., illustris Masc. (see Neue, ii p. 15).
(On the Romance
declension of Adjectives, e.g. Ital. buono M., buona F., Span,
bueno M., buena F., O. Fr. bon_, bone, &c., see Meyer-Liibke,
.
Rom. Gram,
ii,
p. 75.)
(On the Pronominal
Adjectives in I.-Eur., see ch.
vii.
declension of certain
29.)
Nom.
I.
A-stems took -a in
Sing.
Masc., Fern.
O. Ind. asva, a mare,' Gk. x c'V^)- ^Y the time of
the oldest Latin poetry this a has in every Nom. of an A-stem
been shortened to a, a shortening which may have begun in dis-
2.
I.-Eur.
'
(e. g.
syllables
of the
with short
Law of
first
e.
syllable,
g. hera,
where the working
Breves Breviantes would shorten the
final syllable,
hera like cave, have (ch. iii.

40) ; though an early reduction of
this -a, as well as of the -a of Nom. PI. Neut. of O-stems ( 45),
on Italian
soil is
Oscan both have

u, in Lat. o, in Gk.
fact that in
by the
indicated
been replaced by an 0-sound
(in Oscan alph.

and in Umbrian are written sometimes -a, sometimes -o (in
Umbr. alph. -u), e. g. Osc. vio via/ Umbr. mutu and muta
o),
'
'mulcta' (see ch.
ii.
i)
O. Lat. hosticapas (hostium captor,
Paul. Fest. 73. 10 Tli.),paricidas quoted from the Laws of Numa

(Paul. Fest. 278. 10 siqui hominem liberum dolo sciens morti
duit, paricidas esto)
Many were
(ch. v.
are
40;
often
cf.
be analogous to the Greek usage of
originally RO-stems
0. Lat. httarus). They
in Late and
Vulg. Lat. alecer,
RO-stems
Vulgar Latin,
may
e.g.
Ital. allegro
2
these
cf. Ital.
and the other
Class. Bev. ii.
B b 2
campestro, &c.
For the Umbro-Oscan forms of

case-suffixes,
pp. 129, 202, 273.
see
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
372
adding
-s to
fern.
Abstract a-stem
when
[Chap. VI.
used as a masc. Con-
vavids, a youth, from *veavid, youth, though the

usual practice in Latin is to retain the ordinary Norn, form, e. g.
crete, e.g.
'
agm-cola, a field-tiller, originally field-tillage.'
YA-stems, the fern, of consonant-stems, &c. (ch. v.
in O. Ind. take
-I,
e.
g. bharanti, Pres. Part of bhr-_,
51), which
to carry/
grandson/ in Greek -ia, e. g. tytpovara for

show
in
Latin -ia, e. g. prae-sentia, possibly also -is,
*(f)povT?/a,
e. g. *ferentis which
became/e?mw?, neptu (older Lat. -#?). Beside
napti, Fern, of napat-,
-ia (first Decl.)
The
we
find -ies (fifth Decl.), e.g. mdter-ies beside
exact relation between O. Ind.
-i, Gk. -ta, Lat.

and -ies has not yet been determined (see ch. v. 51).
6-stems took -os in I.-Eur. (e. g. O. Ind. vfkas, a wolf/ Gk.
A.UKOS, Gaul, tarvos, a bull '), and in Latin, e. g. lupus, taurus,
materia.
-ia
'
In RO-stems the final -ros,

19).
when preceded by a consonant, was changed by a phonetic process
older *lupos, *tauros (ch. iv.
common
to
Latin with other Italic languages to -er, e. g. Lat.

Umbr. ager ; even when a short
for *agro-s (Gk. aypo's),
offer
vowel precedes, we
find, e. g. Lat. socer (in
*socuros, *soceros (I.-Eur. *swekuros),
wr
Plautus socerus) for

for *viros, satur for
*satu-ros.
YO-stems, whose
suffix in I.-Eur.
seems to have varied with
(e.g. Goth, hairdeis, 'a
herdsman;' Lith. gaidys, 'a cock,' beside

show in Latin usually -ius, but in familiar
sveczias,
a guest
language
also -is, e. g. Cornells
'
')
All other stems took
-s
and other proper names.

and in Latin,
in I.-Eur.
e.
g.
ovu
(O. Ind. avi-s, Gk. o^fjis, Lith. avis), manus (O. Ind. svadus,
'
'
sweet,' Gk. fjbvs, Lith. sunus, a son'), vis (Gk. fs), sus (Gk. vy),
res (O. Ind. ras), miles for *milets (the last syllable is scanned
long by Plautus, *miless, ch. ii.

133), mUs for *mus-s, rex, &c.
S-stems have -es (e. g. I.-Eur. ^dus-menes, O. Ind. dur-manas,
Gk. bw-jjievris) or -6s (e.g. I.-Eur. *ausos, Horn. Gk. T^W?; cf.
O. Ind. usas), and so in Latin, e.g. pudes, honus M., later honor,
M.
tenor
But N-stems, which in I.-Eur.

(beside tenus N.).
-on, -en, (2) -6 (-ej[e. g. (i)Gk. KVMV, TTOLÎJV, (2) O. Ind.
O. Ir. cu, Lith. szu], show -o in Latin, e. g. Iwmo, ratio,
showed (i)
'
sva,
uirco
dog/
'
virgo
had similarly
on the very ancient Dvenos

(i) -or, -er, (2) -6, -e
inscr.
[e.g. (i)
I.-Eur. R-stems
Gk.
pjrrj/o,
3.]
NOM. SING.
373
O. Ind. mata, data, Lith. mote and mote, sesu, 'sister'], but
display only the first formation in Latin, e. g. mater dator, soror
(2)
-,
So in Umbrian
49).
(in O. Lat. *mater, dator ^ soror ; see ch. iii.
of
u
as
with
Lat. <?, but in
a
karu,
equivalent
part (Lat. card),
'
Osc. statif
'
static/ fruktatiuf
'
'
fruitatio,' uittiuf
utitio
'
with
-f
for ns, the ns being perhaps a re-formation just as carnis someUmbrotimes replaces caro in Latin (Prise, i. p. 208. 19 H.).
Oscan R-stems form

Osc. censtur
firtur,
Lat.
3.
their
'
Nom.
censor
'
like the Latin,
e.
(both with u, the
g.
Umbr.
ars-
equivalent of
0).
Worn. Sing, of A-stems in Lat.
We
have seen in
ch.
iii.
43 that
supposed instances of -a Nom. Sg. in early poetry are illusory [aquild, Enn.
A. 149 M. is a case of metrical lengthening of a short syllable before the
penthemimeral caesura copia, Plaut. Mil 1226 shows 'syllaba anceps' at the
end of the hemistich familia, Trin. 251 is a proceleusmatic (famiM) representing an anapaest, and so on]. The only genuine instances are Greek words
all
with -a which are long in later poetry too, e. g. Nemed (Stat. Theb. vi. 5161.
Greek Nominatives in -as, -775 were especially in the older literature changed
to the ordinary Latin Nom., e. g. Anchisd (Enn. A. 19 M.), Aenea (Quint, i. 5.
61 ne in a quidem atque s litteras exire temere masculina Graeca nomina
recto casu patiebantur, ideoque et apud Caelium legimus Pelia cincinnatus
et apud Messalam bene fecit Euthia,' et apud Ciceronem 'Hermagora,' ne
miremur, quod ab antiquorum plerisque Aenea' ut 'Anchisa' sit dictus),
and similarly in classical Latin poetd, nautd, bibliopold, &c. (cf. Atndd, Propert.
1
'
'
'
'
14. i ; Marsyd, Hor. S. i. 6. 120 ; and for other instances see Neue, Formeril.
PP- 3 1 s^q-)
though they usually in the classical literature retain -as, -es.
just as Greek Noms. in -77 retain e, e. g. Andromache, or take the Latin suffix.
e. g. epistuld.
Hosticapas, quoted by Paul. Fest., is a strange form. Compounds
ii.
i
'>
show
while Plautus has urbi-cdpe Voc.

the double consonant was not written
double till Ennius' time, ch. i.
8) is indeed in the Eepublican and Classical
but adjectivally
period an A-stem (e. g. pamclda Voc., Plaut. Pseud. 362
muri-clde homo Voc., you coward,' Epid. 333) however, if these Masc. A-stems
of cdpio usually
(Mil. 1055).
Paricidas
-ceps,
(i. e.
e. g.
miim-ceps,
parricidas, for
'
originally took -as in Latin, they had conformed to the ordinary usage of
Fern. A-stems as early as the beginning of the second cent. B. c. , for Plautus,
Bud. 652, has legirupa (better legerupa, ch. iii.
20) Nom. Sing, with its last
syllable elided
legerupa, inpudens, inpurus, inuerecundissimus,

originally 'the act of law-breaking,' a fern. Abstract, then
masc. and Concrete, 'a law-breaker/ cannot have been written by Plautus
The names on Oscan inscriptions (Map)as (Zv. I. 1. 1.
legerupas (ch. ii.
137).
where
legerupa,
in Enn. A. 567 M.
multa
foro ponet et agoea longa repletur,

is not a certain example. The Greek
word seems to have been dyvia, and

one MS. reads ponens ageaque.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
374
253 from Messana), Maras
(I.
F.
ii.
p.
[Chap. VI.
437 from Puteoli or Cumae), whence the
derivative Osc. Maraio-, Falisc. Mareio-, Lat. Harms (ch. v.

4), and Tanas
(Zvet. 102 from Samnium) suggest that Noms. in -as (for -as would probably
be syncopated in Oscan) were used in Oscan like Noms. in -aj, -rjs in Greek.
But they may belong
some un-Italic
to
dialect.
Hai/0/as
is
Osc.
Santia
(Zvet. 228).
BO -stems.
The
extended even to Gk.

and Euander
words when
a long syllable precedes -ros, e. g. seve-rus, susur-rus, mdtu-rus, nor in these
tribrach words humerus, numerus, uterus. Plautus has the tribrach stem socerowith Nona.
(I.-Eur. *swekuro-, 0. Ind. svaiura-, Gk. fnvpos, Lith. szesziuras)
socerus (Men. 957), and Priscian (i. 231. 13 H.) says that puerus was used by the
4.
substitution of
-er
for -ros is
Alexander, though the usage varied, e. g. Euandrus

2
It is not found in Latin
in Virgil (see Neue, Formenl. i . p. 77).
e. g.
loanwords,
older writers, though he is perhaps referring to Voc. puere, probably the invariable form of the Voc. Sg. of puer in Plautus, for puerus is not found in
any extant literature. It is not however certain that puer was originally an
O-stem, for the cognate Greek word is na(f >'8-, and the old Saturnian poets
used puer as fern, as well as masc. (see Charis. 84. 5 K. ; Prise, i. p. 232 H.),
Naevius,
e. g.
Bell.
Pun.
ii.
prima incedit Cereris Proserpina puer,

while the curious compound slave-names Marcipor,
Gaipor,
Quintipor, &c. are
I-stems, Plur. Marcipores (e. g. Plin. xxxiii. 26). Inferus, with superus, is used in
Livius Andronicus' translation of the Odyssey (at least in the later dactylic
version of
it)
an superus
inferus
but
infer
and
super
like dter (Cato,
by Cato (R.R.
Orat. fr.
tibi fert
cxlix.
Ixii. p.
65
we have always
Adjective in -rus
deus funera, Ulixes?,
ubi super inferque uicinus permittet),

Of compounds ending in Verbal
J.).
mori-gerus (e.g. Plaut. Capt. 966), pro-perus,
(jum-perus is by some explained as jun(on)i-pirus 'Juno's pear,' like ju-glans,

1
Jove's acorn,' by others is derived from *junus, cf. jun-cus, and pario), but the
,
-ger, -fer, &c. (for details, see Kiihner, Lat. Qram. i.

pp. 278 sqq.). All this points to -er having originally been substituted for -ros
only when a consonant preceded, e. g. dger for *ag-ros. After the vowel i we
find -ros curtailed to -r in mr (but pirus beside pirum) after the vowel u, in
normal usage favoured
satur (as early as
Plautus
see A. L. L. v. 34), although volturus (class, vultur,

Ennius, A. 138 M. The tendency to curtail -rus to -r
;
Gen.) is used by
increased in Vulgar Latin, as
-uris
we
see
from the Probi Appendix
197.
30 K.
non
'barbar,' although the opposite tendency (due to Greek

influence of S. Italy?) is also mentioned (ib. 198. 26) teter non 'tetrus,'
barbarus
In the Umbro-Oscan dialects -los was similarly changed

aprus.'
e.g. Osc. famel, apparently for fam-lo-, a dweller* (cf. Osc. faamat,
aper non
to
'
'
-el,
he dwells') with the same formation as Lat./^wZws, stemfig-lo- from/lgro, &c.
(ch. iv.
&c.
(cf.
51).
ch. iv.
But
this
10),
was not the Latin
usage,
e. g.
famulus, Ubulus, masculus,
though Ennius borrows from his native Oscan the form
famul in his reference to Servius Tullius (A. 336 M.)
summum fortuna repente

regno famul oftimus esset,
mortalem
reddidit, ut
summo
4-6.]
in
which he
1035)
(iii.
is
imitated by Lucretius,
who
echoes the
NOM. SING.
375
of this passage
rhythm
Scipiadas, belli fulmen, Carthaginis horror,

ossa dedit terrae proinde ac famul infimus esset.
The
S. Italian
the
Empire (Prob. App.
found their way into plebeian Latin under

28 K. figulus non
figel,' masculus non
'mascel'); but the usual Vulgar Latin form masclus is mentioned in the
same treatise (197. 20 K. speculum non speclum/ masculus non 'masclus,'
vetulus non 'veclus,' vernaculus non 'vernaclus,' articulus non articlus,'
baculus non 'baclus,' angulus non 'anglus,' jugulus non 'juglus.') (On the
curtailment of -ris and -lis, see ch. iv.
13 the restriction of -er to Masc.,
-ris to Fern. Nom. Sing, is not observed in the older literature
e. g. Ennius
has somnus acris and acer hiems cf.
i, p. 371).
forms
figel,
mascel
'
197.
'
'
YO-stems. The -is of the Nom. Sing, of Oscan. YO-stems, e.g. Pakis,
(-is would be syncopated in Oscan, e.g. cers, Lat. cms), is perhaps
indicated for Latin by the occasional spellings with -as on Greek inscriptions,
5.
Lat. Pdcius
'EAets
e. g.
is
-fis
(Lat.
Aelius)
(I.
S.
928,
very
Ostia,
ntrpcavets
late),
(Lat.
the usual Greek transcription, however, is -is.

(Neither -is nor
found till the beginning of the first century A.D. see Eckinger,
Petronius)
Alis (if we may infer this quantity from aMd, Lucr. i.

263, &c.) may have its final syllable shortened by the Law of Breves BreviIn the S. C. de Bacchanalibus (C. I.L.
antes, like cave, have, &c. (ch. iii.
42).
Orthoyraphie p. 56).
196) the consuls' names are written in what we may suppose to be the
ceremonious form, Mardus, Postumius, while the secretaries' names have the
Kitschl in a paper entitled De declinatione
is-ending, Claudi, Valeri, Minuci.
quadam latina reconditiore (Opusc. iv. 446) has collected a large number of
these proper names with -is or -i Nom. (less certainly -is Gen., -i Dat., -im Ace.)
from Latin inscrr. The form afa's,quoted from the older writers (e. g. Catull. Ixvi.
i.
'
28)
by the grammarians
may have
(see the passages
mentioned by
been specially used in collocations like
L L.
alls
Eitschl,
ib.
p. 452),
alium (so in the Vulgar
ii. 2633, of 27 A. D.
eique omnes alis alium
Sallust fragt. ap. Charis. p. 159. 31 K.), where the
two words formed a single word-group like our one another.' This byform
of the Nom. (Ace. &c.) must have led to confusion with I-stems, of which we
Latin of the Itala
receperunt),
cf. C.
alis alibi (e.g.
'
have perhaps a trace in the gradual ousting of the second Decl. suffix -arius by
the third Decl. -dris (ch. v.
4), and in the remark of Caper (112. 2 K.) that
vdtes
Ir. faith for *wati-,
fan I-stem, like 0.
Gaul, ovdreis Plur.) was in O. Lat.
vatius.
6.
I-stems.
Umbro-Oscan
of O-stems,
The
-is
dialects,
e. g.
Nom. Sing, of I-stems is syncopated in the

Osc. cevs (Lat. cms), like the -6s of the Nom. Sing,
emps (Lat. emphis), Ikuvins (Lat. Iguvinus), Osc. hurz
of the
e. g.
Umbr.
(Lat. hortus\ Bantins (La,t.Bantinus\ and the -es of the Nom. Plur. of Consonantstems, e. g. Osc. /ieSSetf for *med-dik-es Nom. Plur. of meddix, censtur for *cen-
We have seen (ch.~ iii. 16) that it is very difficult to

stor-es, Lat. censores.
prove a similar treatment of -is in Latin for Noms. like pars (for partis') Gen.
partis, may have dropped i not by Syncope, but by the Analogy of Cons.-stems
like rSx, Gen. regis, lex, Gen. legis, &c.
Like -ros, however, -ris was reduced to
-er in Latin as in Umbro-Oscan, e.g. Lat. acer for acris, Umbr. pacer for *pac;
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
376
[Chap. VI.
with Lat. pax. Ennius, who coined fdmul after the

4), used debil (Voc. Sing. ?) for debilis (A. 341 M.
debil homo), perhaps after Osc. aidil (Lat. aidilis}, &c.
Nouns with Nom.
l
ris,
propitious,' connected
type of the Oscan famel
Sing, in -Z (consul, praesul, exul,pugil, vigil, mugil, &c.) are declined as Consonantstems in Latin (Gen. Plur. consul-um, pugil-um, vigil-um, mugil-um) (see Neue,
Formenl.
though the line between Nouns in -I and Adjectives in -Us,

might be expected, often passed over. Thus Juvenal, (x. 317)
(but Mart. Cap. iii. 294 si mugilis esset
mugilium faceret.)
p. 153),
e.g. debilis, is, as
has mugilis
For vigil, pugil we should expect
'
'
'
'
*vigulus, *pugulus, like bibulus,figulus (ch.v.
22),
or with adjectival i (ch. v.

34) *vigilis, *pugilis, although -ilis has properly
a passive sense, e.g. bibilis, 'drinkable, easily drunk,' dgilis, easily moved,'
'
for *de-hibilis), 'easily handled' (ch. v.

41). Beside -is,
the usual Nom. Sing, of Masc. and Fern. I-stems in Latin, we find occasionally
-es, e.g. canes F., the 0. Lat. form which had been replaced by cams by the
hdbilis
debilis
(whence
The -es of ambages, &c., we have seen to be really

Plur. of I-stems, viz. -eyes (e. g. Lat. tres for *treyes, O. Ind.
trayas, Cret. Gk. rptfs for *rpeye$, O. SI. trije, &c.) (
40) ; it must not be
confounded with an early spelling like aidiles for aedilis on a Scipio epitaph
time of Varro
the
of the
-es
(C. I. L.
i.
nounced
31,
(L. L. vii. 32).
Nom.
aidilis on another Scipio epitaph, i. 32), where the e (promerely an expression of the -sound in an unaccented syllable,
but
e) is
like the third
of Tempestatelus for Tempestdtibus (C.
I. L.
i.
32) (see ch.
iii.
22).
This use of -es in the Nom. Sing, of I-stems led to the diversion of other stems,
which took -es in the Nom. Sing., into the I-declension. Thus plebes, if an
ES-stem by origin like Gk. TTepi-irXijOrjs (beside irA^flos) (ch. v. 74), should have
made its Gen. Sing. *pleberis, but was led by the analogy of canes, &c. into
taking a Gen. pleb-is, as on the other hand the analogy of stems like res,
Gen. rei, rel supplied the Gen. plebel, plebei and the tendency of Vulgar Latin
to replace every Nom. Sing, -es by the more familiar -is was perhaps the cause
of the forms cautis, plebis, vatis, tabis, nubis, subolis, vulpis, palumbis, luis, vepris, famis,
For the late byform molis for
cladis, prolis, censured in Prob. App. pp. 198-9 K.
;
moles (an ES-stem,
cf.
and
see Georges, Lex. Worlf. s.v.,
moles-tus'),
for other
examples, Kitschl, Opusc. ii. 654. Beside plebes, nubes, cautes, saepes, we have
plebs, nubs (used by Liv. Andronicus, according to Servius ad A. x. 636, and
frequent in the Itala), cos, saeps also trabs for older trdbes (Varro, L. L. vii. 33
sic dictum a quibusdam ut una
cujus verbi singucanes,' una trabes
;
'
'
(On these Noms. in -es, see ch. v.

and the like are discussed in ch. iii.
laris casus rectus correptus ac facta trabs.)
O. Lat.
51.)
16
(class.
Lat.
sors)
(AP)
is
changed by editors to
messis.
S-stems. Masc. and Fem.ES-stems, connected with Neuter ES-stems

ch.v.
71), took -os M. (class, -or), -es F. in Latin, e.g. honos, class.
7.
(Nom.
honor
sortis
messis of Plaut. Rud. 763
-6s,
(cf. hones-tus}, plebes (cf.
beside
Tr\rj0os,
Gen., impubes,
if/ev5ris
-eris
beside
Gk.
ir\f]6os}.
i//(v8os)
Gen.), de-gener
colos, vdpos, &c.
As Adjectives
they show
-or
in
-er
(cf.
Gk.
TTfpt-TrXrjOrjs
in puber (also pubes,
con-color, bi-corpor (ch. v.
73).
-eris
The
was not quite ousted by -or (taken from the

oblique cases, honoris, honorem, &c., where s came between two vowels, ch. iv.
2
148) till the Augustan period (for details, see Neue, Formenl. i p. 167).
-os of honos, Idbos,
Sallust, according to Servius
and
-os
8.
ad A.i. 253, almost always used the form
was persistently retained in monosyllables,

N-stems.
We
find -en in pecten
M. (Gk.
labos
e.g.flos, ros.
Kreis
M.
for *irKTevs,
Gen.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS, ETC. NOM. SING.
7-10.]
377
and lien (the e is attested by Prise, i. 149. 7 H., Mart. Cap. iii.
which often has its last syllable scanned long by the Latin
poets (always sanguen or sanguls in Lucretius, Munro ad Lucr. i. 853), may
144), a patchwork of the old Nom. *8angui, with
represent *sanguins (ch. ii.
the oblique cases *sanguen~es Gen., &c. (For this declension of some I.-Eur.
The
34.)
neuters, e.g. 0. Ind. aksi Nom., aksnas Gen., 'the eye,' see ch. v.
scansion sanguis brought with it the treatment of the word as an I-stem,
sanguem Ace., sanguis Gen. &c. (see Georges, Lex. Worif. s. v.).
fldmen,
Sanguis M.,
279).
I.-Eur. *nau-s (O. Ind. naii-s, Gk. vav-s~) is Latin

I.-Eur. *gS6us (0. Ind. gau-s, Gk. /3oOs) is Lat. bos, but the b- points
to the form being dialectal ; the stem rey- (O. Ind. ras Nom., ray-as Gen.)
probably formed its I.-Eur. Nom. Sing, as *re-s, and so in Lat., res. I.-Eur.
9.
navis
Diphthong Stems.
*d(i)yeu-s, 'the sky, day' (0. Ind. d(i)yaus, Gk. Zeus) has in Latin in the sense
of day the Nom. die-s, while for the name of the sky-god a compound is
*
'
130. p. 116) for *Jw-pater, probably

used, Juppiter (the correct spelling, ch. ii.
in the Yoc. case, unless Jeu- be the stem (ch. v.
85 cf. Jani-patri, C. I. L. xi.
The grammarians point out the incongruity of a declension like Jup5374).
;
Nom., Apollinis Gen.' Mar. Sacerd.

us that in the old liturgical books the word was declined
Juppiter Nom., Juppitris Gen., &c. (Pompeius 172. 25
187. 9 K.), or Jon's Nom.,
Jovis Gen., Prise, i. 229. 10 H.).
We have zovos Nom. on an old Praenestine
piter'Nom., Jovis Gen. ('as absurd as Phoebus
473.
and
K.),
tell
cista (C. I. L. xiv. 4105), also \_Die\spater (Bull. 1887, p. 232), Diesptr (C. I. L. i. 1500) ;
&c. Diespiter is not unknown (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.
For the Nom. we should expect *dieus
Juppiter). Dies is like the Accus. diem.
and in Plautus,
(Gk. Zeus), with eu from
eu,
which would become
in Latin
clius (cf.
nu-dius-
tertius ?).
10. Worn., Ace. Sing. II. Neut. Neuter O-stems in I.-Eur.

have their Nom. Sing, in -6m, the suffix of the Ace. Sg. Masc.
all others use the bare stem, ES-stem Nouns taking however -os,
;
N-stems
-n,
NT-stems
So in Latin,
-nt, &c.
e.
g.
jugum
(older
yugam, Gk.
ffyoV), mite
(I.-Eur.
see
ch.
Ind.
iii.
O.
suci, 'pure,'
%u);
(older *mitl;
37) (cf.
nomen with *en for I.-Eur. -n (O. Ind nama ; cf Gk. ovopa); ferens
from *ferent (ch.iv. 105) with -ent for I.-Eur. -nt (O. Ind. bharat),
^yugom, O.
jugorri).
Ind.
Gk
genus (older genos) (I.-Eur. *genos, Gk.

Ind. hrd
cf.
Gk.
xfjp
for *Ki]pb).
{
e.g.
ye'ôs),
cor for *cord (O.
U-stems have in I.-Eur.
^medhu/ mead/ *swadu, sweet
'
(O. Ind.
madhu,
svadii,
-u,
Gk.
and similarly Latin Neuter Nouns have
-u, e. g. pecu,
in Latin,
into
the
I-declension
(U-Stem Adjectives passed
suave
is
a
doubt
with
ch.
But
there
see
v.
regard
e.g.
47).
to the quantity of the -u.
Most grammarians declare it to be
fjLeOv, rjbv)
cornu
short, while Priscian
(i.
362. ii H.) controverts their opinion,
and proves by quotations from the poets that
it is
long.
(For
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
378
details, see
Neue, Formenl.
2
.
p. 345).
The
[Chap. VI.
existence of byforms
but there seems to
like pecus, cornum, &c. obscures the question,
doubt that with the Augustan poets cornti, &c. was the
The long vowel has not yet been satisfacrecognized scansion.
be
little
torily
Brugmann, Grundr. ii.

223 for the
Neuter
Nom. of
The
below,
45).
explained (see
various theories,
and
cf.
consonant-stem adjectives has been assimilated to the Masc. and

Fern, form, e. g.felix for *fellc (cf. allec N., allex Y^du-plesofot
*dn-plec (Umbr. tu-plak)
(cf.
above,
],
p. 370).
11. O-stems.
We find -um lost in nihil, nil, from nihilum, a compound of
and hllum (quod grano fabae adhaeret, Paul. Fest. 72. 10 Th.), a loss
which seems due to elision before a vowel (ch. iii. 52). From phrases like
nihil(um) hoc est on the one hand, and nihilum dicit on the other, the doublets
nihil and nihilum would come into use, and no doubt existed for a long time
side by side till the less cumbrous nihil, nil ousted its rival. Similarly won for
ne
'
'
'
'
ne-oenum, like our nought for ne-aught,' 6 being substituted for u (older oe]
because of the monosyllabic form or the unaccented character of the Conl
junction (but see ch.

raklum sacraculum
'
x.
'
('
18).
The Umbro-Oscan neuters have -6m, Osc. sakadonum,' Umbr. esonom, a sacrifice.
'), dunum
a shrine
'
Final e is dropped by Syncope (cf. ch. iii.

an 0. Lat. form of facile, e. g. Accius, Trag. 460 K.
12. I-stems.
like/acw?,
36) in Neuters
erat istuc uirile, ferre

volup, Neut. of a lost Adj. *volupis,
uolup.
(On the question whether
aduorsam fortunam
facul,
Plaut. Gas. 784 facite nostro animo

volupest is rightly divided into volupe est or
e. g.
est, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.).

Similarly the old Nom. lade, with
the I-stem form (e. g. Plaut. Bacch. 19. 1 134, Men. 1089, Mil. 240) became
lact [Plaut. True. 903 (?), Varro, L L. v.
104], classical lac (see Georges s. v.).
into volup
The uncertainty of the grammarians of the Empire about

13. TJ-stems.
the quantity of -u of fourth Decl. Neuters may be due to the fact that in later
Latin the fourth Decl. was being supplanted by the second Decl. (ch. v.
Priscian elsewhere (i. 161. 26 H., &c.) corrects the extraordinary
49).
statement of Charisius (fourth cent.) (22. 15 K.) and others, that the -u of
-us in fourth Decl. Noms. masculine was pronounced long, a quantity indicated
neither by poetry nor by the orthography of inscriptions.
The I.-Eur. Nom. Sg. -6s of Neut. ES-stems, and -6s of

14. S-stems.
Masc. ES-stems, remained distinct in Latin, e. g. 0. Lat. opos (C. L L. i. 52),
In course of time Neut. -as sank to -us, opus (see ch. iv. 20), Masc. -6s
honos.
became by Analogy of the oblique cases (honor-is, honor-em, &c.) -or, then -or,
owing to the difficulty of sounding a long vowel before a final -r (ch. iii. 49).
There are a few indications of a temporary formation of Neuter Noms. in -or,
e. g. color (Plaut. Merc. 860 neo calor nee frigus metuo), prior bellum (Claudius
Quadrigarius ap. Prise, i. p. 347. 7H.), bellum Punicum posterior ^Cassius Hemina
11-17.]
GEN. SING.
379
53 below). Priscian (I. c.\ who quotes some instances of

Neut. Comparatives in -or from the old historians, says vetustissimi etiam
neutrum in or finiebant, et erat eadem terminatio communis trium generum,
thus hinting that the justification of this usage was the Analogy of Adjectives
of one termination for Masc., Fern., Neut., like audax, fetix. And it is possible
that a Neuter in -ur (older -or like robur (robor Ace., Varro, R. R. iii. 7. 9) took
-r for -s in the Nom. from the oblique cases robor-is, robor-i, &c., for Cato (R. R.
xvii. i) uses the form robus, or from an Early Latin Masc. by form [if we may
trust Paul. Fest. u. 20 Th. robosem' pro robore (dicebant antiqui)].
But in
spite of these occasional deviations, Latin writers hold with great persistence
to the rule that a Neuter ES-stem has a Nom. in -us (older -us), a Masc. ES-stem
ap. eund.) (cf.
'
in
-or
The -MS, not only
e.g. tenus N., tenor M., decus N., decor ~M..,fngus N.,/n0orM.
of Neut. Nouns, but also of Neut. Comparatives, is invariably
short in Plautns
and the older poetry
(older
-or, -os),
(Miiller, Plant. Pros. p. 55).
15. R-stems.
Neuter R-stems show usually -ur (older -or), apparently
representing I.-Eur. -r, but occasionally -er, e.g. uber (0. Ind. udhar-, Gk.
The obsolete word aser, blood (cf. Cret. Gk. Zap, 0. Ind.
ovOap}, in Latin.
dsr-k, asn-as Gen., Lett, asins), is of doubtful spelling [cf. Paul. Fest. 12. 19 Th.
'
assaratum apud antiques dicebatur genus quoddam potionis ex vino et

Gl.
sanguine temperatum, quod Latini prisci sanguinem assyr vocarent
'
'
'
Philox. asaer
16.
(leg.
-er)
aTpa],
S in Nom. Sg. Neut. of Adjectives.
This, if we may believe the

g.facinus audax, Aul. 460 (so Ter. Phorm. 233, &c.),
aururn). Men. 546, sagax nasum, Cure, no, and occurs in the ancient
as old as Plautus,
MSS.,
is
duplex
(sc.
e.
phrase quod bonum faustum felix forttmatumque sit. (For examples, e.g. dives opus,
3
Ovid, pondus iners, Cic., see Neue, ii p. 22). Similar is the extension of the
suffix -trie-, properly fern., to neuter Adjectives, e. g. victricia arma,\iTg. A. iii. 54
(though victrix Sg. is not used as neut. till Late Latin). [Does concapit of the
XII Tables (ap. Fest. 556. 27 Th. tignum iunctum aedibus uineaue et concapit
ne soluito) point to an earlier use of the bare stem for the Neuter ?].
.
A-stems took
Gen. Sing.
17.
in I.-Eur. -as
(e.
Gk. x^P^>
g.
Goth, gibos, Lith. rankos), and similarly in the Umbro-Oscan

languages,
6
e.
g.
Umbr.
'
tutas, later totar
civitatis,'
Osc. eituas
But a rival
g. escas, Liv. Andr.
of
doubtful
in
which
the
literature
oldest
formation,
origin,
appears
as dl (dissyllabic) ultimately established itself in exclusive use in
pecuniae,' and in O. Lat,
the form
e.
In Greek we
find Masc. A-stems taking the

Horn. 'Arpcibdo like AtoAoo, and it has been
suggested that Lat. -dl began in Masc. Nouns such as agncola^
and took its -i from the Gen. of the second
advena, &c. (
2),
O-stem
Decl.
-ae.
suffix,
i.
g.
Similarly fifth Decl. stems show
O. Lat ,/'&&?
A.
e.
class.,
636, also (like
re~i,
-cis
ret,
and
-el
later -ei,
-i, e.
min the Dramatists,
from A-stems), O. Lat. fades,
g.fulei
dii,
dies.
Virg.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
380
[Chap. VI.
O-stems, which in Umbro-Oscan show the I-stem
suffix,
have
in Latin, as in Celtic, a long z-sound, e. g. Lat. nail, vwl, Gaul.

Ate-gnati, O. Ir. eich for *eci, of a horse/ which one would have
'
no
difficulty in
37)5
were
it
regarding as the Locative suffix of O-stems, -ei

not that it is written -i and not -ei in the
oldest Latin inscriptions.
For lO-stems indeed a Gen.
-1
would
and it is possible that

naturally go with a Nom. -Is (
5)
the suffix, or at any rate the spelling of the suffix, has been
extended from these over all O-stems.
;
I-stems have
-ois in
-eis_,
various languages
(e.
g. Goth, anstais
for I.-Eur. -ois) ; and in Umbro-Oscan we have -eis, e. g. Umbr.

ocrer, of the citadel (Lat. ocris), a suffix extended to consonantstems and even to O-stems, e. g a Osc. carneis, of a part (Lat.
'
cam-is), sakarakleis,
of a shrine
Latin the consonant-stem

too,
i.
e.
g. partts
like
suffix
reg-%s
'
(Lat.
(cf
But
*sacrdculi).
has enforced
itself
Castorus
partus like
in
on the I-stems
^
C. I. L.
197).
U-stems seem similarly to have had -eus, -ous (e. g. Goth,

of a son,' for I. Eur. -ous), and so in Umbro-Oscan, e. g.
sunaus,
Umbr.
'
trifor
tribus/ Osc. castrovs
'
fundi/ Lat. mantis,
ably with -ous from I. Eur. -eus (ch. iv.

form of domu's affected by Augustus,
coexistence in Latin of I.-Eur. -ous
on Lat. 5 for I.-Eur.
is
35).
Whether
all probthe Gen.
viz. domos, points to
uncertain
ch. iv.
(cf.
the
41,
common
formation, perhaps the

ou).
usual one in the careless talk of every-day life, in which the fourth
Decl. seems to have been greatly merged in the second (ch. v.
49),
was -I, the O-stem
This is the normal genitive in

and even Quintilian in the first
impossible to decide whether senati or
genitive.
the Dramatists of the Republic
cent. A. D.
declares
senattis
proper Gen. of sendtus.

Occasionally the
the suffix proper to u-stems like sus, socrus,
to i-stems like vis (O. Lat. Gen. vis).
is
the
Dramatists have
as -*iis, -ts
it
-MIS,
Consonant-stems show
-es in
some languages
(e.
g.
O.
SI.
dm-e,
of a day/ with -e from -es), -os in others (e. g. Gk. TroijueVoj).

Latin -is, on old inscriptions -es, shows the former suffix, while
the -us occasionally written on inscriptions seems to be a
'
relic
(-os)
To make -is a weakening of earlier -us

an unlikely theory, seeing that -us (-os) of the Nom.
of the latter.
is
18.]
Sg. of Neuter ES-stems, &c., e.g. genus>

to
The A-stem Gen.

ii.
it is
ojpus,
381
was not weakened
-is.
-es,
ch.
GEN. SING.
(pronounced -es with the open E-sound,

a
33)
probably feature of the Italian-Greek patois, for
practically confined to epitaphs of the uneducated classes
-aes
is
(from the last century of the Republic). It is merely an expression in Roman letters of the Greek Genitive- ending -77?
(with open E). Hedonei (C.l.L xi. 3316 Forum Clodi), may
be an example of a Greek name in -77 taking a Genitive after

the analogy of Latin fifth Decl. stems (or for Hedonii ?)
This form is proper to the Saturnian and
(i) In -as.
Epic poetry. Thus escas, Monetas, Latonas are quoted by Priscian
(i. p. 198 H.) from Livius Andronicus, Terras and fortunas from Naevius, vias
from Ennius. (For other passages of the grammarians treating of this
2
Servius favours the reading auras for
Genitive, see Neue, Formenl. i
p. 5.)
aurae in Virg. A. xi. 801, and in his note on the passage mentions that some
interpreted custddias as a Gen. Sg. in a passage of Sallust castella custodias
thensaurorum in deditionem acciperentur. A relic of the old usage survived
A-stems.
18.
earliest
in legal phraseology, so conservative always of old words and ceremonies, in

the terms pater famUias, mater familias, fllius (-a) familias. But this form is
unknown to the conversational language of the Dramatists [Alcilmenas in the
Argument (post Plautine) of the Amphitruo, 1. i, is an imitation of the
antique], and must have been in their time out of use.

stated in Studem. Stud. ii. p. 21.)
(A contrary view
is
(2) In -CM, class, -ae.

Dissyllabic -CM is not infrequent in Plautus, and is
perhaps found in Terence (Rhein. Mus. 1893, p. 305), while in Lucilius it
is allowed in hexameters only (e. g. Tlresiai, v. 43 M.), not in the dramatic
and it is used
metres. Lucretius is especially fond of this early form
;
occasionally by Cicero, Virgil,

2
Neue, i p. 12).
poetry (xi. 90. 5)
To Martial
it
and other Epic writers (for instances, see

seems typical of the uncouth early Latin
attonitusque legis
terrai frugiferai,'
Accius et quicquid Pacuviusque vomunt.
The
rarity of the elision of the final
-i
of
-CM,
as of
-el
[Plaut. Bacch. 307
more or less doubtful

instances], may be an indication that the ending had already at the beginning of the second cent. B.C. ceased to be quite two distinct syllables, though
it is scanned as a spondee.
The change to -ae would probably begin by the
Diana(i) Ephesiae
Pers.
409 pecunia(i)
accipiter,
are
shortening of the a before the following vowel, so that ai (classical
-ae}
would differ from -CM in Plautus very much as his pronunciation Chms (Adj.
pms from Chius, plus (ch. ii. 143). Though written -ai on early inscriptions
(for example on the old Praenestine vases and mirrors) it need not have been
pronounced otherwise than the diphthong
ai of aidilis, &c. (ch. iv.

29), precisely as the archaistic spelling of a later metrical inscription (C. I. L. vi. 555)
offers as a spondee ripai.
Another inscription of no early date (i. 1202),
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
382
seems to show
[Chap. VI.
-ai with -I elided

non aevo exsacto vital es traditus morti).
[For passages of the grammarians referring to this Genitive in -ai, see Neue,
i*. p. 9, e.g. Quint, i. 7. 18 unde
'pictai vestis' et 'aquai' Vergilius amantissimus vetustatis carminibus inseruit. Servius on A. vii. 464 says that Virgil
ended the line with aquae amnis (leg. vis ?), which was changed by Tucca
and Varius to aquai].
:
'
'
A list of
'
Greek genitives in
-aes
from plebeian epitaphs
is
given by Neue,
On two bricks of the same year (123 A. D.) from the manufactory of
p. 13.
Flavia Procula we have (C. I. L. xv. i. 1 157-8) Flaviaes Prodaes and Flaviae Procule.
i
[Cf. no.
1425 Seiaes Isauricae (123-141 A.
D.),
but usually Seiae
Isauricae.~]
Some would connect Lat. -cfi, -ae with O. Ind. Gen. -ayas, Dat. -ayai (used in
the Brahmanas for the Gen.) of A-stems, the yo f which forms is of doubtful
The
origin. The derivation of Lat. -al from an earlier *-ais is impossible.
'
Prosepnais 'of a Praenestine mirror (C. J. L. i. 57) is really Prosepnai,

a Dative, not a Genitive (see Rhein. Mus. 1887, p. 486).
supposed
and
is
19. Fifth Decl. Stems. The Genitive of these stems is discussed by Aulus
Gellius in the fourteenth chapter of Book ix of the Noctes Atticae. In old copies
(aliquot veteribus libris) of the History of Claudius Quadrigarius he found
meminimus enim in
fades Gen. sometimes with facii added in the margin
:
eodem Claudii libro scriptum utrumque

'facies' et 'facii.'
Sed 'facies' in ordinem (in the text) scriptum fuit, et
contra (in the margin) per i geminum facii.' He quotes dies from Ennius
(Ann. 433 M.) and from Cicero, pro Sest. xii. 28: equites vero daturos illiusdies
poenas (where our MSS. read diei, but where Gellius found dies in the older
copies
inpensa opera conquisitis veteribus libris plusculis), and mentions
a report that in a 'liber idiographus' of Virgil the line (G. i. 208) was
Tiburti bibliotheca invenire nos in
'
written
Libra dies somnique pares ubi fecerit horas 1
He
adds examples of -ii (Nom. -ies}, -i (Nom. -es} from early literature, fami
from Cato and Lucilius, pernidi from Sisenna and Cicero, progenii from Pacuvius, adi and spedi from Matius, luxurii from C. Gracchus, and supports the
munera laetitiamque dii (quod inperitiores
reading dii in Virgil, A. i. 636
dei
legunt, ab insolentia scilicet vocis istius abhorrentes).
Finally he
:
'
'
summons
the authority of the great Dictator for die, specie, &c. sed C. Caesar
in libro de Analogia secundo 'hujus die' et 'hujus specie' dicendum putat,
and supports this form from an old MS. of Sallust ego quoque in Jugurtha
:
Sallustii
summae fidei et reverendae vetustatis libro
'
die
'
casu patrio scriptum
where two of our MSS. have die, the rest

(The passage
2
diei.) (For the remarks of other grammarians on this point, see Neue, i p. 375.)
From his account we gather that forms like die, specie, were grammarians'
inveni.
is Jug. xcvii. 3,
coinages designed to restore the actual forms dii, spedl to the proper e-type
of stem.
At the same time the tendency to Dissimilation, which in the
middle of a word turned il to ie in dlienus, &c., may have been to some extent
operative in certain collocations of these words, e. g. dii-festi, dii-natalis, &c.
12 a (9)]. The spelling diei, spedei, &c., in early literature and
[see ch. iii.
inscriptions,
may often have represented dii, spedl,
The form
dies
in the Cicero
the
-ei
being diphthongal as
would, however, produce cacophony with
and Virgil
passages.
its
repetition of
19, 20.]
GEN. SING.
383
in the old spellings deico,feido (ch. iv.

34). Gellius mentions (I. c.) the theory
of some grammarians that die, specie were Ablative forms used as Genitives,
and modern philologists have made them Locatives, like die crastini, &c. ( 37).
The rule of the grammarians of the Empire is that in the approved Gen.
form, dissyllabic
494),
Mil.
e. g.
the
-ei,
is
short after a consonant, long after a vowel,
In Plautus and Terence we rarely find rei e. g. Plaut. Men.

but usually monosyllabic rei, hardly ever the ceremonious form rel,
e. g. fidei,
diei.
(prol.)
103 magnai rei publicai gratia (post-Plautine
?)
similarly
always dissyllabic in Terence and usually in Plautus (but twice fidel)

spei is never a dissyllable.
(Seyffert, Stud. PZ.-p. 25.)
(Compare the usage of
the dramatists with regard to the Pronoun Dat. Sg. el, el, and el, ch. vii.
19.)
The normal shortening of e in hiatus (ch. ii.
143) would be hindered when
i preceded, e. g. diei.
Of the elision of the final -i of dissyllabic -ei examples
(more or less doubtful) are Plaut. Aul. 68 Malae rei euenisse, Poen. 479 Quoi
rei ? Ad fundas uiscus ne adhaeresceret, &c.
(Other examples of all these
forms of the Gen. of fifth Decl. stems, e. g. rabies in Lucr. iv. 1083
fidei is
quodcumque
est, rabies
unde
illaec
germina surgunt,
in Varro, Ep. ad Fuflum meridiem die n&tsilis, fide in Hor.

stantis juvenem fide, see in Neue, Z. c.
die
C. iii. 7.
4 con-
20.
O-stems and lO-stems.
The grammarians
tell
us that
Valeri, Vergili,
&c. were accented on the second syllable, that is to say they were accented as
if they were contractions of Valerii, &c. (ch. iii.
10. 4), though whether this
accentuation was due to tradition or to grammarians' rules is open to question.

Lucilius' rule for the use of the single symbol i for a Singular case, e. g. pueri
Gen. Sg., and of the double symbol ei for a Plural, e. g. puerei Nom. PL has
been mentioned in ch. i. 9.

The earliest form of the 0-stem Gen. Sg. suffix is -i, e. g. Saeturni pocolom
C. I. L. i. 48
from the time of Lucilius to the end of the Kepublic -ei, which
had come to be an expression of the long i-sound (ch. i. 9) is also found,
In Faliscan we have -oi in
e. g. populi Romanei on the Lex Agraria of in B. c.
the one instance of the Gen, Sg. of an 0-stem, Zextoi Sexti on a rude inscr.
on a tile (Zvet. 1. 1. 1. 73) I0-stems (with Nom. in -io or -es) have -i, e. g.
Acarcelini (ib. 62), Caui (ib. 49) (also -es?). On the use in the Gen. Sg. of
lO-stems of -i (the older form) and -ii (Propertius, Ovid, &c.), see Neue,
Formenl. i 2 pp. 85-94. The passages which he quotes from the grammarians
make it clear that -ii was a grammarian's restoration on the Analogy of
;
'
'
1
The suggestion of -ii seems to
have been made as early as Lucilius,
who
way
proposed to distinguish in this

the Gen. of Numerius from the
Gen. ofnumerus. The phrase servandi

numeri should, he said, mean for the
purpose of keeping tune' (inc. 66 M.):
'
'
seruandi numeri
numerum
ut
seruemus modumque.
This use of the Gen. of the Gerundive
indicate purpose
to
(cf.
Aegyptum
cognoscendae antiquitatis, Tac.) is a genuine Latin construction (see Weisweiler, Der finale
Gen. Gerund. 1890), and is found in
proficiscitur
Umbrian,
e.g. esono- . . . ocrer pihaner

arcis
piaridae'
(Tab.
'sacrificium
Ig.
vi.
A.
18),
verfale
pitfe
arsfertur
peihaner 'tempium (?1 ubi

_
,
.,
flamen versatur arcis piandae (ib.
trebeit ocrer
vi
A.
8).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
384
O-stems,
-i
Adjective 10-stems have -ii,

fluvii of Virg. A. iii. 702
the actual historical development.
patrii sermonis, Lucr.
e. g.
[See Neue,
ii
3
.
[Chap. VI.
44
p.
(Gela fluvii cognomine dicta) has been explained as an Adj.]

21. TJ-stems.
we have
sendtuos,
200, of in B. c. i. 547, of 141 or 116 B. c.), (cf. lad

see Mommsen's note)
and in the Comedians and
is the usual form (cf. Prise, i. 257. 18 H.), occasionally -uis
(i. 199, of 117 B.

584, of 82-79 B.C.,
senati
i.
On the S. C. de Bacchanalibus of 186 B. c. (C. I. L. i. 196)

but in inscriptions of the latter part of the second cent. B.C.
Tragedians
-i
c.
i.
and
287 eius anuis causa. Gellius (iv. 16. i) tells us that

approved -uis, e. g. senatuis, domuis, a form
which sticklers for Analogy defended by the Dat. Sg. senatui, since patri, dud,
caedi had as Genitives patris, duds, caedis.
According to Mar. Victorinus
(9. 4 K.), Augustus used domos for domus Gen. (divus Augustus genetivo casu
hujus 'domos' meae per o, non ut nos per u litteram scripsit. Cf. Suet.
Aug. 87). (For other passages of the grammarians dealing with the Genitive
(dissyll.), e. g. Ter. Heaut.
Varro and Nigidius
(first cent. B. c.)
of M-stems, see Neue, i 2 p. 352). The -uos of senatuos must be the u-stem Gen.
with the I.-Eur. Gen. suffix -os (see below), as the -uis of anuis is the u-stem
Gen. with the I.-Eur. Gen. suffix -es. But the -MS of senatus, anus can hardly
be derived by the ordinary processes of phonetic change from either for -MOS,
-uis would naturally become -vos (-us}, -vis (cf. mlluos, Plaut., milws in class.
Lat., mort(o)us in Late Lat., ch. iv.
71).
In Faliscan we have (Zvet. 1. 1. 1. 70) de zenatuo sententiad, where the
final -s of zenatuos (Lat. senatuos) has been dropped before the following
initial s-.
Oscan senateis shows the same Gen. suffix as the O-stems.
.
22.
The frequency
Consonant-stems.
of the Gen. -us in S. Italian
565 (Capua, 108 B.C.), Eph. Epigr. viii. 460

i. 1183
(Casinum), i. 1495 (on a tile, now at Naples),
Cvrerus, i. 566 (Capua, 106 B.C.), i. 568 (Capua, 104 B.C.), Honorus on the Lex
Pariet. Fac. i. 577 (Puteoli, 105 B. c., a copy), may be due to the influence of
the Greek Gen. in -os [so reg-us (with sodetdtis) on a bilingual Greek and Latin
inscr. of 81 B.C., Not. Scav. 1887, p. no], but this Latin suffix cannot have
been merely a usage of Italian-Greek patois, like -aes in Gen. of A-stems. It
is found on so early inscriptions as the S. C. de Bacch. (i. 196) with nommus,
and the old Praenestine cippus (xiv. 2892) with Salutus, and on various
official inscriptions, e. g. the Epistula ad Tiburtes (i. 201, of c. 100 B. c.) with
Kastorus, the Lex Agraria of in B. c. (i. 200) with hommus, praevdricdtionus, the
Lex Bantina (i. 197, of 133-118 B. c.) with Castorus and even partus (an I-stem),
and may be the correct reading in Lucil. ix. 28 M. foris subteminus panust.
2
(Other examples in Neue, i p. 191, such as the soldier's message of defiance
cut on a glans used at the siege of Perusia L. Antoni calve, peristi C.
Caesarus victoria, C. I. L. i. 685).
The Genitive in -es on old inscriptions may sometimes be dialectal with -es
for -eis (the I-stem Gen., extended in the Umbro-Oscan languages to Consonant-stems), e.g. Umbr. matrer, nomner (cf. Osc. maatreis 'matris'), but is
more naturally regarded as -es, the older spelling of classical -is (as early as
c. 180 B. c.,fldmmis, C.I.L. i. 33) (cf. ch. iii.
18).
Examples are C.I.L. i. 49
inscriptions, e.g. Venerus,
(Capua, 108 B. c.), C. I. L.
C. I. L. i.
i. 187 (Praeneste) Apolones dederi, i. 8n

(Eome?) [C]ereres.
a possible byform -s, of the Gen. Sg. suffix, seen in the 0. Lat. Adverb
(Orte) Salutes pocolom,
On
nox,
'by night' (Gk.
VVKTOS), see ch. ix.
3.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS, ETC. DAT. SING.
21-23.]
23. Dat. Sing.

the long" diphthong
The Dat.
-ai
(e.
Sing, of A-stems had in I-Eur.

In Latin and the
-û>pa).
Gk.
g.
Umbro-Oscan languages we
(Osc. -ai, Umbr. -e, Lat. -ae,
385
find the
older
ordinary
diphthong
-ai
Whether in O. Lat. -a
it did, we must
suppose
-ai).
not quite certain.

If
-d and -ai to have been doublets, both sprung from original
-ai, just as atqne and ac (for *atc) were doublets, the one representing the sound which at with the enclitic que took before
existed beside -ai
is
a word beginning with a vowel, the other
consonant
(ch.
ii.
O-stems had
136
its
sound before a
ch. iv.
45).
similarly in I.-Eur. the long
;
diphthong -oi (e. g.

In
Latin
the
most
ancient
inscriptions we have -oi
iTTTrw).
with the quantity of the o unascertainable (Umbro-Oscan seem
Gk.
have had the ordinary diphthong -oi, in Oscan -ui, in Umbrian

but in all other inscriptions and in classical Latin, -o. This
-e),
to
generally regarded as doublets, like -d and -ai of

the
A-stems,
long vowel having survived the struggle for
in
existence
the one declension, the diphthong in the other.
-oi
and
-o are
As regards Fifth Deel. Stems, we have seen (ch. iv. 47) that
the doublets -ei (the long diphthong) and -e probably existed in
I.-Eur. times.
If Gellius is right in saying kh&t facie, &c. were
regarded as the correct forms by the older writers, this may indicate
that the latter gained the day in Latin.
The alternative Dative
which he mentions, /km, may then be the Genitive form (facil

for older faciel faomfaciei), which was adapted to the dative use
on the Analogy of third Decl. datives in -I (just as the classical
faciel seems to be a Genitive form), though some prefer to regard
it
as a relic of the I.-Eur.
'
doublet '-suffix
I-stems have in Latin -, older
ei-.
probably (like the Genitive

22) a loan from Consonant-stems,
The Umbro-Oscan termination was -ei
-ei,
in -fo, older -es, also -us,
and
so originally -ai.
(Osc. -ei,
Umbr.
-e),
as in Consonant-stems.
U-stems have -ul in Latin, which

either
of
'
sunave,
is equally traceable to
the I.-Eur. suffixes, -ewai and -wai (e.g. O. Ind.
to a son,' and lisv
The occasional Latin
to a child.'
forms in -u are
(
'
(cf.
Umbrian
'
trifo
tribui
37)5 according to some,
Instrumental
Consonant-stems had
(-ai? ch. iv.

c c
-ai
')
really
(
36).
3) in I.-Eur.
(e.
Locatives
g. O. Ind.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
386
'
to a dog,'
sun-e,
da-man-e
Inf. used as Imper.
written
(sometimes
first
to
-ei,
(?),
then to
Gk.
Inf.,
5o-/jie^-at Inf.,
81), in
ch. viii.
[Chap. VI.
Latin
Lat. Ugiminl
from older
-l
-ei
the diphthong -ai being weakened

the unaccented syllable, as ai of oc-caitlo
-e),
-I in
In Umbro-Osc. this
ei, occeido, and 2, occulo (ch. iii.
18).
weakening does not seem to have taken place, so that their -ei
to
(Osc.
-ei, e. g.
Umbr.
medikei
'
meddici/ chief magistrate, [AjTreAAovmjt ;

nomne) can hardly represent I.-Eur. -ai.
-e, e. g. patre,
24. A-stems. Dissyllabic -ill is not found in the Dat. of A-stems, but
only in the Gen. (terrai frugiferai, Enn. A. 605 M. is, like Virgil's aulai medio,
with which Charisius couples it, a Genitive, so correct 'dativo' in Char.
uiul sternendai, Lucil. xi. 5 M., even if the reading is right (MSS. vim
19. i K.
sternenda et), is anything but a certain example (see L. Mueller's note), so that
Priscian's remark that the Nom. and Voc. Plur. ending of the first declension
did not admit of 'divisio,' as the Gen. and Dat. Sg. did, cannot be quite
accurate (Prise, i. p. 291. 17 H. nominativus et vocativus pluralis primae
Nam in ae diphdeclinationis similis est genetivo et dativo singulari.
sed in his non potest divisio fieri,
thongum profertur, ut hi et o poetae
sicut in illis).
Gellius (xiii. 26. 4) tells us that Nigidius (first cent. B.C.)
approved -ai (presumably the diphthong' in the Gen., -ae in the Dative. (On
Lucilius' practice see L. Mueller's note on Lucil. ix. 6.) The -e found on some
;
'
'
'
'
inscriptions
is
dialectal
(cf.
Umbr.
-e)
and
rustic, e.g. Diane (C.l.L.
i.
168,
Pisaurum), Fortune (i. 64, Tusculum), Uictorie (i. 183, Marsi). Of the 'Datives
in -a,' only found on very old inscriptions, most of the apparent examples
come from Pisaurum (C. I. L. i. 167-180), where -e (Diane just quoted) was the
Dat. suffix of A-stems, and may be Genitives in -as with omission of the final
s (cf. Nom. PI. matrona Pisaurese for matronas Pisaurenses, i. 173 so Gen. Sg. Coira
;
pocolo,
Eph. Epigr.
i.
6),
or else a
mere
dialectal variety,
which would prove
nothing for the Latin dative. Others, viz. Fortuna (i. 1133, Praeneste) Fortuna
Fortuna Diouo fileia primogenia (xiv. 2863, Prae(Bull 1885, p. 62, Signia)
The
neste) Diana (xiv. 4182 a and 4184 a, Nemi) are open to similar doubts.
;
strongest instances are: [Me~\nerua dono d . . (Not. Scav. 1887, p. 179, Kome)
lunonei Loucina (C. L L. i. 189, loc. inc.) ; lunone Loucina Tuscolana sacra and
.
\_Pa\le
\Tusc\olana sacra
(i.
1200-1, Capua)
[cf.
Faliscan Menerua sacru (Zvet.
J. 7. 1. 70)].
Examples of -ai are Dianai donum
dedit (C.
L. xiv. 4270, beg. of
second cent.
We
have
Meneruai donom port- (C. I. L. i. 191), [Iunon]e Loucinai (i. 813).
-ai even on inscrr. of the Emperor Claudius, e. g. Antoniai Augustai matri
B. c.),
(Orelli 650).
(ix. 14) : in casu autem dandi qui purissime
'
dicitur, sed facie dixerunt. He then quotes
25. Fifth Decl. Stems. Gellius

locuti sunt
non
'
faciei,' uti
nunc
'
two examples of facie from Lucilius (vii. 9 and vii. 7 M.), and adds sunt tamen
non pauci, qui utrobique facii legant. In Plautus the treatment of the
In
Dative Sg. of these stems is the same as that of the Genitive (see 19).
Umbr. ri 'rei' the i may correspond to Lat. -e, as in pru-sikurent 'pronuntiaverint' with the e-grade of root seen in Lat. sedi, &c. (ch. viii.
39).
:
'
'
24-29.]

The
26. O-stems.
suffix -oi
ACC. SING.
(mentioned by Mar. Victorinus
387
17.
20 K.
'
populoi Romanoi pro populo Romano solitos priores scribere) is found on

the very ancient Praenestine fibula (C. I. L. xiv. 4123) Manios med fefaked
Numasioi ( = Manius me fecit Numeric), but -o on the Dvenos inscription
'
(Zvet. I.I. I. 285 \ if the words die noine med mano statod, be rightly read and
interpreted 'die noni me Mano stato' (cf. Numisio Martio donom dedit mereLebro 'Libero' C. I. L. i. 174, from Pisaurum.
The
tod, Not. Scav. 1890, p. 10
:
Vestine dialect had
-o, e.
g. Herclo louio (Zvet.
L 1. 1.
n).
Gellius (iv. 16)

Senatuei (C. I. L. i. 201, of c. 100 B. c.).
27. U-stems.
informs us that Varro and Nigidius used senatui, domui, fluctui, &c. in the
Dative, and senatuis, domuis, fluctuis in the Genitive, but gives examples of ~u
from Lucilius (iv. 8 M. dnu, iv. 9, cf. vii. 21) and Virgil, and clenches them
with the authority of Caesar C. etiam Caesar, gravis auctor linguae Latinae,
In
... in libris Analogicis omnia istiusmodi sine i littera dicenda censet.
;
Plautus -ui is the usual form, e. g. quaestui habere, extersui, usui esse, and with
the force of a second supine, Bacch. 62 quia istaec lepida sunt memoratui
but -u is also found, e. g. Rud. 294 sunt nobis quaestu et cultu.
The so-called 'Datives in -e' in Latin poets

653 conjuncta crepidine saxi, A. x. 361 haeret pede pes, and
L. Mueller's note on Ennius, Ann. 395) are really Locatives or Instrumental
2
(see Neue, i .p. 195). The -e which we find (along with -ei} on old inscriptions
28. Consonant-stems.
(cf.
Servius adj..
is -e,
x.
possibly in some cases
(e. g.
C. I. L.
i.
1170, loue, Marsic), a dialectal
form
but certainly in others a mere graphic variety of -ei, later

-I, just as the e of ploirume on the Scipio epitaph (C. I. L. i. 32 hone oino
ploirume cosentiont) represents no different sound from the usual -ei, later -i
(cf.
Umbr.
of the
patre)
Nom.
PI. of
O-stems.
Instances of Dat.
-ei
and
-e
are
Hercolei
(i.
1503,
Rome, 2173.0.); Martei (i. 531, Rome, 211 B.C.); Hercole (Ann. Epigr. 1890,
We have the three
no. 84, Rome)
Hercole (C. L L. xiv. 2891-2, Praeneste).
spellings of the suffix side by side on a freedman's inscription from the
Roman district (i. mo): lunone Seispitei Matri, and the two older in i. 638:
[D]iouei Uictore (Rome, c. 180 B.C.), [Quintilian (i. 4. 17) mentions Diove Uictore
louei (Spoletium in Umbria).
as an old form], and in xi. 4766 loue
(For
other instances of these old spellings, see Index to C. I. L. i.)
;
To form the Ace. Sing. Masc. and Fern,

-m was added, which in the case of Consonant-stems
form -m (e.g. O. Ind. matar-am, Gk. jxTjrep-a, Lat.
The Acc. Neut. was the same as the Nom. ( 10).
29. Acc. Sing.
the suffix
took the
matr-em).
Thus A-stems had -am (e. g. O. Ind. asvam, Gk. ^pdv), which
would become -am (ch. iii. 49), equam. The long vowel
in Latin
is
indicated
by Osc. paam (Lat.
Relative Pronoun, but the usual spelling

totam, the
community.
-urn (ch. iv.
20);
Acc. Sg. Fern, of the

e. g. Osc. tovtam, Umbr.
qumri), the
is
O-stems had -om, in O. Lat.
-om, class.
lO-stems, -iom, -ium, perhaps also in the

c c 2
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
388
'
'
familiar
declension
5),
[Chap. VI.
-im ; I-stems, -im, which
the older literature and in
is
found in
examples, turrim, &c., in the

the
Consonant-stem ending, has
period, though -em,
classical
many
usually supplanted it U-stems, -iim I-stems, -Im (also -iym, e.g.

O. Ind. dhiyam, thought '), which in Latin would become -4m ;
;
U-stems, -uwm, Lat. -uem, e. g. suem, also -urn, Lat. -Urn, e. g.

Consonant-stems take in Umbro-Oscan -om, the O-stem
socrum.
Accusative, e. g. Osc. medicatin-om (Lat. *medMcdtionem from

Of Latin ES -stems some are regular,
med-dix, a magistrate).
others follow the analogy of
g. degenerem from *degenes-em
E-stems, as in the Gen. and other cases, e. g. plebem (ch. v.
51).
e.
We
30. The endings -im and -em.

can hardly say that -em arose from
-Im by ordinary phonetic change, seeing that final -im remains in so many
words, e. g. Adverbs in -im like olim, as well as Accusatives like cldvim. The
change
rather due to that intermixture of I- and Consonant-stems which
is
was the despair
of
as early as Varro (L. L. viii. 66), and

in the Ablative (see below,
33).
grammarians
led to the substitution of
-I
for
'
'
-I
which
A list
of Accusatives in -im, with references to the Latin grammarians who discuss

this question, is given by Neue, i 2 p. 196, to which may be added piscim on an
.
old Praenestine cista (Mel. Arch. 1890, p. 303), and the instances from the
Ambrosian Palimpsest of Plautus given in Studemund's Index, e. g. imbrim,
Pseud. 1 02.
Sometimes the use of -im indicates an I-stem, e.g. vim, some-
times a Greek loanword,
e. g.
turrim (?)
adverbially, e.g. partim (ch. ix.

di(u)m, maybe dialectal.
see Eckinger, Orth. p. 56.]
Gk.
it is
retained in Accusatives used
'&ir<pfiv
for'Airmov
Nom.
Sg. (I.I.S. 1411), &c.,
In the Plural and Dual, and in the Neut.
Voc. Sing.
31.
On
[Claudi, &c. (C.I.L. iv. Ind.), if for Clau-
4).
Sing., the Nom. form was used also for the Voc. in I.-Eur., and
even in the Masc., Fern. Sing, the same thing is often found (e.g.
in the Veda,
Vayav fndral
'
ca,
O Vayu and Indra'
in Horn., Ze
mi anime). The
77aTep,
rule however was that in the Singular the bare stem was used
(accented on the first syllable, e. g. O. Ind. pitar, Gk. 7rare/o,
.
'HeAio's re
in Plautus meus ocellus,
A-stems had
unlike the Nom., O. Ind. pita, Gk. irarrip).
a short A-vowel (Gk. SCOTTOTO, &c.), O-stems -e (O. Ind. vrka,
Gk. \VK, Lat. lupe) and so on. In Latin I-, U- and N-stems
substitute the Nom. form for the Voc., e.g. civis, mantis, homo
and the same was done in R(contrast Gk. o$i, TTTJXV, KVOV)
;
than the shortening of long vowels before

in the second cent. B. c. removed the distinction between
stems even
final -r
I.-Eur. -er
earlier
and
-er,
-or
and
-or,
to
judge from scansions in
30-32.]
Plautus
like
Merc. 800
Uxor, heus uxor
Final a was shortened in
S -stems.
still earlier,
Nouns
before the literary period (ch.

whether equa Voc. is the
impossible to say
eqnd),
or
is
VOC. SING.
a special Voc. form.
389
probably also in
of the first declension

43), so that it is
iii.
Nom. form
(originally
cannot be the I.-Eur.
It
Vocative, if final I.-Eur. -a became -e in Latin (ch. iii.

37),
so that I.-Eur. *efcw5 would sink to eqne, and would be indistinguishable from the Voc. of O-stems, I.-Eur. "êkwe, Voc of
The levelling process to which the other Latin
*ekwos.
Vocatives have submitted makes
likely that the
it
Nom. was
and that the Umbrian

which a distinction between the Nom. (in -o } 2), and
used for the Voc. in the A-declension too
language, in
the Voc. (only in
-a, e.g.
Serfia),
of
A-stems
has retained the I.-Eur. -a of the Voc.
is
(cf. ch.
clearly apparent,
iii.
18, p. 191).
Latin ID-stems show in the Voc. -, e. g. Fdleri but this form

is
hardly found except in proper names [which, as we saw before,
(
5), admitted the familiar' declension, -is Nom., -im Ace. (?), &c.]
;
'
and the word of everyday \\ie,fUi, so that the -I need not be

a contraction of an older -ie, but may be the Voc. byform
corresponding to the Nom. byform -is (cf. Lith. gaidy Voc. from
RO-stems which took -er in
gaidys Nom., a cock ; see
5).
'
the
Nom.
'
though puere, and not

form always used by Plautus.
retain this in the Voc. too,
puer, seems to be the
32. Other examples.

Jil-piter (better Juppiter, ch. ii.
130, p. 116 corresponds exactly with Gk. ZeC varfp, and might be a Vocative used as
a Nominative, just as Homer's vffyeXrffeptTa. Zev?, \jcr\Tikra Zeus, have been
explained as obsolete Vocative forms, preserved only in certain liturgies, and
treated by the poet as Nominatives through a similar mistake to ours in using
cherubim as a Singular. But Ju-piter may also be a correctly formed
Nominative with the stem *Dyeu-, Lat. Jov- (cf. 0. Lat. Jovis Nom.) as the
first part of the Compound (cf. ju-glans, ch. v.
The same double expla85).
nation is possible for Dite pater Voc. (C. I. L. i. 818). DiteVoc. (Eph. Epigr. viii.
529) reminds us of Gk. o<pi, &c.
The Vocative formation for lO-stems is discussed by Gellius (Noct. Aft. xiv. 5),
'
'
who
describes a battle royal waged in his presence between two grammarians

about the proper Voc. of egregius, without satisfactory result (non arbitratus
ego operae pretium esse, eadem istaec diutius audire, clamantes compugnantesque illos reliqui). Priscian (i. p. 301. 19 H.) says that the early writers
used -ie as well as -i in the Voc. of proper names haec tamen eadem etiam
in e proferebant antiquissimi, 'OVirgilie,' 'Mercurie' dicentes, though all
:
that he quotes
as
much an
is a couple of instances of Laertie, which is a Greek word, and

Adjective as a Noun. He adds that the classical form -l must be
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
390
[Chap. VI.
a contraction of this older -ie (as Arpinds, &c., of older Arpindtis, &c.) because
Vocs. in -I were accented on the paenultima, e. g. Valeri Voc. (like Valeri
Gen.)- Gellius (xiii. 26) tells us that Nigidius Figulus (first cent. B. c.) wished
to distinguish Vdleri Voc. from Valeri Gen., but says that in his time both Voc.
and Gen. of I0-stems were invariably accented on the paenultima (cf. ch. iii.
2
10. 4).
(For other passages of the grammarians, see Neue, Formeril. i p. 82.)
Priscian elsewhere (i. p. 305. gH.) quotes filic (apparently the more ceremonious
form) from Livius Andronicus
.
pater noster, Saturni
filie,
but almost the only instance of the Voc. Sg. of a masc. lO-stem to be found
and the older writers is volturi (for which some would read wlture},
'
you vulture (Capt. 844). Publi Cornell occurs on a Scipio epitaph of c. 180 B.C.
Adjective I0-stems take at all periods -ie, though there is
(C. I. L. i. 33).
evidently a reluctance on the part of good writers to use these forms (see
in Plautus
i
Neue, Formenl.
ii
2
.
p. 42).
33. Abl. Sing.
have been used
The Ablative
suffix,
ending in -d, appears to

which formed their
in I.-Eur. only in O-stems.,
Abl. Sg. in -6d arid -ed (the latter suffix being reserved in the
from
Italic languages for Adverbs, ch. ix.
i), [O. Ind. yugat,
'
a yoke,' O. Lat.
jugocl, Palisc. rected, class. Lat. jugo, recte, final
d being dropped after a long vowel at the close of the third cent.
In other stems the Genitive ending -es or
B. c. (ch. ii.
137)].
'
-os was used (O. Ind. navas, from a ship,' Horn. Gk. vri(F)6s)
and in the Greek language this Ablatival use of the Genitive

was extended to O-stems too. In the Italic languages on the
other hand the A-, I-, U- and E-stems acquired Ablatives in -d
on the Analogy of the O-stems ; and the Consonant-stems
availed themselves in Latin of the I-stem Abl., in Umbro'
Oscan of the O-stem Abl. (e. g. O. Lat. air-Id, Osc. ligud, by

The Locative Case in -e (possibly Instrumental,
36)
law').
of these Consonant-stems competed with this I-stem Abl. not
only in Consonant- stems (e. g. aere and aeri), but also in I-stems
clve
(e. g.
and
civi), so
that Varro declares that ove was heard in
his time as often as ovi, ave as am.
increased
by the circumstance that
The confusion of cases was

when -d of the Abl. was
dropped, nothing remained to distinguish Abl. -e(d) of E-stems,

of I-stems, -u(d) of U-stems from Loc. -e, -i, -u (see 37), so
-~i(d)
that the ov\ avl of Varro 's time have as much right to be called
Locatives as Ablatives. (On the question whether these forms
can have been Instrumental, see
36.)
33,34.]
The use
so far
Abl/ Sg.
of -e in the
ABL. SING.
was
of I-stems
advanced in the time of Plautus as in the
He uses
only sorli,
however attests
blli,
391
certainly not
classical period.
clvi,fusti t ndvi, &c., not sorte, &c.
Priscian
Most. 694) in Rud.

(presumably
iO2O,and remarks (i. p. 331. 16 H.): vetustissimi solebant hujuscerete
rete, likeforfe,
modi ablativum etiam
we have,
Of Consonant- stems with
in -e proferre.
g.j0#ra#(MSS. -e), Cas. \^Q> y pmiici

Pers.
41, obieci,
203.
(For details of the use of
-I
e.
(MSS.
and
-/'
-?),
-e
Pers.
forms
by the Latin authors, and the rules laid down by the native
2
grammarians, see Neue, i pp. 212 sqq.). An early example of
.
the Ablatival use
of -e
Scipio epitaph (C.
I.
L.
(presumably
i.
Gnaiuod patre prognatus

(Cf. aire moltaticod
i.
is
-e)
30, c 200 B.
?)
somewhat later are i. 198

199 (Sent. Minuc.) de maiore
i.
diei-,
the line of the Saturniaii
fortis vir sapiensque.
181, Picenum)
(Lex Repet.) maiore parte
c.
603 (Lex Furf.) mense Flusare (dial. ? Cf Sab. mesene

Flusare). We have -ei, apparently a graphic variety of I (ch. i.
in the Scipio epitaph of c. 130 B. c. (i. 34, along with aetate)
9),
parte
i.
is
hie situs quei
uictus est uirtutei
nunquam
-i in the Lex Agr.

i.
199. 7)
ab
hereditati dedieo
herediue
eius
testamento
200.
23
(i.
tioniue obuenit, and again
curatore herediue), in the Lex Jul.
(cf.
ab fontei on the Sent. Minuc.,

.
Municip. (i. 206 ubi continent! habitabitur), the Lex Rep. (i. 198.
56 de sanctioni, but also adessint for adessent). These are clearly
the later forms of the older -id of i. 61 airid, i. 186 (S. C.
Bacch.) couentionid,
xi.
bouid.
4766
34. O. Lat. Abl. with. -d.

Ablatives with -d seem to be unknown in
Plautus and the earliest Dramatic literature, so that the final dental must
have dropped out of the spoken language before the end of the third cent. B. c.,
though it is found in the Saturnian poetry (e. g. Naevius, Bell. Pun. 7 M. noctu
Troiad exibant capitibus opertis C. I. L. i. 30, one of the oldest Saturnian
;
Gnaiuod patre (probably -; prognatus fortis uir sapiensque

(but Samm'oAbl. on the same epitaph), and is persistently written in the S. C. de
Scipio epitaphs
Bacchanalibus
(i.
196) of 186
B. c. (sententiad, couentionid, exstrad,
suprad, oquoltodi
omitted in a nearly
ii. 5041, Spain, of 189 B.C.).
[For other
examples of Abl. -d on inscriptions, and for passages of the Latin grammarians
2
referring to this form, see Neue, i p. 2, Kitschl, Neue Excurse, i., and addporod
class,
on
a
Praenestine
(for
porro]
cista, Mel. Arch. 1890, p. 303.] In Oscan the
-d remains, e.g. tristaamentud
testamento,' akrid acri,' egmad 're' (cf.
It is as persistently
preiuatodj poplicod, facilumedj &c.).

contemporary inscription (C. I. L.
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
392
[Chap. VI.
inUmbrian it has been dropped as in Latin, e. g. poplu

'
populo,' re-per 'pro re,' ocri-per, vea via (cf. Pelignian oisa <usa')
similarly
with Adverbs in -ed, e. g. Osc. amprufid improbe,' Umbr. rente ' recte ; ' Cons,
Faliscan sententiad), but
1
<
'
stems show the 0-stem Abl.,

aetate,
Umbr.
e.g. Osc. ligud
lege,' or
the Loc. in
-i, e.
g.
Pelign
nomne.
35. I-stem and Cons.-stem 'Abl.' in -i and -e.

There is no evidence
an old Cons.-stem -ed, later -e, corresponding to I-stem -id, later -7. The
dictatored (also navaled, but marid) of the Columna Rosti'ata (C. J. L. i. 195) is
of
probably a mistake, for the inscription is not the actual inscription of 260 B.C.,
but a copy made in the time of the Empire and the instances in MSS. of
Plautus and the old poets with final -e may be due to that imperitia on the
part of scribes which Priscian (i. p. 345. i H.) blames for the change of civi, &c.
to cire in MSS. of Cicero.
The reading of the best Palatine MS. (B) in Plaut.
Pseud. 616 is militite, which points to a correction in the archetype of militl to
milite (the Ambrosian Palimpsest seems to have militi}
and the MSS. often
vary between -i and -e, e. g. Naev. Bell. Pun. 14 M. pietaM ^v. 1. -fe), Enn. A.
486 M. montl (MSS. montis and monte}.
;
'
'
The Latin grammarians knew
36. Instr. Sing.
an Instrumental Case.
nothing- of-
Quintilian indeed
4. 26) suggests
(i.
required in Latin for such a phrase as
hastd percussi, where hastd is not a real Ablative ; though of the
previous existence of an Instrumental Case in the Latin language
that a seventh case
is
he has no conception. But in various I.-Eur. languages we find

an Instrumental, and also a Locative Case; Sanscrit, for example,
has, in addition to the Abl. devat,
'
from a
god,' the Instru-
devena, 'with a god' (in Vedic also *"deva), and the

Locative deve,' in a god.' And the suffixes used in these languages
mental
to
form their Instrumental and Locatives
it is
possible to find
though the weakening process which attacked every

Latin final syllable has made them indistinguishable from other
also in Latin,
suffixes.
To form the Instrumental Singular there seem to
have been originally two methods used in the Indo-European
language (i) the addition of -e [according to some -a, which
would in Latin become -e (ch. iii.
37)]; in Cons.-stems this -e
is found
in
A-stems
have
we
-a, in O-stems -6 or -e
unchanged,
Case
and so on
(2) the addition of -bhi
(e.
g. Horn.
Gk.
I-C/H),
or -mi
Lith. sunu-mi, ' with a son ') ; and various modifications of

(e. g.
these suffixes are found in the different languages.
Of A-stem
1
The Instrumental, it may be remarked,
artho bhavati (Lat. opus esf).
is
the case used after the phrase
35,36.]
DECLENSION OF NOUNS, ETC. INSTR.
Instrumental s with I.-Eur. -a (and -am
?) (e. g.
SING..
Gk. \d0pd
?)
393
there
are no certain examples in Latin, for the Adverbs supra, extra,

&c. are written in the S. C. de Bacchanalibus suprad, ex-strad,
Some make O.
and are therefore Ablatives.
Lat. contra (the
invariable scansion in O. Lat. poetry, Skutsch, Forschungen, i.

an Instrumental, with the same shortening of -a as is seen
p. 3)
Nom. Sing, of A-stems, e. g. terra (ch. iii. 43), contra,

the classical form being adapted to the type of supra, extra, &c.
But contra may be an Ace. PI. Neut. form, and frustra (the
in the
O. Lat. quantity,
e.
g. ne frustra sis, Plaut.)
Instrumental either.
need not be an
The Oscan
preposition contrud
an Ablative.
(i.
e.
*con-
Lat contro-versia) is
The O-stem suffix -6 would by the second cent. B.C., when -d
was dropped after a long vowel, be identical with the Abl., so
trod
cf
(usually with -o by the Law of Breves Breviantes,

42) may be either Instrumental or Ablatives. Porro is
to be an Abl. by the old spelling porod, mentioned above
that modo,
ch.
iii.
shown
(
34).
cito
The other O-stem
suffix -e
may
indeed appear in bene,
male, since the shortening of their final syllable by the Breves

Breviantes Law (e. g. Plaut. datb for *datod) has advanced more
rapidly than in the case of -ed but on the other hand this might
be referred to their greater use in everyday life (cf. have but mone
in Quintilian's time, ch.
rence in word-groups,
but
e.
iii.
42),
and their more frequent occur-
g. bene-rem-geras,
male-few
(cf.
diequinte
(The scansion bene, male in Plaut. is

in -e have lost a final d, as is
Adverbs
Superlative
doubtful.)
shown byfacilwmed on the S. C. de Bacchanalibus. Similarly -e of
fide, ch.
iii.
44).
Fifth Decl. stems, e. g. facie, re, may be Instrumental -e or Abla-stems

-1 of I-stems may be Instr. -I or Abl. -Id; -% of
;
tive -ed
may
be Instr. -u or Abl. -ud; they
may
also be Locative -e (e.g.
-, e. g. Nedpoll), -eu- (Lat. -u,

of
Consonant-stems, e. g. patre,
g. noctu] (see
37).
cannot be an Abl. suffix, but either Instrumental -e (-a ?), or
postrl-die], -eyi- (Lat. -ei, class.
The
e.
-e
(Lat. -e, e. g. Tlbure), used ablativally and instruas

Loc. -i in Gk. Cons.-stems was used to express all
mentally,
the meanings of the Greek Dative case, e. g. irarp-t.
Locative
-i
It thus appears how difficult it is to establish by certain proof

the presence of Instrumental forms in the Latin declension, owing
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
394
[Chap. VI.
number of examples from the earlier

which Abl. forms have not yet lost their final d
xi. 4766 bouid piaclum datod ; i. 61 airid
[coir]au-
to the lack of a sufficient
inscriptions in
C. 1.
(e. g.
L.
181 aire moltaticod
Zvet. /. /. 7. 72 opidque Uolgani)

;
[it]
and Loc. -i would be distinguished from Instrumental -e (-a ?).
Yet the evidence of cognate languages shows that Instrumental case-forms must have been a living part of Latin at
some period, however remote and when we come to examine
;
i.
we
the formation of Latin Adverbs
some
shall find that
them
of
are believed with a fair amount of

probability to be Instrumental.
The evidence that we can draw from forms on Oscan inscriptions
(they are not very numerous), is all in favour of the supposition

that in the declension of the Noun the Instrumental forms had
The Oscan language, unlike the Umquite dropped out of use.

brian, does not drop final d; and indubitable Ablative forms
with -d are used in
all
the senses of the Latin
express our prepositions 'from/

nieis
<
with/ 'by/ &c.,
'
Ablative/ to
e.
g.
kumben'
by
assembly/ eitiuvad, with
eisud sakaraklud (Lat. apud id
sacellum). (The doubt-
tanginud,
money/ up
'
decree of the
/. /. /.
89 suvad eitie upsed (Lat. suapecunm operatns est], requires confirmation before it can be used as evidence that
ful eitie of Zv.
IE-stems used an Instr. or Loc. -ie instead of Abl. -ied. The

absence of an Abl. in -ied from the early Latin inscriptions can
be explained
by the comparative paucity of Fifth Decl. stems.)

dialect, a variety of Oscan, we have in the few
inscriptions preserved an Ablative Absolute,' oisa aetate (Lat.
In the Pelignian
'
with passive sense of the Deponent, ' his life having

been exhausted ') (cf. forte, of doubtful meaning, on the same
lisa aetate^
inscription), and an Ablative of uncertain construction, suad(?)

aetatu firata fertlid (Lat. sud aetate
.fertili), with apparent
.
dropping of -d before initial f

goes, points to
and
this evidence, so far as it
an Abl. of Cons.-stems in -ud
(i.
e.
-od, the
O-stem
Abl. suffix), beside another case in -e (presumably

If how-e).
ever this -e represents an original -i
for ai, Osc.
(cf. Pel. ae
Bansae Loc.) the case will be a Locative, not an Instrumental ;

this view is favoured by the fact that other stems have in
and
1
The (Adverb
?) mcrito is spelt
meretod or meritod
on the oldest inscriptions.
DECLENSION OF -NOUNS, ETC.
37.J
LOC. SING.
Oscan a Locative as well as an Ablative Case,
e.
g.
395
A-sterns
(and eituas Gen.) ; O-stems

Ladinei Loc., beside tristaamentud Abl. (and sakarakleis Gen.).
An isolated example of an Adverb formed apparently by the
vial mefiai Loc., beside eitiuvad Abl.
Instr. suffix in Osc. is suluh
omnino
'
'
(Zvet.
7. /. /.
129),
though
on a
'carelessly written inscription, a leaden execration tablet, and is not free from the suspicion of being meant for
sullud, a form which seems to occur (the last letter is unfortu-
this stands
nately not quite legible) on another tablet of the same kind (7. F.
435 ; cf. von Planta,i. pp. 577-80). The conclusion therefore
ii.
draw is
that Instrumental formations, though they may be found in some
Latin Adverbs, are not found in the declension of Latin Nouns,
the case-forms which competed with the Latin Ablative (especially in Cons.-stems) being Locatives and not Instrumental.
which the scanty evidence at our disposal
entitles us to
37. Locative Singular.

Locatives in I.-Eur. seem sometimes to have had a final -i (e. g. O. Ind. murdhan-i and murdhn-i,
on the head '), sometimes not (e. g. O. Ind. murdhan, Gk. bo^tv
'
Inf., a Loc. as So'/xeycu is
a Dat.).
Of
Locatives without
-i
in
Latin there are only uncertain traces, such as Prepositions like

penes (Loc. of pemis, with -eg not sunk to -is, possibly because
the accent rested on
it
in collocations like penes me, penes
and Adverbs
te,
ch.
iii.
The predominant formation

is with -i.
Of these i-forms, A-stem locatives show I.-Eur. -ai
in O. Ind. asvay-am, Lith. raiikoj-e, with Postpositions -am and -e,
12
a.
3),
like noctu.
but in Greek the ordinary diphthong

45),
e.
g. Qrj(3ai-yvri<i
Lat. -ae, Osc.
-ai, class.
-ei
(e.
Gk.
g.
CHKOI
and
-ai
'
(a
doublet' of
this is also the Italian
-ai,
Umbr.
By
oi/cet).
-e).
ai, ch. iv.
form (O. Lat.

O-stems took -oi and
and
the phonetic laws of Latin
both these suffixes would become -ei, class. -I (ch. iii.

18) ; so
the origin of the suffix of Corinthl, &c. is, so far as Latin is conBut in Oscan we have -ei, which must be
cerned, doubtful.
on common ground ') (Umbr. -e,

on the right shoulder/ may be -oi or -ei). Fifth
Decl. stems took -ei, which already in the ' I.-Eur. period had a
I.-Eur. -ei
e.
(e.
muinikei
g.
g. desire onse,
'
terei,
'
'
'
doublet
'
-e.
It
is
this latter
form which appears in Latin,
e.
g.
die in the phrase postri-die, die cr&stiim, &c.

(unless die has lost
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
396
a final d
ef.
Faliscan foied
'
hodie
').
[Chap. VI.
I-stems had -eyt (e.g.
Horn. Gk. uTo\ei), which in Latin would become -ei, class. -,

and would be merged in the Dative ( 23) [possibly Instrumental
(
U-stems had -ewi
S^)] suffixes.
(e.
g. Horn.
Gk.
aorei), but
Latin U-stem Locatives show
-it, the i-less formation, e. g. ?ioctu 9

I-stems showed -iyi, Lat. -I, as U-stems -uwi,
mentioned above.
Lat. -ue,
g. sue.
e.
Consonant-stems had
Dative suffix, as well as Locative),

e.
-i
(used in Greek as
which in Latin became
-e,
and
Infs. Act. like agere, vlvere (contrast

jivas-e, Lat. agi, which are Datives), though by false
g. Carthdginti, rure,
O. Ind.
we sometimes find -, e. g. ruri,

?)
perhaps introduced to discriminate the locative from the ablative
analogy of O-stems (or I-stems
use,
e.
g.
rum
esse,
from rure
venire.
38. Locatives in -i and -e in Latin. Heri is by modern editors written

The
-e when the last vowel has to be scanned short, otherwise with -i.
scansion hen ^by the Brevis Brevians Law, ch. iii. 42) is common enough in
the early Dramatists (e. g. Caecil. Com. 197 E. heri uero, where fieri has abun-
with
dant MS. authority), while the spelling here is established for passages likePlaut.
59 (quantity of final vowel doubtful"), where the Ambrosian Palimpsest
has here and the Palatine MS. herde (cf. Pers. 108). Quintilian (i. 7. 22) says
'here' nunc e littera terminamus: atveterumcomicorum adhuc librisinvenio:
'heri ad me uenit,' quod idem in epistulis August!, quas sua manu scripsit
Mil.
aut emendavit, deprehenditur.

[On his remark (i. 4. 8), in 'here' neque
e plane neque i auditur, see ch. ii.
The spelling of these forms, especi16.]
ally in the early writers, is often doubtful, and so it is difficult to prove with
certainty such a theory as that only ruri is used for in the country,' and
'
'
usually rure for from the country in Plautus (Langen, Beitrdge, p. 308). Charisius (p. 200. 12 K.) attests heri for Afranius Com. 71 R., peregri for Naev. Com.
93 E. but peregre for Naev. Com. 84 E., eisprae-fiscine for Afranius Com. 36 E. The
'
long quantity of the final vowel of peregre (so both the Ambrosian Palimpsest
and the Palatine family) is required by the metre in Plaut. True. 127, an
anapaestic line, and peregre has been explained as the suffixless Locative of an
I-stem peregri- (ch. v.
34) with the I.-Eur. ending -e, a doublet of -ei (cf.
0. Ind. agn, Loc. of agni-, 'fire').
Vespen, the form always used by the early
writers, is naturally referred to the 0-Stem vespero-. Temperl (-orl, see Georges,
Lex. Wortf. s. v.) may be related to tempore as faenon to faenore, majofl to majore
(
33)? an(i so withntn (e. g. Ter. Phorm. 363, Plaut. Cist. 226), Carthagini (e.g.
Plaut. Poen. 1056 AP), Accherunti Plaut., while
mane
(if
not an Adverbial Ac'
suffix applied to an
I-stem mani-, Manes PI. (ch. v. 37). The close connexion of the Ablative and
33, is seen in phrases like mane sane septimi,
Locative, already mentioned in
Plaut. Men. 1157 luci claro, Plaut. Aul. 748 ;the use of claro forclara orclaraeis
due to the fact that luci being an Adverb does not have the fern, gender of lux).
(For fuller details about these Locatives, see Bell on the Latin Locative Neue,
cusative)
may show
conversely a Cons. -stem 'Ablative
Formenlehrej
ii
3
.
2
p. 640, i . p. 242).
38-40.]
NOM. PLUR.
397
39. A-stems, &c. 0. Lat. -ai is never dissyllabic, like -ai of the Genitive.
In Plautus a common A-stein Loc. is nclniae, as in the phrase proxumae uiciniae,
'next door.' We have Romai on a very early inscription, C.I.L. i. 54 med
Romai fecid. Die quintl occurs in Cato's account of Maharbal's boast to Hannibal mitte mecum Romam equitatum die quinti in Capitolio tibi cena cocta
:
erit (ap. Gell. x. 24. 7).
The I.-Eur. -es, which

I. Masc., Fern.
40. Worn. Plur.
appears in Cons.-stems as -es (e. g. O. Ind. ma tar-as, Gk. juu]rep-ej),
in A-stems as -as, in O-stems as -6s, and so on, is the suffix in
use
the
among
Umbro-Oscan
dialects (e. g.
Umbr.
f rater for
'
*fratr-es, Osc. censtur for -res,aasas arae'), but in Latin is hardly

found except in I-stems whose -es represents I.-Eur. -eyes (e. g.
from the I.-Eur. stem tri-,' three,' O. Ind. trayas,Cret. Gk. rpees
In O-stems this I.-Eur. suffix -6s

for "^rpeyes, Att. rpets) Lat. tres.
is replaced in many of the I.-Eur. languages by -oi, the Nom. PL
suffix
te,
in
of the Pronominal Declension
Horn. Gk.
Greek we
Lat.
from
is-ti
(e.
g. I.-Eur. *toi, O. Ind.
from original
-tei
find -ot (e.g. AVKOI), in Celtic -oi
O.
taliknoi;
rot,
Ir.
Nom. PL,
fir
(e.
'
men,' points
*wiroi, as does Lat. vvri, while firu Voc.
PL
is
to
Thus
-toi).
g. Gaul.
Tano-
an original
either the I.-Eur.
Nom. PL in
-6s or the Ace. PL), Teutonic -ai (used in Adjectives,
I.-Eur.
being used in Nouns), Balto-Slav. -ai (e. g. Lith.

vluci,
Similarly in Latin we find -I
wolves').
-6s
viikaT, O.
from
from
-ei
'
SI.
still earlier -oe
Ace.
istos.
PL
popitlox as
Nom. PL
The prevalence
g. O. Lat. poploe (Carm.

thus distinguished from
(originally -toi) from Ace. PL
or -oi,
which
Saliare), poplei, class, populi,
istl
of this
Pronominal
Umbr.
Atiersiur
oi-suffix
the
among
Umbro-Osc.
'
Attiedii/ Osc. Nuvlanus Nolani ')
European languages suggests the

-6s (e. g.
e.
is
possibility that
may have had at one period a struggle for existence with -oi,
and may have owed its acceptance into use to the analogy of Astem Noms. Plur. in
-as.
The Latin A-stem
suffix
-ae, e. g.
never dissyllabic, according to Prise, i. p. 22 1 H.),

is an
of
the contrary change from a prehistoric -as, of
example
which no traces remain, to a new formation made on the model
drae (O. Lat.
-ai,
of the -oi of O-stems.
must have been

would become -I
oc-caido, ch.
iii.
It resembles
Greek
-cu (e. g. XW/KXI),
but
originally -di, since the ordinary diphthong -ai

in the unaccented syllable in Latin (cf. occldi for
18).
Lat. ^-sterns with
Nom. PL
-ies
may
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
398
have the I.-Eur.
suffix,
[Chap. VI.
but U-stems with -us show the Ace.
PL
Nom. PL
suffix,
-ewes, which would be in
Latin -ues, -ms. (This would hardly contract into -us, as we saw
2 1 ). The -Is which is occasionally found for -es in I-stems
before,
is also an Ace. PL suffix
(
51) and the I-stem Nom. PL vis (so
instead of the I.-Eur.
mr-eatm *vis-es, an S-stem) is probably an Accusative form. The -es of Cons. -stems, e. g. mafr-es,
censor-es may either be the I-stem Nom. PL ending-, since there is
in O. Lat., but in class. Lat.
so
much interchange of Cons.- and I-stems in Latin ( 30), or

PL and the same is true of the U-stem -ues e. g. sues.
Ace.
A-stems.
41.
some passages
Kitschl (Neue Excurse,
of Plautus
alternas in Trin.
539
i.
p. 118)
proposed to avoid hiatus in

PI. -ae to -as, reading e. g.
by the change of Nom.
nam
where
the
fulguritae sunt alternae arbores,
the MSS., the Palatine family as well as the Ambrosian Palimpsest,

read alternae (which may be right, the hiatus being palliated by the alliteraall
though editors prefer alternis, or alternas, an Adverb like alias, alteras).

quoted in support of this change a line from one of the Atellanae of
Pomponius, c. 90 B. c. (Com. 141 R.)
tion,
He
quot
laetitias insperatas
modo mi
inrepsere in sinum,
laetitias insperatas is now usually explained as Ace., governed by inrepsere,

though it may quite well be a dialectal form, for the Atellanae in imitating
the manners of country life may also have imitated its language. Dialectal
-as Nom. PI. is found in the old inscriptions of Pisaurum with the s dropped
177 dono dedro matrona),
(C. I. L. i. 173 matrona Pisaurese dono dedrot
In early inscriptions we
along with Gen. Sg. -d(s] [or Dat. Sg. -a(i\
24].
have -ai for class -ae, e. g. tabelai, datai on the S. C. de Bacch.
where
42. O-stems.
Pilumnoe poploe
was a phrase used
of the
Carmen
Romans
in the
cf. fescemnoe (qui

Saliare (Fest. 244. 25 Th. velut pilis uti assueti)
depellere fascinum credebantur, Paul. Fest. 61. 10 Th.; should we read Fesceni;
On early inscriptions we have -ei, e. g. foideratei, uirei,

on the S.C. de Bacch., sometimes written -e (cf. ch. iv. 34), e.g. ploirume
A Nom. PI. of an 10-stem with -is occurs on an inscription of
(C. I. L. i. 32).
the first cent. A. D. (C. I. L. i. 1541 &), filis. It is impossible to say whether
fiki (i. i272),/ez7ei (i. 1284) (cf. socei, i. 1041) is meant for this form (cf. Clodi for
noe, class. Fescennini ?).
oinuorsei
Nom.
a misspelling offiliei (i. 1275) or a contraction of it (like

O-stems show -eis, also written -es, -is, in some inscriptions of the end of the second or beginning of the first cent. B. c., e.g. magistreis
heisce magistreis Uenerus louiae muru aedi(C. I L. i. 565, Capua, 108 B. c.
Clod-is
gratis for
Sg.), or is
older
gratiis).
ficandum coirauerunt), lanies (vi. 168, Rome), violaries rosaries coronariis (vi. 169,
Rome). (For other examples, see Ritschl, Opusc. ii. 646, and add heisce magistreis,
Not. Scav. 1893, P- l6 4> fr
Capua, mustae
pieis, C. I. L. iii.
Suppl. 12318,
from Samothrace.) This form is attested for the pronoun hie by Priscian
etiam nominativum hisce proferentes
(i. p. 593. 5 H. inveniuntur tamen
antiqui), and is found in the Nom. PI. Masc. of hie, ille, iste in the Dramatists
'
41-45.]
before a
word beginning with a vowel, when the
Plant. Mil 374
NOM. PLUR.
particle
-ce
is
399
added,
e. g.
non possunt mihi minaciis
tuis hisce oculi exfodiri,
(similarly illisce and istisce are the forms used in Plautus before a word beginning with a vowel, never illlc, istlc Studemund in Fleck. Jahrb. 1876, p. 57),
though probably never in the Noin. PI. of O-stem nouns. In the pronouns it
seems to be due to the addition of the plural suffix -s to the already formed
in the Noun 0-stems it may have the same origin,
plural in -I (older -ei)
though it is not unlikely that the lO-stem formation mentioned above had at
;
some share in bringing it into use.

Deus has two Noni. PI. forms, dei, a dissyllable (probably the more ceremonious form), and di, also written dii, a monosyllable. (Dii and dei are
least
to
compared
ii
and
ei
by
Prise,
i.
p.
298 H.).
Varro (L. L. viii. 66) says that puppis and puppes, restis and
forms in his time, like Abl. ovi and ore. an and ave. On early
inscriptions we have usually -es, e. g. aidiles, C. I. L. i. 187, Eph. Epigr. viii. 676,
but ceiveis on the Lex Repetund. of 123-122 B. c. (C. I.L. i. 198. 7 7), /wet's and
finis in the Sent. Minuciorum of 117 B.C. (ib. i. 199), and pelleis on the Lex
Furf. (i. 603) (cf coques atriensis on a Praenestine inscr., i. 1540). (See Neue, i-.
43. I-stems.
restes
were
rival
The
p. 246.)
0. Lat. Plur. of vis
was
vis (Prise,
i.
p. 249.
9 H.).
Lat. quattuor appears to be a relic of the -es formation,

44. Cons.-stems.
for *quattuor-es ( 63), I -Eur. *q lAetwores (0. Ind. catvSras, Dor. Gk. reropes,
0. Ir. cethir), though some make it represent I.-Eur. *qetwor, supposing this
to be a
byform of the ordinary Neuter, which would be in Latin
(Osc. petora or *petoro).
Plautine scansions like
course mere examples of the
Law
canes, turbm-es (Trin.
*quattuora
835) are of
of Breves Breviantes, like the Imperatives

and are no
&c. (ch. iii.

42) (cf. Ace. PI. liberds virgines, Pers. 845)
evidence of the use of the suffix -es.
cave, putd,
Neut. In the Italic, BaltoSlavic, and Teutonic languages all Neuter stems form their
Nom. and Ace. Plur. in -a, while in Greek we have -a. This
a seems to have been originally peculiar to O-stems, and to be in
45. Norn., Ace. Plur.
II.
same as the Nom. Sg. Fern, suffix. Prof. Johannes

Schmidt, in his book on the Indo-European formation of Neuter
reality the
der Indogermanischen Neutra,

an
has
mustered
Weimar, 1889)
array of facts from the various
I.-Eur. languages, which point to the Neut. Plur. having been
Plurals
(Die
Pluralbildungen
originally a Collective Fern. Sg. like "La,t.f&milia in the sense of

famuli, so that, e. g. Lat. juga originally meant what the
Germans would express by f das Gejoche/ the yoke-material.

The use of a Singular Verb with a Neut. Plur. subject in
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
400
Greek, O. Ind. (Vedic) and Zend

e.
g. fj.rjpa in Horn. II.
hypothesis,
[Chap. VI.
be explained by this
464 CTTCI Kara ^r\p e/carj
t&rapov in signifying- the
may
i.
differs from /uqpoi of 1. 460 wpovs T

mass of meat as opposed to the thighs separately. And the
change of Gender in Lat. caementum N., caementa F., mendum N.,
menda F. may be due to the fact that a Collective Sing. Fern.
Nom. Plur. Neut/),

menclum
Singular, caementnm,
(Nom. Sing.
Other illustrations of the connexion between a Col-
caementa, menda, being treated as a Plural (a
developed a
Neut.).
'
new
lective Sing. Fern,
and
a Plur. Neut.
may
be seen in Prof.
Schmidt's book, e. g. Lat. opera Sg. Fern, and opera Plur. Neut.,
Horn. Gk. TCL fjvia, Att. ^ ??zna, with plur. at fjviai. (The Latin
examples of change of Gender like locus Sg., loca PI. are to be
found in Neue,
The
2
.
p. 540.)
suffix -a appears, as
we have
seen, in the
Nom.
Plur. of
Neuter-stems in the European languages. But in the oldest

Indian and Zend literature we have relics of an earlier state of
all
things, viz. -a for O-stems, -i for I-stems (a Latin relic of -T is

c
three tens,'
tri-ginta, lit.
74), -u for U-stems (perhaps the long
vowel of Lat. pecu, genu, cormi, &c. may be due to their having
been originally Neut. Plur. ; another suggestion is, that genti,

cornii, &c. were Duals, like I.-Eur. ^simu, Nom. Dual of the
stem *"sunu-, f a son'); while Cons.-stems lengthened the
vowel of their
*n6m6(n)?; Prof.
*q"etwor, but see
syllable [e.g. Vedic
'
names/ for
Schmidt compares Lat. quattuor from I.-Eur.
All these formations Prof. Schmidt
63].
final
nama,
with Fern. Sing. Collectives.
identifies
-a of the Nom. Sing, of A-stems, Neut. Plur. -a

appears in Latin as -a in the earliest literature, and in UmbroOscan becomes an 0-sound, Oscan u, Umbr. u, (a), both written
Like the
in the Latin alphabet 0, which is scanned by Lucilius as a short

syllable in the Oscan loanword sollo (Lat. iota Neut. PL ) (inc.
160 M.)
and
is
uasa quoque omnino dirimit, non sollo dupundi,
written -a by Festus in the Oscan numeral petora, four
(250. 30 Th. petoritum et Gallicum vehiculum esse, et
nomen
ejus dictum esse existimant a numero quattuor rotarum. alii

'
In Umbrian
Osce, quod hi quoque
petora quattuor vocent).
'
46.]
GEN. PLUR.
401
appears that the Nom. and Ace. PI. of Neuter-stems were

distinguished by the addition to this -o of the -/ (-s) and the -f,
which are the final letters of the Masc. Nom. and Ace. Plur.,
it
though it is possible that this -r and -f were not pronounced,

but were used merely as graphic criteria of the two cases, e. g.
tuderor
Whether
Nom., verof Ace.
it
merely accidental, or
is
not, that the ordinary forms in -a, -o are found in the Ace.
along with forms in -of, but not in the Nom. along with forms
in -or, the limited material does not allow us to decide.
With
that interchange of the Cons.- with the I-declension
50, we have e. g. pluria (cf compluria) and plura,

forms discussed by Gellius (v. 2/1), who tells us of a letter
mentioned
in
Sinnius
written by
Pacuvius Labeo to
to
Capito
prove the
We
have -ia in the

pluria non plura dici debere/
Neut. Plur. of Adjective Stems like iereHa, auddcia, vicirlcia,
3
ferentia, &c. (see Neue, ii
p. 121), but always vetera from
thesis
'
veins, which was originally a Noun (Gk. (F)iros, a year) ( 55).

In O. Lat. we have silenta^ for slleniia t quoted by Gellius
from Laevius
loca
'
dixit et
(Gell. xix.
7.
'
'
pulverulenta
46. Gen. Plur.
The
ab eo quod
7
et
pestilenta
suffix
-6m
is
')
est
sileo
(see ch. v.
'silenta
64).
indicated by most of the
I.-Eur. languages (e.g. Gk. formou, fXTjrep-eoz;), which would in

Latin become in time -dm (ch. iii.
49), then -um (e. g. sodum
on the S. C. de Bacch.) (cf. Osc. Nuvlanum, Ma/ue/mrovju,
Umbi\
AoujcavojUj
Atienio).
A-stems took
in
Greek and in the
languages -asom, e.g. (Horn Gk. Qedvv, Att. Oe&v, Lat.

dedrum, Osc. egmazum rerum/ which was the Gen. Plur. Fern,
Italic
'
suffix of
(e.g. O. Ind. tasam, Horn. Gk.

after this model a Gen. PI. of O-stems
Pronouns
and
raoji/,
Lat.
was formed
is-tarum),
in Latin with the suffix -drum (O. Lat. -orom), a suffix not found
in Umbro-Oscan, which by Cicero's time drove the older -om, -nm
off
the
field.
On
the same model the Fifth Decl. stems formed
The use of -ium in Gen. Plur. of

facierum.
Adjectives \ihiQferentium, auddcium, and of -um in Gen. PI.
2
apum,volucrum, vdtum, &c. (see instances in Neue, i pp. 258 sqq..
e.
g. clmtdtum and civitatium), is due to that confusion of Cons.-
their
Gen.
PI., e.g.
stems with I-stems, which played so great a part in the Latin
Dd
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
402
declension,
[Chap. VI.
and which occupied a great deal of the attention of
the native grammarians.
-um and -orum
47.
in O-stems.
Cicero's
remarks on these
suffixes are
atque etiam a quibusdam sero jam emendatur

nam pro deum atque hominum fidem
antiquitas, qui haec reprehendunt
deorum aiuiit. Ita credo. Hoc illi nesciebant ? an dabat hanc licentiam
consuetude ? Itaque idem poeta (Ennius) qui inusitatius contraxerat Patris
Texitur, exitium
mei, meum factum pudet, pro meorum factorum,' et
worth quoting
(Orat. xlvi. 155):
'
'
'
rapit, pro 'exitiorum,' non dicit 'liberum,' ut plerique loquimur,

cupidos liberum'aut 'in liberum loco' dicimus, sed ut isti volunt
Neque tuum unquam in gremium extollas liberorum ex te genus. Et idem
examen
cum
Aesculapi liberorum. At ille alter (Pacuvius) in Chryse non solum

Ciues, antiqui amici maiorum meum, quod erat usitatum, sed durius etiam
Consilium socii, augurium atque extum interpretes idemque pergit Postquam prodigium horriferum, portentum pauor. Quae non sane sunt in
Namque
Nee enim dixerim tarn libenter 'armum judicium,'

Nihilne ad te de iudicio armum accidit ? quam centuriam, ut censoriae tabulae loquuntur, fabrum et procum audeo dicere, non
duorum. virorum judicium' aut
fabrorum et 'procorum.'
Planeque
triumvirorum capitalium aut decemvirorum stlitibus judicandis dico
nunquam. Atqui dixit Attius Uideo sepulcra duo duorum corporum
idemque Mulier una duum uirum. Quid verum sit intellego, sed alias ita
loquor, ut concessum est, ut hoc vel pro deum dico vel pro deorum, alias, ut
omnibus neutris
etsi est
usitata.
apud eundem
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
necesse
'
est,
'virorum,' cum sestertium, nummum,

in his consuetudo varia non est. Similarly Varro (L.L.
cum triumvirum, non
nummorum,' quod
non
viii.
omnes aedem Deum Consentium

Item quor dicatur mille denarium, non
est enim hoc vocabulum figura ut Vatinius, Manilius,
mille denariorum
denarius debet igitur dici ut Vatiniorum, Maniliorum, denariorum et non
ab uno enim
equum puplicum mille assarium esse, sed mille assariorum
71)
et
quaerunt,
non
analogia, cur appellant
si sit
Deorum Consentium
'
'
'
'
'
assario multi assarii, ab eo assariorum.
(A
list
of Genitives Plur. of O-stems
in -um is given by Neue, i 2 103.) Nostrum and restrum, Gen. Plur. of noster, vester,
established themselves in class. Lat. as Gen. PI. of nos, vos (ch. vii.
9).
A-stem Genitives like agricolum (Lucr. iv. 586; follow the analogy of O-stems,
.
as do vectlgdliorum, anclliorum, &c., and perhaps cur rum, &c.

amphorum and
drachmum follow the Greek. On the (restored; Columna Rostrata (C. I. L. i.
;
'
illorum
195. 10) we have the Pronoun olorom
perhaps the end of the third cent. B. c. (i. 32), the Adj. duonoro bonorum,'
but -o(m) on the earliest coins, e. g. C. I. L. i. 15 Caleno (with Neo7roA.iT<wi/), i. 16
Suesano (with NfOTroAtTcui/).
(See ch. iii.
49.) In i. 24, of end of third cent.
B. c., LADINOD is usually read Larinor., a Gen. PI.
l
'
These four cases must

48. Dat., Abl., Loc., Instr. Plural.
;
they are so intermingled in Latin and
be considered together
Latin A-stems show -Is, older -eis,

which has come from an earlier -ais (cf. Oscan -ais, Greek -at?),
a suffix apparently formed in imitation of the -ois of O-stems.
in other I.-Eur. languages.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS, ETC. DAT., ABL. PLUR. 403
47-49.]
This O-stem
suffix, in
Latin -#,
and
earlier -eis,
still earlier
-oes
or -ois (Osc. -uis, -ois) is regarded by some as a Locative, by

others as an Instrumental (see Brugmann, Grundriss, ii.
357,
The suffix -bus, O. Lat. -bos, shown by other stems (e. g.

380).
cim-bus, leg-i-bus with the i of I-stems, lacu-bus or laci-bus, sil-bus
or su-bus), comes from an original -bhos.
usual, the short vowel of the final syllable
Osc. luisari-fs (in
Lat.
*&ttsdrifrus),
lig-i-s (in Lat. leg-i-bus),
term%n%bus) 9
for ss and so not
In Umbro-Oscan, as
syncopated, e.g. O.
is
Osc. teremn-i-ss (in Lat.
Umbr.
with
fratr-u-s,
r, and preceded by a vowel which

changed
'
be
the
I.-Eur.
may
Composition Vowel o (ch. v.
80), though
this is quite uncertain.
This suffix was in O. Lat. em-
to
'
ployed in the Dat v Abl. Plur. of A-stems, e.g. dextrabus (cf.

Gaul. Mdrpefio Naju,au<nKd/3o), but in the classical period this
form was retained only in legal language, for the purpose of
distinguishing A- from O-stems, e. g. filiis et Jiliab^ls) just as we
'
retain the old Plural suffix in oxen but have dropped it in shoes
'
'
'
Adverbs like alias, O. Lat. alteras, fords may

(earlier shoon ').
show the I.-Eur. Locative of A-stems (Gk. -do-t, e. g. Ovpdvi
'
O. Ind.
-asii, e. g.
asvasu) (but see ch.
ix.
4).
49. A- and O-stems. The old form privicloes (privis, id est singulis), the
Dat., Abl. Plur. of a diminutive of privus, is quoted from the Carmen Saliare
'
by Festus (244. 21 Th.), and Paul. Fest. 14. 17 Th. has ab oloes dicebant
pro ab illis, but -eis, sometimes written -es (ch. iv.
34), is the spelling of the
'
older inscriptions
Agraria of in B. c.
U- 1297)
e. g. uieis, leibereis,populeis, aedijicieis, agreis, loceis,
(C. /. L.
i.
200)
so-ueis
on the Lex
mimus
nuges on an old epitaph of a
plouruma que
which has
for
ei
fecit
also in the
populo soueis gaudia nuges,
Nom.
Sing. Masc. of the Relative, que for quei
We
find -us
de manubies (Eph. Epigr. viii. 476, Capua, 135 B. c.).
contracted in course of time into -is ; thus gratiis (always with -Us, and
similarly ingratiis, in Plautus and Terence ; cf. gratiis in a line of Pomponius,
(class, qui)
no
R.) became gratis in classical Latin

provincls, &c. beside
being indicated by the tall form of the letter), occur on the
Mon. Ancyranum and of 10-stems we have, e.g. Januaris (C.I. L. vi. 543, of
2
115 A. D.), Junis (vi. 213, of 131 A. D.). (For other examples, see Neue i p. 31.)
An example of -dbus in 0. Lat. is quoted by Nonius (493. 16 M.) from Livius
Andronicus' translation of the Odyssey
deque manibus dextrabus. The
passages of the grammarians bearing on this form, and details of the use
of deabus, fitiabus, and libertabus, the most frequent words of the kind, are given
2
by Neue, i pp. 22 sqq. We have Masc. -dbus with Fern, -dbus in the Duals
duobus, ambobus, though the rarity of the formation led to the latter being
c.
90
B.C., Com.
judicns (the long
D d 2
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
404
[Chap. VI.
replaced in Vulg. Lat. by ambis Masc. and Fern. (Caper 107. 14 K. ambobus, non
ambis et ambabus\ 0-stems sometimes take the I-stem and Consonantal
'
'
Late and Vulgar Latin, e. g. C. I. L. vi. 224 dibus omnibus deabusque

15267 amicibus
17633 alumnibus.
Pomponius, the writer of
Atellanae, uses pannibus (Com. 70 R.) for pannis in imitation of the rustic mode
of speech
and in the Sermo Plebeius of Petronius we have diibus (Sat. 44.
In the
P- 2 9> 35 B. ita meos fruniscar, ut ego puto omnia ilia a diibus fieri).
O. Lat. inscription (C.I.L. i. 814): devas Corniscas sacrum, found in the
'Corniscarum divarum locus trans Tiberim' (Paul. Test. 45. 16 Th.), the two
The
first words may be Gen. Sing.
If Plural, they are Locatives like alias.
instances of dialectal and Lat, -os are all doubtful (Class. Rev. ii. p. 204).
-tbus in
(197 A. D.)
Other stems.
50.
Museum
O. Lat. -bos of trebibos
299 Q. Lainio Q.
on a bronze vase in the British
praifectos protrebibos fecit), corresponding to class, -bus, indicates a short vowel, for -bos would have retained o
The few apparent examples of its being scanned as a long
18).
(ch. iii.
syllable
p.
53
(Eph. Epigr.
ii.
f.
by the Dramatists (collected by C. F. Miiller in his Plant. Prosodie,

add Naev. Trag. 57 R.) must be illusory (many of them are cases of
syDaba anceps at a pause in the
line, e.g. Plaut. Merc, goo,
Rud. 975).
The I.-Eur. suffix was -ns, after a conThus A-stems ended in -ans, which became -as,
O-stems in -ons, which became -6 n s, I-stems in -ins, R-stems in
Latin examples are vids, lupos,
-rns, S-stems in -sns, and so on.
-ens
retires
-es
from
ii.
f
(ch.
64) from I.-Eur. -ns], Jionores
[with
for -osens.
I.-Eur. -ns, -ns becomes in Oscan -ss, in Umbr. -f
e.g. Osc. viass vias, feihuss, walls (cf. Gk. retxo?), Umbr. vitlaf
Acc. Plur.
51.
sonant
-ns.
'
'
with
vitulas,' or
avif ,
and aveif
loss of -f vitla, torn for *tornf
this is the usual
the
Nom.
tauros,' avef
aves.'
I-stems in Latin should show
-es,
PI.
form
-is
in the best
(from
-ins, ch.
ii.
64) ; and
often find
MSS., though we
Thus
ending or the Cons. -stem ending.
urbis is
attested for Virg. G. i. 25 urbisne invisere, Caesar, &c., but urles

for A. iii. 106 centum urbes habitant magnas, ires for A. x. 35o }
:
so on the (restored)
for the following line (Gell. xiii. 21)
claseis
Columna Rostrata (C. I. L. i. 195) [c]lasesque nauales
but
tris
Poenicas
copias Cartacinienseis
of the use of -Is

52.
II.
and
-es,
see
Neue,
naueis.
(For
statistics
2
.
p. 245.)
THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
The
form the Comparative and Superlative of

For the
Adjectives have been already mentioned in chap. iv.
I.-Eur. suffixes used to
Comparative, (i) -yes-, with weak grade -is- (e.g. O. Ind. svadlyas-. Gk. fjbia) Acc. for *r)bioaa, Goth, sutiza, Lith. sald-es-nis),
50-52.]
COMPARISON.
405
Lat. Sttdvior, older *snavios, magis Adv.; (2) -tero- and -ero-, the
which was rather that of likeness, of equal, than
original sense of
of greater degree
mdter-tera,
(e.
g.
O. Ind. vatsa-tara-,
'
lit.
like a calf,' Lat.
'like a mother,' Ir. demnithir, 'equally certain,'

certain'); for the Superlative, (i) -is-to- (-is-tho-?),
lit.
from demin,
'
(e.g. O. Ind. ds-istha-,

IOTO?, Goth,
Gk.
w/ao-ros; O. Ind. svad-istha-,
Gk.
778-
Engl. sweet-est), apparently composed of the

weak Comparative suffix -is- and the TO-suffix (ch. v. 27) (2)
-temo- or -t e mo- (-tmmo-) and -emo- or - emo- (-mmo-) (ch. v.
14)
sut-ists,
O. Ind. an-tama-, Lat. in-tmius; O. Ind. upama-, Lat. summus

This last Superlative suffix was, like the Comfor *sup-mus).
parative -tero-, -ero- (Ascoli, SuppL Arch. Glott. ItaL i. 53),
(e.g.
originally a suffix denoting likeness (e.g. O. Ind. go-tama-, lit.

'
like an ox ') or position, and it has this force in Latin words like
'
'
aecK-tumus, lit. living in a temple (later corrupted to aedi-tnus,

as if from tueor, guarding a temple/ Gell. xii. TO ; Varro, R. R.
l
i.
2. i)
fim-timus, man-timus, &c., so that
e.
g. c%-timus
'
probably
meant originally near in position (cf. dex-timus, on the right,

not most on the right '), and is not properly a Superlative. To
give Superlative sense, the weak Comparative suffix was added,
'
'
-is-emo- (-is- e mo-),
e. g. maxim/us for *magis-hmis, sacerrimm for

*acris-imus^facillimus for *fa(^lu-imu% (on the change of -risThe origin of the usual Latin
to -ers-, -err-, &c., see ch. iv. 13).
Superlative ending -issimm, older -issiimus, has been matter of

One theory makes the I.-Eur. suffix of
discussion.
much
O. Ind. as-istha-, Gk. WK-IOTOS -istho-, not -isto-, and explains

But
Lat. -issimus as this suffix augmented by -emo- (-mo-).
the change of I.-Eur. sth into Latin ss is not satisfactorily
proved by Lat. ossi-, bone (O. Ind. asthan-, Gk dorcW see
ch. iv.
95), and it seems safer to analyze -issimns into the suffixes
;
-isto-
and -temo- (on
The -is- of
108)
a fact attested not only
ss for (s)tt, see ch. iv.
-issimus, like the -is of magis,
had short
i,
by grammarians [Mar. Victor., p. 242. 24 K. Vergil ius, p. 189.

17 H. (Suppl.)],but by late spellings like merentessemo, karessemo
;
Or
an ending peculiar,
known, to Latin, may
contain the suffix -is- twice. The
sime) obscured the presence of this

suffix, and may have led to a re-
change of
sime.
-issimo-,
so far as is
*ocis-ume(d) to oxime (*oc-
formation from
ocius (*ocis), viz. ocis-
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
406
(C. I. L.
e.
ii.
was long;
The
*
bad
(The
2997).
GAElssiMO
g.
C. I.
see ch.
form
tall
of I in
[Chap. VI.
some
late inscriptions,
L. vi 5325, does not prove that the vowel
i.
9).
Comparison of simple Adjectives like

Gk. ayaOos, aptivw
bonus, melior, optimns
'
irregular
'
good,'
Engl.
good, better) is a relic of a very early time when different roots
were used to express a Positive, a Comparative, and a Superlative
bonus (older diionus) from dwen- (cf. O. Ind. duvas-,
notion,
*
(e.
honour
g.
'),
optimus
melior,
(C. I. L.
archaism) from the root op- of
i.
1016 has
On
opto, opes, &c.
opituma,
an
the Comparison
of Adverbs, see ch. ix.

i.
In the Romance languages Comparison is expressed by the use
of the descendants of Lat. plus (Ital., French, &c.), magis (Span.,
Port., &c.), e. g. Ital. piu ricco, richer,' il piu ricco, the richest,'
'
'
except in these
simple Adjectives like
retain their old irregular Comparison,
e.
'
'
good/
g.
Ital.
which
migliore and
bad,'
'
'
the best '), peggiore and
migliore,
good
(il
bad
the
worst
Ital. -issimo
&c.
pessimo, very
(il peggiore,
'),
not
richest
shows
itself
very rich,'
by its
(e. g. ricchissimo,
')
'
ottimo,
very
'
'
'
'
'
instead of -es- (for Lat.
-is-
-%s-, ch.
ii.
and no transmission from ancient

Rom. Gram. ii. p. 83.)
The Comparative
53.
Nom.
were
Sg., M., F., -ion's

-ids, -loses, -ids.
4) to be a late innovation,
times.
(See Meyer-Llibke,
The suffix -yes- appears in Latin as -ior

Nom. Sg. Neut., of which the older forms
Suffixes.
Gen.
Sg., -ius
(On the change of
to
r,
see ch. iv.
Varro
148).
(L. L.
quotes from early Latin (from the Carm. Sal. ?) meliosem, and Paul. Fest.
(359. i Th.) maiosibus^neliosibus (his 'meltom' meliorem dicebant, 87. 25 Th., may be
a corruption of a gloss like melios melior see Class. Rev. v. 10 so in a Glosvii. 27)
'
sary 'meliosa' meliora, Lowe, Opusc. p. 170). Priscian (i. p. 347. 2 H.) quotes
from the earlier historians Neuter forms like prior, posterior thus from
;
hoc senatusconsultum prior factum est

from Cassius
bellum Punicum posterior from Claudius Quadrigarius prior
Valerius Antias
Hemina
bellum quod cum his gestum erat and foedus prior Pompeianum (on color
Neut. in 0. Lat., see
though it is conceivable that the actual forms
14)
used may have been prios, posterios, which must have been the predecessors of
;
pr-ius, posterius (ch. iii.
iS)
originally affixed to the root without the suffix of the
Positive stem, as in Lat. dc-ior, O. Ind. ai-Iyas-, Gk. wK-icav from a Positive
The
yes-suffix
The supposed examples
Pros. p. 55.
was
of -ius in Plautus are illusory
see Miiller, Plaut.
53-55.]
COMPARISON.
407
stem *oku-, but Lat. sudvior for *8uadv-iort tenuior, aspvrior, &c. start from the
On the other hand the suffix -tero-, when added
Positive stem *swadu-, &c.
an Adjective, was affixed to the Positive stem, e. g. wKv-repos. This -tero- is

often added to Prepositions, e. g. ex-ter, ci-ter, postero- (similarly -ero- in
In Latin it has not Comparative sense unless augmented by the
sup-ero-}.
to
YES-suffix,
e. g.
ex-ter-ior,
dex-fer-ior,
ci-ter-ior,
apparently the Latin equivalent of the Gk.
sinis-fer-ior
ociter,
wtfv-repo-, &c. (ch. ix.
&c.
being
i").
The Superlative
Suffixes. The suffix -temo- or -tmo- (-trnmo-) with

(-mmo-) is closely associated with Comparative -tero-, -ero-,
e. g. ci-timus goes with ci-tero-, in-Umus with in~tero- (O. Ind. an-tama- with
an-tara-), summits from *sup-mus with sup-ero-, infimus (imus seems not to occur
in Plautus) with infero-. The old augural term sollistumum tripudium may
combine it with the Comparative -is-. Its original form is difficult to
The spelling on Republican inscriptions is -tumus, -umus (ch. iii.
ascertain.
Umbr. hondomu suggests an older -tomo-, -omo-, while Osc. ultiumam
18).
(Lat. ultimam) shows an affection of t that is usual before a w-soimd (cf. Osc.
The form without t is seen in minimus, bruma from brevis
tiurri-, Lat. turns).
54.
-e
-emo- or
mo
for *breghu- (Gk. (3paxvs\ (cf. Osc. maimo- 'maximus'), and apparently
attached to a case-form, in supre-mus, extre-mus, pbstre-mus (cf. postumus Virg. A.
but
vi. 763),
it
is
usually combined with the Comparative -is-, e.

Maxomo-), 0. Lat. oxime (Paul. Fest. 225.
*oc'is-ime, medioximus from the stem mediae- seen in mediocris.

formation adopted by Adjective-stems ending in -li-, -ri-, -ro-,
facil-limus for *facU-simus
rimus
&c.,
g.
maximus
Th.) for
This was the
for mag-is-imus (Falisc.
acer (acri-\ acerrimus for *acri-simus
though we have
severissimus, matiirissimus
and
e. g. facilis,
misero-, miser-
maturissime, but
3
usually maturrime, &c. (see Neue, ii pp. 187 sqq.). With the last we should
probably compare O. Lat. purime in the phrase purime tetinero, explained in
Paul. Fest. 335. 7 Th. as purissime tenuero. Ennius (according to Charisius 83.
22 K.) wrote equitatus celerissimits, and miner rimus is quoted by Paul. Fest. 88.
.
1 1
Th.
minerrimus pro minimo dixerunt.

'
'
:
Some
55.
irregular Comparatives
and Superlatives.
Vetustior
appears
as the Comparative of vetus, because vetustus with its ill-sounding repetition of

the syllable -tus- was discarded in the Positive for vetus, apparently the I.-Eur.
in the Superlative veterrimus and

*wetos, *wetes- (Gk. 4Vos, a year)
Livy and later writers) are both found. Minus, with -us not
have originated in a Neuter Noun, meaning
-ius, lias been similarly explained to
Noun
vetustissimus (in
quantity/ and to have produced the declension minor M., minor F.,
the Oscan equivalent of minor is minstro- (Lat. minister), e.g. ampert
minstreis aeteis eituas moltas moltaum licitud dumtaxat minoris partis pecuniae
multas multare liceto' on the Law of Bantia (cf. Umbr. mestro- 'major,' Lat.
The coexistence of such forms as benevolus and benevolens (ch. viii.
magister).
'
the
less
minus N.
90) produced a type of
simus
while
frugl,
Comparison like magmficus,

which was a Dative Case of
1
It is a mistake to suppose that the
scansion miserrimus, simillimus, &c. is
found in O. Lat. poetry, or that the
magniflcentior, magnificentis-
noun
[frugi (bonae)
sc.
antepenultimate of -issimus is ever

shortened (Class. Bev. vi. 342).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
408
[Chap. VI.
faciendae aptus ; cf. Plaut. Pseud. 468 tamen ero frugi bonae
Poen. 892
erus si tuos uolt facere frugem) had recourse for its Comparative and Superlative to the Adj.frugalis. The retention of v in the Positive with its suppression in the other degrees, causes the anomaly in the Comparison of (lives,
;
(but
Ter. Adelph. 770 dis
cf.
junior.
From pie-,
quidem
esses,
a development of the root
Gk. ir\rjpr]s,
another grade of pie-
ple-ri-qm,
Demea),
'
pel-,
were formed Greek
&c.),
to
ditior, 'dttissimus
juvenis,
'
fill
ir\ci<uv,
(La,t.ple-nus, reple-tus,
ir\i0Tos*
from
plo-,
Latin pZws for *plo-is (ploera Cic. Legg.

iii. 3. 6), plurimus for *plois-omo- (ploirume Nom. PI. Masc, on a Scipio epitaph of
the end of the third cent. B.C., C. I.L. i. 32
53), the
(ch. iv.
hone oino ploirume cosentiont R[6mai]

duonoro optumo fuise uiro,
hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Eomae bonorum optimum fuisse virum ')
the pious of the S. C. Bacch. (C. J. L. i. 196. 19 and 20) may with its ou merely
represent the u-sound which the diphthong oi had by this time assumed (ch.
'
iv.
37, 38),
and is hardly
sufficient
evidence of a formation *plo-us like minus
similarly plouruma on the epitaph of a
hexameters
mime
(C. I. L.
i.
1297, in dactylic
plouruma que
fecit
populo soueis gaudia nuges,
') is a misspelling of ploeruma or

plurima qui
pluruma. The pleoris of the Carmen Arvale (C.I.L. i. 28), a hymn preserved in
a late and wretchedly spelt inscription
'
fecit
populo suis gaudia nugis

:
neve luae rue, Marma, sins incurrere in dleores,

neve lue rue, Marma r, sins incurrere in pleoris,
neve lue rue, Marmar, sers incurrere in pleoris,
'
neve luem ruem, Marmar, sinas
a mistake for ploeres,
(siveris ?) incurrere in plures,'
and the plisima quoted from the Carmen
may
be
Saliare by Festus
'
Th. 'plisima plurima but in Varro's account of the same Carmen

plusima is the reading of the MS.] should perhaps be corrected to
ploisuma (ploisomd), though some regard these forms as evidence of Latin derivatives from the root pie-, like Greek irXcicav (irAecyi/) and TrAffo-ros. Major is
perhaps best referred to an older *mahior (cf. O. Ind. mahiyas-) with h for the
Guttural Aspirate, while magis, maximus show another form of root with the
[244. 17
(L. L. vii. 27)
Guttural Media
116), (but cf. Osc. mais for *mahis, maimas for *mahimas,
(ch. iv.
for *mahistro-)
the relation however of the Italic forms to
Goth, maiza, 'more' Adj. (I.-Eur. *ma-is-), O. Ir. maa, mo, 0. W. moi, all of
which point to a root ending in a long vowel, ma- or mo-, is not perfectly clear.
Umbr. mestru
56. III.
13
NUMERALS.
wms
Of the Latin Cardinal Numbers only
-a -urn, chid -ae -d, tres -es -ia, not
4 (O. Ind.
Gk.
nor
-es
catvaras, catasras, catvari,
reWapes
5 (O. Ind.
-a),
Gk.
Lesb.
TreVre,
7Tjut7rco^ Gen.).
panca Nom., paiicanam Gen.,
The Numeral Adverbs from 5 upwards end in -iens or -ies (on
are inflected,
the spelling, see Brambach, Lat. Orth. p. 269 ; Neue, ii 3 p. 335 ;

the Mon. Ancyranum has -iens), an ending which is also found
.
56,57.]
NUMERALS.
409
in totie(n)s, quotie(n)s} and which has been connected with the

'
ending of O. Ind. kiyant- (Adj.), how great ? ', iyant- (Adj.), so
Umbr. nuvis f novies,' Osc.
great/ probably I.-Eur. -yent.
'
'
'
pomtis
quinquies
seem
show the same ending, with
to
weak
as
[On the change of I.-Eur. -nt to -ns in

Lat. and Umbro-Oscan, see ch. iv. 105 ; in late Lat. inscriptions
we often find -is (cf. ch. ii. 6), e. g. qmnquis, Rossi, /. Chr. i.
grade of ye
(ch. iv.
508, of 402
2087, of
51).
A. V., sexis, ii.
559
i.
530, of
404
C.I.L.
A. D., clecis
A. D., also -es (cf. quetus for quietus, ch.
e.g. qninques, Rossi, i. 510, of

of 558 A. D., vices xii. 2187, of
ii.
A. D., deces C. /. L. xii.
564
A. D.]
(=12
'
deunx,
twelfths,'
I.-Eur.
word
for
seven-
five-twelfths,' septunac,
g. uncia, 'one-twelfth,' quincunas,
eleven- twelfths,'
'
lit.
2086,
nnciae),
(
'
e.
149),
402
Fractions are expressed by divisions of the as
xii.
The
minus an ounce.'
(O. Ind. sami-, Gk. ?/ju.t-,

sand-blind '), is in Latin semi-, the
'
^semi-
half,'
O. Engl. sam-, whence our '

declinable form semis, Gen. semissis, &c., being apparently a
of semi- and as with the -ye- of *semyessis weakened
compound
r
t/
t/
to
1 8, p.
iii.
(ch.
188)
similarl}"
the -we- of *centu(m)-essi-,
*decu(m)-essi- is weakened to u in eentussi-, decussi-.

of the -ns (for -nts) of triens,
one-third,' sex fans,
'
'
origin
one-sixth/
'
one-fourth,'
qnadrans,
The
'
sixths,' for ^de-sextans,
lit.
'
five-
three-fourths,' dextans,
dodrans,
minus
one-sixth,'
is
not clear
bessi- is
usually explained as *du-essi- (on b- from dw-, see ch. iv.

but it means not 'two asses' but c two-thirds of an as' 1
71),
The
Adjective for
1
'
8).
que,
One
'
dl-midius from dis- and medius (ch. iii.

and a half is sesqm-, usually explained as **emi8'
half
is
with the same syncope as
half,' for semis-tertiiis (cf .
Germ,
is
seen in sestertius,
'
two and a
drittehalb).
57. One.
I.-Eur. ôi-no- (Gk. owr), an ace, O. Ir. oen, W.
cf. O. Ind. eka- for
Goth,
un,
ains, Lith. v-enas, O. SI. i-nu
for
Gk.
Att.
ol-Fos,
otos, alone,
ôi-ko-, Cypr.
*oi-wo-), Lat. wins
;
(-a -urn),
O. Lat.
oinos.
Another I.-Eur. word for
The Oscan word, often compared
with
(Zv. I.I.I.
154), has scant claims to existence.
bessi-j
viz.
diasis
All that the inscription

... iasis.
one
'
was
shows
is
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
410
[Chap. VI.
*sem-, which is used in Gk., els for -*sem-s, pia for o-^-ia, tv for
and in Derivatives and
*sem, and in Arm., mi for ^sm-i
in
all
e.
*sm- in O. Ind. sa-kft,
"*sem-,
g.
languages,
Compounds
;
'
once,'
Gk.
a-7ra
a-7rAo'os, Lat. sin-guli, simphis, sim-plex,

cantio solitaria, Paul. Fest. 500. 23 Th.,
a-uAoj,
semel, sem-per, sincinia
quibus adhibentur duntaxat ludi,.Fest. 498.

Goth,
For the Ordinal was used a derivative
once.'
simle,
24 Th.,
simpludiarea funera
'
(cf. Lat. pro, prae, &c. ; Gk. Tre/juo-t

the previous year,' O. Ind. par-ut, from perand the root of *wetos, a year,' Gk. Iros), in Latin *pris- (cf.
from the I.-Eur. root per'
for vep-vTL,
in
'
prius) with the suffix -mo-, primus for ^pris-miis (Pelign. Prisma- ;
cf. Lat. pris-cus, pris-tinus), in O. Ind. a derivative with one
Superlative suffix, pra-thama-, in Teutonic with another, O. H. G.
Germ.
fur-ist (cf.
Engl. first.
Latin semel from the root sem-, just
mentioned, a byform of which furnished the Indefinite Pro-
The Adverb
Fiirst),
in
is
some/ in various languages (O. Ind. sama-, Gk.

Goth, sums, Engl. some; K. Z. xxxii. 373); the Adjective,
noun
'
'
any,'
ajuto-,
sim-plus (Gk. a-ir\6s) or sim-plex (from *sem-plax,

59) ; the Distributive sin-guli.
58. TInus.
Scipio
(C. /. L.
i.
cf.
du-plex
O. Lat. oinos appears on the proud epitaph of L. Cornelius

written in Saturnian metre
32),
hone oino ploirume cosentiont K[6mai]

duonoro optumo fuise uiro,
'
hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Romae bonorum optimum fuisse virum

cf. oinuorsei
universi on the S. C. de Bacch. (i. 196), and Oinumama Unimamma (an Amazon) on an old Praenestine cista (i. 1501), oina Adv. in the
Lex Agraria of in B.C. (i. 200. 21)
oenus in Plaut. True. 103, Cic. Legg. iii.
But we have unus in the Lex Repetundarum of 123-122 B.C. (i. 198).
3. 9.
The Neuter, with the Negative particle ne prefixed, was used as. the ordinary
Negative, noenum (for *ne-oinom), later non (ch. iv.
16), like our 'not' and
18),
nought,' Germ, nicht and Nichts, from Goth, ni waihts (see ch. x.
while to express 'nothing' the Romans used a compound of ne and hllum
'
'
'
'
'
quod grano fabae adhaeret, Paul. Fest. 72. 10 Th.), mhllum, later mhtt, nil
The plural of unus is found with Nouns whose Plural is used
iii.
52).
in a Singular (Collective) sense, e. g. una castra, and in the sense of only,'
alone (cf. Gk. oZbs), e. g. tres unos passus Plaut. In the Romance languages
the Indefinite Article is formed from Lat. unus, as the Definite from Lat. iUe
and we see traces of this use in colloquial Latin, e. g. una adulescentula, Ter.
i,
(ch.
'
'
Andr. 118.
59
Two.
I.-Eur.
*duwo- and *dwo- with Dual
declension,
58-60.]
NUMERALS.
411
*duw6(u) M., ^duwai F., "*duwoi or *"duwei N. (O. Ind. dvau

and dva, older duvau and duva M., dve, older duve F v N., Gk.
bvo> and bvo, also b(F)a>- O. Ir. dan -and da M., dl F., W. danM.,
9
Goth, tvai M., tvos F., tva N., Lith. du M., for *dvu,
dvi F. for *dv6, O. SI. dva and duva M., dve and duve R, N.),
Latin duo M., N., duae F., with Dual declension, which however
dwy R,
became intermixed with Plural forms, e. g. finds Ace. M. beside

In Derivatives and Compounds the I.-Eur. stem dwiappears (O. Ind. dvi-pad-, Gk. b(F)i-7rov$, O. Engl. twi-fete), Lat.
duo.
(O. Lat. dui-dens^ Paul. Fest. 47. 8 Th.,
ffi-pe* 9 Iti-dens
cemus
.
cum
altero, id est
bevrepov
cum
Gl.
aTroyeypa/x/xeVos
languages we have
also
dui-
cf.
47. 5; duicensus
while in the Italic
id.
census,
filio,
Philox.),
du- (Lat. du-plv, du-plex,
du-centi,
apparently the weak grade of an

I.-Eur. "*dwe- (Lat. du-lius has the same root ; cf. Horn. 007,
For the Ordinal the
doubt, Germ. Zwei-fel, Zend dvai-di).
Romans used seoundus, lit. following/ from sequor, or alter ^
Umbr. du-purms bipedibus

'
).
'
'
the other of two,' from the same root as al-ius^
'
the other of
(O. Ir. aile, W. ail, which have also this sense of

second ; in O. Engl. 6f>er had this numerical sense) ; for the
many'
*
'
Adverb I.-Eur. *dwis or *duwis (O. Ind.

r
M. H. G. zwis, Goth, tvis-, apart
5(/ )t?
Lat.
fkiis,
'
cum
cum
cf.
dvis,
'
'
duidens
census
the Adjective du-plus (Gk. bi-ir\6s,
Umbr.
altero, id est
'
hostia bidens,'
and
quoted above)
for
'
filio
duicensus
Vedic duvis, Gk.
Engl. twis-t), lu (O.
du-plo-) or du-plex
for the Distributive bl-ni
(Gk. 5i-7rAaf cf. Umbr. tu-plak N.)

from -^dwiz-no- (O. Scand. tvenner) or from *dwi-no- (Lith.
dvynu Du., twins ').
;
'
60. Duo.
The
original quantity of the final vowel of duo in Latin is
We
from poetry.
cannot assign much weight to the
precept of the grammarians (e.g. Charisius 35. 25 K.) which distinguishes
duo M. from duo N., nor to the scansion duo in the Christian poets (Neue, ii 3
277 ; similarly ego for ego). In classical poetry the scansion is invariably duo
difficult to establish
but in the old Republican poets we find duo Ace. distinguished

not by the quantity of its final syllable, but in being treated as
a monosyllable or the equivalent of a long syllable for example, duo Ace. is
never allowed to end an iambic line, which points to *dvo rather than to *duo
(cf.
duodeni},
from
duos,
The shortening of the final vowel can be easily explained

551).
of Breves Breviantes, which reduced have to have (ch. iii.
42) ; for
a similar doubt with reference to the pronunciation of scio as sew or *scjo, see
(A. L. L.
iii.
by the Law
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
412
ch.
ii.
The
151).
Fern, duae
[Chap. VI.
the old suffix of the Noni. Dual of
may retain
A-steins, -ai(e. g. 0. Ind. alve for I.-Eur. *ekwai, two mares'), which would
be retained in monosyllabic *dvai without sinking, as in the unaccented
'
The termination -obus of

syllable, to -I (e. g. occido from 6c-cai'do ch. iii.
18).
duobus M., N. is shared only by the other Dual-form ambo, though -abus F. was
a common (Dat., Abl. or Instr.) Plural ending of A-stems, retained in legal
t
language especially in the words deabus, filiabus, libertabus ( 48). But the
Plural declension encroached more and more on these Dual forms; duos
Ace. M. competes, as we have seen, in the older literature with duo, while
duas F. is a Plural, as are also the Genitive forms duorum M., N. (older duum,
e. g. duummrum used by
A Nom., Ace. Neuter dua
47), duarum F.
Cicero,
appears on inscriptions
1102
(e.g. C.I.L. v.
other instances in Neue,
ii
3
.
p.
though it is called a barbarism by Quintilian (i. 5. 15 nam dua' et <tre'

diversorum generum suiit barbarismi, at duapondo et trepondo usque ad
nostram aetateni ab omnibus dictum est, et recte dici Messala confirmat),
which seems to have been supplemented by a Nom. Masc. *dul in Vulgar Latin,
to judge from the Eomance forms (e.g. Ital. due, older dui, 0. Fr.
dui, doi, &c.).
In Umbrian the word shows Plural declension, dur Nom., tuf Ace., tuva Nom.
277),
'
Ace. Neut.
'
'
(On the declension of Lat. duo, see Neue, ii 3 pp. 276 sqq.). Late
diloris, dinummium are hybrid formations with Greek Siinstead of Latin &-. The relation of I.-Eur. *dwi- to the Latin preposition
compounds
dis-,
Lat.
apart, has not been established, nor yet to I.-Eur. *wi- of Dor. Gk. pi-Kan,
vi-gintl, &c., perhaps connected with O. Ind. vi, 'apart.'
61.
Gk.
like
Three. I.-Eur.
Gk.
rpei9, Cret.
*tri-,
r/aees,
O.
Nom. Masc. ^treyes

Ir.
trl,
W.
trys, O. SI. trije), Lat. tres M., F., tria

tref Ace., triia
The stem tri-
(O. Ind. tray as,

Lith.
Jn-eis,
tri,
Goth,
N.
(cf.
Umbr.
trif or
appears in Gk. rpi'-ros, rpiTTOUS, Lat. tri-pes, &c., but a stem tre- in Lat. tre-centi, tre-pondo,
Lith. tre-czias, third,' O. SI. tre-tiji, &c.
The Ordinal tertiu*
Neut.).
<
(Umbr. tertio-) probably shows this stem tre- with metathesis of

Adverb ter, for terr (in Plautus scanned as a long syllable,
cf.
terr-uncius) from *ter-s> comes from the same stem, or, like
O. Ind. tris, Gk. rpis, from the stem tri- (ch. iii.
15. 8); the
r; the
in-plus (Gk. rpt-TrAo?), tn-pleas; the Distributive

on binus above), and ter-nus. We find tri- and terinterchanged in Compounds like tri-gemmus and ter-gemiims,
Adjective
is
trinus (see
tri-venejicus
ter-veneficm, tri -mum
and
now
2476), Terventum
tre-modia (Varro, Men.
Trivento
310
tri-
and ter-mum (C.I.L. ix.

and tre- in tri-modia and
B.).
62. Tres. The grammarians prescribe tres in the Nominative and Ms in

the Accusative (Neue, ii 3 p. 284), as is the rule in all I-stems (
40, 51),
though Virgil, as Gellius (xiii. 21. 10) points out, uses tres Ace. for the sake of
.
variety in A. x. 350
61-63.]
tres
NUMERALS.
413
quoque Threicios Boreae de gente suprema

quos Idas pater et patria Ismara mittit,
et tris,
per varios sternit casus,
where the Koman critics found

iii. 106)
centum urbes
habitant magnas (Gellius L c. quotes the remarks of Probus on this form hie
item muta ut urbis dicas, nimis exilis vox erit et exsanguis, and his reply
to a caviller: noli igitur laborare, utrum istorum debeas dicere 'urbis' an
Nam cum id genus sis, quod video, ut sine jactura tua pecces, nihil
urbes.'
Tris Nom. is found on late inscriptions, e. g. Eph.
perdes, utrum dixeris !).
as
he uses elsewhere
urbes Ace. in a context
that this form gave greater
melody
to the line (A.
'
'
'
Epigr. iv.
420 (other examples in A.
L. L. vii. 65).
The
I.-Eur. stem q~etwer- had various grades,

q"etwor-, q"etur-, q-etru-, &c. Its Nom. Masc. *q~etwores (O. Ind.
63.
Four.
catvaras, Dor.
cethir,
W.
keturi, O.
make
this
Gk.
reropes, Att. re'rrapes, Lesb. TreVvpe?, O. Ir.
pedwar, Goth, fidvdr,
Engl. feower
Lith.
cf.
probably appears in Lat. quattuor (some

I.-Eur. Neuter *q~etw6r,
44, 45), apparently for
SI. cetyre)
an
*quotvor(e)* with t doubled before the w-sound (ch. ii.

130)
-atv- for -otv- like -av- for -ov- in caws, &c. (ch. iv.
19).
9
Oscan word was petora
and
The
spelt by Festus 250. 33 Th., but

In Compounds and Derivatives we
(so
probably better *petoro).

find a stem q-etru- (Zend
cajrni-,
Gaul. Petru-corius
Umbr.
cf.
petur-pursus quadripedibus'), which in Latin is quadru- (with

a for e by analogy of quattuor, quartus ?), where the d is
puzzling, for -dr- seems to become -trin Latin, e. g. dtro- for
'
*ddro-, nutrias for *nudrix (ch. iv.

113), so that -tr- should not
to
-drLat.
p. 83 suggests that quadra, a
change
[Wharton, Etym.
'
means literally pointed and comes, not from quattuor,

but from a root q"ad-, to point, sharpen/ Engl. whet, the usual
'
square,
'
change of -dr- to -tr- being seen in tri-quetrus, triangular.

Quadra, which retained d (by analogy of other words from
the same root?), may have been the cause of *q"etru- taking
the form quadruThe Ordinal qudrtus
cf. K. Z. xxxii. 565].
with its long a (indicated by an apex over the letter on
inscriptions; see Christiansen, de Apicibus, p. 52) has not yet been
;
satisfactorily
have Qnorta
explained.
(cf. ch.
preted variously as
ii.
an inscription of Praeneste we
4)
the Oscan word truto-
'
'
quartus
Adverb qudter stands for

catur), as
On
for *ptru-to-,
*q"etrii-s
(Zend
and as
'
ca)?rus;
ager for *agros, deer "tor *dcns (ch.
is
certus.'
iii.
cf.
inter-
The
O. Ind.
16); the
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
414
[Chap. VI.
Adjectives quadru-plus quadm-plex show the curious change of

-tr- to -dr-, remarked on above, from which quater is free ; the
^
Distributive quaternus for *quatri-mis (like sacerdos for *sacndos,

iii.
16) from *q~etru-no- (ch. iii.
18), or from the Adverb
ch.
quater with the suffix -no (see above on binus,
59).
64. Quattuor with double i is the spelling of the best MSS. and inscriptions, such as the Monumentum Ancyranum (see Georges, Lex. Worlf. s. v.).
The form
quattor, found 011 late inscriptions (e.g. C.I.L. viii. 5843; other
examples in A. L. L. vii. 65) has been already explained from *quatt(v}6rdecim,
where the w-sound would be dropped before the accent, as in Jan(v)drius, Feb-
r(v)drius, &c. (ch.
words
tro
by
ii.
54".
for
fourteen,'
the words for
*
Vulg. Lat. quattor -decim
is
indicated by the
Komance
Ital. quattordici, Fr. quatorze, but Vulg. Lat. *quatfour,' e. g. Ital. quattro, Fr. quatre (Sic. battor, how-
e. g.
'
This Late and Vulg. Latin quattor can hardly be assigned

ever, from quattor}.
to early Latin authors
so retain quattuor in Plaut. Most. 630 and scan quattuor,
;
Rud. 944 as a dactyl at the beginning of an iambic line in Enn. A.

in Enn. A. 609 read fere quattuor partum (?).
90 M. quattuor like virgims A. 102
Petreius, Petronius are dialectal Proper Names derived from this numeral, as
like
enicciS)
Pompeius, Pontius (Lat. Quint ius) from the
numeral
'
five.'
*p8nqe (O. Ind. paiica, Arm. hing, Gk.

Lith.
TTVT, Tre/xTr-w/SoAor.
penki) shows in Teutonic assimilation
of the second syllable to the first, *"pempe (Goth, fimf), in Lat.
65. Five.
I.-Eur.
and Celtic of the

quinquefoil, O.
cf.
coic;
to the second *q~enq-e (Gaul. 7rejU7re-8ouAa,

in O. Ir. with o for e in the first syllable,
;
Umbro-Oscan pump-, Pompeius}, Lat. qumque with
changed to
ch. iv.
first
W. pimp
before a nasal and guttural (like tingo for *tengo,

and the I lengthened (by analogy of quintust). The
n),
Ordinal qmntns, older qmnctiis, follows the rules of Latin phonetics

that qu becomes e before a consonant (ch. iv.
137), and that in
this
group of three consonants the middle one
On the lengthening of the
see ch.
ii.
is
dropped
(ch. iv.
The
i,
144.
original
in Italic for I.-Eur. *penq^-to (or *pnq--to-?)
(Gk. Tre/xTrros, Lith. penktas, O. SI. p^tu ; Osc. Plinth's, also LIojUTme j
157).
form was *q"enc-to-
with -mp- from the Cardinal form). The Adverb is quinquies,

older quinquiens, on which see 56, the Adjective quinqui-plex [or
with
-cu- for -qmi- (ch. iv.
quinquiplus
137) C[umcu-plex\, rarely quincuplus or

the Distributive qulmis for *qiiinc-mis (ch. iv.
157).
The long quantity of the i of quinque is attested by the

form of the letter on inscriptions (for instances, see Christiansen,
66. Quinque.
use of the
de
tall
Apicibus,
see ch. iv.
pp. 45-46.
163^
On
Vulg. Lat. cinque (Ital. cinque, Fr. cinq, &c.),
64-70.]
73), as
and
se
415
Lat. sex points to I.-Eur. *seks or */seks (M.
67. Six.
vii.
NUMERALS.
L.
S.
Greek ef, fef to *sweks or */sweks (cf.Zend xsvas, O.Ir.
*fe,
W.
The Ordinal
chwech).
sextus has -st- in
Umbro-
Sestius is a dialectal byf orm

Oscan, e. g. Umbr. sestentasiaru
of Sex tins.
The Adverb is sescies, older sexiens (see
the
56)
luna for
Distributive semis for * sex-mis
ch. iv.
;
lux-net,
(as
68.
Seven.
I.-Eur.
Gk. enra, O.Ir. secht,W.
162).
*septm (O. Ind. sapta, Arm.

saith,
Goth, sibun
evt'n,
Lith. septyn-i),
cf.
septem, with
Ordinal "*septmo- (O. Ind. saptama-, Gk.

Pruss.
/36oôj,
septmas and sepmas), Lat. septimus, older septumus. The Distributive septenus stands for *septen-no- (ch. ii. 130).
Lat.
In
later
Latin we find
tt
for pt,
e.
g. Settembris (C. I. L. xi.
In Compounds
4075);
stem seplem-, e.g. septempeddlis Plaut., septemplex
Virg., septemgemmus Catull., but Septi-montium, and on the
3885,
we
Setebres
cf.
Ital. sette,
Settembre.
find the
restored
ennis
Columna Rostrata
Plaut.,
&c.
(cf.
septe-resmos (C.I.L.
below), for
septud-gintd,
shows the usual weakening of unaccented

the same loss between vowels of final
a compound as
is
i.
195); septu-
*$eptnm-enni$,
before m to n, and
member
of the first
seen in circu(m)ire, &c. (ch.
of
18 and 52).
iii.
The O.-Ind. Dual form *6kto(u), cleverly

Eight.
as
the two sets of pointed (i. e. the fingers,
Fick
explained by
without the thumbs, of both hands), from the root ak-, ok-, to
69.
'
'
'
be sharp, pointed' (O. Ind. asta and astau, Arm. ut , Gk. OKTU>,
O. Ir. ocht, W. wyth^ Goth, ahtau, Lith. astu-n-i) is in Latin
octo,
with Ordinal octavus
(cf.
Osc.
Uhtavis
'
Octavius
')
for
*octovu8 (ch. iv.

1
and Distributive octd-nus. In later Latin ct
6),
became tt, Ottobres C. 7. L. xi. 2537 (cf. Ital. otto, Ottobre), and
the final -5
is
shortened, like every final -5 in the poetry of the
Empire, e. g. octo Mart. vii. 53. 10. In Compounds it is treated as

an O-stem, e. g. octu-plus, octu-plex, octi-pes, oct-ennis.
70. Nine. I.-Eur. *n^wn (O. Ind. nava, Gk. twea for
*v-veFa (?), O. Ir. noi, W. naw, Goth, niun cf. Lith. devyn-i
with d- instead of n-) is in Latin novem with ov regularly enough
of the
for -ew- as in Celtic (ch. iv.
10), but with -em instead
;
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
41 6
normal
-en.
older noino-
[Chap. VI.
The proper Nasal appears in the Ordinal ndmts,

(if the Dvenos inscription is rightly read dienoine,
on the ninth day), from *noveno~, where the o is difficult to

explain, though it seems to have a parallel in non for noen(um).
Failing this explanation, we may suppose that *nouno- or
*nownno- was the I.-Eur. form, with the O-grade of the root,
and understand Lat. as an expression of I.-Eur. ou as in robm,

&c. (ch. iv.
(On nondinum and noundinum, old spellings
41).
of nunftlnum, for *no(v)fadinum, from novem and the root din-,
Umbr. nuvimoseen in O. SI. dini, a day,' see ch. iv.
44.)
'
the form rather to be expected in Latin, *ntiv$ma'

Ind.
(O.
navama-), but in Pelign. we have Novnis Nonius/
The Adverb is novies (Umbr. nuvis) the Distributive novenus
shows
from *noven-no71.
O.
Ten.
Ir. deich,
(ch.
ii.
130).
I.-Eur. *de"km (O. Ind. dasa, Arm. tasn, Gk.

cf. Lith. deszim-t, O. SI.
deg, Goth, taihun
W.
with Ordinal declmus (O. Ind. dasama-) (cf

the proper name Deems), Adverb decies, and Distributive denus
for which we should expect *decemts like septenus (cf.
74).
dese-ti), Lat. decem,
These Numerals were denoted

by Compounds, expressive of the addition of the
smaller unit to ten.
These Compounds consist of the two
Numerals themselves (not their stems) placed together, the
72.
Eleven to Nineteen.
in I.-Eur.
smaller
unit
preceding the ten, e. g. I.-Eur. "*treyes-dekm,

Ind.
(O.
trayo-dasa). The Latin Compounds (in which
the final -em of decem sinks to ~im, ch. iii.
18) are, un-decim
for *tin(i)-decim (on Vulg. Lat. *undecim, see ch. ii.
147), duo*
'
thirteen
decim, tre-decim for *tres-decwi (like nidus for *ni*-du8, ch. iv.
151)5 quattuor-decim, quin-decim$.m *quin(que)-decim (ch.iii. 13),
se-decim (the correct spelling) for sex-decim (like luna for *lux-na^
ch. iv.
1
Octo-decim and novem-decim were re62), septem-decim.
placed by duo-de-viginti, un-de-viginti for *mi(i)-de-vi(jrinti, or by

octo et decem, decem novem, a mode of expression which is found
in the other numerals too, e.g. decem duo (Umbr. desen-dufA.cc.),
is used in Greek
exclusively for the numbers above
and which
twelve, e.g. rpels KOL 8eKa and 8oca
r/oetj,
and optionally
for
71-74.]
twelve, 8w-8eKa or
In I.-Eur.
bvo.
de'/ca
it
NUMERALS.
417
was used for numbers
above twenty, and so in Lat. quattuor et viginti or viginti quatThe Ordinals are undecimus, duodecimus (O. Ind.
tnor, &c.
the Adverbs iwdedes, duodecies, the Disdvadasama-), &c.
;
tributives undenus, duodemis,

73. O.
and
so on.
Lat. duovicesimus for class, duo et mcesimu-s, twenty-second, is

of the Noctes Atticae (v. 4), which illustrates
by an interesting chapter
attested
the pains taken in the Imperial period to secure correct texts of early authors.
Gellius there tells us of a MS. of the Annals of Fabius bonae atque sincerae
vetustatis libri, quos venditor sine mendis esse coiitendebat. Agrammaticus
who was asked to inspect the MS., on the absolute correctness of which the
:
was willing to stake any amount of money (grammaticus quispiam

de nobilioribus, ab emptore ad spectandos libros adhibitus, repperisse se unum
in libro mendum dicebat sed contra librarius in quodvis pignus vocabat, si
in una uspiam littera delictum esset), declared that duovicesimo anno in Book iv.
was a mistake of the copyist for duo et vicesimo anno, but was finally forced to
admit, on being referred to other passages of ancient authors, that duovicesimus
bookseller
was a genuine Old Latin form.
Twenty to Ninety. These Numerals are denoted in

by Neuter Compounds, two decades,' three decades,'
the word for decade' being *dekm-t-, changed in Compo-
74.
'
I.-Eur.
'
'
&c.,
sition into
*(d)kmt- [or *(d)komt-
cf
Greek
-KOVT- in
30-90,
rpid-Kovra, T(T(rapa-KovTa, or rerpw-Korra, &c., which suggests

In Lat. m-gintl
that this is the plural stem, the other the dual].
w-
is
with
the -ginfo,
probarfly Neut. Dual Nom. of I.-Eur. *wifor e owing to the popular accentuation *mgenti t *trigenta,
;
*quadrdgenta, &c., which takes its g apparently through influence

of the d of I.-Eur. *(d)kmt- (but vicesimns; so Alb. -zet, a gross,'
'
points to g not k),

the trl- is Neut. Plur.
is
also
Nom.
Neut.
Dual Nom.
In
trl-gintd
of the I.-Eur. stem *tri-, the -gintd
shows the original quantity of the Neut. Plur. suffix, which has
of the earliest literature been shortened in Nouns,
In quadrd-gintd the quadra- (on the
&c. to -a (ch. iii.
43).
by the time
form of the stem,

rerpw-Koura (see ch.
see
iv.
63)
may correspond to Gk. rerpto- of

may have the Neut. Plur. ending
92), or
-, an ending assumed by quinque, sex^ septem,, novem in a somewhat

haphazard way in the Compounds qiimqud-ginta, sexd-ginta^
xeptud-gmta (for *septu(m)dginta see above on teptuennit,
nond-ginta, while odd in octoginta retains its ordinary form.
Ordinals are formed with the suffix -tmo- or -te mo- (ch. v.
;
E e
68),
The
14),
*
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
41 8
e.
[Chap. VI.
more frequent
g. vicesimuSj older vicensumus (this spelling is

1
than
vige#imu*) for *vi-cent-tumus, trlcesimus and trigesimns,

older -ensumus for *tri-cent-t<umu9 (O. Ind.
the
tri-lat-tama-)
Adverbs are mcies, older -ens, tricies, older -ens (sometimes
;
trigies), like
clecies,
older -ens
56)
the Distributives vicenus
(with byform trlgenu*\ &c., not

but like *deceniw ( 71).
vigenus), tr'icenus
(with byform
like the abnormal
flenus,
75. Viginti, &c.

x. 6cx>9), but the
Figrmft is spelt veiginti (C.I. L. i. 1194
indicate I, for the inscriptions are not of great antiquity (ch. i.
;
may merely
ei
The
9).
late spelling vigenti
(C. I. L. v.
1645,
&.c.)
points to vigmti
(cf.
quinqua-
and other examples of -genta quoted in A. L. L. vii. 69-70). In

Late and Vulgar Latin the g was dropped (ch. ii.
94), whence the form
vinti
e. g. Wilm. 569
et menses septem diebus cum vinti duobus
genta xii. 482,
cf.
Sard, vinti, Ital. venti, &c.
the form
trienta (C. I. L. xii.
The same thing happened to trigmta, producing

5399, &c.), and in Komance, Sard, trinta, Ital.
also to quadragmta (a hexameter line on a late epitaph ends,

quadraginta per annos, vi. 28047), which had become quar(r)aginta (Fabretti,
iv. 134), whence Ital. quaranta, Fr. quarante.
On the accentuation of these
three numerals, see ch. iii.
TI. 4.
Septuagintd is the scansion required in
metrical epitaphs (C. I. L. vi. 22251. 29426). Its analogy produced in Mediaeval
Latin the form octuaginta, which found its way into some early editions of
Latin authors (Skutsch, Forsch. i. 24). Ociaginta occurs sometimes in the Edict
of Diocletian (C. /. L. iii. pp. 810, 811) and elsewhere (see A. L. L. vii. 7o\ (For
other examples of the scansion -gintct in late poetry, see Neue, ii 3 p. 290.)
trenta, &c.
76.
The Hundreds.
The
I.-Eur. expression for 100
was
'
apparently a decade of decades

(like the Compound later
evolved in Gothic, taihunte-hund (?)), viz. *(d)kmt5m, probably
an old Gen. Plur. of the stem *dekmt ( 46), treated as a Nom.,
like
sesterces,'
the mere stem,

e/caro'/x-/3?7,
Gen. for mille sestertium, a thousand of

in Latin.
This explains why the full form, and not
setter tium,
-i
is
used in Compounds in Greek and Latin
eKaroy-xetjOos,
centum-plex
(e.
g.
centum-gemmus^ centum-
though some prefer to regard *(d)kmt5m as Nom.

pondium]
of
a
Neut.
O-stem, a decade,' just as O. Ind. dasati- means,
Sg.
;
'
hundred, i.e. 'a decade (of decades'). The

d of *(d)kmtom shows its influence in Latin in the presence of
g, instead of, or along with c, in the expressions for the various
(i) a decade, (2) a
hundreds.
(with
dti-
In O. Lat. we find Neuter Compounds, dmentum

weak stem of I.-Eur. dwe-, a byform of dwi-,
the
59)? tre-centum (with
I.-Eur. tre-, a
byform of
tri-,
61),
75-78.]
*,
e.
&c., used
NUMERALS.
419
with the Genitive of the thing specified,

but these Neuter
22 M.
g. argenti sescentum, Lucil. xxx.
Compounds, when referring not to a mass, but to a number of

individual things, became in course of time declined as Adjec1
tives, du-centi -ae a, tre-centi -ae -a, e. g. trecentae causae Plant,
(So in Greek YO-stem Adjecwere formed, in Att. -Ko'o-ioi(with-(n-for-Ti-), in Dor. -KCLTLOL.)

They formed their Numeral Adverbs, Adjectives, and Distribu-
(cf nongentu*, Plin. xxxiii. 2. 31).

,
tives
tives
by analogy
of the tens,
g. trecent-ies (like tricies), trecent-
e.
The forms
esimus (like tricesimus\ trecent-eni (like triceni).

geuti (oY*qumc-(/e)iti, ch.
quin-
iv.
157), septin-genti ($.QY*septem-genti,

*septen-genti like tingo for *tengo,db* iv. 1 1), apparently influenced
quadrin-genti (for earlier quadri-genti), octin-genti, and even noninSes-centi for *se(o)s-centi
genti (beside the usual non-genii).
obeys the same phonetic law as disco for *di(c)-sco

see ch. iv.
(cf
di-dic-i
157. 3).
The stem * canto- (-e) appears in centl-ceps Hor., centi77. Centum, &c.
mamts Hor. centi-peda (and centum-peda) Plin., &c., but centom- in centumpondium
,
Plaut., Cato, centumplex Plaut. Pers. 560, centwn-gemmns Virg., &c., so that the
latter is the older formation.
For examples of ducentum, &c., with Gen., from
the older writers and in legal phraseology, see Neue, ii 3 p. 298. The usage is
Plautus has ducenti
confined to phrases like ducentum auri, argenti, vini, &c.
A transitional construction is seen in C. I. L.
-ae -a, &c., as in classical Latin.
As to the form of the several
iv. 1136 nongentum tabernaej nine hundred shops.
.
duocenti is found in the late Latin of the Itala

quadrigenti is the
Plautine form, though the MSS. have usually (not, however, universally in
Bacch. 1183) changed it to quadringenti for the second syllable is always short,
numerals
and the Breves Breviantes Law
is
inoperative
when
Mute and Liquid follow
the short vowel, so that -dri- not -drin- must have been the second syllable of
the word used in Plautus' day quadrigenti^ quadrigenus, &c. are probably also
the classical forms (Neue, ii 3 p. 297), but on Mon. Ancyr. iii. 8 quadringenos of
;
quingentum Festus tells us that the pronunciation before his time was qumcentum
^Fest. 338. 19 Th. 'quincentum et producta prima syllaba, et per c litteram
'
usurpant antiqui, quod postea levius visum est, ita ut nunc dicimus, pronun3
sescenti is the correct spelling, not sexcenti (see Neue, ii
p. 297) septigenti
tiari)
for septingenti occurs on the Edict of Diocletian noningenti is a late and rare
form (see Neue, 1. c.); Caper censures the form noncenti (104. i K. nongentos
noil noncentos dicendum est), and it seems to be the rule that after n the
voiced (0), and not the unvoiced (c) guttural is used in these words.
.
'
'
78.
The Thousands.
able Neuter
mille
Noun
hominum
The Latin
mttle, in
O. Lat. a declin-
taking a Genitive of the things specified, e.g.
occiditur, milli (Abl.)
E e 2
passum
vicerit, is
probably
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
420
xiAtoi, Lesb. ^XXiot, from *gheslioand the O. Ind. sa-hasram from *sm-gheslom, a Neuter
Noun-compound, of which the first part is the root sem-, one,'
one thousand/ as Gk. k-Karov for *a-KaroV (?), one
literally
unconnected with the Gk.

Adj.,
'
'
'
'
one (decade) of decades (?).'

[Some suppose that it
and that this
one
an
**m-hesli
thousand/
represents
original
hundred,'
'
became
*melle, *mele, as *quaslus (cf. quasillus) became qudlus

(older quallw, ch. iv.
162) ; the Plural Amelia becoming mllia as
*Plenius became Plmius (ch.
iv.
7).
O. Ir. mile would then be
a loanword from Latin, for I.-Eur. sm- would remain in Irish.]

It is cognate with the Celtic word for thousand
(O. Ir. mile,
'
'
W.
Teutonic and Slavonic numerals are cognate,

Goth. );usundi F., Lith. tukstantis, O. SI. tys^sta or tysjjsta F.
For the thousands, the units duo, tria, &c. are prefixed in Latin
mil), just as the
as separate words, duo milia (on the spelling milia beside mille,
ii.
The Ordinals and Adverbs are
127), tria milia, &c.
see ch.
formed
like those of the hundreds, mill-esimus, milies, &c., like
cent-esimus cent-ies.
,
79. Mille. Grellius (i. 16) quotes a number of passages to show that Cicero,
as well as the older writers of the Eepublic, used mille as a Neuter Singular
Noun, e. g. Cic. Mil. 53 mille hominum versabatur. So mille passuum (earlier
3
possum), a mile. [Other examples are given by Neue, ii p. 303, to which add
Plant. Bacch. 928 milli (MSS. mille) cum numero nauiuml. In the spelling
.
meilia (probably for meillia, for
double consonants are written single on this
inscription, e.g. redidei, tabelarios] of C.I.L. i. 551 (Lucania, 132 B.C.), the ei
may indicate merely the long i-sound. Lucilius (ix. 21 M.) seems also to
recommend ei in both singular and plural

Ambrosian Palimpsest, Plaut. Stick. 587).
(cf.
ch.
i.
9)
(so meille in
the
The Cardinals are mostly retained,

80. The Numerals in Komance.
though ducenti, &c. have become Fr. deux cents, Span, doscientos, &c. But
only Italian keeps the Ordinals unchanged, primo, secondo, terzo, quarto,
French has premier for primus, and for the others uses the suffix -ieme.
&c.
Spanish has primero (like French) for primus, tercero (with the same suffix)
for tertius, and uses for nonus noveno (the Lat. Distributive novenus), and
(For a fuller account see Meyer-Liibke, Rom.
similarly for dedmus deceno.
Gram.
ii.
pp. 590 sqq.)
CHAPTEK
VII.
THE PRONOUNS.
1.
I.
THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THE RE-
FLEXIVE.
Sing.
1.
Latin
ego,
O. Lat. ego represents L-Eur.
*ego (Gk. eyw), of which byforms were *ego (Goth, ik, Lith. esz
and asz), *egom (Gk. eycoz;), *egom (O. SI. azu cf. O. Ind. ah am
;
with Aspirate instead of Media).
It
is
strengthened by the addi-
tion of the particle -met, e. g. egomet, mihimet, and in certain of its

cases by the particle -pte( 20), e. g. mihipte, while in the Accusa-
we
Pronoun doubled
for emphasis, meme.

For the
of
the
Neut.
the
PossesGen.
used, apparently
Sg.
of
in
but
O.
Lat.
mis
the
Gen.
eswe
have
sive,
mine/
(with
suffix ?) ; for the Dative mi/u (mi) for *mehei or *me/ioi, with the
tive
find the
Genitive, mel
is
'
I.-Eur. Locative ending (Umbr. melie

cf. O. Ind.
with mi- instead of me- because of the Pronoun's
;
(ch.
iii.
8);
for the Accusative O. Lat.
inert,
many-am) and
want of accent
by the time
of
Terence always me, owing to the Latin phonetic law that final d
was lost after a long vowel (ch. ii.
137) this d is either the
Ablative d, with a strange confusion between Ace. and Abl.
;
functions (so in Engl. 'him' Dat. has become Ace.), or the I.Eur. particle -id, often used in the Veda to strengthen Pronouns,
*me-id
(cf.
Dor. Gk.
c/xet
Ace. for
*e/uie-i8 ?),
just as the particle
used to distinguish the Ace. in Teutonic (Goth, mi-k,

*</G
Germ, mich ; cf Gk. e/me-ye) ; for the Ablative, O. Lat. med
is
from I.-Eur. *med
O. Ind. ma"d from I.-Eur. *med), which

with med Ace., became me in the second cent. B. c. ; the Locative
[I.-Eur. *inei or "*moi, O. Ind. (Vedic) me Loc., used also as
(cf.
Gen. and Dat., Gk. pot Dat.] and Instrumental (perhaps I.-Eur.
or *mo) cannot be identified in Latin.
On the affix -gh-
*me
of miM, see ch. x.
i.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
42,2
[Chap. VII.
the invariable scansion of classical poetry, and the almost

and the early Dramatists ; ego is found occa3
sionally in late poetry (Neue, ii p. 346), where it may possibly be influenced
in
Plautus
and
Gk.
(e. g. Poen. 1185), &c., where it must be a relic of
by
170;,
2.
is
Ego
invariable scansion of Plautus
the older quantity (Klotz, Altrom. Metrik, p. 51

Miiller, Plant. Pros. p. 30), not
The preponder42).
yet shortened by the Breves Breviantes Law (ch. iii.
ance of the shortened form is due to the enclitic character of the word (even
;
egomef), for Lat.
Latin
(ch.
iii.
Fest. 145. 5
ego
37).
cannot represent I.-Eur. *ego, if final 6 became e in

Paul.
Mihipte is quoted from Cato by Fest. 144. nTh.
;
mepte occurs in Plaut. Men. 1059
quin certissumumst
mepte potius
fieri
seruom,
quam
te
umquam emittam manu.
For examples of meme (a somewhat doubtful form), see Neue,

Gen. is quoted by Priscian from Ennius (A. 145 M.)
ii
3
.
p. 355.
Mis
ingens cura mis
cum
concordibus aequiperare,
and probably occurs in Plaut. in Poen. 1188, beginning: rebus mis agundis
(anapaestic), and in other passages, though the MSS. have usually changed
It is often mentioned as an O. Lat. form by the
it to the more familiar mei.
3
grammarians (see the references in Neue, ii p. 347), and may represent an
.
For the Dative, we

original *mes, as Salutis is in 0. Lat. Salutes (ch. vi.
17).
have on old inscriptions miJiei (C. I. L. i. 1016. 1277), and with e to express
the ei-diphthong (cf. ch. iv.
A still older form mehe (cf.
32) mihe (i. 1049).
mehi Plaut. Men. 925 (P.)) seems to be mentioned by Quintllian (i. 5. 21 nam
mehe pro rm apud antiques tragoediarum praecipue scriptores in veteribus
'
'
invenimus), though, if we retain the MSS. reading pro me,' we must

suppose mehe to be a mere graphic expression of me, as in Umbrian a long
vowel is indicated by repeating it and inserting h, e. g. comohota commota '
(whether this was a Latin practice is doubtful, see ch. ii. 56). The final vowel
i
libris
'
had quite become
vowel in Quintilian's time, and is

applied to i, as a sound between
e and i' (see ch. ii.
and even in Plautus and the early Dramatists mihl
16)
is the usual scansion (Leppermann, De correptione, p. 9). Mihiis often contracted
to ml, as nihil to nil (ch. ii.
58), so that we have side by side in Plautus
divergent treatments of this Dative, such as (i) dissyllabic mihi, e. g. True. 77
Nam mihi haec meretrix, &c., (2) the same with elision, e.g. Stick. 427 mih(i)
expedi, (3) monosyllabic mi, e. g. (elided) True. 173 Sunt m(i) etiam.
(For
instances of mi, see Neue, ii". 349, and on Nigidius' distinction of Gen. and
of mihi, &c.
described by
him
in the phrase
a short
commonly
Dat,, Gell. xiii. 26.)

The remark of Festus (156. 6 Th.) me pro mihi dicebant antiqui, illustrated
by a quotation from Lucilius (me. 98 M.) quae res me impendet, means, of
course, merely that in O. Lat. another case was used (in this example, the
Accusative ; cf. Lucr. i. 326 mare quae impendent saxa), where the classical
'
'
and similarly vae te Plaut. Asin. 481 (cf. vae me

probably nothing but an unusual employment of the Accusative.
The Vocative of the Possessive Pronoun ml, e. g. mi fili, mi vir, ha&
been regarded as a Locative-Dative by some and compared with Homer's
fjnjTfpi /xoi, the Tragedians' > yvvat /tot, Vedic me giras,
my hymns.' But it is
more likely to be a byform of*mie (with unaccented e sunk to i, ch. iii.
18).
construction had the Dative
Seneca, Apoc. 4)
is
'
THE PRONOUNS.
2-4.]
PERSONAL.
423
be offilie (but see ch. vi.

31), for it is always joined with a Voc.,
used in good writers only with a masculine noun (with a Fern, after
3
Apuleius, Neue, ii p. 368) and this is the explanation given by the native
12
there is no *tl (Gk. TOI, aoi) nor *si (Gk. ot)].
grammarians [see below,
The Accusative med is found on the very earliest Latin inscriptions which we
possess, the Praenestine fibula (C. I. L. xiv. 4123), with Manios medfefakedNumasioi, and the Dvenos inscription (Zvet. I.I.I. 285, Rome), with Dvenos med feked
and in Plautus med and me are doublets, in the Ace. as in the Abl.,
(orfeced)
me often being shortened by prosodical hiatus to me before an initial vowel,
while in Terence me, &c. Ace., Abl. has ousted med, &c. Whether Plautine me
Abl. is ever an Instrumental form, and has not lost a final -d, it is impossible
to say but there is no indication of its being anything but a phonetic variation
of an original med (cf. ch. ii.
On me-quidem Plaut., see ch. iii. 51.
137).
may
asyfti
and
is
Lat. tu is from I.-Eur. *tu (Horn. Gk. TV-ZJTJ, O. Ir.

3. 2 Sing.
O. H. G. du, O. SI. ty), as Dor. Gk. TV from I.-Eur. *tu. In
the oblique cases the I.-Eur. stem was *twe (or "*two) and *te (or
tu,
*to), &c. [e.g. Gk. o-c for Cret. T Fe, O. Ind. (Ved.) tva Instr.,
tve Loc., te Dat., Gen.], often enlarged by an affix -bh-, like the
For the
-gh- of the i Sing. Pron. (e. g. O. Ind. tu-bhyam Dat.).
Genitive in Latin the Gen. Sg. Neut. of the Possessive is used,
tm, of thine (see above, on mei), and a Gen. tis (? Us) appears
in O. Lat.
for the Dative, till, older tibei, for *tebhei (Umbr.
'
'
Pruss. tebbei), with f%- for te- owing to its unaccented

character; for the Ace., as for the Abl., O. Lat. ted; in the
tefe
cf
me,
use
'
appear as doublets (like med and

middle
the second cent. B.C. ted is out of
but
the
of
by
2),
the Locative and Instrumental cannot be identified in Latin.
earliest literature ted
and
'
te
strengthened form of the Nom. is tii-te, of the Ace. and Abl.

and with addition of the particle -met we find tu-ffi-met
te-te
(cf. ch.
39), tiU-met, te-met.
Tis (like
4.
Neue,
iii.
ii
3
.
p. 347),
quia
mis,
2) is attested for O. Lat. by the grammarians

Mil. 1033 (an anapaestic line):
(see
and occurs in Plant.
tis egeat,
quia te careat
ob earn
rem hue ad
te missast,
where, if we keep the reading of the MSS. (the evidence of the Palimpsest is
wanting), we must scan tis, unlike mis. (Shall we read quia tis ea egeat ?)
Trin. 343
tis olios misereat (so in the Palimpsest, but the other MSS. have
changed the unfamiliar form to tut), and possibly elsewhere (see Neue, I. c.
and add Plaut. Cist. 457)
The Dative is spelt tibei, C. I. L. i. 542. 1453, but
tibe in all the MSS. of Varro E. R. iii. 7. n, and in C. I. L. i. 33 (one of the
Scipio epitaphs in Saturnian metre, c. 180 B.C.). The Ace. is spelt te (probably
with elision) on the same epitaph
;
quare lubens
t(e)
in-gremmm,
Scfpio, reeipit.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
424
Tu-met
is
famous
not allowed by Priscian
Ennius
alliterative line of
p. 591. 5 H.
(A. 108 M.)
(i.
[Chap. VII.
An
example of
tute is
the
Tite tute Tati tibi tanta tyranne tulisti.
3
on
(For other examples of tute, tutimet, ttbimet, &c., see Neue, ii pp. 361 sqq.
see
ch.
iii.
above,
tuquidem, tequidem,
51.)
The Umbro-Oscan forms for the Accusative (and Nom. ?) point to an
original tiom (from *twlom as/io from *fw1o or with I for I.-Eur. u ?), Umbr.
.
and
Horn
tio,
Osc. tiium (usually taken as Nom.).
The
Reflexive.
5.
I.-Eur. stem
was *swe
(or
*swo) and *se
(or *so), &c. (e.g. O. Ind. sva-, 'own,' Goth, sves, O. SI. svoji;
Goth, si-k Ace., O. SI. sebe Dat.), often with the same affix as
The Latin Gen. is $^M,the

2 Sg. *twe, *te (see above), viz. -bh-.
Gen. Sg. Neut. of the Possessive (like mei, tui ; see above), the
Dat. sibi for *sebhei (Pelign. sef<?i, Osc. sifei; cf. Pruss. sebbei),
with
si-
Ace.
and Abl.
ted,
for se-
2),
to the unaccented use of the Reflexive
owing
se (O.
Lat.
serf,
often doubled for emphasis,
added for the same purpose to

is
read in Cic. Rep.
iii.
8.
the
which went out of use with med,
12
The
sese.
se, sibi, viz.
particle -met is
semet, sibimet.
Se-pse
quae omnis magis quam sepse
diligit.
6. The spelling sibei is found on C. I. L. i. 38 (an Elegiac Scipio epitaph,
130 B.C.) ut sibei me esse creatum Laetentur i. 196 (the S. C. Bacch. of
186 B. c.)
i. 198 (the Lex
Eepetundarum of 123-122 B. c.) i. 200 (the Lex
Agraria of in B. c.) i. 205 (the Lex Kubria of 49 B.C.), &c. the spelling s'be
was found (with quase) by Quint, (i. 7. 24) in several MSS. (sed an hoc voluerint
auctores nescio), and was affected by Livy (T. Livium ita his usumex Pediano
c.
comperi, qui et ipse eum sequebatur). Livy's spelling was probably designed
to express short unaccented i, the sound which the grammarians describe as
Sibi (like mihi, tibi) is the
being 'between an e and an i' (see ch. ii.
16).
usual scansion in Plautus and the early Dramatists, but sibl is by no means
rare, and is normal in the phrase suns sibi, his very own (so meus miJn), e. g.
suo sibi gladio hunc jugulo cf. O. 81. pisacha^ svoja si r66i, scribebant suam
'
'
sibi
linguam
There
').
mis, Us (Priscian
186 B. c. (C. I. L.
(i.
197 apud sed
cooks (Zvet. J. I.
is
no Genitive form in
O. Lat.,
corresponding to
*sz's,
on the S. C. Bacch., of
i. 196 inter
sed), and on the Lex Bantina of 133-118 B. c.
along with sese, seese) sesed on the inscr. of the Faliscan
I. 72 a).
Sese is much more frequent than meme and tete.
ii.
p. 2.
29 H.).
Sed, Ace., occurs
3
(For examples of its use, see Neue, ii p. 355.)
The Oscan Ace. is siom (cf. above,
4, on Umbro-Osc. tiom 'te'), tKe
Umbrian Dat. seso.
.
7.
1 Plur.
Of
the two I.-Eur. stems, *we- (or *wo-) (e. g.

veis, Engl. we, Lith. ve-du Dual,
O. Ind. vay-am Nom., Goth,

O. SI. ve) and *ne- (or *no-)
(e.
g.
O. Ind. nas, the
enclitic Gen.,
THE PRONOUNS.
5-9.]
PERSONAL.
425
m, Goth, uns
Dat., Ace., O. Ir.
for *ns, Engl. us, O. SI. nasu ;

with weak grade ns- and an affix
-sme- in O. Ind. oblique cases, asman Ace., asmabhis Instr., &c.,
Lesb. Gk. ajutjue?, Att. ^jutets), the latter appears in Latin nos Ace.
Gk. v&i Dual, O.
(Zend na Ace.).
na
SI.
Nos
is
also the
Nominative form.
nostrum (O. Lat. nosfirorum, -arum] and

the Gen. Sg. Neut. of the Possessive,
The Gen.
is
nostri, the Gen. Plur. and

of ours,' the Gen. PI.
'
being used when the idea of plurality was specially prominent,

e.g. omnium nostrum, pars nostrum, but amicus nostri', the Dat.,
Abl.
is nolfts
(earlier no-bei-s),
added to a case
nis
apparently with the plural suffix s

Dat. Sg. tibei sibei ; in O. Lat.
suffix like that of
seems also to have been used (Paul. Fest. 33. 6 Th.), with the
To strengthen
ordinary Dat., Abl. Plur. suffix (see eh. vi. 48).
the pronoun, the particle -met is added ; nosmet (always Norn, in
Plautus), nobismet.
8. Enos Ace. is found in the ancient Hymn of the Arval Brothers, preserved
in a carelessly written inscription, containing the minutes of the Priesthood
for the year 218 A. D. (C. I. L. i. 28) enos, LaseSj innate, and enos, Marmor, iuuato.
If the lines have Saturnian rhythm, the accent must fall on the first syllable
:
of enos (see ch.
141, p. 128 w.)
ii.
enos, Lases, iuuate

enos, Marmor, iuuato
.
but this, and indeed every fact about the lines, is doubtful. The form enos is
generally explained as having a particle *e prefixed to nos (cf. !/'). Nosmet
is, like vosmet, always Subject in Plautus, but also Ace. in Terence, Phorm. 172,
and the classical writers. The use of nostrum (Partitive Gren. and with omnium]
and nostri is discussed by Gellius (xx. 6). For instances of nostrorum, -drum for
nostrum in Plautus, &c., see Neue, ii 3 p. 359. The spelling nobeis is frequent
in the Ambrosian Palimpsest of Plautus (see Studemund's Index, p. 505).
.
9.
2 Plur.
There are two I.-Eur. stems, *yu- (O. Ind. yuO. Ind. yuvam Dual,
yam, Goth, jus, Engl. you, Lith. jus
Lith. ju-du) and *we- (or *wo-) (O. Ind. vas, the enclitic Gen.,
Dat., Ace., Pruss. wans, O. SI. vy vasu ; O. Ind. vam Dual, O. SI.
va).
The former, with the
affix
-sme-
is
found in Gk.
O. Ind. yusman Ace., yusmabhis Instr., &c.

the stem used in Latin vos Ace. (Zend va Ace.).
fyxeis,
the latter
Vo%
is
is
also the
Nominative form ; vestrum (O. Lat. vostrorum, -arum) and vestri

(O. Lat. vostri) the Gen., with the same usage and origin as
nostrum and nostri (see above) votes is the Dat., Abl., older vobeis
;
(see
above on
nobis).
The strengthening
particle used is -met
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
426
vosmet
'
'
Nom.
(only
vobismet\
vopte
and
[Chap. VII.
in Plautus, but afterwards Ace. as well),

O. Lat. vopte (Paul. Fest. 578. 21 Th.
-pie in
pro vos ipsi Cato posuit).
For examples of Gren. vestrum (costrorum) and vestri, see Neue, ii 3

an
d c nostrum, nostrorum, nostri, above. The spelling vobeis is extremely
P- 359
frequent in the Ambrosian Palimpsest of Plautus, and occurs in the S. C.
Bacch. (C. I. L. i. 196. 29), the Epistula ad Tiburtes of c. 100 B. c. (i. 201), &c.
10.
II.
11.
THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
In the I.-Eur.
languages there is a close connexion between the Possessives and

the Gen. of the Personal Pronouns.
Thus O. Ind. (Vedic) tva-s is
Possessive 'thy,' tava is Gen., of thee' (I.-Eur. *tewe); Dor.
'
Gk.
Latin tuus,
TCOS is Possessive, rco (I.-Eur. *te-syo) is Gen.
O. Lat. tovo- (I.-Eur. *tewo-) must be similarly derived from the
I.-Eur. Gen. ^tewe, Latin suns, O. Lat. sovo- (I.-Eur. *sewo-)
from a corresponding Gen. *sewe, while meus (*meyo-) may come

from the Locative- Genitive *mei (O. Ind. me Gen., Dat.). The
same connexion is seen between cujus, the Gen. of the InterrogaSome

(
23).
13), and cujus -a -am the Possessive (
tive
objected to this Possessive, and
purists
(E.
iii.
by
parodied Virgil's line
die mihi, Damoeta,
cujum' pecus, anne Latinum?
under the idea that cujus -a -um was merely a vulgar inflexion
of a Gen. suffix -us, treated as if it had been -us of the Nom.
Sing.
Beside the Reflexive Possessive stem *sewo- (Gk. lo's), there
was another I.-Eur. form, *swo- (O. Ind. svas, Gk. os for *cr/: os).
The latter would be in Latin so- (ch. iv. 68), and appears in
the O. Lat. forms sam for suam, sa-s for suas, sos for suos, sis for
suis, which must not be confounded with the Demonstrative stem
so-
on the one hand (O. Lat.
sos for eos,
sum for eum,
&c.),
noj
on the other with the monosyllabic suas, suos, suis (pronounced

swas, swos, swis), where, through the unaccented use of the Poss.,
the u has been turned into a consonant (w) before a long vowel
has been
(see ch. ii.
149), just as the e () of unaccented meus
turned into y in monosyllabic meas, meos, meis, med, meo. Mieis
in the Voc. Sing.
(ch. ii.
9), and
was the older spelling of meis
THE PRONOUNS.
10-12.]
POSSESSIVES.
427
Masc. we have, besides meus, the form mi, e.g. mifili, mi homo,
mi vir.
For the Plural Pronouns the suffix -tero- (ch. v. 16) was used
(cf. Gk. ^jue-repoj, vê-repos), i PL noster, 2 PL O. Lat. vaster,
which by the phonetic laws of Latin (cf. veto from older voto,
ch. iv.
became
10)
[Osc. nestro-
B. c.
vester
(?),
The Gen. Sg. Neut.
about the middle of the second cent.
Umbr.
vestro-.]
of these Possessives
was
in classical Latin
used for the Gen. of the Personal Pronouns, mei, tui, sui, nostri,
vestri, and, where the notion of plurality was involved (as in
the Partitive Genitive or with omnium], the Gen. PL nostrum,
vestrum (in O. Lat. nostrorum, -arum, vostrorum, -arum] (see 8).
The strengthening
sives,
e.
particles -met, -pte are
added to the Posses-
g. meamet, suismet, meapte, suopte, no&trapte.
12.
The grammarians speak of an 0. Lat. spelling mius, from which they
derive Voc. mi (as Laeli Voc., Laelius Nom.) (e. g. Charis. p. 159. 17 K., Vel.
3
Long. p. 77. 12 K. other references in Neue, ii p. 366), though the only
instance which they quote is mils in Ter. Heaut. 699 (probably a dissyllable)
.
at
enim
istoc nihil est magis, Syre,
miis nuptiis aduersum,
where
miis (a spelling retained in the MSS. of Terence), like mieis (probably

a monosyllable) on a Scipio epitaph of c. 130 B. c. (C. I. L. i. 38):
uirtutes generis mieis moribus accumulavi,
and mieis (probably a monosyllable) in Plaut. Men. 202 una uiuis mieis morigera moribus (probably mieis, True. 709, where the MSS. read mi1es\ shows that
spelling of i for e (I.-Eur. ey) which was the rule in Eepublican Latin in an
:
unaccented syllable before -Is (-els'), e. g. abiegnieis (but abiegnea Ace.), aesculnids
on the Lex Parieti Faciundo of 105 B. c. (C. I. L. i. 577) (see ch. ii. 9). [For
other passages in Plautus where miis is indicated by the MSS., see Neue, c.
in Trin. 822 mis may be Gen. Sg. of the Personal Pronoun, mis ( 2), or Abl.
PI. of the Possessive
bonis mis quid foret aut meae uitae (anapaestic)]. For
the Vocative Sg. Masc., meus was used with an 0-stem Noun in the Nominative
I.
form,
e. g.
Plaut. Asin. 664

da,
Cas.
137
meus
ocellus,
mea
rosa,
mi anime, mea
uoluptas,
sine,
amabo, ted amari, meus festus dies,

passer, mea columba, mi lepus.
meus pullus
e.
Noun
not an 0-stem. But Virg. has

*moi or *mei Loc., see 2 above.
Mi is not found with a Voc. Fern. Sg. or Masc. PI. till Late and Vulgar Latin,
o mi, inquit, hospites, Petron.
g. mi parens, my mother, Apul. Met. iv. 26
.Notice mi lepus in Plaut., where the

meus sanguis.} On the theory that mi
is
is
I.-Eur.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. VII.
116, p. 82. 25 B. (mi homines, mi spectatores, Plant. Oist. 678, should probably
be met, as in Mil. 1330 O mei oculi, O mi anime). (See Neue, ii 3 pp. 368-9.)
We find tou[am] for tuam on an old inscription (C. I. L. i. 1290 quei tou[am]
;
pacem
petit adiouta)
on the Lex Repetundarum of 123- 122 B. c.

and on i. 1258, i. 1297 (where it is a
SOIMIS for suis
198. 50, beside suei, suae, suo, sua Abl.,)
(i.
monosyllable
plouruma que
souo
1007 (beside
i.
sworn,
populo soueis gaudia nuges),
fecit
both dissyllabic
suom mareitum corde

souom Gen. PI. Masc.
The unemphatic
i.
588, of
Possessive
dilexit souo),
c.
81 B.
is
a monosyllable in the early Dramatists (by
c.
Synizesis), in iambic forms, e. g. mebs, sms, which should probably not be

scanned according to the Breves Breviantes Law *meos, *sms (see ch. iii. 49).
(Instances from Plaut. and Ter. in Neue, ii 3 p. 371.") How far the Vulgar Latin
.
unemphatic Possessive *mus, *mum, *ma (seen in Fr. mon, ma, and in Vulg.
Ital. ma-donna, padre-mo, &c.) should be referred to 0. Lat. so- (I.-Eur. *swo-),
&c., or to these colloquial forms, is a doubtful point.
(Of. tis for tuis on a late
metrical inscription, Orelli 4847
cum
0. Lat.
Possess,
so-
Demonstr.
lib.
i.
umbra
figuris.)
by Festus and distinguished from O. Lat.
attested
Th.
'
nam
sibi
quisque domi
Eomanus habet
suas magis videatur significare, sicuti ejusdem
earn significari,
so-
'
sas Verrius putat significare eas, teste Ennio,
uirgines
cum
vita functus jungar tis
is
(sas Fest. 476. 17
qui dicat in
cum
ait
sas,
fatendum
lib. vii.
est
nee quisquam sapientia quae perhibetur

in somnis uidit prius
idem cum
ait
'sapsam/ pro ipsa nee
quo
et
discere coepit,
alia ponit in lib. xvi.
Pacuvius in Teucro
Fest. 428. ii Th.
'
sos
regi sapsa res restibiliet

'
iii.
pro eos antiqui dicebant, ut Ennius,
constitit inde loci propter sos dia

et lib.
res sapsa loco sese ostentatque iubetque,
nam Teucrum
sis
quam sam
lib.
i.
dearum,
circum sos quae sunt magnae gentes opulentae,

lib. vii.
dum
lib
xi.
censent terrere minis, hortantur ibe
sos,
contendunt Graios, Graecos memorare solent
sos,
interdum pro suos ponebant, ut cum per dativum casum idem Ennius
postquam lumina
sis oculis
bonus Ancus reliquit
effort
THE PRONOUNS.
13.]
sam Paul.
other
Fest.
DEMONSTRATIVES.
6 Th. antiqui dicebant
33.
hand Festus quotes in
429
<sam' pro suam).
On
the
illustration of O. Lat. puellus part of a line of

monosyllabic suos (so spelt in the MSS. of Festus 324. 17 Th. and
Ennius with
Paulus 325. 6)
Poeni
soliti
suos sacrificare puellos,
and the MSS. of Lucretius
spell suo (monosyll." in
1022, v. 420
i.
ordine se suo quaeque sagaci mente locarunt,
but
sis
in his quotation of Ennius' line, just

mentioned,
lumina
sis oculis
etiam bonus Ancus
iii.
1025:
reliquit,
so that monosyllabic suos, &c. of
everyday speech, a scansion discarded by the

of poetry, were different forms
s?<o, tua (see ch. ii.
65) on the
dedicatory inscription of Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth (C.l.L. i. 542,
Augustan poets as unsuitable to the dignity

from 0. Lat. sos, &c. We have monosyllabic
of 146
B. c.)
uisum animo suo
perfecit, tua
te.
pace rogans
Gen. PI. meum, tuum, nostrum are attested by Priscian (i. p. 308. 23 H.), and
occur along with suum (cf. souom, C. I. L. i. 588, of c. 81 B. c.) in the Republican
Dramatists, &c. (see instances iiiNeue), though an instance of nostrum (vestrum)
is difficult to find.
It occurs in the elegiac epitaph of Ennius quoted by
Cicero, Tusc.
i.
15.
34
hie uestrum panxit
maxima
facta
patrum.
The particle -met is not found with the Possessives in Cicero

not
common
in other authors.
We
have meamet
culpci,
or Caesar, and is
Plaut. Poen. 446, suamet,
It was thus more a particle for Personal than

suomet, suamet, suismet in Sallust.
for Possessive Pronouns. But -pte is very common, though almost exclusively
with the Abl. of the Possessive, which precedes
its noun, e.g. suapte manu,

meopte ingenio, Plaut.; nostrapte culpa, Ter. Phorm. 766.
(See examples and
references to the native grammarians, in Neue, ii 3 p. 373). Still the usual
method of emphatic expression was sua ipsius wanu, meo ipsius ingenio, nostra
Cic.
ipsorum culpa in literary Latin, and in colloquial speech suus sibi, meus mihi,
&c. (6). Examples of Possessives from the Umbro-Oscan dialects are, Osc.
tuvai
sua,'
suvam 'suam,' suvad <sua,' suveis

Osc. nistrus 'nostros'); Umbr. tua and tuva
'
'
sui
tuae,'
'
(perhaps Pel. SVAD
tusi,'tuer
and
tover 'tui,'
vestra 'vestra.'
13. III.
DEMONSTRATIVES.
There were several Demon-
Pronoun-stems in I.-Eur., some of which appear in some

languages as Adverbs and Particles only, but as Pronouns in
strative
others.
Adverb
Thus the stem

ce- of cedo,
ke-,
(ko-)
appears in
Latin in the
give here/ and in the Particle -ce of Jiujus-ce,

Oscan eko- is the Pronoun in common use,
illis-ce, &c., but in

which corresponds to the Latin
hie
and on the other hand the
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
430
[Chap. VII.
stems gho-_, ghe- (ef. ghi-) of Lat. lii-c (O. Lat. he-c\ ho-c appear
as particles in O. Ind. ha, hi, Gk. ov-%i, vai-yj..
The Latin Demonstrative stems are
:
which seems to have been originally confined to Nom. Sg. Masc. and ,Fem v a stem to- being used
elsewhere (O. Ind. sa and sas M., sa F., tad
v Gk. 6 and 09 M.,
So- is the stem of O. Lat. sam earn,'
F., ro, for *ro5, N.)
fj
(1) I.-Eur. so-, (se-),
'
sos
'
eos,'
sum
is-te for *is-to
eum
M.
'
to- of the second
(ch.
element of the compound

is-tud N., from the
37), is-ta F.,
iii.
though some regard the first part as

the stem es- (Umbr. es-to-?), a byform of the stem so- (se-),
with i for e owing to the unaccented use of the Pronoun (ch.
stem
*!-, *ei- (see below),
iii.
By
8).
course of time
a further reduction of the vowel
iste
became in
ste.
(2) I.-Eur. gho- (ghe-) supplies Lat. 7^-cfromO. Lat. 7^-cM.,

haec for *7iai-ce, hoc for hocc for *tiod-c, this/ all augmented by the
'
particle *ke.
ch.
iii.
The
of
Me
(3) I.-Eur. ol- (Lat.
due to
nl-fra,
grade of the root al- (a\-) of

The
I.-Eur. so- appended.
ol/e,
is
its
unaccented nature (see
8).
nl-timus;
see
ch.
ix.
56), a
Gk. aAAoj, Lat. aliw, &c. ( 29), with

Nom. Sg. Masc. was *ol-so, O. Lat.
or ôl-sos, O. Lat. olhts, Fern. *ol-sa, O. Lat. olla, with
II
by the Latin phonetic law for original Is (cf. velle for *vel-se),
Neut. *ol-tod, which should have been in Latin *oltitd, *ultud,
but which was
adapted to the Masc. and Fern, forms and

In class. Lat. owing to the unaccented use of
became ollud.
the Pronoun apparently, though the change is a curious one, the
o became ?, ille (Him being dropped), ilia, illud.
(4) From I.-Eur. i- (ei-) and eyo- (O. Ind. id-am N., im-am
Ace. M., Lith. jis M., O. SI. -ji, &c.) comes the Latin anaphoric
pronoun (i. e. the pronoun which refers to something previously
N. Augmented by a
mentioned), is M., ea for *eya F.,
with
the Pronoun-stem
combination of the particle pe (ch. x.
i)
it
forms the Latin
a
which
combination
so-,
expresses self,'
Pronoun of Identity, ipse M. for *i-p(e)-sti (ch. iii. 37), ipsa F.,
'
'
'
ipsnm N., in the O. Lat. also ea-pse with flexion of the first
element of the Compound only, and ea-psa with flexion of both
elements.
Augmented by the
particle
-dem
(ch.
x.
i)
it
THE PRONOUNS.
13.]
DEMONSTRATIVES.
43!
the same,' i-dem for is-dem M. (like audio for *ans-dio,

151), ea-dem F.
(For a fuller list of the I.-Eur. demonstrative stems which appear in Latin, see the chapters on the
'
expresses
ch. iv.
Adverb and the Conjunction.)

The Declension of these stems differed originally from that
of Noun-stems, though it became more and more assimilated in
course of time, and in Greek had come to be almost identical.
The Nom., Ace. Sg. Neut. was formed, not like O-stem Nouns in
-m,
e.
donum, but in -d (often written
g.
-t,
ch.
ii.
73),
e.
g.
(but ipsuni instead of *i-ptnd), id; the Dat. Sg. of

all Genders has -/, older -ei
like the Locative -ei (-oi)
(-oi),
illudy istud
which appears in O-stem nouns such as Ctirinthi, e. g.

illi, istl, ipsl, huic for O. Lat. hoi-ce, el, and ei for *ey-ei ; the
Gen. Sg. of all Genders is formed by the addition to this
Dative-Locative form of the Gen. suffix -os, -<?, as in O. Lat.
suffix
nomin-us, e. g. illi-us, istl-iis, ipsi-us (with shortening of vowel

before vowel, illms, &c. ch. ii.
143), liujus (pronounced *huyyus)
hoi-us, ejus (pronounced *eyyus) which when unaccented
became in the rapid utterance of ordinary speech *illis, *istis,
for
*hms *m,
îpsis,
word, illimodi, with
e.g. ill$(u)& modi Ter. Ad. 441, or in one

dropped before m as in primus for *prismus
Nom. Plur. Masc. suffix of O-stem pronouns,
,9
151). The
in Latin (as in Greek) borrowed by O-stem nouns
ch.
vi.
(see
40), and so is not distinctive of the Pronoun in Latin,
but the Nom. Sing. Fern, (and Nom. Ace. PI. Neut.) in -ai is
(ch. iv.
viz. -oi,
was
a feature of the pronominal declension which remains in Latin

haec for O. Lat. hai-ce, illaec for *illai-ce, istaec for *istai-ce,
though without the particle -ce the two last take the -a of
Noun-stems, ilia, isla (and so ipsa). Before the Dat., Abl. Plur.
suffix the stem appears with an appended i (O. Ind. te-bhyas,
Goth. J?ai-m, Lith. te-ms, O.
SI.
te-mu),,
e.g. Lat. hl-bus\ cf.
e-bhyas), but gm-bus, not *qwi-bu%.

the same difficulty with Latin Pronouns as there is
i-bus for *ei-bus (O. Ind.
There
is
with Nouns
(ch. vi.
36), in assigning
an original Instrumental.
Umbr. pu-e
quo
'),
Thus Osc.
in the sense of
suggests that Lat. qnd in some of
'
any
svai puh,
si
'
forms to
quo'
(cf.
'
5),
(but see ch. ix.
uses may be an Instru-
sive
its
Ablative
mental case form and represent an original *q"6 not *q"6d.
But
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
432
Adverbial ed in praeter-ea
shown
is
to be
[Chap. VII.
an Ablative by aruorsum
ead on the S. C. Bacch. (C. 1. L. i. 196. 24)

cf. eod die, xi. 4766.
The Locative had also the Dat. and Gen. functions, which we
found to belong to the Loc. of the Personal Pronouns, e. g. Gk.
;
jur^rept
jutot
Trot,
O-stems was
Its suffix in
2).
Dor.
the former
-ei
or -oi,
e.
g. G-k.
the suffix used in Oscan, e. g.

Tret,
which uses in the Fern, the A-stem Loc. suffix, e. g. eisai.
eisei,
e/cei
is
14. O. Lat. so-. Festus (428. n Th.) quotes sos for eos from three lines of
Ennius (see 12) elsewhere (476. 17 Th.) he cites sam for earn, sapsa for ipsa
from the same author, and (426. -2 Th.) sum for eum
sum pro eum usus est
Ennius lib. i.
;
'
'
astu,
et lib.
ii.
non
sum summam
ui,
seruare decet rem,
ad sese sum quae dederat in luminis

[The gloss (Lowe,
Proclr. p.
350)
But neither the Demonstrative
'
soc'
ita is
oras.
doubtful
cf.
Umbr.
e-soc 'sic.']
nor the byform of the Keflexive Possessive

so- (I.-Eur. swo-) are found in the conversational language of Plautus and
Terence. The Neuter *tod is preserved in an O. Lat. Adverb topper for *tod-per,
on which
The
15.
ki-
see ch. ix.
so-
7.
This particle belongs to the stems ko- (ke-), (also

particle -ce.
l/ccf Loc. Advb., tceivos, Osc. eko- (often with this particle
and kyo-) [Gk.
added, e. g. ekask, hae '), Lat. ci-ter, ci-tra, 0. Ir. ce, 'on this side,' Engl. he,
'
him, Germ, heu-te, Lith. szis, this,' 0. SI. si], and appears as an Adverb or
Preposition in Lat. ce-do,
give here (more frequent in Terence than in
Plautus), (O. Ir. cit 'da' (?)), and probably in Osc. ce-bnust, hue venerit.' It
is said to be employed as an enclitic in other languages too, e. g. Arm. ter-s,
'
'
'
'this person,' Goth. J>au-h, Engl. though (?). Its widespread use with Demonstratives in Latin and Umbro-Oscan (Lat. hi-c, ille, 0. Lat. HKc, iste, O. Lat.
istic,
'
ea,'
Lat.
Osc. eisa-k and Umbr. erak, 'ea,' Osc. ekask, 'hae/ exac, 'hae, iu-k,
and so on) may be compared with the Komance forms which have prefixed
ecce to certain Pronouns and Adverbs, e.g. Fr. 93,,
there,' from ecce-hac Fr.
'
from
ci, Ital.ci,
from
'here,'
ecce-illa, Fr. cette
Fr. ce-, Ital. cio, 'this,' from ecce-hoc Fr. celle

;
ecce-ista, &c.), (cf. eccittum uideo and eccistam uideo
ecce-hw
from
same tendency
of expression which has reasserted itself;

equivalents in vulgar English 'this here' for 'this/ 'that
there' for that,' and so on. The usage with these forms with -ce differed in
early and in classical Latin for while in early Latin they are more or less
It is the
Plaut.).
and
it
has
its
'
arbitrarily used, in classical Latin their use is stereotyped in most pronouns.

Thus class. Lat. illlc is the Adverb (Locative), while iffi is the Dative (so istlc
and
isti}
Plautus
haec
and
(illae
the Nom. PI. Fern., haec the Nom. PI. Neut.

but in
and Uttc, isti and istw, are equally Adv. and Dat. Pron., hae and
and Ulaec, istae and istaec] are both used for the Nom. PI. Fern., ilia
hae is
illl
illaec (but only haec,

istaec) for the Neut., while ilttc, istic, forms not found
in class. Lat., are equivalents of ille, iste, illuc of illud (but only istuc in Terence,
and perhaps also in Plautus). Still there are rules observed even so early as
THE PRONOUNS.
14-16.]
DEMONSTRATIVES.
433
for example, the Nom. PL Masc. of hie, itte, is before a word

beginning with a vowel hisce, illisce, but before a consonant hi, illi, and in
general the forms with -ce are found in use before an initial vowel, hosce, hasce,
hisce Dat.-Abl., illisce, istisce Dat.-Abl., though before a consonant horunc, harunc
are employed when the verse-ictus has to fall on the final syllable. In the
Latin of ordinary conversation, as represented by the language of Plautus'
plays, the particle -ce has not in these pronouns the worth of a syllable,
Plautus' time
a dissyllabic haece, &c. being proper to a more elevated style of poetry, e. g.

Ennius, A. 294 M. haece locutus vocat, at the beginning of a hexameter line,
and hocedie, quoted as O. Lat. forms by Mar. Victorinus

must come from an Epic poem, or else from some official inscription
so that hacetenus
(9.
19 K.),
When
or legal document.
the interrogative particle -ne
preserved as a full syllable,
e. g.
hoc-ci-ne,
with
sl-ci-ne
added, the -ce is

not e, because the
is
t
The full form

vowel has now become medial and not final (ch. iii.
39).
only is used in Plautus and Terence, but in later authors we find also, e. g.
hicne (Stat. Theb.
i.
em seems always
Interjection
189
other examples in Neue,
to take the
forms with
ecce, e. g. ecc-illam, ecc-istam,
ii
3
.
p. 422).
em
-c, e. g.
ecc-am (for
ecce
The
Interjection
em istoc, but not the

*ham ?, 16), Prefixed
illic,
not used in hiquidem, &c. of the Dramatists (but istucquidem,

not istudquidem, in Plautus, as istuc not istud in the simple Pronoun).
to quiclem the
c is
The old form hec (for *ghe-ke) appears on the earliest Scipio
16. Hie.
epitaph in Saturnian metre (C.I. L. i. 32)
:
hec cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe,
which has, however, e for original i in Tempestatebus, arid in the previous line
shows the spelling hie (probably not the Adverb, for this would naturally be
spelt heic in so early an inscription)
:
consol, censor,
aidilis hie fuet
a[pud uos].
spelling hec seems to be a retention of the old form, due to the emphatic
position of the Pronoun at the beginning of the line, if it is not merely an
example of the early interchange of e and i in the unaccented syllable (e. g.
The
on the still older Scipio epitaph, i. 31 see ch. iii. 22). The
Neuter Nom. -Ace. hoc should be *hocc (for *ghod-ke), but though we are
expressly told that it was so pronounced before an initial vowel, as in Virgil's
line hoc erat, alma parens, &c., there is no evidence that it was ever written
with -cc, for Priscian's statement (i. 592. 22 H.) in antiquissimis codicibus
invenitur bis c scriptum, is illustrated only by the form hoccine. Hoc is
always long by position in Latin poetry, as hoc Abl. is long both by nature
and by position (for *hod-ce), and hie M. is distinguished from hie Adv. in
Plautus and the early Dramatists (spelt heicin Plautine MSS., Merc. 307, Men.
aidiles for aedttis
375, &c.), though, like other long syllables, Me, (hoc) may be shortened, when
unaccented, after a short syllable by the Law of Breves Breviantes (ch. iii.
But in
42), e. g. quid Me est?, what is here?, (quid hoc est?. what is this?).
classical poetry hie M. is more often scanned as a long than as a short syllable;
and the grammarians
meis Mezentius hie
assert of
est,
that
it
Me in a line like
was pronounced
Virg. A. xi. 16 manibusque

*hicc (Mar. Victor. 22. 17 K.
:
other references in Neue, ii 3 p. 411), just as they declare hoc erat to have been
pronounced hocc erat so that it is probable that Me M. came to be pronounced
*Mcc by the Analogy of hoc (for *hodc) N., which was pronounced *hocc. (One
.
Ff
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
434
theory supposes
hie
with long
to
[Chap. VII.
have been a byform of
hie, Rev. Philologie,
1892.}
In the Genitive we have,
e.g. hoiusce
on the Lex Kepetundarum of 123-122
B.C.
(C.I.L. i. 198. 56), hoiusque (i. 603, of 58 B.C. hoiusque aedis ergo), hoius Plaut.
Plautus is said not
Pseud. 271 (holus A, hujus P), huiius Most. 664 (A, hujus P).
to admit the form with -ce (Poen. 1257) into the colloquial language of his plays.
It occurs, however, in Terence (Anclr. 439, Phorm. 827),
is very common in Cicero and Sallust.
and the phrase
hujusce
modi
In the Dative hoic occurs in the Lex Bantina of 133-1 18 B.C. (C. I. L. i. 197. 26
Mar. Victorinus (12. 2 K.) quotes <ex libris antiquis. foederum
hoice leegei).
et legum, qui etiamsi frequenti transcriptione aliquid mutarunt, tamen
retinent antiquitatem/ the form hoic, a form affected in pronunciation by
a few in the time of Velius Longus (first cent. A.D.)
poetry huic (like cm in the poetry of the first cent.
as a dissyllable (twice in Statius,
Silv.
i.
107;
i.
2.
i.
(p. 76.
135;
In
3 K.).
A. D.,
and
later
25) is scanned
even huic in Ter.
In the Accusative
the oldest spelling hon-ce appears in the Lex Spoletina (C. I. L. xi. 4766 honce
loucom nequs uiolatod), hance in the Lex Bantina (i. 197), hoce for *hocce on
Maurus,
1.
1375.
For other examples, seeNeue,
ii
p. 415).
S. C. Bacch. of 186 B.C., where double consonants are written single,

196. 26 atque utei hoce in tabolam ahenam inceideretis) (cf. i. 1291 itus
have hone on the Scipio epitaph
actusque est in hoce delubrum Feroniai).
(i. 32), in the Saturnian line
the
(i.
We
hone oino ploirume cosentiont R[6mai],

'hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Romae/ Like hum from hone M. is huc(c)
from /ioc(c) N., a spelling found in an inscription of somewhat irregular
orthography (i. 603, of 58 B. c., ad hue templum), and in the Falisco-Lat. hue
dederunt (Zvet.
/.
I.I. 72 a),
but in classical Latin reserved to discriminate the
Adverb from the Pronoun (see ch. ix.

In the Abl. we have the full
10).
form hoce, e. g. in the magisterial proclamation cited above for hoce Neut. Ace.
cf. Orell. 3857), hace in the Lex Bantina (i. 197. 7)
(C. I. L. i. 1291 ex hoce loco
and throughout the Lex Repetundarum (i. 198) [cf. hocedie and hacetenus,
mentioned as 0. Lat. forms by Mar. Viet. (9. 19 K.)]. (For the Locative, see
the Adverb Me, heic, ch. ix.
Nom.-Acc. Plur. Neut. haice is found in the
10).
;
S. C.
Bacch.
(C. I. L.
in contione edicatis
i.
')
'
haec uti
196. 22 haice utei in couentionid exdeicatis,
haece has been already cited from Ennius, A. 294 M.
;
hlsce or heisce, the Nom. PI. Masc. form used by Plautus before a
word beginning with a vowel, occurs without the particle in two inscriptions of no great antiquity (C.I.L. i. 1059 heis sunt horti i. 1071 heis sunt
duo Concordes), and, according to the grammarians, in Virg. E. iii. 102
haece locutus
his certe, neque
amor causa
est, vix ossibus haerent
we have
i.
heisce further in some Capua inscriptions of 108-71 B. c. (C. I. L.

565 heisce magistreis Uenerus louiae i. 566 heisce magistreis Cererus
Not. Scar.
i. 573 heisc. magistr.
567 heisce magistrei i. 569 heisce mag.
i.
J 893r
P-
164 heisce magistreis);
For examples of haec
F., see
cf.
C.I.L.
Neue,
ii
i.
3
.
p.
1478 (Cartagena), heisce magistris.

417 e. g. Virg. G. iii. 305
:
haec quoque non cura nobis leviore tuendae.
The form seems to have been used both by Caesar and Cicero. In the Genitive the full form is found in Cato, e. g. harumce
(E. R. 139 harumce rerum
ergo), and in the old oath administered to soldiers taking furlough (ap. Gell.
THE PRONOUNS.
17.]
DEMONSTRATIVES.
435
harunce quae causa erit, funus familiare, feriaeve denicales,

In the Dat.-Abl. hisce is used by Plaut. and Ter. before vowels, by
3
cf. heisce in
Cicero, &c. before consonants too (examples in Neue, ii p. 419
the Lex Repetundarum, C.I.L. i. 198. 8 de heisce, dum, &c.), and the same
xvi. 4. 4 nisi
&c.).
holds of Ace. hosce and hasce
The stem
ho- (he-} is
hasce sedes, C. I. L.
(cf.
augmented by
(like
iii.
7230)
the Pronoun Datives
PI., 0.
Ind.
te-bhyas, Goth. J)ai-m, Lith. te-ms, 0. SI. te-mu), in Dat. PI. hlbus (obsolete in
Varro's time cf. Varro, L. L. viii. 72), attested by Priscian, ii. p. 10. 15 H. (and
Charis. p. 54. 19 K.) in Plaut. Cure. 506
;
eodem
hercle uos pono et paro
parissumi estis hibus,
like Ibus (for *eibus} in Plaut. Mil. 74 (see

19) ; it follows the analogy of
Noun A-stems in Dat. Sg. F. hae in Cato (R. R. 14. 3 hae rei materiem .
dominus praebebit). The Nom. PI. M. heis-ce, already mentioned, is, like
.
Noui. PI. eis of the stem i19), due to the addition of the Plural suffix -s to
the already formed plural hel, hi. (On the declension of hie in Plautus, see
Studemund in Fleckeisen's Jahrbiicher, 1876, p. 57, and on its use, Bach in
Studem. Stud. ii). Hie always refers to the first Personal Pronoun in Old Latin,
(_
and means
'
this that is near me, that belongs to me,' &c.

It is sometimes used for is, to refer to
in the Comedians.
so hie homo for ego
something already
mentioned, in the classical historians and Epic poets, but rarely

Ter. Phorm. 866-9 nas ^" c where -ibi would be used by Plautus
earlier, e. g.
ad fores
suspense gradii placide ire perrexi, accessi,
.
hie
astiti,
pulcherrumum
facinus audiui.
The Adverb ho-die (Falisc. foied) seems to show the bare stem (cf. ch. ix. 5).
A form without the enclitic has been claimed for O. Lat. eccum, e. g. sed eccum
Palaestrionem, but see, here comes P.', Plaut., though the word may be
On Faliscan he cupat,
analyzed into ecce eum as well as into ecce *hum ( 15)
here lie,' here lies (for *hei or for *fte/c?), and on Late Lat. hijacet, see ch.
'
'
ix.
'
10.
also in
C.
We
'
have Dat. hui in
late inscriptions
(Henz. 7339,
Rome
perhaps
I.L. x. 7297, Palermo).
17. Iste.
Examples of the various cases of this Pronoun with -c(e) in
Plautus and Terence are given by Neue, ii3 pp. 398 sqq., istic Nom. Sg. M.,
istaec F., istuc N., istic Dat., istunc Ace. M., istanc F., istuc N., istoc Abl. M., istac
F., istaec Nom. PI. F., N., istosci-n Ace. PI. M., istaec N., also of the later curtailed form ste (cf. Ital. stasera, from Lat. (i)sta sera) as in the Itala sta nomina;
see I. F. Anz. ii. 153) (cf. ch. iii.
12 a. 4).
(The declension of iste in Plautus
is treated by Studemund in Fleckeisen's Jahrbiicher, 1876, p. 57, and its use by
Bach in Studemund's Studien ii.) Iste refers to the second Personal Pronoun,
that of yours,' as hie to the first and ille to the third.
In classical Latin, but
probably not in the earlier literature, it came to acquire a contemptuous
sense.
We find istdce in an old ritual mentioned by Cato (R. R. 132. 2)
luppiter dapalis, macte istace dape pollucenda esto. The influence of the
Noun declension is seen in Late Lat. isto Dat. Sg. (Apuleius), istum Neut.
(Vulgate) istae Dat. Sg. is the reading supported by the MSS. in Plaut. True.
In colloquial Latin ecce is sometimes pre790 (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.).
fixed to the Ace. case of iste, and forms a compound, e. g. eccistam uideo Plaut.
.
'
Ff
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
436
Nom.
[Chap. VII.
two ancient
the announcement made at a funus
indictivum,' viz. ollus leto datus est, and the proclamation by the herald at the
comitia, in which olla centuria and not ilia c.' was used, just as we keep up
the old Norman French oyez, oyez in Royal proclamations. The same
18. Ille.
ollus
are the words used in
F.
olla
M.,
formulae preserved by Varro (L.L.
'
vii. 42),
'
'
Nom. Fern, seems to occur in the formula, also preserved by Varro (L. L. vii. 8),
which the augur used on the citadel in marking off a 'templum,' though the
ollaner arbos
reading of the MSS. is corrupt ullaber arbos quirquir est
quirquir est. The immediate precursor of ille, the Nom. Masc. otte, is found
:
in the Law of Servius Tullius, quoted by Festus (290. 15 Th.)

si parentem
puer verberet (MS. -it), ast olle plorassit, puer divis parentum sacer esto.
A very old form of the Abl. Plur., oloes, is cited by Paul. Fest. 14. 17 Th. ab
oloes dicebant pro ab illis
antiqui enim litteram non geminabant and in
the inscription on the Columna Rostrata (a restoration made in the Imperial
period) we have the Gen. PI. olorom (C. I. L. i. 195 praesente[d HanibaledJ
dictatored ol[or]om) (cf. ottarum on an early inscr., Marini, Act. Arv. p. 233).
Macrobius (iii. 9. 10) quotes an old ritual with ollis legibus, and on the Lex
:
'
'
Furfensis of 58
B. c. (C.I.L.
immediately by
(i).
olleis
illeis
olli
603) the
same phrase occurs, olleis legibus (followed

on the Lex Cornelia of 81 B. c. [i. 302.
Cicero in his De Legibus employs in the archaic language

Nom. PI., oZ/aNeut. PL, olios Ace. PI. In
hominibus].
of his laws
i.
regionibus), similarly
Dat.Sg., oZMsDat. PI., oUi
the early Dramatists the form is not found, so that it must have been already
Ennius
relegated to the legal style by the beginning of the second cent. B. c.
in his Annals knows only olli Dat. Sg. and Nom. PI., and ollis Dat.-Abl. Plur.
(illi and illis are apparently not used by him), and these are the only forms of
found in his imitator, Virgil, and the later Epic poets, while Lucretius
confines himself to ollis. Quintilian mentions olli among the happy archaisms
of Virgil (viii. 3. 25 'olli' enim et 'quianam' et 'moerus' et 'pone' et
olle
'
adspergunt illam, quae etiam in picturis est gratissima, vetusThe old spelling may have lingered
inimitabilem arti auctoritatem)
longest in these forms through the analogy of the Adverb olim, which comes from
the stem ol- (Umbr. ulo illuc ') a byform of ol- (ch. iv.
45, 59), and does not
exhibit a substitution of ol- for oil- (cf. ch. ii.
127). Servius (ad A. i. 254 and
v. 10) mentions a theory that olli in these two lines of Virgil was not the Dat.
Sg. of the Pronoun, but an Adverb with the sense tune (cf. the glosses otti
'
porricerent
tatis
'
'
aut tune
'
'
'
vel illinc,' C. G. L. v. 229. 4-5),

and olli-c is quoted by Paul. Fest. 231. 2 Th. as an O. Lat. form of illic (cf.
Lucil. inc. 152 M. uelut olim Auceps ille facit, where the MSS. offer olli). The
illi
otti
ibi,
interdum,
illi,
'
mispronunciation, oli for olim, censured in Prob. App. 199. 16 K., is merely
an example of the tendency of Vulg. Lat. to omit final -m, like the mispronunFrom
ciations 'pride,' 'passi,' numqua,' 'ide,' censured on the same page.
olim was formed Late Lat. olitanus, of former time,' and the curious phrase,
found in Petron. 43 p. 29. 2 B. olim oliorum, 'long long ago.' [Another theory
'
'
connects 0. Lat. olU, 'then,' with O.Sl. lani, 'last summer,' and analyzes ollo*ol-no-j not *ol-so- (I. F. iii. 264).]
For instances of the addition of the particle -ce to ille in its various forms in
into
Plautus, &c.
(iltic
Nom.
Sg. M.,
Nom.
illaec F.,
ittwcN.,
illlc
Dat., illunc Ace. M., ittanc F.,
M. (before a vowel', illaec F., illaec Neut., illisce

In old rituals mentioned by
Dat.-Abl. (before a vowel), see Neue, ii 3 p. 427.
Cato in the Res Rustica we find illiusce (139 illiusce sacri coercendi ergo), ittace
illocAbl., iliac F.,
illisce
PI.
THE PRONOUNS.
18, 19.]
i
(132.
DEMONSTRATIVES.
437
eius rei ergo macte hac illace dape pollucenda esto),
illisce (141. 4 Mars

neque satisfactum est,
pater, siquid tibi in illisce suouitaurilibus lactentibus
and in legal formulae in Varro's Res Rustica,

illosce iuuencos
boues sanos esse noxisque praestari,
sanos recte deque pecore sano esse noxisque praestari spondesne?), illasce (ii.
The Analogy of 0-stem Adjectives has produced
4. 5 illasce sues sanas esse).
ilium Neut. in Late and Vulgar Latin (e. g. in the Vulgate, S. Marc. iv. 35), illae
so
Dat. in Cato (R. R. 153 and 154 illae rei) and Plaut. Stick. 560 (filiae illae
the MSS.), iUo Dat. in late authors (e.g. Apuleius) to the Analogy of I-stems
is due illibus, if it be a genuine form, ascribed to 0. Lat. by Serg. in Donat.
P- 547- 37 K.
Lucilius seems to have proposed the spelling illi Dat. Sg., illei Nom. PI.
te hisce suouitaurilibus piaculo)
illosce (ii. 5.
illosce
(ix.
15 M.)
'hoc illi factumst uni' tenue hoc facies i.

haec illei fecere' adde e, ut pinguius fiat,
:
on which
see ch.
particle -met is
i.
9.
added
In colloquial Latin
a compound,
e. g.
to
According to Diomedes (332.

ille, and produces ill&met.
ecc-
was
1 1
K.) the strengthening
prefixed to the Ace. case of ille and formed

Plaut.
By prefixing em [the old deictic
eccillum uideo,
interjection, for which en was substituted in class. Latin (ch. x.

19)], was
ellum, ellam of the Comedians, which survives in the exclamation used
formed
in the dialect of the Abruzzi at the present day, ello (with open
On
the pronunciations illms and
illms, see
Neue,
ii
3
.
518,
e).
and
cf.
below,
22.
The stem i- appears clearly in is Nom. Sg. M., id N. But the

19. Is.
encroachment of the 0-declension shows itself in the numerous cases formed
from a stem eyo- (e.g. eum for *eyom Ace. Sg. M., which ousted the old Ace.
im eis for *eyois Dat.-Abl. PL, which ousted the old ibus for *ei-bus (O. Ind.
e-bhyas), with stem augmented before the Dat. Plur. suffix as in Mbus ( 16).
Another old I-stem form may be Abl. I- in i-lico, which is used in O. Lat. in
the sense of 'in loco' [' in eo loco,' Non. 325. 6 M., who quotes Accius (Trag.
;
373 R.)
ilico,
while the
as *in
sloco,
class.
inquarn, habitato,
Abl. Sg. M.
O. Lat. for in
is eo for
(see ch. ix.
loco
nusquam
*eyod.
Ilico is
propius],
however better explained
7).
be owing to this stem eyo- that we find the natural Fern. *ia
replaced by ea. The Ace. form iam preserved in the MSS. of Varro, L. L. v. 166
and viii. 44 (cf jam, the Adverb, ch. ix. 10. 8 ium on a Luceria inscr., C. I. L.
ix. 782), may be a relic of the old and correct spelling, for there is no
indication that there ever existed a spelling *eiam, of which some have supposed it to be a corruption (cf. ch. ii.
(In Umbr. we find earn Ace. Sg.
9).
It
may
F., eaf Ace. PI. F.)
The particle -ce is not added to this Pronoun stem until Late Latin, e.g.
ejuscemodi (Jerome, Epist. 82. 6) by Analogy of hujuscemodi.
[Posteac in ClauBut in
dius' edict on the Anauni (Hermes, iv. 99, 1. 13) is an isolated form.]
Oscan we have iz-ic is,' iu-k ea,' id-ik 'id,' and in Umbrian (with intervocalic
s become r) er-ec is,' ed"-ek id,' &c., as well as forms like Osc. id-ad ad id,'
Umbr. eo Ace. PL M., eu Ace. PI. N., &c.
The various case-forms that call for notice are these. Nom. Sg. M. eis
appears three times beside the usual is on the Lex Repetundarum. It may be
'
'
'
'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. VII.
a Nom. formed from the strong stem ei- (cf. Dat. PL l-bus), but is as likely to
be a mere mistaken use of ei for i as in seine and leiteras on the same inscription, an inscription not older than the last quarter of the second cent. B. c.
(On eisdem, see 21.) In the Dat. Sg. iei is written in the Lex Kubria (C. I. L.
i.
205) of 49 B. c. (beside et), by the same orthography as mieis, abiegnieis, aesculnieis
ii.
(So Umbr. ie-pru,
9, and cf. iei Nom. PL, ieis Dat. PL below).
The Ace. Sg. M. was in O. Lat. im [Charis. 133. i K. 'im' pro eum.
et
nam ita Scaurus in arte grammatica disputavit, antiques 'im,' 'ques'
declinari ita: is, ejus, ei, eum vel im Paul. Test. 73. 29 Th. im ponebant
(see ch.
ie-pi).
'
'
im pro eum ; GL
TOVTOV im (MS. eim)]. Macrobius (i. 4. 19) quotes a law of the XII Tables si nox furtum factum sit, si im
occisit, iure caesus esto, and Cicero (Legg. ii. 24. 60) another cui auro dentes
iuncti escunt, ast im cum illo sepelirei ureiue se fraude esto (cf. Fest. 322.
pro eum, a nominativo is

Philox. im avrov, ds avrov
ib. 33. 7
GL
antiqui dicebant ...
'
'
Cyrill. avrov,
:
13 Th.).
This form is often given as em, instead of im, perhaps by analogy of Noun
I-stems which substituted the Ace. suffix of Consonant-stems for that of Istems, e. g. turrem for turrim (see ch. vi. 29) so Paul. Fest. 54. 20 Th. 'em' pro
;
eum, ab eo quod
est
Another law of the XII Tables
is.
in his note on the 'licet antestari ?' of Hor.
is
cited
by Porphyrio
76 si in ius uocat, ni it,

antestamino, igitur em (MSS. en) capito and Festus (298. 15 Th.) quotes, from
a speech of Cato, si em percussi. Similarly the Adverb im (ch. ix.
10) (cf.
0. Ind. Im, originally an Ace. of the 'anaphoric' pronoun, then a mere
particle), so written in GL Philox. im \oiirov, 77877, is mentioned by Paul. Fest.
/S. i.
9.
37 Th. em,' turn) the Ace. of an O. Lat. derivative of is in the

sense of idem is imeum in the Philoxenus Glossary (imeum rov avruv], but
emem in Paul. Fest. (54. 2 Th. 'emem/ eundem) [cf. the form in the Glossary
as
em
'
(53.
of Placidus, emdem (MSS. hendem)

aeque, similiter, C. G. L. v. 73. 19].
The Dat.-Loc. Sg. *eyei, written eiei (along with ei) in the Lex Repetundarum
of 123-122 B.C. (C.I.L. i. 198), has in Plautus and the older poetry three
:
scansions,
rel class.,
el, el
became
what we may
-eyes
and
ch. vi.
-es
el,
in Ovid and later poets one, el (cf. ret and ret Plaut.,
This *eyei is thought to have become el much as
19).
(e. g.
Lat.
for I.-Eur. *treyes, ch. iv.
tres
66),
which in
'
ceremonious speech would preserve its full sound, and

for a time resist the Latin tendency to shorten every long vowel before
another vowel (ch. ii.
143), while after the shortening set in, el, through its
unaccented character, would in the rapid utterance of everyday life become
a mere monosyllable el, as tul became tut, &c. ( 12). (Priscian,ii. p. 10. 2 H.
speaks as if ei were as much a monosyllable as huic, cui in the ordinary
call
'
To suppose that eiei was pronounced *ey-yei as

was pronounced *Troy-ya, pejor, *pey-yor (ch. ii. 55), does not account
for the fact that these words are always scanned with the first syllable long
in poetry, while eum for *eyom is never scanned with its first syllable long.
(See below, however, on the doubt attaching to the antiquity of the scansion
But the Genitive ejus, formed by the addition of the Gen. suffix -us to
el.)
pronunciation of his time).
*Troia
1
This would most naturally be
explained as a Reduplication of ei,
and some explain el, el as produced
in this way. But the reduplicated
form of the i-stem had in Latin the

notion of identity, e.g. em-em (gl.
Still the theory given
eundem).
above is far from certain.
THE PRONOUNS.
10.]
DEMONSTRATIVES.
439
the already formed Locative had this pronunciation *ey-yus [Caesell. ap.
Cassiod. 206. 6 K. 'Pompeiius/ "Tarpeiius' et 'eiius' per duo i scribenda
sunt, et propter sonum (plenius enini sonant), et propter metrum. Numquam enim longa fiet syllaba nisi per i geminum scribatur]. This pronunciation is indicated by the spelling Eilvs on inscriptions (Neue, ii 3 p. 376)
and MSS. (Index to Studemund's Apograph of the Ambrosian Palimpsest of
.
Plautus).
The treatment of Nom. PI. *eyei

same as that of Dat.-Loc.
for *eyois is not the
and Dat.-Abl.
for *eyoi
Sg. *eyei
for
we have
PI. *eyeis
in Plautus
and the older poetry no instance of *ei, eis, but only ei or ei, i, and eis or eis, Is.
e is followed by a long syllable it passed in unaccented usage into y
by
Synizesis, e.g. eb, eos, ebrum Plant, (not eos, &c., by Law of Breves Breviantes;
Where
see eh.
iii.
49).
The old Abl. Sg. -d is seen in

and in Adverbial ead of the S.
qui adversum ea fecissent ').
In the Nom. PI. the spelling
eod die of the

C.
Bacch.
(i.
Lex Spoletina
(C. I. L. xi. 4766),

196. 25 quei aruorsum ead fedsent,
'
iei is, in accordance with the orthography of

found on the Lex Cornelia of 81 B. c. [i. 202. (i). 7,
along with ei], on the Lex Antonia de Termessibus of 71 B.C. (i. 204, passim,
never ei), on the Lex Rubria of 498.0. [i. 205. (i). 48], on the Lex Julia
Municipalis of 45 B. c. (i. 206. 24, usually ei), and in Varro (L. L. ix. 2 and 35).
We have also i in MSS. (often confused with hi}, and inscriptions (examples
the
first cent. B. c. (ch.
ii.
9),
in Neue, ii p. 382)
and the ei of Republican inscriptions (ibid. p. 383)
admits of being taken to denote the simple long i-sound. Priscian (i. 298.
9 H.) seems to distinguish monosyllabic ii (for i} from dissyllabic ei, and
similarly Us (Is} from eis, clii (dl) from del, diis (dis) from dels (see Neue,
c.).
The Nom. PI. Masc. form used in the Lex Bantina of 133-118 B. c. (i. 197) and
the Lex Repetundae of 123-122 B. c. (i. 198) is eis (cf. i. 199. 29 ?), a form which
appears in the earlier spelling eeis in the S. C. Bacch. of 186 B. c. (i. 196. 5,
the only occurrence of a Nom. PL of is on this inscr.) (possibly in i. 185 ieis),
and which should be compared with his (older heis) and hisce for hi, ittis (illeis)
.
I.
and
illisce for itti

16, 18).
(
(The reading is in Pacuv. Trag. 221 R. ap. Charis.
In the Gen. PI. the form eum, mentioned by Paul.
133. 4 K. is very doubtful).
'
Fest. (54. 20 Th. * eum antiqui dicebant pro eorum), is found once (usually
Lex Julia Municipalis of 45 B. c. [C. L L. i. 206. 52 eum h(ac) l(ege)

n(ihil) r(ogatur) ]. The orthography of the Dat.-Abl. PI. resembles that of the
Nom. PI.
have ieis on the Lex Antonia de Termessibus, the Lex Rubria,
eorum) on the
We
the Lex Julia Municipalis, and other inscriptions of the first cent. B. c. (see
Index to C. L L. i.), but eeis in the early spelling of the S. C. Bacch. of 186 B.C.
(i. 196), while the earliest form of all, eieis, reappears on an inscr. of circ.
100 B.C., the Epistula Praetoris ad Tiburtes (i. 201 de eieis rebus af uobeis
peccatum non esse. Quonque de eieis rebus senatuei purgati estis, &c.). We
have also is in MSS. (often confused with his] and inscriptions (Neue, ii 3
P- 383), and the eis of Republican inscriptions (see Index to C.I.L. i.) admits
of being taken as an expression of the sound Is. Priscian, as we have just
seen, appears to distinguish Us (pronounced is] from as, as diis (pronounced
from dissyllabic deis.
tils')
The 0. Lat. I-stem Dat.-Abl. ibus is mentioned by Nonius (486. T i M. ibus
pro is minus latinum putat consuetudo, cum veterum auctoritate plurimum
.
valeat),
who
quotes Plautus, Mil. 74

latrones, Ibus
dinumerem stipendium,
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
44
[Chap. VII.
MSS. of Plautus have latronisbus and latronibus], and other instances from
The Placidus Glossary (C. G. L. v. 75. 9) has ibus,' iis, illis,
the Comedians.
with quotation of the same line of Plautus. For other lines of Plautus where
some editors read ibus, and for Lachmann's proposal to read ibus (though only
(the
ii
3
.
known
are
Ibus, hlbus
in Plautus, &c.) in certain lines of Lucretius, see Neue,
386.
p.
The analogy
of the A-declension has
in Cato (R. R. 142
quo modo uilicam
and probably in Plaut.
oportet)
Varro's time
(L. L. viii.
51)
Mil.
a form found
quo modo eae imperari
eae Dat. Sg. F.,
produced
uti oportet, et
348
hie eae proxumust, but not in use in
so in Late Latin
eum
for id (see Georges, Lex.
Cato also uses eabus (R. R. 152 facito scopas uirgeas ulmeas
aridas
eabus latera doliis intrinsecus usque bene perfricato), which is
quoted from Cassius Hemina (pro eis differentiae causa in feminino) by
Wortf.
s.
v.).
Priscian
294. 4 H.).
(i.
The obscure form necerim mentioned by Festus (160. 21 Th.) and Paul. Fest.
(161. ii Th.), and explained by them as 'nee eum,' has been supposed by
some to be a wrong reading for nece im (nee eim ?), by others to contain the
Pronoun-stem
es- of
The scansion
for *este
iste
13).
allowed by most editors of Plautus in the Dat. Sg., but

a certain example is very difficult to find, except in the Prologues and these
cannot be quoted as Plautine. Thus in Rud. 392 where editors end the line
with ne copia esset ei, the MSS. have eius in Bacch. 525 mendacium ei dixit,
only the Ambrosian Palimpsest has ei, the Palatine MSS. have illi [editors
similarly prefer illis the (probable) reading of the Palimpsest to iis of the
other MSS. in Rud. 219 neque quicquam umquam illis profuit] in Cure. 544,
for which we have only the testimony of the Palatine family of MSS.
el is
is
ei
might be
scansion
ei
Summanum
emended
easily
in the Dat. Sg.
dum
and
is
very
common
is
to
el
se uocari dixit
and
ego,
on
so
certain for Terence,
licitumst ei
in Lucretius,
674
(e. g.
e. g.
Cist.
maximus
qui non ante aliquem majorem vidit
(like supera for supra, ch.
iii.
15)
But the
scilicet et fluvius quivis est
so that
138).
Andr. 443
aetas tulit,
dumque
e. g. vi.
ei reddidi,
ei
may be a form that
is
not genuinely
antique. The Dat. Sg. is avoided by the Augustan poets, Horace for example
in his Satires and Epistles using ejus, eum, eo but not ei ; but in Ovid, Halieut. 33,
we have el (see Neue, ii 3 p. 378, who, however, quotes as examples of el from
.
can be scanned a in prosodical hiatus,

dederat, like mei honoris, Aul. 463).
Plautus lines where
mater
ei
utendum
it
We
20. Ipse.
have already seen the particles
various pronouns to give the sense of 'self,' 'own,' e.
ipsius ingenio, sepse like se ipsam.
These particles seem
-pte
and
e. g. Cure.
-pse
603
added
to
meopte ingenio like meo

to be composed of a parg.
seen in quis-piam, quippe, &c., and the Pronoun-stems so- and to-,
which alternate in the I.-Eur. Demonstrative with its Norn. *so M., *sa F.,
*tod N., and its oblique cases formed from the stem to- (te-). [Lat. -pte should
ticle pe- (pi-),
therefore not be compared with Lith. pats, 'self,' from patis (Lat.pofts, Gk.
wows, &c.)]
Similarly we find the Pronoun-stem i- augmented by -pse in the
Latin pronoun of identity,
i-pse,
which
is
further strengthened in the 0. Lat.
THE PRONOUNS.
20, 21.]
IDEM.
IPSE.
441
form, or forms, given by Paul. Test, as ipsippe (74. 37 Th. ipsippe,' ipsi, neque
alii), in the Glossary of Philoxenus as ipsipte ( ipsipti
avroi, C. G. L. ii. 87. 26
and 44) and ipsipse ('ipsipse' euros, ib. 91. 35), and augmented by -pte in
in eopte,' eo ipso).
eopte (Paul. Fest. 78. 16 Th.
'
'
'
The
we may suppose
original declension of ipse
*is-pse (i-pse) M., ea-psa F., *id-ptocl (*i-ptod) N.,
to have been
Nom.
Sg.
Ace. Sg. *im-ptom M., &c., until
the inconvenience of the alternation of -p-so- and -p-to- brought about

a 'levelling' process.
(Ipsud is not found till late Latin, see Georges, Lex.
The declension of both elements of the Compound may still
Wortf. s. v.)
appear in isolated forms indicated by the MSS. of Plautus, e. g. eapsa, Cas. 602
[so the Ambrosian Palimpsest (A), but ea ipsa in the Palatine MSS. (P), as in
v. 604 for eapse of A]
eumpsum non
eaepsae, Pseud. 833 (eaepse A, eae ipsae P)
eampsam, True. 133 (eum ipsum non earn ipsam A, eum ipsum non ea ase P)
;
eumpsum,
114 (eum ipsum A,
True.
umsum
P),
which have been, perhaps
unnecessarily, changed by editors to eapse, eaepse, eumpse, eampse.

The declension of the first element appears in eapse, mentioned
Fest. (54. 28 Th. 'eapse,' ea ipsa),
preserved in the MSS. of Plautus
though usually
ipse
and
by Paul.
and similar forms are sometimes
this
(e. g. eapse,
Trin. 974, True. 24, Cure. 161, 534),
written for the unfamiliar
is
and
-pse
is
sometimes
declined, e.g. eumpse, Pers. 603 (eum ipse P) ; eampse, Poen. 272 (earn ipse
eapse, Cas. 604 (so A, but ea ipsa P).
(On sirempse, see ch. ix. 8.)
Sg. Masc. we have a byform ipsus in 0. Lat. (ipsos in a Law of

Fest. 4. 29 Th. si quisquam aliuta fax it, ipsos loui sacer
In the Nom.
Numa quoted by Paul.

which
the form used by the Comedians before a Reflexive Pronoun,

The two
Ipse is not a development of ipsus.
e.g. ipsus sibi, ipsus suam rem, &c.
are separate forms, ipse for -so, ipsus for -sos, corresponding to the I.-Eur. by-
esto),
is
forms *so and sos (0. Ind. sa and sas, Gk. 6 and os) ( 13). The influence of
0-stem Adjectives produced in Late Latin ipso Dat. Sg. (Apul.) and ipsae
(Apul.), of I-stems ipsibus Dat. PI., ascribed to 0. Latin by Serg. in Don.
The Plautine ipsissumus
(547- 37 K.).
(Trin. 988), like
seems to have been, in the form ipsuma or

quial Latin of the
p. 51.
ch.
23 B., &c.).
ii.
81.)
Aristophanes' avToraros,
used in the collo-
ipsima, actually
Empire in the sense of clomina (Petron. 69. p. 46. 16 B.

(On the colloquial pronunciation isse, issa, for ipse, ipsa,
;
Ipsemet
is
found occasionally
(see Georges, Lex. Wortf.
75.
see
s. v.).
The affix -clem of Idem, 0. Lat. is-dem, tanti-dem, tantum-dem,

21. Idem.
expressing the idea of precisely,' exactly,' is thought by some to have been
originally idem, for the Oscan equivalent of Latin Idem is is-idum. This Mem,
formed by adding the affix -em to the Neut. Demonstr. id, is used in Latin as the
Neut. of the Pronoun expressing the same,' but in O. Ind. id-am is the Neut.
'
'
'
much
with the same affix, *lm-em,

used in O. Ind. (imam) as the Ace. Masc. 'this.' but was in O. Lat. the
Gl. Philox.
equivalent of eundem [Paul. Fest. 54. 2 Th. emem, eundem
of the Demonstr.
'
this,'
as the Ace. Masc.
is
'
imeum
'
these readings
(h)emdem, aeque, similiter
leave it doubtful whether the word was formed by adding the affix -em to the
Ace. im, or, as seems more likely, by doubling the Ace.]. Prisciaii (i. 589.
14 H. ) derives l-dem from is and demum.
:
TOV avrov
cf.
at
'
somewhat uncertain
idem campus habet inquit Ennius, et in templis EIDEM
isdem erat verius, nee tamen eisdem ut opimius male
The Nom. Masc.
is
text (Orat. xlvii. 157)
PROBAVIT
'
Gl. Plac.
discussed by Cicero in a passage of

'
'
'
'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
442
isdem
'
sonabat
'
impetratum
He seems
liceret.
[Chap. VII.
est a consuetudine, ut peccare suavitatis causa

with ei for the long i-sound
to say that Idem [also written
9) eidem] was the form in use, with s dropped with compensatory

(ch. i.
lengthening before d (ch. iv. 151), but that some purists insisted on the spelling with s, isdem or even eisdem. (For examples of these spellings, e. g. eisdem
3
C. I.L. i. 576
577. (2). 9, u, 13
1468 1470, &c., see Neue, ii p. 390.)
In the Dat. Sg. we have eidem and eidem (like ei and el,
19), but eidem is
not found. On later inscriptions idem is very frequent (examples in Neue, ii 3
P- 39)> an d even isdem (Neue, I. c.), a confusion with the Norn. Sg., which had
the (archaic) spelling isdem, but the pronunciation Idem.
In the Nom. and
Dat.-Abl. PL, Priscian (i. 589. 29 H.) seems to distinguish ei-dem, eis-dem from
;
and usually spelt i-dem), iisdem (pronounced and usually

(For instances of the spelling i-dem and is-dem, the usual forms,
The eidem of Eepublican Inscriptions (Neue, L c. e. g. C.l.L.
iidem (pronounced
spelt is-dem).
see Neue,
1.
c.)
and i. 202) may represent the pronunciation Idem. Like eis, older
Nom. Plur. of is ( 19), we find eisdem Nom. PI. (C. I. L. i. 198. 27
197. 17
i.
as
eeiSj
eisdem ioudices
i.
1187
i.
p. 394).
often in the phrase eisdem probauerunt, &c., e.g. i. 1149;

cf. i. 1143), and in later inscriptions sometimes isdem (Neue,
1192
In the Dramatists, &c. with a long second syllable we find 'the
;
word pronounced with Synizesis,

The influence of O-stem Adjectives
eaedem Dat. (very rare
e. g.
is
ebdem, ebsdem, &c. like
eb, eos
19).
seen in the Late Latin forms eodem Dat.,
see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.).
The Pronominal Gen. and Dat. Sg. In the early Dramatists we

two scansions of ittius, istius, ipsius, &c., (i) illius, istius, ipsius, alterius, &c.,
22.
find
(2)
illi(u)s,
isti(u~)s,
Examples
poetry.
ipsi(u")s,
but not
illms,
istms, ipsius,
of the second scansion are
isti(u]s
&c.,
modi (4
as in classical
syll.)
in Plaut.
Rud. 321
Ter. Heaut. 387, &c.
Another O. Lat. form of the Gen.,
i. 303.
i. 226. i6H.
i. 266. 3 H.
fully attested by Priscian (i. 196. 22 H.
21 H.
ii. 8
H.) is with -i, Mi, isti, ipsi, e.g. illi modi and isti modi (Cato), isti
Most.
746
modi Plaut. True. 930 (so the MSS.). This cannot be explained as an O-stem
Adjective formation, for it is found with Fern. Nouns, e. g. toti familiae
(Afranius), isti formae (Terence), and a Dat. Masc. like illo, isto is not found
till Late Latin.
It may be a relic of the Locative form which, as we have
seen, was augmented by the Gen. suffix -MS (-os) to form these Pronoun
Genitives in -ius but it is also conceivable that it is a doublet which has
;
arisen out of the contracted form
illi(u)s, isfi(u)s,
&c. in certain combinations.
would be pronounced istimodi, as naturally as

O. Lat. dustnus became dumus, or*prismus became primus, or is-dem, Idem; and
a large number of Priscian's examples of this Gen. in -I show the Pronoun in
combination with modus. Similarly ali(u)s-rei would become ali-rei, as dis-rumpo
became dirumpo; cf. Priscian's examples, aliirei causa (Caelius), nulli rei (Cato).
The byforms illi, nulli, &c. having been produced in such combinations would
push their way into other combinations too, e. g. tarn nulli consili (Ter. Andr.
608). They do not however seem to be found before a vowel initial.
The Dative in -I is, as we have seen, undisturbed by the influence of the
O-stem Noun declension till Late Latin, e.g. itto, isto, ipso (Apuleius). But
word-group
like isti(u)s-modi
a Dat. Fern, in-ae, attested for 0. Lat. by Priscian (i. 197. 12 H.; i. 226. 18 H.\ is
unknown in early authors, e. g. illae rei, Cato (R. R. 153 and 154). (For a list
of examples of these Gen. and Dat. forms, with references to the passages of
not
22, 23.]
THE PRONOUNS.
RELATIVES, ETC.
443
grammarians dealing with them, and for a fuller discussion of the whole
Luchs in Studemund's Studien, i. pp. 319 sqq.)
subject, see
23. IV. RELATIVE, INDEFINITE, AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. The I.-Eur. Relative-stem *yo- (O.
Ind. yas, Gk. os) does not supply the Latin Relative, which
shows the stem *q"o-,a stem originally proper (with *q"i-, *q s u-)
to the Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns (O. Ind. kas, kii-tra,
where ?,' Gk. TIS, -nov, O. Ir. cia, W. pwy, Goth, hvas, Engl. who ?,
Lith. kas, O. SI. ku-to
O. Ind. cit Neut., Gk. us, &c.), but used
'
also as a Relative (Engl.
who,
appear in the Latin quis /*,
Oscan
I.-Eur. *q"o-, *q"i-, *q-u-
&c.).
si-quis, qui ?, ali-cubi, &c.
(Umbro-
We
Osc. pid Neut.).

may roughly distinguish qui as
the Relative, guis as the Interrogative and Indefinite Pronoun,
pis,
though the stems frequently overlap, e. g. in the Latin of Cato

and the earliest inscriptions ques is the Nom. PI. of the Indefinite,
In
Lat. both are qm.
curious
a
and
languages (as
elsewhere)
declension of the Relative (and Interrogative) was in vogue,
qiil
the
(quei) of the Relative
but in
in
Italic
class.
Celtic
a case-form of the Relative-stem being prefixed to a Demonstrative, like modern Gk. TTOV rov for ov in such a sentence as
euros eu>6 6 avbpas TTOV rov clba, that is the man whom I saw.
Thus an Abl. Sg. Fern, of the Relative is in Oscan pullad, which
is
compounded
of the Relative-stem po- (Lat, quo-) (either the
bare stem or a case-form) and "*ullad (Lat. *ollad)} the Abl. Sg.
Fern, of the Demonstrative olio-; another ispoizad, a similar
compound with the Abl. Sg. Fern, of the Demonstrative eiso-.

The old spelling of the Dat. Sg. of Lat. qui, viz. qnoiei, shows
it to be a compound of this kind, having for its second element
the Dat. Sg. of
is
(O. Lat.
eiei),
*quo-eiei
and Gen. Sg. quoins
(class, cujus] will consequently represent *quo-eius.

this method of declension was used in other cases in
Whether
Latin does
Another feature of the Italic Relative is its tendency

Pronominal particle i (cf. Gk. ovros-i), e. g.
Umbr. poi Nom. Sg. M., porsi (*podi) N. Lat. qul for *q s o-i
not appear.
to
append the
(O. Lat. quoi).
The Latin
Interrogative- Relative has a Possessive cujus -a

older
-urn,
quoins -a -2im, which is very frequent in Plautus and
in the
is found in Republican inscriptions
and
Terence,
(e. g.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
444
Lex Repetundarum,
i.
Cicero
in
in jide\
[Chap. VII.
198. 5^ io } 29 quoium nomen and quoiaue

II.
T'err.
g.
(e.
i.
54.
142, cuja res),
and
Virgil (E.
cujum pecus). Virgil's use of the word was
to
objected
by purists, apparently through an idea that cnjns
-a -urn was a vulgar inflexion of the Gen. Sg. of the Pronoun,
iii.
an idea which the occurrence of the word in Cicero and in State

inscriptions disproves
1 1
It
).
is
rather formed
by means
of the
4) from the stem *q"o-, *q"o-yo-, as

meus (stem *me-yo-) from the stem *me- ( i). It is not till
Late Latin that we find the particle -ce added to the RelativeInterrogative Pronoun in cujuscemodi (Apuleius, &c.), a word
Adjectival suffix -yo- (ch. v.
coined after the type of hujnscemodi.

24. Stems q!ii- and q\Jo-. In 0. Lat. there is a usage of quis, possibly as
a Relative, but rather in the sense of siquis or quicunque e. g. in an old treaty
quoted by Festus to illustrate O. Lat nancitor for nanciscitur (170. 25 Th.) :
;
in an old plebiscitum (Fest. 322.

Th.)
quis uolet magistratus multare, dum minore parti familias taxat, liceto ;
on a public notice affixed to a grove at Luceria (C. I. L. ix. 782) quis uolet
pecuniam quis nancitor, habeto
eum
(other examples from Cato and from Cicero's laws are given
p. 430, e. g. Cato, R. B. 147 dominus uino quid uolet faciet\
necumquem explained by
163. 12 Th.).
Tadinatis,' Osc. pis
Fest.
(So
nee
pisest
Mar
Cf.
ii
3
.
O. Lat.
'
(Fest. 162. 22 Th. ; Paul.

Tarsinater ' quisquis est civitatis
umquam quemquam
Umbr.
by Neue,
In the Dramatists quis is the

<qui habebit').
Fem. of the Interrogative, quav of the Relative (cf. Prise, ii. 8. 21 H. quis
liafiest
etiam communis esse generis putaverunt vetustissimi, sicut apud Graecos m),
e. g. Plaut. Pers. 200 quis haec
me aduorsum incedit ? (other
est, quae
examples in Neue, p. 441), but the distinction of qui Adj., and quis Pron. in
questions, e.g. qui homo venit'i and quis venitl is hardly observed, the habit of
Plautus being rather to use quis before a vowel, qui before a cons, (see Neue,
p. 431, and B. P. W. xiii. 278
similarly Cornificius seems to write siqui before
an initial s, otherwise siquis, e.g. siqui suadebit, iii. 5. 8). The I-declension
form of the 'Abl.' Sg. qui, e. g. quicum, is Relative as well as Interrogative and
Indefinite
e. g. Ter. Ad. 477 psaltriam parauit, quicum uiuat
C. I. L. i. 200
queiue ab eorum quei emit (see Neue, pp. 455 sqq.). But the Norn. Plur. quet,,
attested by Charisius (91. 16 K. ut duces, ducibus, mores, moribus, et 'ques,'
quibus 158. 21 veteres nominativum pluralem ques dixerunt regulam secuti,
unde etiam dativus mansit in consuetudine), Festus (348. 23 Th.), Priscian
(ii. 9. 13 H.) &c. seems to have been confined to the Interrogative and Indefinite
Thus Cato began his Origines with the words siques homines sunt, quos
use.
delectat populi Romani gesta clescribere
on the S. C. Bacch. (C. I. L. i. 196)
we have sei ques esent, quei sibei deicerent necesus ese Bacanal habere,
and a line
siqui essent, qui sibi dicerent necesse esse Bacchanal habere
of Pacuvius (Trag. 221 R.) runs
;
'
'
'
ques sunt ? ignoti, nescioques ignobiles

(other examples in Neue, p. 466).
THE PRONOUNS.
24, 25.]
RELATIVES, ETC.
445
The I-declension Neuter quia survives only as an Adverb or Conjunction,

e.g. 0. Lat. quianam, 'why?,' like quidnam ; the Gen. quium can hardly be
ascribed to Cato on the mere testimony of Servius (ad^.. i. 95 denique Cato
:
'
'
ques sunt populi. Et declinavit ques,

quium ut
'puppes,' 'puppium'), for this remark only implies that Cato's ques was an
I-stem formation. The I-stem Dat. quibus supplanted the 0-stem quis (older
queis) in the Relative, though the O-stem form is by no means uncommon
3
(see a long list of instances in Neue, ii
p. 469, e. g. Plaut. Most. 1040
in Originibus ait
'
si
med exemplis
quis
hodie eludificatus
est).
The original Nom. Sg. Masc. of the Relative quo-i (stem

25. Case-forms.
quo- with affix -i of Gk. ovroa-f, c.) [Osc. pui(?), Umbr. poi the Umbr. shows
this affix also in Nom. PI. Masc. pur-i, Ace. PI. Fern, paf-e, &c.] is probably
;
intended by the spelling
of the very ancient Dvenos inscription [Zvet.
qoi
me mittat (mittet)].' The weakened form

due to the unaccented use of the Relative (ch. iii.
18), is common on
inscriptions of the Republic, from the Scipio epitaph (in Saturnians) of c.
200 B. c. (C. I. L. i. 30)
I.I.I. 285 qoi
med
mitat, 'qui
quei,
consol censor aidilis quei fuit

to the
frequently than qui
apud
uos,
which has
quei far more

(i. 206),
of Plautus, &c. (see instances in
Fern, of the Indefinite Pronoun in its Adjec-
Lex Julia Municipalis of 45

in the
also
B. c.
MSS.
Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.). The

tival use followed the Adjective Declension in taking usually the suffix -a in
class. Latin, e. g. siqua causa est (but seiquae causa erit on the Lex Repetun-
and in
si quae lex on the Lex Agraria, i. 200. 41
C. I. L. i. 198. 37
Gen. Sg. quoius
see Neue, ii 3 p. 445).
Plautus numquae causast quin, &c.
appears in the Saturnian Seipio epitaph of c. 200 B. c. (C. 1. L. i. 30)
darum,
quoius forma
in the
Lex Repetundarum
(i.
uirtiitei
198),
of Plautus, Varro, &c. (see Georges, s. v.

to ui, the qu by a law of Latin phonetics
(pronounced cuy-yus, ch.

cuiius,
in
c.
cuilus (Neue, p. 451).
fuit,
inscriptions,
Neue,
became
and in the MSS.
When
p. 450).
(ch. iv.
137)
the
oi
hence
sank
cujus
pronunciation indicated by spellings like

(On monosyllabic quoi(u]s in quoi(u)smodi, &c.,
55), a
and quoi in qwiquoimodi, cuicuimodi in Cic., &c., see

oldest form preserved of the Dative is quoiei of a Scipio epitaph
130 B. c. (C. I. L. i. 34) in a Saturnian line referring to the short life of
the
22).
of
ii.
parisuma
and other
Dramatists,
The
the deceased
quoiei uita defecit
non honos honore,
Lex Repetundarum of 123-122 B. c. (i. 198. 10, usually quoi), and in the
Lex Agraria of in B.C. (i. 200. 68, usually quoi cf. quoieique, 11. 3. 6. 32. 45.
though the dissyllabic Dative seems not to occur in Plautus (it is read by
99)
some editors in Trin. 358. 558, &c. see Brix ad locc.), and so cannot have been
used in the ordinary conversation of his time. The common form in use
on Republican inscriptions is quoi (see Index to C. I. L. i.) the Lex Julia
in the
Municipalis, for example, of 45 B.C.
206) has always quoi, never cui, as

always, except in two instances, quei for
(i.
it has always quoius, never cujus, and

qui (so quoi in the Comrn. Lud. Saec. of Augustus' reign).
And Quintilian
(i.
7.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
446
was the
27) tells us that in his youth quoi

(first cent. A. D.),
76.
p.
[Chap. VII.
spelling.
Velius Longus
[Of.
K. itaque audimus quosdam plena
oi
syllaba
'
'
quoi et hoic pro cui et huic. ] In late poetry cui is a dissyllable,
cm, a scansion which is found as early as Seneca, Juvenal, and Martial, e. g.
Mart. i. 104. 22 sed norunt cui serviant leones (examples in Neue, p. 454).
Ace. quern has -em for -im (Osc. pirn) by. analogy of Noun I-stems which
usually substituted the Cons.-stem -em for the I-stem -im, e. g. turrem (ch. vi.
As to the Abl. Sg. we have not sufficient means of deciding, owing to
29).
the absence of sufficiently old inscriptions, whether and in what uses qui,
dicere
'
'
was an Abl. (from *qmcl\ a Locative (from *quei], or even an

Instrumental (from *qui). But the spelling quiquam ('in any way') on the
S. C. Bacch. (1. 12), an inscr. on which original i and original ei seem to be
kept distinct, goes against the Locative theory, unless indeed it is a mere
O. Lat. for quo,
mistake for quisquam (see 28). The spelling quei on the Lex Agraria of in
B. c. (C. I. L. i. 200. 17 queiue ab eorum quei emit) merely expresses the sound
This qui, byform of quo, qua, occurs in Virgil (A. xi. 822)
qui (see ch. i.
9).
:
Accam ex
quicum
aequalibus unam,
partiri curas.
living use in the time of Servius (fourth cent. A. D.) (in Donat.
dicimus 'a quo venisti et a qui' venisti sed ' a qui' in
usu esse desiit). Already in Terence quicum is not so frequent as in Plautus.
In the early authors qui is used (i) as an ordinary Abl., e. g. Plaut. Capt. 828
It
was not in
p. 411. i
K.
nam
'
'
Bacch. 335 sed qui praesente id aurum

but especially (2) as an Abl. of the instrument, e. g.
Plaut Men. 391 quis istest Peniculus ? qui extergentur baxeae ?, 'what
Mr. Brush do you mean ? one to clean shoes with ?
Varro, R. R. ii. praef. 3
qui homine
nemo
uiuit fortunatior
Theotimo datumst ?
'
frumentum qui saturi fiamus. In this capacity it passes into a mere Adverb
like ut, and is used even with a plural noun, e. g. Plaut. Stick. 292 quadrigas
qui uehar Pseud. 487 (uiginti minas) quas meo gnato des, qui amicam libee. g. qui fit ufi, a phrase in
ret (3) as an Adverb with the sense of quomodo
;
common use
in classical Latin
Ter. Adelph. 215 quipotui melius?
(4)
as
an
enclitic Particle, e. g hercle qui, edepol qui, utinam qui (Plaut.), a usage surviving
3
in classical atqui.
(For a fuller list of examples, see Neue, ii pp. 455 sqq. ;
.
The Nom.
written quei on Republican

inscriptions (see Index to C. I. L. i.), this being the weakening of an original
12 a. 5), e. g. i.
*quoi, due to the unaccented nature of the Relative (ch. iii.
196 sei ques esent, quei sibei deicerent necesus ese Bacanal habere. (On
cf.
below, ch.
ques
Nom.
x.
PI. of quis in 0. Lat.,
*quois, see above,
26.
(0. Ind.
5.)
The stem
kuha, 0.
PI.
Masc.
and on
queis
is
and
quis,
Dat.-Abl. Plur., from
24.)
Corresponding to Umbr. pu-fe, Osc. pu-f, where

kude, from L-Eur. *qSudh-), is Lat. -cHOn of ali-cubi,
'
qSu-.
SI.
'
somewhere/ sl-cubi, if any where,' ne-cubi, num-cubi, &c., with CM- instead of quuby the same phonetic law of the Latin language that has made quincu-ptex out
of *quinquu-plex (ch. iv.
137) (cf. Vulg. Lat. nescio-cube, Probi App. 199. i6K.),
and clearly connected with the Interrogative, Indefinite, and Relative Pronoun-root (see ch. x.
i, on the existence of parallel stems of Pronouns in -o,
But apart from compounds the Latin Adverb is ubi. Similarly the
-i, -u).
-cunde of ali-cunde (aliquonde is written in Plaut. Pseud, 317 in the Ambr. Palimps.;
'
'
so Caesellius ap. Cassiod. 202. 28 K. aliquonde per
quon debet
scribi),
si-
THE PRONOUNS.
26-28.]
RELATIVES, ETC.
447
cunde, ne-cunde, wants initial c- in the simple form -uncle. According to Schmidt
(K. Z. xxxii. 405) this Latin initial u-, internal CM-, represents I.-Eur. *qSu-, a
parallel stem of q"o-, qUi- (cf.

23).
(For another possible explanation of
this loss of the initial guttural, see Brugm. Grundr. i.
431 c.) The Latin
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronoun uter, 'whether of two' (on the suffix
seech, v. 18) shows a similar relation to O. Ind. kutra, 'whither' (stem
l
*q Autro-, *kutro-), Osc. potro-, whether of two (stem *qSotro- or *kwotero-tero-,
'
'
both derivatives of a stem *qUe-t(e}ro- or *kwe-t(e)ro- ?).

Adverbs beginning with u-, derived from the Interrogative
(On other Latin

root, and wanting
Eitschl's proposal [based on Trin. 934,
an initial guttural, see ch. ix.

10.)
where there is a manuscript corruption cuUius for ubi tus (gigiiitur)] to read
cubij &c., in some passages of Plautus, has not met with approval (Opusc. iii.
135).
The Possessive
is the Nom.
27.
and Terence
me
cujus.
The
Sg. Fern.,
most frequently in use in Plautus
case
Plaut. Trin. 45 quoia hie uox prope

16 ne is redimeret, cuja res esset
ib.
e. g.
sonat ?
cf. Cic. Verr. II. iii. 7.
68 Apronius certiorem facit istum, cuja res erat.
rare, Plaut. Rud. 745
;
27.
The Plural
is
very
argentum ego pro

Trin. 533,
quorum}
with quoium
istisce
ambabus quoiae erant domino
for cujorum, Gen. PI. (?) (cuiuni
A, quoium
dedi,
some read
necunquam quisquamst, quoius ille ager fuit,

quin pessume ei res uorterit, quoium fuit,
alii
With
exolatum abierunt,
emortui.
alii
denoting the country of one's birth (ch. v. 45), we have

0. Lat. quoiatis, what countryman ?
belonging to what country ?
the suffix
-ati-,
'
cujds,
'
'
Other derivatives. Ali-quis, some one, is a compound of the stem

some (connected with dlio-, other) l and the Indefinite Pronoun, like alisomewhere, ali-cunde, &c. An 0. Lat. Nom. PI. aliques is mentioned by
28.
ali-,
cubi,
Charisius (159. 7 K.). Ec-quis has been explained as nothing else than et quis,
c for t by the same
phonetic law as reduced *sit-cus (cf. sitis) to sic-cus
(ch. iv.
159), but it is more likely to come from the pronominal stem e- (used
with
as a prefix in e-nos, Umbro-Osc. e-tanto-, &c.) with the appended particle -ce
(without this appendage in e-quidem, ch. x.
6, and in 8-quis, a byform of
ec-quis,
in Plaut.).
The Neut.
ecquid in
Plautus often sinks into a mere con-
junction, e.g. ecquid placenf? Most. 906, &c.

Quldam for *quis-dam (like idem for is-dem,
appends the particle -dam to

not found in Plautus, and
We have quesdam Ace. PI. in
Accius, Trag. 477 R. Quwis (cf. Umbr. pis-her from the verb heri-, to wish ')
may stand for *qms-ris, any you please/ whosoever you please (cf. O. Lat.
whosoever obtains,' 24), with the same loss of s before initial
quis nancitor,
21)
the Indefinite Pronoun. The Nom. Plur. Masc.

scarcely indeed in any of the older authors.
is
'
'
'
'
'
v in a
Compound
as divdlo for *dis-vello (ch. iv.

151), and qmlubet, for *quis-lubet,
The I-declension
as for qm-vis, qm-lubet.
(ib.~). as well
like dlligo for *disligo
Abl. qumis appears in Plaut.

1
aliquisalius is
Stick.
627
quicumuis depugno multo
not found in Plautus, though
it
facilius
occurs in Terence.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
448
quam cum
fame.
Qm-cum-que, O. Lat. quei-quom-que
[Chap. VII.
(C. I. L.
i.
197. 5
200. 50
had probably a byform *quis-quom-que, to judge from Nom. PI. quescumque n Cato (Orig. ii.fr. 34 J. quescumque Romae regnauissent). The latter
part of the word is probably the Adverb quum (0. Lat. quom), when, with the
enclitic particle -que, so that -cumque means literally whenever (see ch. ix.
202, &c.),
'
'
In O. Lat. quisque is used in the sense of quicunque, e.g. quemque

offendero, Plaut. Copt. 798, the particle -que (O. Ind. ca in kas-ca, 'whoever,' &c.,
Horn. Gk. re in os re, Goth, -h in hvo-h) giving to a word the sense of our
but has in classical
'ever' in 'whoever,' 'whenever,' &c. (see ch. x.
2)
10. 7).
Latin the sense of 'each.' It is fern, as well as masc. in 0. Lat., e.g. Ter.
so quemque Ace. Sg. F. in Plaut. Pseud. 185.
Hec. 216 quisque uostrarum
Another expression for 'whosoever' is quisquis (Osc. pispis, of which the Neut.
;
Fest. 263. 8 Th.), (riaris occurs in an Old Gk.

1
594), a doubling of the Indefinite Pronoun
in
e.
Fern,
0.
Plaut.
610
mulier
Cist.
Latin,
quisquis
g.
quisquis es (cf.
mentioned by Paul.
pitpit is
Mon. Antichi
inscr.,
have
i.
3. p.
We
Nonius, 197. 30 M.). The Neuter quicquid, a byform of quidquid, shows the same
The
assimilation of d () before a guttural as accurro for adcurro (ch. iv.
160).
shortened form of the Gen. Sg. of quis, current in ordinary pronunciation
when not specially emphasized, viz. quoi(u}s, cui(u)s, ( 22), appears without
and the I-stem Ablative quiqui occurs more
its final s in Cicero's cuicuimodi
than once in Plautus in the phrase cum eo, cum quiqui, anyhow, at any cost,
;
lit.
'
with that thing or with whatsoever thing
passage, Cas.
523
sed facito
'
cum
'
(Poen. 536. 588).
curious
dum, merula per uorsus quod
cibo,
cum
'
quiqui
cantat, tu colas
facito ut ueniant,
suggests that Roman children interpreted the alarm-note of the blackbird

cum cibo, cum quiqui, sc. veni, come along food or no
into the words
food.'
Quis prefixed to the Adverb quam, quis-quam had
(Class. Rev. vi. 124.)
'
the sense of any/ and was used especially in negative sentences. Examples
of its use as Fern, in O. Lat. are Ter. Eun. 678 nostrarum numquam quis'
uidit
quam
Plaut. Rud. 406
neque digniorem censeo uidisse
anum me quemquam,
and of the I-declension Abl., Plaut. Pers. 477 nee satis a quiquam homine
neue
25 on qui-quam Adv., 'anyhow' (?), of S. C. Bacch.
pro magistratud neque uirum neque mulierem quiquam fecise uelet, like
not anyhow/ always so spelt in the Ambrosian
nequl-quam, in vain, lit.
1
Another compound of the Indefinite Pronoun,
Palimpsest of Plautus
quis-piam, some, the formation of which was obscure to the Roman grammarians (Festus 338. 28 Th. quispiam quin significet aliquis, et quaepiam aliquae, similiterque alia ejusdem generis, ut dubium non est, ita unde
sequens pars ejus coeperit, inveniri non potest), may be a compound of
*quis-pe of which quippe for *qulpe is an Adverbial case-form (ch. x.
7), with
jam, as nunciam of nunc with jam (ch. iv. 67). Corresponding to -quam, -piam
of Lat. quisquam, quispiam is Oscan -um of pid-um
quidquam,' pieis-um
accepi [see
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
cujuspiam.'
1
So quantus quantu's, every inch of you,' Ter. Adelph. 394 quantum quantum,
Plaut. Poen. 738 quaequalis in a poetical inser., C. I. L. vi. 6314.
'
THE PRONOUNS.
29.]
29. V.
THE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
(j) alins, I.-Eur.
Goth,
aljis,
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
Engl.
449
These are
Gk. aAAos, O.
Ir. aile,
*alyo- (Arm.
Osc. allo- (on the Bantine Tablet), with
ail,
else),
a byform alis in the
Nom.
Sg. Masc.
(e.
g. Catull. Ixvi. 28), alid
Nom.
These byforms,
Sg. Neut. (e. g. Lucr. i. 263).
which are to be compared with Cornells , &c. for Cornelius (see
in the
ch. vi.
ad
5),
come into
and cum
alis alium,
special use in the phrase alis alium (e. g.

the Vulgate, alis alium. C. I. L.
alis alio in
probably owing to the fact that the stress of the

voice in this word-group fell on the antepenultimate syllable (see
i
ch. iii.
The deriv. Adj. alienus is for *ali-wo- (ch. iv. 12).
2).
ii.
2633.
7),
(2) alter is
formed from the root
the addition of the
suffix
al- (a\- ?), seen in *alyo-,
-tero- (ch. v.
18),
by
(Osc. alttro-),
while other I.-Eur. languages show a similar formation from

the root an-, seen in O. Ind. anya- alius
(O. Ind. antara-,
Goth. an-]?ar, O. Engl. ofer, Germ, ander, Lith. an-tras). It
'
A stem altrois often used as an Ordinal Numeral,
second/
'
'
appears in altrin-secus altro-vorsum (Plaut. Cas. 555) and other

(cf Gk. aAAoYpios), but in lines like Plaut. Bacch. 1 1 84
,
words
alterum, &c. need not be
changed into altrum,
&c.,
but
scanned as dactyls, alterum, &c. (see Klotz, Altrom. Hetrik,

even in Pers. 226 altra is not certain.
may
be
p. 59)
formed by the LO-suffix (ch. v.

21) from unus
which
Pronominal
Declenalso
to
the
belongs
15. 5),
(3) ullus is
(see ch.
sion,
iii.
Gen. unms, Dat.
uni.
(With quisque appended we have the
compound units-quisque.) The opposite of ullus

word-group
is uullus with the
negative prefix ne- of n-usquam, n(e)-utiquam
with
both first and second syllable short) and the
(pronounced
or
f
149); and *ne-ulhis, 'not a little one,' not even
one/ was probably anterior in formation to ullus, in which the
force of the Diminutive suffix is not so apparent.
Like nullw-s,
like (ch.
ii.
but used properly of persons, while nullus was used normally

of things, is nemo from ne-hemo.
(On hemo, a byform of homo,
see ch. vi.
j
Nullus is hardly used as a substantive till Late
.)
Latin, but nullius and nullo take the place of neminis and nemine
in class. Latin.
As the Neuter of nullus, nihil is used, a com-
of the negative ne- and hUum (see ch. iii.

52 ch. vi. 1 1).
solus
be
with
Adverb
se- zed-, apart
connected
the
may
(4)
pound
Ggl
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
450
'
(e.
g. sed-itio,
lit.
a going apart
so-, a grade of se- (ch.

the word to the stem
')
(ch. ix.
is
51),
53), with the suffix
iv.
Osc. sollo-,
but
the
connexion
of
theideas
soll-emnis,
or 'all'
[Chap. VII.
sollo- of
'
and be formed of
Some
-lo.
refer
whole,' Lat. soll-ers,

alone
and whole
'
'
'
not apparent.
word of uncertain etymology. Some

connect it with the Umbro-Oscan word for a community, state
or people, *teuta- (Osc. tovta-, Umbr. tota-), and suppose the
Latin word to exhibit another grade of the root, perhaps *touto- (see
The word encroached on the sphere of omnis, and
ch. iv.
41).
(5) totus is another
Vulgar Latin. Of the Romance languages Italian is the only one which preserves Lat. omnis (Ital.ogm)
beside Lat. totus (Ital. tutto on this form, see ch. ii.
130. p. 116).
finally supplanted omnis in
(6) uter is one of those Latin Relative (Interrog., Indef.)

forms beginning with u- like ubi, ut which are discussed in
26.
With
the addition
of
'ever'
-qite,
(see
on
28), it
quis-que,
The Umbro-Oscan stem is *potro- (Osc.

PL
Umbr.
Nom.
utrique,' puterei-pid Loc. Sg.
puturus-pid
becomes uter-que.
'
'
'
utroque Adv. is a formation like sed-utraque

Nom. Sg. Fern., ' each separately,' Plaut. Stick. 106). The
opposite of uter is neuter, a trisyllable (ch. ii.
32), with the
sei-podmk-pei
negative
prefix.
Aller-iiter
is
compound
of
alter
and
uter,
sometimes with both elements declined, sometimes with the

second only (cf.
20 on ipse, Fern, ea-psa, ea-pse and i-psa).
A form
altertra for alterutra is
mentioned by Paul. Fest.
6. 2
Th.
All of these take the pronominal Gen. and Dat. Sg. in -im, and
Still
-I, but only alius takes the Neut. Sg. (Nom. -Ace.) in -d.
they admitted more readily than ille, iste and the other Demonstrative Pronouns the Noun Declension forms in these cases ; e. g. unae
rei (Gen.), Cic.
TulL xv. 36;
tarn nulli consili,Ter.
Andr. 608
colons
allerae legioni, Caes. Bell. Gall. v. 27. 5 (see

nlli, Plaut. True. 293
H.
and Neue, ii 3 pp. 516 sqq.). For the Gen.
i.
18
Priscian,
196.
;
Sing, of alms the Romans discarded alius^ which was liable to confusion with the Nom., and used the Gen. Sing, of alter instead, alterwis
(in dactylic poetry, of course,
only alterms is admissible, but alterlus
occurs in other metres, e.g. Ter. Andr. 628, Seneca, Here- Fur. 212).
There are other Adjectives called ' Pronominal Adjectives,
'
which are derived from Pronoun-stems, but which do not share
THE PRONOUNS.
20.]
the Pronominal Declension.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
From
451
the stern to- (te-) comes Lat.
&/>> (I.-Eur. *tali- of Gk rr/At-Ko? ; cf. O. SI. toll Adv., f so

'
so great '), tan-tus (Osc. e-tanto-, e. g. motto
very,' toli-ku Adj.,
multa
tanta
esto '; Umbr. e-tanto-, e. g. etantu mutu
etanto estud
'
tanta multa affertori sit') (tantisce pro tantis C. G. L.

155. 36), tot, older toM-, preserved in toti-dem (I.-Eur. *toti,
O. Ind. tati ; cf Gk. roV(o-)o9 for *ronos)j and (with O-suffix) totus
adferture
si
v.
420 detrahitur summae tota pars, quota demitur).

the Relative (Interrog., Indef.) stem comes Lat. qitdlis
(Gk. -TTTjAi-Koj; cf. O. SI. koli, koli-ku), quantus (Umbr. panto-),
cf. Gk.
qudt, older quoii (I.-Eur. *q*6ti, O. Ind. kdti
ircfcr(<r)os
g. Manil.
(e.
iii.
From
for *7Tortos),
and (with O-suffix) quotus
velis rescribe).
use of
(On
(e.
cotti-die, see ch. ix.
tanti, quanti for
tot,
quot
(e.
Hor. tu quotus esse

The Late Latin
5.)
g.
nee tamen tantos
g. Tertull.
inveniunt verba discipulos, quantos Christiani factis docendo),

survives in Romance, e. g. Ital. quanti anni ha ?, quantos annos
'
habet
'
?',
how
old
is
he?'
(On
ce-teri, see ch. iv.
Dual, like the Numeral duo (ch.
vi.
33.)
59), is
ambo -ae
-o
Gk. aju0o>), Gen. ambornm, &c., Dat. amboliis,

Ace. ambos and amid -as -o in the Ace. the older ambo was
(I.-Eur. *ambho(u),
&c.,
being ousted by ambos even in Plautus' time, for he uses ambos

always before an initial consonant, and ambo with ambos before an
initial vowel as the metre requires, while in Late Lat. we have ambis
for the Dat.- Abl. Plur. e.g. Eph. Epigr. iv. p. 491
(cf.
Caper 107.
'
3
14 K. ambobus,non ambis,' et ambabus and see Neue, ii p. 279).
The Pronominal Declension has in some languages (e. g.
Lithuanian and the Teutonic languages) extended itself from
.
these Pronominal Adjectives to all Adjectives 5

What is called
in Teutonic the Strong Declension of Adjectives, in Lithuanian
.
'
'
the
'
Indefinite
'
is
really the Pronominal,
e.
g.
Goth, blinds with
In Greek, on the
other hand, the Pronominal Declension has lost ground, and
that is why in Greek the declension of the Pronouns does not
Neut. blindata,
'
blind/ like Neut.
J?ata,
appear so unlike the declension of the
We
have seen (^ch. vi.

46) that
in Latin the Gen. PI. suffix of O-stems,
1
-osom, then -orom, class, -drum, was extended from Pronouns (e.g. olorom
illorum on the Columna Rostrata)
1
'
Gg
that.'
Nouns
as in Latin.
Adjectives (e. g. duonoro on a Scipio

Epitaph of perhaps the end of the
third cent. B. c.), and in time to Nouns
(e.g. deorum competed with deum in
to
Cicero's time, ch. vi.
47).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
452
30. The Pronouns in Romance.

The development in the
Romance languages of two series of the Personal and Possessive
the enclitic, e.g. Fr. me, te, mon, ton, (b) the
accented, e. g. Fr. moi, toi, mien, tien, has been already mentioned
In Vulgar Latin ego became
12 a, 3, and above,
(ch. iii.
12).
Pronouns,
(a)
whence the Romance forms,
eo,
O. Fr.
eo, io, eu, 30,
e. g. Ital. io, Span, yo, Sard, eo,

'
Spanish nosotros we,' vosotros you
vos alteros (cf Fr. nous autres, &c.). The 2 PL
now
'
'
je.
represent nos alteros,

Possessive remained vaster in Vulg. Lat.,
.
whence Ital. vostro, Fr.

two rival forms competed for the
3 PL Possessive, situs (Span., Port.) and illorum (Ital. loro, Fr. leur).
votre, Span, vuestro, &c., while
The Demonstratives ille, ipse (which takes the place of ille in

Sard, as 3 Sg. Pron. and Article, isse and issu, he'), iste had in
Vulg. Lat. -I in Nom. Sg., -ui in Dat. Sg. Masc., -aei in Dat.
*
Sg. Fern., e.g.

lui,
Fr.
lui),
illi
(Ital. egli, Fr.
illaei (Ital.
prefix ecce has
lei,
O. Fr.
been noticed in
Used
enclitically, ille
Ital.
gli
(from
has lost
Io
illi],
il),
15,
illui (C. I. L. x.
e.
g. Fr. celle
its first syllable in
(from
Ital.
2654;
Their extension by the
li).
ilium), Span,
le,
from
ecce-illa.
Romance,
Sard.
e.
g.
The
li.
most Romance countries was supplied by ille

Sardinia and elsewhere), which in Roumanian is
Definite Article in
(but by
ipse in
postfixed
(e.
g.
domnu-1 for dominus
ille),
and in
all
languages
is
united with a Preposition into one word, e. g. with the Preposition

ad in Ital. al, Fr. au, &c. Hie survived only in word-groups,
e.g. Ital. cio
from ecce hoc.
Of the
Indefinite, Interrogative and Relative Pronouns quae

and quis seem to have been ousted in Vulg. Lat. by qui ; quid is
Ital. che, and (accented) Fr. quoi, (unaccented) Fr. que.
For the Pronoun of Identity (ipse had become a Demonstrative)
various phrases were used

e. g. Ital. medesimo, Prov. medesme,
Fr. meme, Span, mismo are from met ipsimus ; Ital. desso from id
;
ipsum (or ad ipsum
?)
Ital. stesso is
compound
of iste
Alius survived in a Neuter form *alum, whence O. Fr.
O. Span,
al, alter
having taken
its
and
el
ipse.
and
place (Ital. altro, Fr. autre,
al,
Span.
Certus (and certdnus) replaced quidam.

AUquis was joined
with units into a Compound *alicunus, whence Ital. alcuno, Fr.
otro).
aucun, Span, alguno.

sqq->
595
sqq.).
(See Meyer-Liibke Rom. Gram.
ii.
pp. 89
CHAPTER
VIII.
THE VERB.
1.
I.
THE CONJUGATIONS.
The
I.-Eur.
Verb had two
Conjugations, (i) the Thematic, in which the Person-suffixes were

attached to the verb-root augmented by -e- or -o-, e. g. Gk. $cpo-fjitv, <e'p-e-re; (2) the Athematic, in which this vowel, the
Thematic Vowel, as it is called, was absent,

In the Thematic Conjugation the
tora-re.
e.
g.
Gk. iWa-/xe^,
Sg. Pres. Ind.

Lat.
the
-6, e.g. 4>p-o>,
leg-d;
Subjunctive changed the
Thematic Vowel of the Indicative to -e- (and -o-), e. g. Gk. (fxEp-rj-Te
the Optative changed it to -oi-, e. g. Gk. <>ep-ot-/uez',
(^>e/3-o)-/x,ei;) ;
I
Act had
In the Athematic Conjugation the I Sg. Pres. Ind.

had
the verb-stem was weakened in
Act.
-mi, e. g. Gk. fomj-ju
in
all Numbers of the Middle,
the Dual and Plural Act. and
e.g.
0ep-oi-re.
Gk.
IWa-roz;, ?ora-/xv, lora-juicu beside Sg.
tive (with strong stem)
showed
-e-
the Person-suffixes, and the Optative (with
Sg. Act.,
-I-
elsewhere, e.g. Gk.
to-rr?-
the Subjunc-
or -o- between the root
weak stem)
and
-ye- in
la-Td-ir^-v, LO-TCL-L-^V (lorai/mer).
We find
early Derivative Verbs like I.-Eur, tr-a- from the root

from
the root pel- (Lat. in-trd-re, im-ple-re), and later
ter-, pl-eDerivatives from Nouns, e. g. Lat. curd-re from the Noun-stem
forming the persons of their Present Tense sometimes

thematically with the suffix -yo- ( 15), sometimes athematically,
curd-,
O. Ind. tra-ya-te and tra-ti 3 Sg. The long vowel, with which
these derivative verb-stems end, is not weakened in the Dual and
e.
g.
Plur. Act., nor in the Middle,
Mid.
e.
g. O. Ind. tra-sva 2 Sg. Imperat.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
454
[Chap. VIII.
In Latin almost every athematic verb becomes thematic in

Sg. Pres. Ind., and usually in 3 PI. ; and the declension of the
Pres. Ind. often shows thematic and athematic forms side by
i
Thus L-Eur.
side.
Gk.
'
*ei-mi,
'
go (O. Ind. e-mi
Sg., i-mas
PI.,
PL, Lith. ei-mi) is in Latin eo for *ey-6,

Sg.,
a thematic form, though other Persons, e. g. 2 Sg. -6-, older ei-s
are athematic
I wish
I.-Eur. *wel-mi,
(Lith. pa(*ei-s(i)),
velmi i Sg., pa-velt 3 Sg.) is in Latin thematic in I Sg. vol-o,
et-/uu
i-fjLv i
'
'
in 3 Sg. vul-t.
The Latin Substantive Verb sum
has best retained the features of the Athematic Conjugation,
but athematic
with
its i
Sg. Ind. in -m,
s-ie-t, *s-l-mos, *sl-tes,
its
and
The four Conjugations
Opt. originally declined s-ie-m,
s-ie-s,
so on.
of our Latin
Grammars,
(i) amd-re,
&c., (2) vide-re, &c., (3) leye-re, &c., (4) audi-re, &c. are, like the
an unscientific classification, often
five Declensions (ch. vi.
i),
bringing forms together which were of dissimilar origin, just as

Modern Italian with its three Conjugations brings together in
the Second forms like vendere (Lat. vent/ere), potere (Lat. posse),
solere (Lat. solere),
and
in the
Third dire (Lat.
dicere),
empire
(Lat. implere), apparire (Lat. apparere), seguire (Lat. sequi), and

must substitute for them an enumeravenire (Lat. venire).
We
ways in which the Tense-stems are formed,

Tense-stem.
the
Present
especially
Of the Latin Present (i. e. Thematic Present) Tense-stems, the
usual type is that which was also the most prevalent in I.-Eur.,
tion of the various
that namely in which the Present-stem shows the ordinary unweakened root (E-grade) of the Verb, e. g. Gk. -nevd-o-pai from
the root bheudh-, Trei'0-co from the root bheidh-, 7rr-o-/xat from
the root pet-, while the weak grade of the root is proper to the
Preterite (Aorist) tense,
e.
g.
Gk.
k--nv6-6-^-r]v,
Z-md-o-v, e-7rr-o-
Latin examples (part of the
Third Conjugation ') are

Wv.
O.
for
*deuco
Lat.
duco,
donco,
(Goth, tiuha) from the root deu&- ;
O.
Lat.
cleico
(Uco,
(Goth, ga-teiha, I indicate ') from the root
:
'
deik-
veho for
*wegh-6 (O. Ind. vah-a-mi, Lith. vez-u, Goth,
move '). Another type shows a Nasal in the Prega-vig-a,

sent-stem (with weak grade of root) which is omitted in the
'
other tense-stems, this Nasal being either ( i ) a nasal infix, e. g.

Lat. ru-m-po (O. Ind. lu-m-pami) from the root reup-, f%-n-do
THE VERB.
2.]
CONJUGATIONS.
455
(O. Ind. bhi-na-dmi) from the root bheid-_, or (2) a nasal affix,
e. g. Lat. li-n-o
(O. Ind. li-na-mi, O. Scand. li-na) from the root
Latin meio for *meigh-6, beside tmngo for *mi-n-gh-6,
lei-.
is
a good example of these two modes of forming the Pres.-stem ;

and similarly we seem to have O. Lat. nwo for *(s)neigh~-d (or
(s)nigh~-6 ? M. U. iv. 8), beside
of Pacuvius (Praet. 4 R.)
mnguo
for *(s)m-n-gh~-6, in a line
sagittis nluit,
Another
plumbo
et saxis grandinat.
affixes -yo- (-ye-) or -lyo- (-iye-),
varied with
ch. iv.
(cf.
51)
e.
an
which often
affix
g. in Latin (part of the Third
and of the Fourth Conjugations)/tfm<? (Gk. $pao-0-o> for *0paK-â)),

with 2 Sg.farci-s, from the root bhreq"- (cf.frequens), Lat. morior
(O. Ind. mr-iya-te 3 Sg.) from the root mer-. We have also a suffix
-sko- (-ske-) used to
form what are wrongly
'
called
Inceptives'
(Third Conj.), with weak grade of root,, e. g. posco for *porc-sco,
a suffix
from prk-, the weak grade of the root pi*ek-, to ask
'
'
O-grade of root) used to form Causatives (Second

Conjugation), e. g. Lat. moneo for *mon-eyo. I remind,' lit.
-eyo- (with
'
'
cause to remember,' from the root men- (cf Lat. me-min-i), and
very important class is the class of Verb-stems ending
.
so on.
a vowel (Vowel-stems), which form their I Sg. Pres. Ind.

usually with the help of the suffix -yo-, e. g. in Latin (First and
Second Conjugations) no for *(s)na-yd (O. Ind. sna-ya-te), neo
in
for *(s)ne-yo (O. H. G. nau), but other Persons athematically,

e. g. 2 Sg. nd-s y ne-s, many of these Vowel-stems being Deriva-
from Nouns and Adjectives (First, Second, and Fourth

e. g. euro from cura (stem
*cwd-}, like Gk. rtjua-co
from rijua (-tj) albeo from albus (stem *albo-, *albe-) fmio from
These various modes of forming the
finis (stem Jini-, Jinei-].
tives
Conjugations),
}
Present Tense-stem will be considered in later sections
6-33).
Traces of the Athematic Conjugation in Latin. Of I.-Eur. verbs

Athematic Conjugation, which retain more or less of their athematic
character in Latin, the most important are the roots es-, to be,' ei-, to go,'
ES- has in i Sg. sum (Osc. sum) with the root
ed-, 'to eat,' wel-, to wish.'
in weak form s-, instead of es- of I.-Eur. *es-mi (O. Ind. as-mi, Arm. em, Gk.
2.
of the
'
'
el-pi for *ea-pi,
though,
if
Lesb. Uppi, Alb. jam, Goth, im, Lith. es-mi, O. SI. jes-mi),
believe Varro \L. L. ix. 100), the older form was esum (sum
we may
quod nunc dicitur olim dicebatur esum") 2

by position in Plautus], I.-Eur. *es-si (Arm.
;
Sg. es [older es(s),
'
es,
Horn.
<
a-ai}
scanned long
3 Sg.
es-t
(Osc.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. VIII.
I.-Eur. *es-ti [0. Ind. as-ti, Gk. tff-n, O. Ir. is for *is-t, Goth,
and es-t, 0. SI. (Kuss.) jes-ti] ; i PI. sumus and simus (ch.
1st),
es-ti
*s-mos (O. Ind. s-mas) 2 PI.

Ind. s-thS), but cf. Gk. ec-re, Lith.
I.-Eur. *s-mes,
*s-te (O.
from
beside
*sont(i)
I.-Eur.
*senti
(Goth,
es-tis
es-te
should be
;
s-ind),
is-t,
Lith.
ii.
*s-tis,
16),
I.-Eur.
3 PI. aunt (older

as
Umbr.
sonf)
Osc.
sent,
the I.-Eur. Optative *s-ye-m (*s-iye-m) i Sg.. *s-y-s (*s-iye"-s) 2 Sg.,

*s-i-mos i PI., &c., is reproduced with some fidelity in 0. Lat. s-ie-s, s-i-mus,
though the vowel I extended itself in time over Sg. as well as Plur., class.
Lat. sim, sis, sit (
sint
in the
sis,' si
55), as in Umbr. sir
sit,' sins
Imperative we should expect *es, the bare stem, in 2 Sg. (and es is probably
set
'
'
'
'
the only actual Latin form, on which see

58), *s-tod in 3 Sg., but we have
the Inf. is es-se, the Loc. Sg. of an S-stem, as the
es-to(d) (cf. Gk. err-rcy)
Umbro-Oscan *es-om (Osc. ezum, Umbr. erom) is the Ace. Sg. of an 0-stein
El- is thematic in i Sg. in Lat. eo from *ey-o instead of I.-Eur.
(ch. v.
2)
;
*ei-mi,but athematic in the other persons of the Pres. Ind., 2 Sg. is, older e-is,
3 Sg. it, older eit, i PI. l-mus, older ei-mus, with strong stem ei- as in Lith.
eT-me, ei-te, instead of weak stem i- (possibly with a bygra.de I like 0. Ind.
i-mahe i PI. Mid. but Pel. ei-te 2 PI. Imper. points to an original ei- for Latin
;
also), 2
PL
older-
l-tis
ei-tis
(with
i-), except the 3 Plural eunt from

byform of -enti in the Athematic
form int of the Philoxenus Glossary
too doubtful to quote as an athematic 3 PL,
ei-
again for
*ey-o-nt(i), unless -onti was an I.-Eur.

Conjugation (cf. sunt from *sont(i) ) ; the
23 G. int, iroptvovrai) is
be a wrong reading for inunt (cf. prod-munt, red-inunt, ob-inunf),
although indeed the common theory of the origin of these forms presupposes
(p.
75.
for
it
may
an old 3 PL
*ei-si,
in-t
Imper.
73)
(see
older
ei
athematic too are the Inf.

ito
(Lith. el-k),
older
ei-to(cT)
older
Ire
(with
ei-re
as in
ei-,
from
Umbr.
ED- is thematic in i Sg. ed-o (Gk. Fut. 5-o-/xat

I- of Gk. f-Tcy(5),
57)
a Subjunctive form, and is quite regular), but athematic in the other
persons, which often show a byform ed- (Lith. ed-mi and ed-u i Sg., es-t 3 Sg.)
(thus Donatus ad Ter. Andr. i. i. 54 distinguishes utunaesset, Subj. of edo, from
ee-tu, for
is
i PL edimus, 3 PL edunt are like sumus, sunt

the
athematic, and the Inf. es-se. (On -st- instead of -ss- from I.-Eur.
-dt- in est 3 Sg. &c., see ch. iv.
The by155 on Imperat. es,
58, below).
forms edit, editis, &c. need not be new Latin types, for there are indications that
ut
una
esset,
Imper.
Subj. of sum)
es-to is
in the I.-Eur. period this root wavered between the Thematic and Athematic
Conjugations (cf. Lith. ed-u for *ed-6 beside ed-mi ; Goth, ita for *ed-o) ; WEL-
was probably declined

or -mos, &c.
(see ch. iv.
Lat.
Sg. *wel-mi, 2 Sg. *wel-si, 3 Sg. *wel-ti, i Pl.*wl-mes

are the normal equivalents of *welo, *welt(i)
volo, vult (volt]
10 on olwa from Gk. lAata, &c.), so that the i Sg. is thematic, as

are possibly also the i PL 1 and 3 PL (cf. sumus, sunt), while the 3 Sg. and 2 PL
are athematic for the 2 Sg. *wels, which would become *vel(T) (ch. iv.
146),
;
and would be probably scanned as a long syllable in Plautus [see ch. ii. 133
on Plautine ter(r~) for *ters from I.-Eur. *tri-s], the Komans substituted the
1
The
-u-
in
PL
of these Athematic
Verbs, sumus, wlumus,
is
noticeable.
Volimus, the reading of the Ambrosian

Palimpsest in Plaut. Pseud. 233, True.
192 is a Late Lat. form (see Georges,
Lex. Wortf. s. v.), due either to the
Analogy of the Thematic Conj. (so

Late Lat. feris, aufere, on which see
Georges), or to the ordinary weakening of unaccented u (so possimus, 97,
simus, ch.
ii.
16).
quaesumus see below,
On
the spelling
33. 4.
THE VERB.
2.]
tf/iat)
457
'
to wish
O. Ind. vl-, with 2 Sg. ve-fi,
wek- (Gk. ZKWV) all mean 'to wish/ and are
the athematic Imper. vel (vel in Plautus too) has
2 Sg. of a different Verb-root wei-,
Gk
CONJUGATIONS.
'
[I.-Eur. wei-, wei-,
probably connected]
become a Conjunction (ch. x.
4), while the Imper. noil of the Compound,
has been variously referred to a bystem of the Fourth Conjugation (I.-Eur.
*wel-yo-, Goth, vilja O. SI. veljg,), with Imper. *veR, like /am,
57, and to
the Optative (cf. 2 PI. Opt. notitis with 2 PI. Imper. noUte also I PI. nolimus,
used both in an optative and an imperative sense). The root BHER- belonged
to the Thematic Conjugation (Gk. fyep-u, O. Ir. -biur from *ber-o, Goth, bair-a
cf. 3 Sg. O. Ind. bhar-a-ti for *bher-e-ti, Arm.ber-e, O. SI. ber-e-tu
athematic
forms however appear, O. Ind. bhar-ti 3 Sg., bhr-tam 2 Du. cf. Gk. </>6/>-re
2 PI., O. Ind. bhar-tam 2 Du.), but in Latin to the Athematic (with the usual
exceptions of the i Sg. and probably i PI. and 3 PI. Pres. Ind.), e. g.fer-t 3 Sg.
;
Pres. Ind.,fer-tis 2 PI. (with strong stem/er- instead of
weak stem for-,
I.-Eur.
Gk. <ptp-rf\ fer Imper., fer-re (for *fer-se from *fer-si, ch. iv.
146
ch. iii.
37) Inf., while 2 Sg. */er(r) [this is what an original *fer-s(i) would
become in Latin cf. ter(r} for *ters, ch. ii.
133] has been brought into line
with other 2 Sg. forms by the fresh addition of the 2 Sg. suffix, fer-s. An
Optative *ferim like velim and the other optatives of athematic Verbs is not
found and probably never existed. (On the Pres. Part. -stems sent- and sont-,
ient- and eunt-, wlent- and volunt-, see
90 and on the Optatives sim, O. Lat.
siem, eclim, velim,
56 the Compounds possum, malo, nolo, &c. are discussed in
bhr-
cf.
97, arnbio in
46).
Of I.-Eur. athematic Verbs of the type of O.Ind.da-tisSg. (Gk. 8i8ca-fM, ear?/-/**,

&c.) with root do- (varying with the weak grade), Latin examples are DO-,
to give, of which i PL, 2 PL Pres. Ind. dd-mus, dd-tis ai*e the normal athematic
forms with the weak root da- (cf. cdtus and cos, ch. iv.
54), while 2 Sg. das,
:
3 Sg.dat (0. Lat. ddt, probably so scanned in Plautus, e. g.Most. 601, Men. 101),
show a instead of 6, *do-s, *do-t the old athem. 2 Sg. Imper. *rfo (Lith. du-k)
remains only in ce-do (shortened under the influence of the preceding short
syllable, like have, sibi, ch. iii.
42), for the ordinary form da is coined on the
;
type of the ist Conjugation the 2, 3 Sg. dd-to is however the correct athematic
*
form, also 2 PL da-te, and Inf. da-re, older da-si, i Sg. Pres. Ind. do is probably *do-yo (cf. O. SI. da-ja), and the reduplicated Present-stem of Gk.
Si-Sufu, Pelignian dida det &c. ( 9) may appear in reddo, if this stands for
re-d(i)-do. DHE-, to put, appears in the Latin compounds con-do, cre-do (0. Ind.
;
'
'
srad-dha-, lit. 'to put the heart to,' O. Ir. cretim), which are usually reckoned
as ordinary thematic verbs of the 3rd Conj., like lego, though a great many of
their forms may be explained as athematic, with the weak root, Lat. -da-
(which at the beginning of the word would be
fa-, ch. iv.
114
cf.fdcio,
I.-Eur. *dhofe-y6, from DHE-.fi:-, Gk. -6i]K-a, an extension of the root by

addition of fc) thus, though condis, condit should have *-des, *-det (O. Lat.
;
*-det, class, "-det,
ch.
iii.
49), con-dimus
may represent
*-damus,
con-dltis, *-datis,
Sg. Imper. con-de should be *-de (Lith. de-k), 3 Sg. con-dito, 2 PL

represent *-dd-tod, *-da-te, and Inf. con-dere, *-da-si. (On Opt. duim
and though 2
con-dite
may
from the stem *duo, a bystem both of DO- and of DHE-, see 56.) The roots
STA- and BHA- (Gk. la-nf-iu. i Sg., tara-nfv i PL ^77-^' i Sg., Qa-nev i PL)
;
are treated like the type tra- (a development of the root ter- see below) and
retain a throughout, std-s, std-mus, std-re, &c.,fd-tur,fd-mur,fd-ri, &c. (cf. Gk.
;
f-OTT)(j.tv,
-<TT7]Te),
forming the
Sg. Pres. Ind.
with the
suffix -yo, sto
from
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
458
*sta-yo
(Umbr. stahu,
Lith. sto-jus,
but see Buck,
a-staya,
'
[Chap. VIII.
I station myself,' 0. SI. sta-ja
Osk. Spr. p. 24), fo(r)
from *bha-yo (Lith.
cf.
Zend
'
bo-ju,
enquire,' O. SI. ba-j$, 'I converse'; cf. O. Ind. bha-ya-te Pass., if this be
a genuine form). The weak grade of the two roots appears in status (0. Lat.
also status}, fdteor
former (Gk.
sense that
(cf.
Osc. fatium Inf.) ; the reduplicated Present-stem of the

in Lat. si-st-o, which usurped the transitive
tarrj-fu for *ai-<jTr]-iJu\
had
in 0. Lat. belonged to
sto, e.g.
med Mono
statod,
set
me
as
an
offering to Manus,' on the Dvenos inscription, 'astasent' (leg. -int?) statuerunt

On these Reduplicated Presents of athematic
(leg. -int ?) Paul. Fest. 19. 32 Th.
roots in Latin, si-sti-mus from the root STA-, se-ri-mus from the root SE- (G-k.
for *fft-ar)fj,i and perhaps re-d(i)-di-mus, see
An athematic 2 Sg. Imper.
9.
from the root BHEU- (of Lat./wi) occurs in the Carmen Arvale, fu (Lith. bu-k,
Umbr. iu-tu), if rightly understood in the sense of be
satur fu, fere Mars.
Of I.-Eur. athematic verbs of the type of O. Ind.pra-mi(Gk. 7rt(^)7r\7j-/it) with
root pie-, a development of root pel- (the strong grade pie- never varying with
'irjm
'
'
any weak grade), the Latin examples are PLE- (cf. PEL-), im-plere, ex-plere
TEA- (cf. TER-), in-trdre, &c. These form the i Sg. Pres. Ind. thematically with
:
the thematic suffix
byforms with this
-yo-, e. g. im-pleo for *-ple-yo, in-tro for *-tra-yo (thematic

suffix perhaps existed in the I.-Eur. period, e. g. O. Ind.
tra-ya-te beside tra-ti), but the other persons athematically, im-ple-s, in-trd-s,
im-ple-t (0. Lat. -ef), in-tra-t (0. Lat. -at), im-ple-mus, in-trd-mus, &c., as also the
other parts of the verb, Imper.
im-ple, im-ple-to, in-trd,
in-trd-to, Inf.
im-ple-re.
in-trd-re.
Like them were declined other verbs whose stems ended in long vowels
e. g. I.-Eur. *wid-e- (a stem perhaps originally confined to
Secondary Tenses, *wid-yo- being the stem used in the Present Tense see
15), Derivative Verbs from A-stems, e.g. curd- from the Noun euro, (stem
curd-, ch. v.
2), from I-stems, e. g.finei- from the Noun/iw's (siemfinei-,fini-,
ch. v.
15), nor possibly
34), but not from U-stems (e. g. stdtuo from status,
(i) those from O-stems (e.g. fldveo from. flavus), (2) Causatives and Intensives
with i Sg. Pres. Ind. in -eyo (e. g. moneo, Causative of root menf. m&nimi
see 29;, though these two last types have a declension which, by reason of the
phonetic changes of Latin, can hardly be discriminated from the athematic
or diphthongs,
declension [thus mones

*treyes, ch. iv.
represent *mone-s, as well as *mon-eye-s (cf. tres for

Imper. may come from *mone, a stem in -e, or
however the two types are distinct, mom-tus, with

with stem pie-, as in the Perfect Ind. Act.
Far do (Gk. (ppdcraca for *^>pai/cu) and facio both
mon-ui, im-ple~vi see
39. 4].
belong to the same I.-Eur. thematic type, a type in which the root has the
suffix -yo-, varying on the one hand with -ye-, on the other with -i- and -Ithe divergent roads which they have taken in Latin are perhaps due to the
*mon-eye.
I.-Eur.
In
may
mom
66),
the P. P. P.
weak stem moni-,
im-ple-tus
fact that in the declension of facio the weak suffix -i- asserted itself (Imper.
O. Lat. face for *faci, cape for *capt), in the other the weak suffix -1 (Imper.
/am), and this assertion of the long vowel brought with it a transference to
the Athematic type, farcl-re beside face-re from *facl-se, though the original
difference between farcio and a Derivative like^zmo, is still maintained in the
beside fim-vi, and P. P. P. far-tus, older
(On these stems with suffix -yo-, and on the Derivative
Verbs and stems ending in vowels which form their i Sing. Pres. Ind. with
Perf. Ind. Act. far-si, for *farc-si
farc-tus,
beside fin~i-tus.
the help of this
suffix, see
15, 21.)
THE VERB.
3.]
The form
cante for carafe
AORIST AND S-STEMS.
459
quoted from the Carmen Saliare by Varro
(L. L.
27) can hardly be called an Athematic 2 PI. (Imper.). It is rather an

example of the Latin tendency to syncopate every short unaccented vowel
vii.
before a single consonant,
which would have destroyed most traces of the

if it had been allowed free play (see ch.
thematic vowel in the Latin Verb,

iii.
13
3.
).
II.
THE TENSE-STEMS (STRONG AORIST AND
S-PORMATIONS). The Tense-stems are formed by various modiFrom
is formed
and
with
weak
by Reduplication (with
of
the
Present-stem
grade
gi-gn- (Lat. yiyno, Gk. yiyvo-pai),
root)
fications of the root.
the root gen- for example
as Reduplication-vowel
expressive of continued action in Present time,
'
am
producing,'
and by another species of Reduplication [with e as Reduplicationvowel and in the Singular (see
39) with the O -grade of the
root] the Perfect-stem ge-gon- (Gk. yeyova) expressive of com'
The Aorist-stem, expressive of
pleted action, I have produced.'
action merely, unlimited by the idea of continuance or the idea

of completeness, is in this Verb formed from the root itself gen(Gk. -yv-6-iJ,Yiv), and so the O. Lat. form genunt (Varro, Sat.
Menipp. 35 B. sed quod haec loca aliquid genunt; cf. Lucr. iii.
797 durare genique) might be called an Aorist (i.e. unlimited)
tense-form.
But the distinction between a Present-stem and an
marked as between a Present-stem and a Perfect-stem, and what is an Aorist-stem in one

language may be used as a Present-stem in another. The stem
gen- (with the thematic vowel geno-, gene- as in Gk. ^-yevo-^v,
e-yeW-ro) is in O. Ind. used as a Present, jana-ti 3 Sg.. and the
Aorist-stem
is
by no means
so clearly
exact equivalent of Gk. e-yez>o- (with the Augment prefixed) is

in O. Ind. not an Aorist, but the past tense of a Present-stem,
in other words
I was producing,' while

weak grade of root, gn- (g e n-),
verb it would be more correct to say
an Imperfect, a-jana-m,
the aorist sense
is
'
assigned to the
Thus in this
a-jna-ta 3 PI.
that the Present-stem was both gi-gn- and gen-, than to restrict
the first of these to the Present, the second to the Aorist
signification.
Or
is cawfe, like
syncopated form
Carm.
Sal.
the other strange

from the
quoted
'
priuidoes
priviculis
(p. 175),
merely a trace of the older
syllabic writing
'
ch.
iii.
14) ?
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
460
Some
[Chap. VIII.
more exact counterparts of the Greek Strong- Aorist
find
(2nd Aorist) in Latin Perfects like scidit (O. Ind. a-chida-t),

8c$d- being- the weak grade of the root sceid-, a root which forms
its Present-stem in Latin by Nasalization, scind-.
But, as is
41, scidit is more likely to be a Reduplicated
pointed out in
Perfect (O. Lat. sci-cidl, O. Ind. ci-chide), and to have lost its
Reduplication syllable in Compounds like disscidit (O. Lat. -it,
for *dis-sci-cidit, like re-p-pulit for *re-pe-pulil), the Perfect
having in Latin come to assume Aorist functions, e. g. dedl (i) I
-eif)
I gave. Where the Aorist-usage most shows traces

(3)
of itself in Latin is in phrases like ne attiga* (Subjunctive of an
Aorist-stem ta#- beside the Present-stem tan.?-), which suggest
have given,
comparison with
Greek use of the
the
A or.
Subj.
in
pro-
hibitions, &c.
The Present-stem, as it is on the one hand occasionally indistinguishable from the Aorist-stem, so it is on the other from the
Verb- stem. In a verb like Lat. sino the Nasal is clearly part of
the Present-stem, and connected with the idea of continued action
in present time, for
it
not found in other parts of the verb

tango Pres., teffigi Perf., tac-tus Verbal
is
(e.g. sl-vi, si-turn) (cf.

But in a verb like
Noun).
throughout the
'
'
Verb
Lat. jungo the Nasal
(e.g. junxl^junctum,
10).
is
extended
Similarly the
suffix of cre-sco is properly
Inceptive
dropped in cre-vi, ore-turn,
but the same suffix is in posco (for *porc-sco, I.-Eur. *prk-sko-)
extended to Perf. popoxci, &c.
Some of the stems which are
included in this section in the
list
rather to be called Verb-stems,
means
of Present-stems are probably

e. extensions of the root by
i.
of a suffix to denote action,
whether continued action,
completed action, or momentary action
for example, the stems
trem-, tres-, formed from the root ter- (O. Ind. tar-ala-, 'trembling ') by means of an M-suffix (Gk. rpe/x-co, Lat. trem-o) and an
S-suffix (Gk. r/)c'-(o-)-o), Lat. terreo for *ters-ed), are rather Verbstems than Present-stems, although, for practical purposes, it is
best with a view to completeness to include them in the list of
Present-stem formations.
We
have already spoken of the so-called Aorist (i.e. Strong

Another series of forms is
Aorist) forms of the Latin Verb.
better considered here than assigned to an}' definite Tense, viz.
THE VERK.
3.]
AORIST AND S-STEMS.
461
the S -formations, which receive further treatment in the sections
dealing with the Perfect, Future, Imperfect and Pluperfect Tenses.

large number of Verb-forms, whose exact relation to each
other has not yet been clearly explained, show the sibilant s in
some shape or other (-ss-, -s-, -es-, &c.).
find an S -suffix in
We
'
the Verb-stem just mentioned, tres-, ( to be afraid, tremble (O.

Ind. trasa-ti and tar-asa-ti, Gk. rpe(o-)o> cf Lat. terreo for *ter-8-};
.
and
in a
stem
(Lat. augeo), this
S-suffix
augS -suffix (-es-, -os-, -s-) of the

'
'
strength
ojas,
v.
Noun
is
Noun
S-suffix
Lat. augus-tus like rolus-tns, funes-tus, ch.
from the Noun
we
(cf
%,ugos,*auges-os Gen. (O.Ind.
71), precisely as in Derivative
Pass. rereXeo--rat,
this
cf
avdvu>) from the root

clearly connected with the
Gk. a#o)
like auk-s- of
Verbs
re'Aoy,
like
Gk.
Gen.
reAe(o-)-a),
re'Ae(o-)-oy
Pft.
and
shall find to be the suffix used in Infinitives
like Lat. agere for *ag-es-T Loc. Sg. t ferre for *bher-s-i Loc. Sg.,
ferrl for *bher-s-ai Dat. Sg., Gk. Setfat, &c., which are nothing
but cases of Verbal Nouns.
an
S-suffix
Side by side with Verb-stems with

with a suffix -syo-, e.g. O.
stand Verb-stems
Ind. tra-sya-ti, exactly
as
Present-stems in
-yo-
like
Lat.
fug-io (stem bhilg-yo-) stand side by side with Present-stems

This suffix -syo- is howlike Gk. <ewyct> (stem bheug-o-).
ever
usually
the
suffix of
the
Future-stem
(e.g.
O.
Ind.
dek-sya-mi from I.-Eur. deik-, Lith. bu-siu from I.-Eur. bheu-),

but not of the ordinary Greek Futures, e. g. 8eico, $i)cra>, rtju,rjo-a>,
which are now generally regarded as Subjunctives (the I.-Eur.

Subjunctive had Future, as well as Subjunctive, force,
55) of
the S-Aorist, the difference between TL^CTO^V Fut., rt/xTJo-co/xey
Aor. Subj., Setfofzez; Fut., 8acojuez; Aor. Subj. being explained
by the fact that originally the Subjunctive of the S-Aorist was
Athematic ( i), Tiju,TJo--o-/xez>, 8ei'f-o-/xez; (cf. rtVo/xez> Horn.), but
afterwards took by analogy of Thematic Subjunctives the long

vowels co, rj, and retained its proper athematic forms only in their
Future Indicative usage. Gk. rtjutTJo-co, eri/xrjora, &c. must have
had at the first double s, ^Tt/xryrrcrco (-d<nTO)), ert/xr/cKra (-cia'cra), for s

between vowels in Greek disappeared when single (e. g. yeW(o-)-os),
and was reduced when double (e. g. etfo-a from the root eus-, for
*ewo-a, cf. Lat. u-s-si, ch. ii.
129), as in Latin it became /when
single
(e.
g. gener-is, quaero),
and was reduced in the
classical
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
462
[Chap. VIII.
period after a long vowel or diphthong (id.) when double (e. g.

Gk. rt/xTjo-co, older
quaeso, older quaesso, haesi, older haessi).
will then correspond to O. Lat. amasso, Gk. 8efco to O.
Lat. dixo and similar forms.
have also Latin forms in ss
-do-o-co,
We
used as Presents, but always with a peculiar sense
33. 5), e.g.
lacesso (cf lacio, lacto\fdcesso (cfc.facio), capesso (cf capio), incipisso

.
Plaut.
(cf. incipio).
petesso
(cf.
peto; in O.
~L&t. petissere,
'
Fest. 250- 19 Th.,
petere
adpetissix Accius,
Trag.
saepius
160 R.
cf.
they have sometimes

been called Latin Intensives, and compared with another Sformation in which the root is reduplicated, namely, the Dequaeso
petivi),
(cf.
quaero), vlso (cf. video)
with Intensive force) of Sanscrit, e.g.

'
wish
I
to
drink/ ji-jiva-s-ami, I wish to live/
pi-pa-s-ami,
ip-sami, I wish to acquire,' and the Reduplicated Futures of
sideratives (sometimes
'
'
Celtic, such as O. Ir. gigius
'
'
rogabo/ gigeste
orabitis
'
their
-ivi, lacessivi, quaesivi (used as Pft. of quaero), arcessivi,

perhaps point to parallel stems in -ss-yo-. *!acessio, *quaessio^
*arce$sio (cf. the I.-Eur. Fut. in -syo-, Lith. bu-siu beside Gk.
Perfects in
(on visiy see

or rather Optative,
</>v-o-o))
Other O. Lat. ?-forms (Subjunctive
41).
55),
like averrimcassis,
servassis, faxis,
used in prayers, wishes, deprecations, &c. (e.g. deos ut fortunassint
been
precor
called
Juppiter, prohibessis scelus
Latin
have
di mactassint),
and
compared with Sanscrit

the older literature than in classical
Precatives,
Precatives (more usual in

Sanscrit ') such as bhu-ya-s-am from bhu-,
'
to
be/ These O. Lat.
Fut. and Opt. forms with ss (corresponding to s after a consonant,

faxo.faxim, dixo, dixim) are mostly found in Verbs of the first
Conjugation,
-asso, -assim, Inf. -assere,
but sometimes in Verbs
g. proMbessis, prokibessint.
They do not occur
in the Aorist (Preterite) Indicative usage of Gk. hi^cra (-da-era),
tyCkrjcra (-rjcrcra) in Latin ; but, if Umbro-Oscan tt is rightly
of the second,
e.
interpreted as the equivalent of I.-Eur. ss (cf. Att. Trparno for

7r/>ao-o-a>, this <ro- being a Greek development of K^), they do
occur in this usage in the other Italic languages, Osc. teremnattens

terminaverunt/ quasi *terminassunt, prufatted pro'
'
bavit/ quasi
duunated
*probassit,
Pel. coisatens
'
belong to the
first
curaverunt
'
and so on
Conjugation).
'
donavit
(all
'
quasi *donassit,
the examples preserved
AORIST AND S-STEMS.
THE VERB.
3.]
463
So far we have found evidence of Verb-forms with
ss after
a vowel, s after a consonant, used as Aorists, Futures [in the

Future use often with -(s)syo- for -(s)so-], Precatives. &c., as well
as of Verb-stems with a suffix consisting- of a single s (e. g.
stem of Gk. r/oeco), a suffix perhaps identical with the

S -suffix of Verbal Nouns. It is therefore a natural inference to
explain the formations with double s as due to the addition of
some S-suffix to a Verb-stem already composed by means of an
S-suffix, so that Latin amasso would be resolved into ama-s-so,
and possibly cUxo into deic-s-so. (On disco however, see
,55
*tres- the
Greek Locatives Plural also like Ovpdo-i offer an original -ss-,

which after a consonant appears as -s-, e. g. $vAai).
This additional S-suffix may be the same as that which seems
to show the form -es- in Latin Future Perfects like vid-ero,
dix-ero, and Pluperfects like vid-eram, amav-eram,
dix-eram, and which has been identified, plausibly enough, with
the Substantive verb, es-, 'to be (it appears in the form s in
amav-ero,
'
ama-rem, fer-rem, age-rem, &c.), though some regard it as the

suffix -es- of Noun-stems, comparing vld-ero to Gk.
et6e((r)to,
Opt., and these to Gk. ei5os,
Others
-e(<r)-os (similarly ferrem, agerem, &c. to ferre, agere).
make it not only -es- but -is- or -as- (ch. iv.
3), comparing
viderlmns Subj. to Gk.
et8e(o-)i/xei;
md-eram to O. Ind. a-ved-isam, dixeram to O. Ind. Aorists with

-sis- such as aksisur 3 PL, and identify this -is- or -as-, as well as
-es-,
with the
Gk.
yrj/oas,
Noun
S-stems (e.g. O. Ind. rods- N.,

c%nu), and further with Latin -is- of
amav-is-fiSj amav-is-sem, amav-is-se. although the i in these Latin
Perfect-forms may be merely an example of the continuation of
suffix of
Ofyis-, Lat.
the vowel of the
i
Sg. Ind., &c. of the Perfect throughout the
declension of this Tense, as Gk. Scifai/uu, 8eiarco, &c. continue
the a of eêifa (see
The Urnbro-Oscan Future
67, 52, 39).
'
f eret
forms, e. g. Osc. didest dabit/ Umbr. ferest
point to
the vowel having been originally e, for the Latin weakening of
*
'
is almost unknown in Umbro-Oscan.

Another moot point in the analysis of the Latin Verb is the
explanation of what the Roman grammarians regarded as contracted forms, such as amassem beside amavissem, amastis beside
unaccented vowels
amavistis, amarunt, amaro,
and amarim beside amaverunt, amavero,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
464
and amaverim, and
also such as invassem beside invdsissem, dixem

beside dixissem, dixti and dixtis beside dixisti and dixistis.
There
is
nothing in the laws of Latin Phonetics to prevent the Con-
Theory from being right ; audivissem would become

audissem as naturally as si vis became sis, oblwisci became oblisci
(Plaut.), dimnus, dlnus (Plaut.) (see ch. iv.
70) invasissem would
become invassem by that Roman practice of discarding one of
traction
two
similar neighbouring syllables
which reduced
arcubii, Restitutus to Eestutus (see ch.
iii.
*arcicubii to
Thus
13. p. 176).
although the comparison of amassem (E-Subj. like amem) with

amassim (Opt. like *im, O. Lat. siem\ dixem with dixo and dixim,
amarim with amarem
is a very natural one, it cannot be said that

at present strong enough to warrant us in
relinquishing the old explanation.
Indeed the evidence to be derived from the usage of Plautus
the evidence
is
and the other Dramatists is all the other way, for we find that
Plautus and Terence treat these shorter forms exactly as they
treat forms that are indubitably contracted, \\kejurgo fromjurigo
(ch. iii.
13); in the older poet the two are used side by side, in
the later the contracted have ousted the uncontracted, the latter
being used only at the end of a line, i. e. only through metrical
(For statistics, see
necessity.
48, 49.)
'
Strong Aorist forms in Latin. Beside the Nasalized Present-stem

we find a stem tag- in 0. Lat. In the Dramatists attigas,
attigatis (only in prohibitions) are not uncommon, e. g. Plaut. Bacck. 445 ne
A lamp discovered in the
attigas puerum istac causa (cf. Non. 75. 26 M.).
very ancient Esquiline burying-ground bears the inscription ne atigas. non
sum tua. M. sum (Ann. Inst. 1880, p. 260). In the simple verb we have, e. g.
si tagit, nisi tagam in Pacuvius (Trag. 344 and 165 K.) (forms compared to
con-tigit, at-tigit by Festus 540. 27 M.), and probably tdgo in Plaut. Mil. 192
4.
'
tang- of tango, attingo
remorare
abeo.
te
Neque
remoror iieque
Similarly beside the Nasalized Present-stem
we Wve
te tago
toln-
of
neque
tollo,
te
attollo
taceo.
(cf.
affero],
&c. (or in the older spelling attolas,

abstolas) in prohibitions in the Dramatists, e.g. Novius, Com. 87 R. dotem ad
nos nullam attulas Pacuv. Trag. 228 R.
abstollo (cf. aufero)
attulas, abstulas,
ciistodite istunc uos
and in the simple verb
ne uim qui
attolat,
nisi tulat (Accius, Trag.
neu qui
attigat,
102 R).
Beside the Present-stem formed with the suffix -yo- ( 15), venio-, we find
a stem ven- without this suffix in the compounds evenat, advenat, pervenat, &c.
(e. g.
Plaut.
metuo ne aduenat, priusquam peruenat, utinam euenat, quomodo
AORIST AND S-STEMS.
THE VERB.
4, 5.]
eueiiat, &c.)
same indeed
465
These Aor. forms seem to occur only at the end of a line (the
generally, but not always, true of attigas, att-idas, &c.), and so

which the Dramatic Poets availed themselves under metrical
necessity.
They have been also referred to a suppression of the i (y) of
eveniat, &c., like that of i (y) in abicio (the scansion of the Dramatists) and
possibly augur(i)a of Accius (see ch. ii.
50), on the plea that the Aor.-stem
would be vem-, for the n is produced from m under the influence of the
is
are licences of
following consonantal
(y),
l
*vem-yo (J.-Eur. *g Am-yo-, Gk.
fiaivto
for
*y3a/ui/cu)
The root is
quom-jam became quoniam (ch. iv.
73).
becoming
gSem- (cf. Goth, qiman, to come '). Similarly beside pdrio, to give birth to,
we have parentes. Beside the Keduplicated Present gi-gn-o from the root gen-,
we have an O. Lat. Present geno (cf. Priscian, i. 528. 25 H.) of the common type
offero (root bher-), veho (root wegh-), sequor (root seq^-j (see
6). This form of
the Present is frequent in Varro (e. g. R. R. ii. 2. 19 nam et pingues facit
ven-yo, venio. as
'
facillime et genit lacte

ib. i. 31. 4
antequam genat Men. 35 B. quod
genunt), and occurs in the testamentary formula si mihi filius genitur (Cic.
De Orat. ii. 42. 141) (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v. for examples of the word).
;
'
'
It was a moot point among Latin grammarians whether in the phrase of the
XII Tables NI ITA PACVNT, the last word was 3 Plur. of a verb *paco (whence
but cf.
pdciscor
28), or with the old usage of writing c both for c and for g,
;
of a verb pago (an unnasalized form ofpango

6.)
rudentes, the ropes of a ship, see below,
5.
cf.
peptgi) (see ch.
O. Lat. forms with -ss- (-s-). The forms in -(s)so i Sg.

thus /cm) corresponds toftcero in Plant. /r. 62
Future-Perfects
peribo
non
si
i.
(On
6).
may
W.
be called
fecero, si faxo uapulabo,
but they are often used

Capt. 695 pol si istuc faxis, haud sine poena feceris
in the Dramatists, as the ordinary Fut. Perf. is also used, in the sense of
a Future, e. g. Plaut. Poen. 888 nisi ero uni meo indicasso, 1 will tell my
master only' (see Neue, ii 3 p. 548). They have an Inf. in -ssere, e.g. hoe
;
'
credo me impetrassere, ilium confido me reconciliassere, and occur sometimes

in the Passive Voice in laws, e.g. mercassitur (C. I. L, i. 200. 71) faxitur in an
;
mentioned by Livy,
antidea senatus populusque

cf.
iusserit fieri, ac faxitur; turbassitur in a law in Cicero, De Legg. iii. 4.
uti iussitur, 'as shall be ordered,' Cato R. R. xiv. i.
The forms in -(s)sim i Sg. have never a reference to past time like the
old Rogatio
xxii.
10.
si
contrast, for example, Plaut. Capt. 127 uisam

quippiam turbauerint, with Pacuvius, Trag. 297 R.
precor ueniam petens Ut quae egi, ago, velaxim uerruncent bene (see A. L. L.
ii. 223)
they are frequent in Plautus, who normally uses cave dixis, cave
faxis, &c., and not (except at the end of a line, i.e. for metrical convenience)
ordinary Perfect Subjunctive
ne nocte hac
('last night')
cave dixeris, cave feceris, &c. (after ne
only
dixeris, &c.),
but are
much
less fre-
are generally used by Plautus in the protasis of

a conditional sentence (except ansim, faxim, which are found in the main
clause), e. g. Aul. 228 si locassim, and similarly in old laws, e. g. the Lex
quent in Terence.
They
Numae(ap. Fest. 194. 21 Th.) si hominem fulminibus occisit we find them

also in wishes, e.g. Plaut. Aul. 50 utinam me diui adaxint ad suspendium, in
Th.) bene sponsis
prayers, as in the Augural Prayer (quoted by Festus, 526.
:
beneque uolueris, and with ne in deprecations, e.g. Plaut. Most. 1097 ne

occupassis opsecro aram, and expressions of anxiety, e.g. Plaut. Bacch. 598
:
Hh
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
466
[Chap. VIII.
mihi cautiost
ne niicifrangibula excussit ex mails meis.
These usages mark the forms in -(s)sim as the Optative Mood of the forms in
This -(s)s- formation appears in Vowel Verbs almost only in the first
-(s)so.
Conjugation, though
we
find in the second prohibessit, prohibessint and prohibessis

iii. 444), Kcessit (Plaut. Asin. 603), &c., while for
occasionally, cohibessit (Lucr.
the fourth ambissit (MSS. ambissef) in the (un-Plautine ?) prologue of the AmIn Terence these forms of Vowel Verbs
1. 71, is quoted.
are very rare, e. g. appellassis, Phorm. 742. In Consonant-stems of the third
Conjugation they are found in poetry of all periods (faxim and ausim even in
phitruo of Plautus,
examples are (Labials)
capso, accepso, incepsit, (Gutturals) axim, taxim,

(Dentals) baesis (C.G.L. ii. 27. 55), mcensit, (Nasals) empsim,
2
essis of
surempsit (Fest.). [For other instances, see Neue, ii
539 sqq.
the MSS. of Nonius (200. 30 M.) in a line of Accius [Trag. (Praet.} 16 R.],
prose)
noxit,
insexit,
quoted as an example of
castra F.
castra haec uestra est
optime
essis meri-
the Lex
stand for ad-essent (cf. ch. vi.
33)
uiolasit (C. I. L. xi. 4766, with anua) and similar forms with s for ss belong to
the period when double consonants were written single (ch. i.
8)].
tus a nobis, seems a miswriting of
Repetundarum
6.
(C. I. L.
i.
A. Present 1
Vowel.
1.
198.
escis (cf.
63)
below,
adessint of
may
With E-grade
(l)
Examples are of
33. 5)
E -roots
of root and Thematic
I.-Eur.
*seq~o-,
*seq~e-,
Mid., 'to be following' (O. Ind. saca-te 3 Sg., Gk. eTro-juuu,

O. Ir. sechur, Lith. seku Act.), Lat. sequor I.-Eur. *wegho-,
;
'
*weghe-, o be carrying (O. Ind. vaha-mi, Pamphyl. Gk. / exw(?),

I move '), Lat. veko.
Lith. vezu, O. SI. veza, Goth, ga-viga,
'
'
Of
El-roots:
(Gk.
7rei'0o-/Acu,
feido-,
*bheidho-, *bheidhe- 'to be trusting'

I abide '), Lat. fldo from O. Lat.
*deiko-, *deike-, 'to be showing, indicating'
I.-Eur.
I.-Eur.
Goth, beida,
'
(Goth, ga-teiha, Germ, zeige), Lat.
clico
from O. Lat.
deico
I.-Eur. *meigho-, *meigbe- (O. Ind. meha-mi, O. Engl. mige),

Of. EU-roots I.-Eur. *deuo-, *deuê-, to be leadLat. mew.
'
ing, drawing' (Goth, tiuha, Germ, ziehe), Lat. diico, O. Lat.

flonco for *deu/o (ch. iv.
37) ; I.-Eur. *euso-, *euse-, to be
Ind.
Gk. evoo for *eô)), Lat. uro,
osa-mi,
burning, singeing' (O.
'
'
I.-Eur. *plewo-, *plewe-, to be flowing, sailing, swimming' (O. Ind. plava-te 3 Sg. Mid., Gk. Tr\(F)a),
O. SI. plovij for *plew-), Lat. pluo from O. Lat. plow (cf. Fest.
O. Lat. *ouro from *euso
330. 29 Th.
pertusam
pluo
1
is
'
'
pateram perplovere
esse
proper to Compounds,
For a fuller
in sacris
cum
so plovebat, Petron. 44. p. 30.
list
e.
of examples of
the various Present-stem formations,
g. perpluo, ch.
see Job,
le
dicitur, significat
B.).
iii.
Present
et
(The form
24.)
ses derives
conjuyaison latine, Paris, 1893.
dans
la
THE VERB.
6-8.]
The weak grade
PRESENT-STEMS.
of the root,
467
which in Greek appears with the
accent on the suffix, and with the Aorist sense (e. g. Tpairtlv Aor.
but rpTTLv Pres., iriQevQai. Aor. but -nddevQai Pres., -nvQtvOai
Aor. but TTv0crOaL Pres.), has sometimes encroached on the Pres.stem, e.g. Dor. Gk. rpaTrco beside Att. rpeTroo, Gk. yAi;<a> beside
I.-Eur. %leubho- (Lat. glubo^ O. H. G. chliubu, Engl. cleave).
Similarly Lat. rudo (O. Ind. ruda-mi) beside rudo (O. H. G. riuzu)
seems to show *riido- beside *reudo-, so that rudentes, the ropes

of a ship, lit. the rattlers,' roarers/ might be called an Aorist
'
'
participle
4).
[In Plautus
mdo
'
'
we have
Rud. 1015 mitte
rudentes,
9 Arcadiae pecuaria
rudere credas.
The Pft. rudivi (Apuleius) and Verbal Noun rndltus point to a Pres.-stem *rud-yo-, like^/%20,
15.]
rudentem, sceleste, as
in Persius,
iii.
Examples of Verbs which have not an E-root are

going (the weak grade vadolder
shed)
is
seen in v&dum, a ford)
am
rddo, I
caedo,
from
(s)kaidh- (Goth, skaida, cf. Engl. water*ago (O. Ind. aja-mi, Gk. ayco, M. Ir.
the strong stem agis seen in Lat. amb-dges, &c.) ;
caido, I.-Eur.
I.-Eur.
ago,
agaim,, &c. ;
'
I shave ; the
scalo^ to scrape, I.-Eur. skabh- (Goth, skaba,
in
scdbi
stem
skabhPerf.
see
strong
perhaps appears
39).
'
7.
Ae7o/).
Other examples.
Like 0. Lat.
Lat. tego (Grk. are^ca)

rego (Gk. 6-peyci})
lego (Gk.
beside nmguit, for *(s)neigh l^6- (Zend snae2aiti, Gk.
;
nivit,
Lith. dial.
snga) is 0. Lat. fno for *dheigh A6-(?) (Lith. degia Intr.).

was afterwards substituted by Analogy of fixi, &c. The form
with v which, we are told, was used by Cato [Paul. Fest. 65. 19 Th. fivere
(apud Catonem) pro figere], reappears in the derivative fibula for *fivi-bula (cf.
(Lith. dygiis however points
fixulas,' fibulas).
fixul-ae, Paul. Test. 64. 7 Th.
to *dhlgh^6-, and we have jfa/fer, notfei- on the S. C. Bacch.).
O. Lat. amploctor (veteres immutaverunt
amploctor crebro dictitantes,
Diom. 384. 8 K.), e.g. Liv. Andr. Odyss.:
vfiQfi,
for
which
flgo
'
'
may take
its o
'
utram genua amploctens uirginem oraret,

from a Derivative Noun (cf. toga from tego, ch.
The
iv.
52,
and
see
of coquo for *que-quo (O. Ind. pac-, Gk. TreWcu, O. SI.

peka) has been similarly referred to the influence of coquus.
below,
8.
33. 3).
"Weak grade of root.
Verto is in 0. Lat. varto (Plaut., &c.),
so that
instead of showing the vowel e of I.-Eur. *wert-o (O. Ind. vartate 3 Sg. Mid.,
Goth, vairpa, I become '), it seems to show the o of the Perfect, O. Lat.
vorti (with weak-grade of stem, wrt-, as in 0. Ind. va-vrt-e Perf. Mid.) and the
'
P. P. P., 0. Lat. voraus for *wrt-to (O. Ind. vrt-ta-).

in the Present, vort- in the Perfect and Verbal
vert'
But
in
Umbr. we
Noun, ku-vertu,
find
co-vertu
convertito,' ku-vurtus, converteris,' co-vortus, wrsum Ace. irXfOpov. The O.

vorto is in all probability a mere matter of spelling
the Present
'
Lat. spelling
H h 2
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
468
was always pronounced with

pronounced
vorto.
e,
ch. iv.
ve- (see
verto,
10), it
0. Lat. vorro for *verso (0.
In Gk.
explained.
yi-yv-o-fjiai
but at the time
[Chap. VIII.
when w- had come
was occasionally
spelt (not
to be
pronounced)
H. G. wirru, 'verwirre') may be similarly
Pres.,
f-yfv-6-fj.rjv
we
Aor.
find the E-root
relegated to the Preterite, while a modification of the root by Reduplication

In 0. Lat. and O. Ind.,
is assigned to the Present (see next paragraph).
however, the E-form, gen-, appears also as a Present-stem (0. Lat. genunt,
3-4). Similarly, Lat. peto is regarded by some as
originally an Aorist-stem, the Present-stem being formed with the -YO-suffix
(
15), *petio i Sg.. whence the Perfect petivi.
0. Ind. jan-a-ti 3 Sg.) (see
Other examples of the unaccented verb-form of a Latin Compound asserting

itself in
law
the
uncompounded verb
(Sil. Ital. xi.
e. g. plico,
instances,
9.
22)
spicio, sico
are
cludo for claudo (see ch.
for specio, seco (see ch.
see Solmsen,
Stud-.
12).
ii.
36)
luo for
^For additional
Lautg. p. 130.)
With reduplicated
(2)
ii.
root.
Latin
examples
are
gigno [I.-Eur. *gi-gno- *gi-gn-e from root gen-, which also

occurs with Them. Vow. as a Pres.-stem in O. Ind. and O. Lat.
5
Gk. ylyiwjLuu], Itibo for *pil>o (ch. iv. 163) (I.-Eur. *pibo-, *pi-be-, O. Ind. piba-ti 3 Sg., O. Ir. ibi-d ; cf. Faliscan pipafo Fut.), sisto (I.-Eur. *si-sto-, *si-ste- from root sta-, O. Ind.
(
3~4)>
tistha-ti 3 Sg.), sulo for *si-sdo (ch. iv.

151) (I.-Eur. *si-zdo-,
*si-zde- from root sed- O. Ind. sida-ti 3 Sg. for *sisd-, Umbr.
5
'
'
Often these
Imper., for *sisd(e)-tod).
Reduplicated Present-stems belong to the Athematic Conjugation,
e.g. Gk. IWrj-juu for *si-sta-mi (O. H. G. sesto-m), beside Lat. sisto,
ander-sistn
intersidito
O. Ind. tistha-mi
and Latin
with the Greek la-Ta-^v,

Similarly Gk.
ITJ/XI
in sero for *si-so,
sistmrns, sistltis correspond as well
trrra-re, as
(I.-Eur. *si-se-,
though
with the thematic forms.
athematic)
seri-mus, seri-tis
is
may
to athematic *sis- as to thematic *siso-, *sise-
athematic (Gk.
5l5o>-/u,
in Latin thematic
be equally referred
;
I.-Eur. *di-do-,
O. Ind. dada-mi) has in Latin lost
its
reduplication, except in reddo, if this stands for re-d(i)do as rep2mli, repperi for re-p(e]puliy re-p(e)peri, but not in Umbro-Oscan
Umbr.
pronounced *dida ?). All these

Latin examples reduplicate with the vowel i, and most belong to
roots ending in a long vowel.
Some Greek Aorist-stems show
(Pelign. dida
'
det,'
this reduplication
e-Ke/cAe-ro
dirsa
with the vowel
from root K\-,
e, e.
TT7rW-u>v
g. t-ittfyvo-v
from root
from root
7rei0-,
fav-,
TrtTTvO-oiro
irevO-, by analogy of which the spurious Presents 7re$z;a>,

been formed. Short e is also the R complication have
KeKAo/xat
vowel of the Perfect- stem (see
39).
from root
THE VERB.
9,10.]
With root
10. (3)
PRESENT-STEMS.
Of
nasalized.
which the Hindu grammarians have
469
the ten conjugations under
classified the Sanscrit verb,
three are assigned to these nasalized Present-stems, one (the

seventh conjugation) showing a nasal infix, I.-Eur, -ne-, varying
with
-n-,
e.g.
yii-na-j-mi
Sg., yu-ii-j-mas
PL, yurek-te
3 Sg. Mid. (Lat. ju-n-go), from the root yuj- (I.-Eur. yeug--),
the other two showing a nasal affix, viz. the ninth conjugation
with -na- varying with a weak grade (O. Ind. -nl-), e. g.
Sg., str-m-mas
str-m-te 3 Sg, Mid. (Lat.

and the fifth conjugation with I.-Eur. -neu- (O. Ind.
ster-no))
str-na-mi
PI.,
-no-) varying with -nu-, e.g. r-no-mi I
Sg.,
r-nu-mas
PI.,
(Gk. op-vv-î). In Greek the type of Present

corresponding to the Sanscrit seventh conjugation has only -n-,
never -ne-, and has been usually modified by the addition either
r-nu-te 3
Sg Mid.
of a nasal affix, e.g. not *At-/^-7ro) (Lat. 1%-n-quo) but Atyx-7r-dz/<o (so
Tv-y~x-avu>, \a-v-0-avu>, &c.), or of the -YO-, -YE- suffix, e. g.
for *K.\ayy-y(t>
/cA.do>
(cf.
ninth conjugation
is
Mid v
PI., (TKt8-va-jLUU
Mid., &c.
juat
ay-vij }JLV
Sanscrit
e-KAayfa) (Lat. clancjo]
represented by
I
Trir-yTj-jbU
cr/a'S-z^-juu
the Sanscrit
Sg., o-Kib-vd-^v
Sg., Ttlr-va-^tv I PL, TTLT-VCL-
the Sanscrit fifth conjugation
by ay-vv-î
Sg.,
In
PL, ay-vv-âi Mid., (TKebavvvfjii, TT^ravvviî, &c.
these nasalized stems belong to the Athematic Con-
all
jugation, though we have thematic byforms like 3 Sg. yunjati,

rnvati but in Greek the first type mentioned is always thematic,
;
e.
of
g. At/ixTraô), the others occasionally, e.g.

irirvrjiJiL,
,
8djut^?]jut),
&c., while
trew.
Trtrzâco, 8ajuz;dco
(byforms
tVâ^da), &c., o-rpcoiWa>, rpcoy^co, opivia for
we have another type with -z/ew, e. g. tKêojuat,

The discrepancy between Greek and Sanscrit,
the two languages in which these nasalized stems have been

most fully preserved, makes it difficult to determine the original
'I.-Eur.
types of nasalization (see
default of a
better
classification,
/.
F.
ii.
pp.
285
sqq.).
In
we may arrange the Latin
nasalized Presents in two classes, according as the nasal presents

the appearance of a nasal infix or a nasal affix.
i.
With
nasal infix, e.g. li-n-quo (O. Ind. ri-na-c-mi i Sg.,

PL, Pruss. po-linka, he remains'; cf. Gk. AtjotTrdô)),
'
ri-n-c-mas
from root
leiq"-
Germ,
leihe)
(Gk.
AetVo), Lith. le'ku,
Goth, leihva,
'
I lend,'
fl-n-do (O. Ind. bhi-na-d-mi) from root bheid-
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
470
[Chap. VIII.
f
The variation of -ne- and -n- seen in
(Goth, beita, I bite ').
O. Ind. ri-na-c-mi i Sg., ri-n-c-mas I PL, is not seen in other
languages, where the weak grade -n- is used throughout. The

Latin Presents conqmnucor (Perf. conguexus)^ to stoop, and
possibly frun iscor (cfc.fructus), to enjoy, do however perhaps show
the fuller suffix -lie- combined with the Inceptive suffix -sô- ( 22),
if
with
-niscor stands for -nec-scort
-esc-
asm disco
of other Inceptives (see
may
do the same.
28)
loss of c
in the group
(g)
and
with i by analogy
15 7),
and Gk. KV-V-(<T)-M, Aor. l-Kucr-a,
$.m*(Uc-sco (ch.
iv.
These forms with nasal
augmented by the YO-suffix
15), e.g.
are
infix
often
Gk. 7mWa> for *7mW-ya>,
beat, for *7rXayy-yo) (cf e-7rAayfa), KXafco for *KAayy-ya>

(cf. e-K\ayfa), Lith. jung-iu, beside Lat. pinso, plango, clango,
and jungo and so in Lat. pinsio, sancio (cf sac-er), vincio (from
TrAafco, to
'
the root vyek-).
I spring,'
English examples of nasal infix are
'
from *spr-n-gho, from the root spergh- (Gk. o-7repxM at )
I
the
root
I
from
wring,'
wergh- (Lith. verz-iu,
squeeze ').
:
'
('
'
I stand
belongs to a rare type
of
I.-Eur. Present-stem in
-NT, on which see Osthoff in Versamml. Philolog. xxi. p. 300.)

ii.
With nasal affix. I.-Eur. li-na- (O. Ind. li-na-mi, Gk.
At-m-jutaf Tperro^cH Hesych.,
O.
Ir.
'
lenim,
I cling to, follow,' O.
Scand. lina, I grow weak ') is Lat. U-no, from a root lei-, so that
the I.-Eur. affix -na- has been lost in Latin (unless lino represents
'
*li-nd-o),Sind only its weak grade (O. Ind. -m-,Gk. -va-) remains,
The -nd- of asperndri (beside
e.g. li-ni-mus (Gk. *Xl-va-}j.tv).
spemo}, consterndre, to terrify (beside consterno, to strew) (but cf

ch. iii.
19), decllndre and inclindre (beside Gk. KAtz/w), destmdre
.
and a-ravvd)) cannot quite be identified with

H. G. spor-no-n, O. Ind. str-na-ti 3 Sg.,O. Sax.
hli-no-n
cf. O. H. G. stornen, to be astonished/
hlinen), for
d
in
the same
appears
compounds of other than nasal-stems, e. g."
occupdre (beside ccypere), profligdre (beside fllgere) (see
32), and
the -wd~ of la-n-c-ind-re (cf. lac-er), coqu-ind-re (cf. cftquo), which
indeed suggests comparison rather with Gk. -dvo- of At-/x-7r-ayo>,
afjiapT-dvto, &c., than with Gk. -va- of o-KiS-rry-juti, 7rtr-^-/utt, seems
to show the -d- (I.-Eur. -ayo-) of Derivative Verbs ( 32), like
sarcmatus from sarcma (a Derivative with nasal suffix from sarcio,
(beside
Gk.
a-ravc*
I.-Eur. -na- (O.
'
&sfacmus romfacio),runcmare from runcma,pdgmare$.wm.pdgma,
THE VERB.
11, 12.]
or
nommare from nomen
PRESENT-STEMS.
47
a prop).
The I.-Eur. affix
few traces in Latin ster-nu-o (Gk.
mi-nn-o (O. Ind. mi-no-mi
cf. Grk.
fu-vv-Ov),
(cf. deslina,
-neu-, -nii- has left very

TTTap-vv-âL),
probably for ^mi-new-o, &c.
denuo for de *newod, ch.
(cf.
English examples of nasal affix are

24).
'
(Goth, skei-na), I fill (with 11 for In).
'
I spurn/
'
iii.
'
I shine
'
rule the Nasalization should be confined to the Present
By
Tense, and
not extended to other than Present forms:
li-n-quo, re-liqui, re-lic-tus
But
#i-n-o, sl-vi, si-tu*.
it
e.g.
pervades
the whole verb in some cases, e. g. jungo,jwixi 9 JMnctu&.

The weak grade of the root is proper to all these Nasalized
Present- stems, e. g. junyo from root yeug-, Imo from root lei-,
mi-nu-o from root mei-.

Other examples of nasal
11.
infix.
Lat. ru-m-po (0. Ind. lu-m-pami),
from
root reup- (O. Engl. bereofe, Engl. I bereave) pi-n-so (0. Ind. pi-na-s-mi ; cf.
Gk. TTTtoacj for *irTivaya), Lat. pinsio) ; sci-n-do (O. Ind. chi-na-d-mi) fungor
;
from root leigh- (Gk. Aei'xcu) (cf. 0. H. G. lecchom,

I fight')
vi-n-co, from root weik- (Goth, veiha,
da-n-go
cf. Gk. K\ayyavoj, /cAafoyucu), from root klag(Lith. klageti,
(O. Ind. bhu-na-j-mi)
from *ligh-na-mi)
(O. Scand. hlakka
tt-n-go,
'
to cackle ')
I am found/ Lett, gidu,
I apprepre-he-n-do (Alb. gendem,
hend, perceive,' for *gendu cf. Gk. xâvcy, x 6t (TO Atcu ^ u t- for *xf5-<ro/iat),
from root ghed- (Engl. get, Lat. praeda for *prae-hed-a) di-sti-n-guo (Goth,
4
'
'
'
stigqa, 'I thrust'
sharp';
muku,
cf.
Lith. stengiu),
from the rootsteig^-
(O. Ind. tejate, 'is
Lat. in-sflgare)
e-mu-n-go (0. Ind. muncati, 'he releases,' Lett,
I escape/ for *munku) fi-n-go (0. Ir. dengaim, ' I fasten '), from
cf.
root dheigh- (Goth, deiga)

tu-n-do (Pft. tu-tu-di)
acpu-n-go (Pft. pu-piig-i)
cu-m-bo (cf. cubare, Pft. ac-cub-ui)
ta-n-go (Pft. te-tig-i, for *fe-%-i, Gk. Teraywv}
Ici-m-bo (cf. lab-ium) ; ri-n-gw (O. SI.
r^g-na, augmented by -no-), beside rictus.
;
12. Betention of Nasal throughout the Tenses. Iiik.6jungo,junxi, junctum

(with possibly a Neuter Noun jungus, -eris, a team/ like Gk. frSyos, in Plaut.
Men. 913 non potest haec res ellebori iungere optinerier),
'
we have
Priscian says the Perf. of repungo is

pungo, punctum (but piipugi
repunxi, like expunxi, or repupugi, i. 524. 13 H.) ; distinguo, distinxi, distinctum ;
(but fictum finctum, Ter. Eun. 104) plango, planxi, planctum ; emungo,
emunxl, emunctum ; lingo, linxi, linctum ; fungor, functus [but on plebeian inscriptions defucttis (C. I. L. ii. 4173), like sactus, e. g. sactissimae (vi. 15511, v. 6580),
whence the Welsh loanword saith beside sant ; nactus and nandus are equally
flngoj flnxi
Lex. Wortf. s. v.].

Spellings in MSS. like corrumpthe
560), relinqui, Perf., are due to the same confusion.
good spellings, see Georges,

2
tus
(Neue,
ii'
When
stem is extended by the YO-suffix, the n is retained, e. g. vincio, vinxi, vinctum,

from root vyek-, beside vinco, mci, victum from root weik-, sanctus from sancio.
Of roots ending in a dental we have e. g. from tundo, tunsus and (post-Aug.)
ttisus,
and the grammarians speak of a
dropping of n before
was
cf
in pronunciation
but the
s. v.)
doubtful how far the nasal
66 on thensaurus for drjaavpos
Perf. tunsi (Georges,
makes
really present in such forms (see ch.

mensus from metior}.
ii.
it
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
472
[Chap. VIII.
Lat. sperno (O. H. G. fir-spirni-t 3 Sg.,

13. Other examples of nasal affix.
spurnu), with Perf. spre-vi, as cerno Perf. cre-ri (cf. Gk. refji-v-ca, e-Tfj.r]-9r)v}
cf. Gl. Philox. degunere
0. Lat. degunere (degustare, Paul. Test. 50. 36 Th.
avyyvuxTai) for *de-gus-iiere from root geus- (Gk. yev(<T)oa f

Goth, kiusa, Engl. I choose) ap-pelldre and com-pellare for *-pel-na-re (Gk. iri\the Compoundva-fjLai, I approach, T). Ir. ad-ellaim), beside pellere, to strike
aTroyevffacrOai real
stem with
has a peculiar sense also in de-sti-na-re, prae-stt-na-re, which in

to buy/ e.g. Most. 646 quid, eas quanti destinat?;
Plautus are used for
Capt. 848 alium piscis praestinatum abire (cf. Arm. sta-na-m, 'I possess, buy'),
-na-
ob-sti-na-re, to stickle for,
Plaut. Aul. 267
hanc obstinauit
id inhiat, ea affinitatem
whence
obstitmtus
there
is
a gloss, gredinunda fiaSifrvaa,
gratia,
C.
G. L.
ii.
36. 10.
14. Other Verb-stems with n.

From Nasalized Present-stems we must
distinguish (i) 0. Lat. forms of the 3 Plur. Pres. Ind. like ddnunt, explenunt,
prodlnunt, on which see
73 (2) Derivative A-Verbs from Noun and Adjec;
tive Nasal-stems
opiont
e. g. opinor, -dri
(MSS. praedotiont)
13 Th.),
optio, optare,
(Varro, Men. 327 B.)
&c.
'
from a Noun
'
praeoptant
festmo, -are
of the
connected with praed-
*opion-,
Carmen
vulpinor, -ari, to
Saliare (Fest. 244.
use the wiles of a fox
auctionor, -ari ; contionor, -dri ; sarcmo, -are ; nommo, -are

Verbs in which the nasal belongs to the root, e. g. tendo,
formed from the root ten- by means of the suffix d ( 33) frendo similarly
for frem-d-o ; offendo, defendo from the root ghên-, to strike (Gk. Ocivcu for
(see above)
(3)
'
'
The verb pando is of doubtful origin. Some make it a nasalized form like
vandu beside Goth, vato, Engl. water O. Ind. udan- beside
Gk. vScap) others make it a word-group, *patem-do, lit. 'I make opening,'
like vendo and venum do [Osc. patensins aperirent (?) has also been variously
undo, (cf. Lith.
'
'
explained]. Mando, to chew, if connected with Gk. âado/jLai for */xaTmo/xat

will be a parallel formation.
15.
With
-iyo- (ch. v.
to the
is
suffix -YO-, -IYO-.
with
4) this varies
Like the Noun-suffix
-ye-, -lye- or
with
(?),
-yo-,
Owing
-!-.
weakening of vowels in unaccented syllables in Latin, it

ascertain the exact form of the suffix in the
difficult to
various persons of the Present Tense but the analogy of other

languages points to a declension like this of those Presents in
;
which -yo- varied with

cup-i-t^
Brugmann,
Two
-i-
PI. *cup-yo-mos, 2
Sg. *cup-yo, 2 Sg. cup-i-s, 3 Sg.
PL
*cup-i-tes, 3 PI. *cup-yo-nt (see
ii.
Grundrisx,
702).
classes of Present-stems
with the YO-suffix stand out
very clearly, though they occasionally overlap

i. With E-grade of root and accent on the root,
:
spec-io
(O. Ind. pas-ya-ti,
Zend
spas-ye-iti,
Gk.
e.
g. Lat.
o-KeVro/xat for
THE VERB.
13-15.]
With weak grade
ii.
PRESENT-STEMS.
473
of root and accent on the suffix,
e.
g.
Lat. mor-ior for *mr-y6r (O. Ind. mr-iyd-te 3 Sg.), venio for
"*g"m-y6 (O. Ind.gam-ya-te, Gk. (Sawo) or*/3w-yw). To the second
and so
belong intransitive verbs (e.g. O. SI. sto-ja, 'I. stand ')
intimately connected is this type of the suffix with intransitive
;
sense, that in Sanscrit its
Middle
is
used as the Passive of
all
verbs, e.g. kriye, I am made,' kriyate, he is made,' the Passive

In the Balto-Slavic
of karomi, I make,' karoti, he makes.'
'
'
'
'
family of languages these verbs show in the other tenses an

E-suffix, clearly the same as the Greek Passive -77- of -fj,dv-rj-v
beside âtvofiai for *jmM-yo-|uiai, a suffix likewise identified with
This conjugation of intransithe intransitive or passive sense.
tive verbs is not found in Latin, but it has perhaps left its
mark
and -eo, e. g. jacio and

In
most
cases however the E-suffix ousted
jaceo^pavio axidpaveo.
the YO-suffix altogether, e. g. sedeo, sed-e-s, sed-e-mus, &c. from an
in the coexistence of Presents in -io
I.-Eur. Present-stem *sed-yo-(Gk. cfo/xatfor *a-8-ô-//at, O.
H. G.
sizzu for *sed-yo), video, vid-e-s, vid-e-mn*, &c. from an I.-Eur.

Present-stem *wid-yo- (O. Ind. vid-ya-te, he is perceived,' Lith.
'
pa-vydziu
stem in
Sg. Pres.) with another (originally not a Present)
-e- (Lith. pa-vydeti Inf.).
eye-s, vitaij? for *wid-eye-t,
and
[In Goth, vitais for *wid-
in other Teutonic verbs, the
same
intrusion of -e- (-eyo-) into the Pres. -stem is seen as in Latin.]

These Intransitive Verbs with Inf. -ere constitute an important
second Conjugation in Latin, e. g. calere, rubere,

patere they acquire a Transitive sense by appending facia to
a Verb-stem in -e (ch. v.
51), e. g, c&le-faciq, and often take as
part of
the
their Present-stem
'
an ( Inceptive formation in
eruhesco (see
28).
transitive functions
madeo (Gk.
(Gk.
-sco, e. g. incalesco,
The
is
association of this type with the Inseen in pencleo Intrans. beside pendo Trans.,
/na6ao>), vereor
6pao>, ch. iv.
(Gk.
10), clueo
and duo
K\va>).
Another
class of Presents
which show the YO-suffix
With -a, -e, -o after the

example, we have the root pie-,
iii.
'
root.
is
Beside the root
pel-, for
to fill/ with a Present-stem *ple-
to be filling (Lat. im-pleo) ; beside the root ter- we have

the root tre-, ' to penetrate,' (cf . Gk. rprj-â) with a Present-stem
'
'
yo-,
*tre-yo- (O.
H. G.
drau,
Germ,
drehe), as well as the root tra-,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
474
[Chap. VIII.
with a Present-stem *tra-yo- (O. Ind. tra-ya-te, Lat. in-tro for

Unlike the second Conj. verbs just
66).
*-trayo) (see ch. iv.
with
Perfects vuli, sedi, Supines vlsum,
&c.
mentioned, Meo, sedeo,
and
sessum,
cdleo, rubeo,
&c. with Perfects calui, rubui and with
Supines wanting, these e-verbs retain their e throughout the conIn addition to monosyllabic Verbjugation, -plevi, -pletnm, &c.
stems
we have such
Ind. dama-ya-ti),
*ul-uld-yo, ululo
vAcico
we
dissyllabic stems as Lat. *domd-yd, clomo (O.
and a group of onomatopoetic words, e. g. Lat.

(Lith. uT-uTo-ju, and unreduplicated uio-ju, Gk.
Beside the Present-sterns with the YO-suffix
for *v\d-y(i)).
find athematic Presents
O. Ind.
from these roots with -a, -e, -6 (e. g.

Gk. -771^-77X77-^1, ri-rp?]-fu, KI-XTJ-JU)
tra-ti beside tra-ya-te,
which seem to have originally retained the long vowel throughout,

and not to have variation with the weak grade (e. g. O. Ind. tra-sva
2 Sg. Imper. Mid., Gk. Ki-yj]-ntv PI.); and in Latin this athematic
formation appears to be used in all persons but the first, in-trd-s,
in-trd-mus, &c., though this cannot be proved, seeing that, e. g.
im-ples
equally derivable from thematic *-ple-ye-s (cf. tres for

66) as from athematic *-ple-s (O. Ind. pra-si).
is
*trey-es, ch. iv.
The YO-suffix played a great part

a secondary
suffix,
added
to
in the I.-Eur. languages as

e.
g. Lat. pinsio beside
Verb-stems,
(an already-formed Pres.-stem,

10), Gk. eo-fluo beside
or to Noun-stems, &c. to form derivative verbs, e.g. Lat.
curet ') from the Noun-stem
euro, for *curd-yo (Umbr. kuraia,
pinso
0-0(0,
'
*curd-, claudeo for *claude-yd from the Adjective-stem *claude-,

*claudo-,fmio for *Jini-yo from the Noun-stem *fini-, statuo for
**tatu-yo from the Noun-stem *statu-, custbdio for *custofl-yd

from the Noun-stem *custod- and so on. But since the suffix is
t
in these
derivatives usually maintained throughout the Latin
conjugation, pinsitns, custodlvi, custodltus, &c., they are better

reserved for discussion among the Verb-suffixes in
26 (cf. Gk.
dai-o-o),
bai-vv-iJLi
beside
8aico
for
*da-â>).
A-stems follow the analogy of roots with
-a
Derivatives from
(e.
g.
Lat. in-tro,
in-trds, in-lrdmus, see
above) in using the YO-suffix only to form

the thematic ist Pers. Sg. of the Present
Tense, while those
from U-stems use it in all persons, e.

g. statuo, statuis, statuimus.
For Latin athematic forms like curd-mus derived from stem
curd-,
&c.
we may compare
the athematic flexion of similar
THE VERB.
16, 17.]
PRESENT-STEMS.
Derivative Verbs in the Lesbian dialect, e. g.

from stem rt/xd-, Âq-juit, derived from stem
derived from stem are<ai>o-.
'I
475
derived
rt/xd-jae^,
^tXe-, ore0ai;a>/uit
English examples of Present-stems with the YO-suffix are

'
lie
[O. E.G. ligg(i)u, but Pret. lag, I lay'], and the two
'
Pres. Participles
lit.
fijands,
16.
O. Lat.
!
;
which have become Nouns,
'
'
hating
'),
a friend
'
laudo.
364
'
(Goth.
'
(Goth, frijonds,
lit.
We
in the third Conj. Presents with YO-suffix.

cupis, Plaut. Cure.
a fiend
'
loving
have
').
often in
Laudato, quando illud, quod cupis, effecero,
Amph. 555 (so the MSS.) facit, Cure. 258 (?)

by the metre in a line of Naevius (Trag. 30 R.)
facis,
the scansion required
inliclte is
sublimen altos saltus
inlicite, ubi
biped6s uolantes (^MSS. iiolucres) lino linquant lumina
in
of
Pers. Plur.,
monmur
Ennius (Ann. 415 M.)
mine
is
attested by Priscian
attested
vowel
is
i.
est ille dies,
nobis ostendat,
we have
p. 501. 16 H.) in a couplet
si
cum
gloria
maxima
sese
uiuimus siue morimur
adgredlmur, Plaut. Asm. 680, End. 299 and in 3 Sg. Dep. adorttur is
Prise. (1. c.) in a line of Lucilius (or Lucretius iii. 515 ?). The long
especially common in the Inf. of the Deponent in Plautus, e. g.
;
by
(For other examples, see Neue, ii p. 415.)

These forms can hardly be due to the false Analogy of verbs like/mio, -wi,
-itum, -Ire, such as is seen in Late Lat. farci-tus (coined on the type of
adgrediri, morlri, effodlri (cf.parire).
they are a feature of the older language. They rather indicate

that in the period of the early literature the suffix might appear as i or as i,
whereas in the classical period the usage became restricted to one or other of
finl-tus), for
The
these forms
best explanation then of Verbs in -io i Sg. Pres. Ind.

to the third Conjugation is that they are Y6-stems in which -asserted itself, rather than -i-, as the weak grade of -yo- (-ye-}
capere will then
stand for *cap isi, cape for *capi. This does not however preclude the possi-
which belong
bility of other explanations being right in particular cases, such as that

a bystem without -yo- existed, say *fac- beside *fac-yo- (cf. bene-ficent-ior beside
a robber,' Varro, Men. 378 B.), that -1faciens), *rap- beside *mp-yo (cf. rapo,
belongs to a stem in -iyo-, -i- to a stem in -yo-, e.g. specio from stem *spek-yo(cf. Gk. ffKfirTw) with the YO-suffix immediately following on a consonant.
'
17.
Other examples of E-grade
Lat. *verio,
roots.
'
to close,' seen in
I shut,' at-veriu, I open ') (on the loss

of w, see ch. iv.
71) ; incl-uo for *indovo from *-ew-yo, to judge from Umbr.
an-ovihi-mu for *and-ov-I-mu, 'induimino' (ch. iii.
24) from the root ew-,
op-(w)erio, ap-(w)erio (Lith. u2-veriu,
'
to put on.'
'
'
Similarly haurio for aurio (exaurio
is
the almost invariable spelling
Cl
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
476
[Chap. VIII.
of Latin Glossaries, Lowe, Prodr. p. 371 n.} from root aus- (cf. Gk. eavaai, 'to
take out,' egavarrjp, <a flesh-hook'^; croc-io (Gk. Kpojfa from *Kpcay-ycu, Lith.
krok-iu and krog-iu).
18. Of weak grade roots, i. With -io. Lat. ciip-io (0. Ind. kup-ya-ti, is in
agitation') ]ffigio (cf. Horn. -n(-(f>v6T(s for -tpvyyo-) from root bheug- (Gk. <f>fuyoj) ;
'
a step,' 0. SI. gr^d^, ' I come,'
(jrddior from the root ghredh- (Goth, gridi- F.,
'
0. Ir. in-grennim, I pursue, attack,' the last two with Nasalized stem) shows
the weakening of -re- to -ra- mentioned in ch. iv.
51
similarly farcio for
*fratio (Gk. <ppaaaaf) from the root bhreqll- of freqttens (and for the connexion
'
'
cramming and frequency,' cf. saepe and O. Lat. saepissumus, closely
likewise rap-io, if connected with repens, sudden.'
packed,' ch. ix.
4)
ii. Intransitive with -eo.
Lat. riibeo from an I.-Eur. *riidh-yo (O. SI. ru2da_,
with the e-suffix in Inf. rude-ti) torpeo with trp- the weak grade of the root
of
'
'
'
'
terp-
stndeo (cf.
both seem
Noun
to
Gk.
o-TreySoT?)
rfibor, torpeo
'
(cf.
Gk.
fJ-fvca),
andpateo
(cf.
Gk.
irT-avvv(ju),
Lat. a as a
liqueo (liquor, liquidus

lit.
maneo
weak grade of e (ch. iv. 3). Like riibeo with

with Noun torpor and Adj. torpMus are a large number of In-
show
transitive Verbs, cdleo

of per-tineo,
(calor,
cf.
calidiis}, placeo
(placidus
and
Uquor, third Conj.),
to reach through,' trans-Uneo,
468 commeatus transtinet trans parietem)
and -eo.
scateo and scato
forms in
is
so
but Transitive
on
(ch. v.
74).
to reach across
placo},
The
teneo
'
(Plaut. Mil.
the Neuter of Undo.

'
and tuor, to look fulgeo

dbnuo and O. Lat. abnueo (Diom.
382. 1 1 K.). In all of these the form in -o is the older (e. g. contuor, intuor Plaut.,
scato Plaut., Enii., Lucr. fen it andfervere are common in the
early Dramatists,
the latter often in Virgil, but to Quintilian a third Conjugation form of this
verb is inauditum,' Quint, i. 6. 8), while the form in -eo is a new formation
19. Alternative
undfalgo
ferveo
and
ferco
-o
'
Lat. tueor
on the Analogy of the numerous Intransitives in -eo

noil fideo'
We have sordere in Plaut. Poen. 1179.
'
20.
Of roots with
-a, -e,
-6.
(cf.
Caper
109. 16
K. fido
(See also below,
33.)
Latin no for *sna-yo (O. Ind. sna-ya-te,
and athem.
sna-ti, Lat. nat) ; nco for *(s)ne-?yo (Gk. via, O. H. G. nau, Germ.
for *tace-yd (Goth. J)ahai> 3 Sg. from *take-ye-ti, and athem. O. H. G.
dage-s, Lat. tacts) ; Jlo for *fla-yo (cf. 0. H. G. blau from *bhle-yo, perhaps the
nahe),
tiiceo
same word as Lat./feo for *fle-yd, Gk. Âe'cw, to overflow) hio for *hia-yo (Lith.
iW-ju) from the root ghei- jiivo for *jw;a-yd, I.-Eur. *dyugM-yo, from the root
;
'
dyeujjS- (cf. Lith.d2iung-ii-s, I rejoice,' a nasalized Present) (butcf. ch. iv. 64)
citbo for *cub-ayo from the root keubhOf
(cf. -cumbo, a nasalized Present).
;
onomatopoetic words with

to bray (Gk. oyvdoâi
Sg. Pres. in -duo,
we have murmuro,
tintinno, unco,
21. Inceptives, and other Verb-stems.

Though Inceptive
verbs by virtue of their meaning restrict, as a
rule, the in-
ceptive suffix -sko- (-sko-) to the Present sense,

crevi
they
differ
from Present-stem formations
e.
g. cresco,
like sino,
Pt.
Pf t.
'
capio, Pft. cepi, in this respect, that
the meaning, which

something more than the mere sense of action in
present time, e.g. senesco means, not I am old' (seneo), but ' I
become old.' They are therefore better considered in a
slvi,
they express,
is
'
separate
THE VERB.
18-23.]
PRESENT-STEMS.
477
with some verb-formations which are more than

mere Tense-stems, such as Causatives, Intensives, Desideratives,
and the like.
1
section, along
The root shows, as a rule,

22. Inceptives in -sko- (-sko-).
the weak grade, e. g. I.-Eur. *prk-sko- (O. Ind. pr-cha-mi, with
*-skh- for *-sk-)_, ~L&t.posco for *porc-sco, from the root prek-.
It is
sometimes reduplicated in Greek,
but not in Latin unless

(cf.
dt-d/ic-i)
disco,
and not
e.
g. 8i8ao-/c&> for *6t-5aK-o-/cco,
from root deik-, stands for
An
for *d%c-sco.
*di-dc-s<-o,
English Inceptive
is
wash' (O. Engl. wsesce, from a Teut. *wat-sko ist Sg.,

derived from the same root as wet,' water/ Lat. unda, &c.).
C
'
23. Causatives
'
and Intensives in
O-grade, and the accent
on the
rests
The
-eyo-.
root has the
of the suffix.
first syllable
Causatives of this type are a regular feature of the Sanscrit

conjugation, and may be formed from any verb, e. g. man-aya-mi
(Lat. moneo for *mon-eyo) from the root man- (I. Eur. men- ;
memmi
tars-aya-mi (Lat. torreo, O. H. G.

derr(i)u, for *trs-eyo) from the root trs- (I.-Eur. ters-). so that
Lat. moneo was literally f to cause to remember [cf Plaut. Mil.
cf.
Lat.
for *me-meti-i)
'
Edepol memorials optima. Offae monent ; Paul. Test.

115. 6 Th. monitores' qui in scaena monent histriones (our
49
(
prompters ')], torreo to cause to be dry.' These Causatives of
Sanscrit have a different accent from Derivatives in -eyo- from
'
O-stems, in which the accent

'
ya-mi,
falls on the suffix -yo-, e. g. devahonour the gods,' from deva,-, a god (an O-stem,
The same formation often has the Intensive or the
*deiwo-).
Iterative sense,
'
'
e.
g.
Gk.
from I.-Eur. *bhor-eyo,
$ope'o>
'
I carry
'
from the I.-Eur. root bher-, to carry (Gk. <e'pto,

from I.-Eur. *ghôdh-ey6 (O. Ir.
Iat.fero); Gk. TTO^C'CO for
guidiu), I ask or desire earnestly,' from the I.-Eur. root gh"edh-,
'
frequently,'
^06^
'
<
to ask
in
'
(Gk. 0eWeo-0cu).
some languages (O. Ind.
The
P. P. P. of these verbs shows
varti-ta-,
Goth
fra-vardi-]?s),
-I-
-Y-
in
others (cf Lith. varty-ti Inf., O. SI. vrati-ti) ; in Lat. ,e. g. monifais,
nocitns ; and there are indications that the I.-Eur. declension of
.
the Present Ind. was *worteyo

Beitr. xviii.p.519).
lagja,
Sg.,
*wortimos
T PI.. &c.
(P. B.
l lay '(Pres.). in Goth,
the Causative of 'I lie.'
An English example is
from I.-Eur. *logheyo;
'
'
I lay
is
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
478
[Chap. VIII.
These are formed

Noun-stems in
Verbal
from
15), probably
(
with the
from
from
e.
9criptor
scripturio
partor,
-tor-,
g. parturio
same change of unaccented o to u as in fulguro, O. 1&i. fulgtirio
24.
Desideratives
Latin
in
-turio.
with the YO-suffix
(ch.
iii.
26).
25. Latin Iteratives or Prequentatives in -*tayo- are

formed from Perf. Part. Pass.-stems, or rather from the Fern, of
these used as a
Noun
(cf. offensa
beside offemus, repulsa beside
of the YO-suffix, e. g. pulso, older pulto,

repukiis), with the help
from
for *imlta-yo,
puhus, older pultns, P. P. P. of pello. Some-
times the TO-suffix
is
doubled,
e.
g. factito, ventUo.
Other Derivative Verbs with the YO-suffix. The

ending -ayo-, which properly belongs to Derivatives from A- stem
26.
Nouns (e.g. fxomplanta, a plant, a shoot, plantar e, to

to make or turn something into a plant '), acquired a
'
sense,
and was used
any Noun-
plant,
in Latin, as in other I.-Eur. languages,
or Adj. -stem,
'
e.
g. cldrare,
to
make
clear,'
'
lit.
transitive
with
from the
'
Adj. -stem claro-, pulverare, to turn something into dust,' or to

cover with dust,' from the Noun pulvis, a Consonant-stem. The
ending -eyo-, which properly belongs partly to Derivatives from

O-stem Nouns or Adjectives (e. g. elaudeo, to be lame,' from
'
'
claudus, albeo,
to
be white,' from aldus), partly, as a Primary

Verbs like rubeo, sedeo (see
32), is the
suffix, to Intransitive
corresponding intransitive formation, e. g. clarere, to be clear.'

Latin Verbs in -to include Derivative Verbs from Consonant-
from the stem c^lstod-, and from I-stems,

from the Adj. I-stem inani-. This ending acquired
to some extent an intransitive sense, expressing a state of body
or of mind, and was in this capacity applied to other stems too,
e. g. insdnio from the
Adj. O-stem i?isanu#, to be mad, saevio from
stems,
e.
e.
g. custod-io
g. indnio
the Adj. O-stem saewis, to be
27.
fierce.
Other suffixes commonly used
in
forming Verb-stems,
primitive suffixes, the sense conveyed by which cannot now be

detected, were (i) -dh-,e.g. Gk. Kvn-0-<*> beside Kvdu, (2) -d-, e.g.
Gk. A.-So-/ua6 from root wel- (Lat.
volo), which may be nothing
THE VERB.
24-28.]
INCEPTIVES.
479
'
but the Verb-stems dhe-, to put,' and do-, to give (cf. Lat.
{
I set heart
credo, O. Ir. cretim with O. Ind. srad dadhami, lit.
to
as the
'),
'
common Latin ending
-%70, -are, e. g. navigo,
be nothing else than the Verb ago (from *navigus\
seems to
cf. ch. v.
(3) -t-, e. g. Gk. TreK-r-co (Lat. pecto) and TreKreco, beside

which seems connected with the P. P. P. suffix -to- (ch. v.
80)
TTCKO),
27); (4) -s-,e. g. Gk. btyto beside 8e(/>co, rpe-((r)-a> beside rp-/ui-a>,
which seems the same as the ES -suffix of Nouns, e. g. Gk. reAo?,
stem reXeo-- (Gk. reA.e(or)co, re-reAo--rat) ( 3). Latin examples
are: gau-d-eo(Gk. yr\0oâi and yrjfleo)) for *gdvi-d-eo (cf. gdvisiis),
*sal-do (Goth, salta), plecto (O. H. G. flih-tu, Germ,

beside
pltco, -are (Gk. TrAAo)), vlso, older vlsso, veisso for
flechte)
*weid-so (Goth, ga-veiso ; cf the O. Ind. Desiderative vi-vit-sasallo for
mi), qnaeso, older qv.aes-so for *quais-so, beside qiiaero for *q uai8o,
in-cesso for *in-ced-so (cf.
Other Latin endings are (5)
cedo).
i
e.g. capesso, inctpisso (Plant.), j0&#$0 3 O. Lat. petisso (Fest.
-**o,
250. 19 Th.) from capio,peto (or a bystem *petio, whence petivi,

on these see
3 ; (6) -lo and -illo of Diminutive Verbs,
47)
;
e.
g. conscribillo Catull.
two are
-co
(7)
of
alffico, fod/ico,
A- verbs and belong
like Derivative
&c.
the last
to the first Conju-
gation, conscribillare,fodicare, albicare,lik.e meMcari from medicus.

Similarly, (8) -ro of lamb-ero ( 41) is like -TO of the Derivative
temperare from tempns.

Other examples of Latin Inceptives. Misc-eo has added the Causaending to a lost *nnsco [cf. misc sane for misce sane on an old Praenestine
28.
tive
i is seen in the Romance forms,

mesci, 'give me a drink/ the Latin misce m{] with the
weak grade of the root meik-. But the E-grade is retained in O. Lat. esco for
to be,' used for ero (or rather for sum] in
*es-sco, the Inceptive of the root es-,
cista
such as
58)] for *mik-sfco [the shortness of the

Ital. (Tusc.)
'
the
escit,
Laws
&c.,
of the
XII Tables
and even by Lucr.
si
by Ennius, A. 322 M.
619
i.
ergo rerum inter

as
morbus aemtasue uitium
escit,
and
ast el custos nee
summam minimamve
quid escit
?,
dum quidem unus homo Romanus
toga superescit.
Roots extended by -a, -e, -olike gno- from gen-, keep this vowel long, as is their
custom in such cases ( 2)
hence (r/)no-sco (Gk. yi-yvwaKcu, Epir. yvu<jKQ}\
and similarly Latin Intransitives in -eo ( 32
(g)nd-scor, cre-sco, vie-sco, hid-sco
and Derivatives in -o (for *-ayo), -eo, -io (ib.), e. g. rube-sco, con-ttce-sco, irascor, flave-sco, ob-clarml-sco, em-sco [erceiscunda on the Lex Rubria, C. L L. i.
205. (2). 55], desclsco (with^tall form of I on Mon. Anc. v. 28, which also offers
;
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
480
[Chap. VIII.
with an apex over the a) though at a later time, when the difference
between vowels had become less marked, we find some uncertainty
about the e of quiesco (see Gellius, vii. 15, who decides in favour of quiesco, on
tiascerer
of quantity
the strength of cdlesco, mtesco, stfipesco and other Inceptives cf. ch. ii.
144).
The name Inceptive is unsuitable. It is only verbs of the second Conjugation uncompounded with a Preposition, such as calesco, liquesco, to which
a notion of beginning can be attached, and even there the notion conveyed
;
'
'
'
'
rather that of passing into a state or condition, of becoming

than of 'beginning,' e.g. liquesco, 'to pass into a liquid state,' 'to become
The suffix is closely associated with Intransitive Verbs of the second
liquid.'
Conjugation, so closely indeed that these, when compounded with the
by the suffix
is
Prepositions cum,
ex, in
(Prepositions
which convey the idea
always form their Present- stem with this
suffix in
of
good authors,
becoming'},
e. g.
erubesco
(not erubeo), convdlesco (not convaleo), inardesco (not inardeo], unless the Preposition retains its separate force, e. g. e-luceo, to shine out,' co-haereo, Ho be united
with/ which have the force of luceo ex, haereo cum. Intransitive Derivatives
4
from stems
instead of
formed on this type, and take
like dulci-, igni-, grdvi-, &c. are

-isco,
dulcesco,
ignesco,
Intransitive Derivatives from A-stems, &c.,
is
in
-esco
and -dsco of
Late Latin often changed to
gravesco, mitesco, pinguesco,
&c.
gemmesco for gemmasco. The spelling -isco for -esco in Late Latin, e. g.
erubisco, may often be a mere interchange of the similarly sounding vowels i
and e (see ch. ii. 14), but it may also be referred to the Late Latin importa-esco, e. g.
tion of Verbs of the second Conjugation into the fourth (e. g. floriet, florient in
the Itala), which has left its mark on the Romance languages, e. g. Ital. apparire (apparisco Pres.) from Lat. appdrcre ( 33 a). The -iscor of dpiscor, nanciscor,
may be referred to the old forms apio, nancio (whence coepiam, Paul. Fest. 41.
34 Th., nanciam, Prise, i. 513. 17 H.), as the -isso of 0. Lat. petisso to a lost *petio
'
47).
Inceptives from fourth Conjugation Verbs are for the
ante-classical, e.g. condormisco (P\&ut.\edormisco (Plaut., Ter.), perpruto fall asleep,' is
risco (Plaut. Stick. 761), persentisco (Plaut., Ter.), but obdormisco,
(
whence pefm,
'
most part
used by Cicero (Tusc. i. 49. 117). They are mostly Compounds (except scisco},
and the same is true of the Inceptives from third Conjugation Verbs in the
'
'
Republican writers, e.g. resipisco (Plaut., &c.), proficiscor (cf. fdcessere, 'to take
oneself off,' and Late Lat. sefacere, 'to betake oneself,' e.g. intra limen sese
facit, Apul.), concupisco (Cic., Sail., &c.), impKciscier, to become affected (by a
disease), Plaut.
Amph. 729
ubi prim um tibi sensisti, mulier, inpliciscier
?,
though in the poets and later prose writers we have tremesco, gemesco, &c.
Inceptives from first Conjugation Verbs found in the early writers are
'
dmasco (Naev.), Masco (Cat.), Idbasco (Plaut., Ter., Lucr.), collabasco, permdnasco,
but this formation was not continued in the
desudasco, and a few others
;
though we find Derivatives in
-asco, derived from Noun- and

Adj. -stems, e. g. veterasco, resperasco, gemmasco, in which the suffix -sco seems to
be added to change the transitive sense attaching to these Derivative A-verbs
(e. g. darare, to make clear, to clarify,
32) into an intransitive.
It thus appears that an intransitive sense attached to the suffix -sco- in
classical period,
Latin, and that this was the reason of its close association with the Intransitive Second Conjugation.
Its sense of passing into a state or condition
'
suited
it
for acting as the Present Tense-stem of Intransitive Verbs.
'
THE VERB.
29.]
verb with this
from which
suffix
CAUSATIVES.
did not govern an Accusative, unless the simple verb
was formed governed an Accusative,
it
481
Cic., like horrere aliquid (a
construction of
e. g.
perhorrescere aliquid,
horreo, paveo, &c.,
not found before
But in the fifth cent. A. D. the termination acquired a causaCicero's time).

tive sense, e. g. innotescere, to make known, inform ; wollescere, to make soft, not
'to become soft,' a sense which was properly expressed by the Auxiliary facio,
e. g. caU-facio, rube-facio.
suesco
had
at
an
Assuesco, insuesco, mansucsco,
and other compounds
assumed the sense of
earlier period
of
assue-facio, mansue-facio,
and perhaps supplied the type for this new formation, which was widely
extended in the Romance languages (cf.
33 a).
Of individual 'Inceptive' Verbs may be noticed callesco, in whose Perfect
Cato retained the Inceptive suffix, callescerunt 3 PI. [Nonius 89. 26 M. quotes
this form (MSS. calliscerunt) from Cato's speech on the Punic War
aures
nobis callescerunt ad iniurias] obsolesco and exolesco from soleo with P. P. P.
obsoletus, exoMus; adolesco and coalesce (col-} from the root al- (ol-), 'to grow,
nourish (whence indoles, suboles, proles), with P. P. P. adultus, coalttus.
For a list of Latin Inceptives,' and full details of their history, see A. L. L.
:
'
'
i.
465 sqq.
Umbro-Oscan examples are Umbr. pepurkurent
Osc. comparascuster
29.
consulta
&c.
Enn. A. 158 M.
(e. g.
'
rogaverint,'
erit.'
Of Latin Causatives,
or kindle
lucent
O. Lat.
luceo,
to cause to shine/ to light
famuli, turn Candida lumina

lautus luces cereum
Cas. 118
prodmunt
Plaut. Cure, g tute tibi puer es

lucebis nouae nuptae facem) may be a Causative form,
I.-Eur. *louk-eyo (O. Ind. rocaya-mi), and different from luceo, to shine, which
seems to be an intransitive form like sMeo, with -eo instead of -to, I.-Eur.
:
primum omnium huic
noceo, I.-Eur. *nok-ey6 (0. Ind. nasaya-mi) is

*leuk-yo (Gk. \tvaaca]
Causative of the root nek- (Lat. nex", and has in Late and Vulgar Latin
construction which we should expect, viz. with the Accusative case its
with the Dat. in class. Latin must be due to the analogy of obesse, officers,
the
the
use
The
&c.
and these Causative-stems, best seen

in Lithuanian, where the Causatives (e. g. varty-ti Inf.) form their Presentstems with -a- (e.g. varto- for I.-Eur. *worta-), appears in Lat. necclre beside
nocere; domdre may be I.-Eur. *doma- (O. H. G. zamo-, Ho tame'), a byform
of I.-Eur. *dome yo- (Goth, tamja. 0. H. G. zemm(i)u).
In 0. Ind. we have
examples of verbs with this suffix which have not the 0-grade of root, but the
weak grade, e.g. grbh-aya-ti, 'he seizes.' Perhaps Latin ci-eo (beside do) belongs
to this type.
But the ending -eo is sometimes added to other Verb-stems
which have a Causative sense. Thus in Lat. misc-eo it is added to a stem
formed already with the inceptive suffix, so that misceo for *mic-sc-8yo has
really two suffixes (cf. 0. Ind. dhunaya-ti, 'he shakes, shatters,' beside dhuna-ti and dhu-no-ti, Gk. ei'Accw beside ei'Acy for *e A-I/-CU).
And this may be the
rivalry between Transitive A-stems
true explanation of
the formative
Lith. j-un-du,
cieo also.
suffix -dh- (see

'
am
set in
Jubeo for *yu-dh-eyo [from the root yeu- with

27), cf. O. Ind. yo-dha-ti, is set in motion,'
motion ']
'
is spelt
diphthong always found in the perfect

iousiset; cf. iousit
a misspelling (ch.
547
iv.
a,
in the S. C. Bacch. with
(C. I. L. i.
196,
1.
27 ioubeatis,
-ou-,
1.
9,
the
1.
18
1166, iouserunt 199, 1. 4, iouserit 198, 1. 12) ; this, if not

37), will exactly correspond with the O. Ind. causative
yodhaya-mi (I.-Eur. *youdheyo).

Terreo, for which we should expect
*torreo, has in Umbrian the 0-grade of root (Umbr. tursitu, O. Umbr. tusetu,
'
terreto').
i i
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
482
[Chap. VIII.
are
Other Causatives, or Transitive Verbs with the Causative -eo appended,
Com. 78 R. animos Venus
to
rouse
to
Pomponius,
life,
e.g.
regeo (older wfteo?),
&c.
doceo, suadeo, vrgeo, tondeo, torqueo, mordeo, spondeo, augeo,
veget voluptatibus,
30.
marians
These were called by the Latin gramThey were avoided in the higher literature and went
Late Latin. They are not found in the Romance languages.
Of Latin
<
Desideratives.
Meditativa.'
out of use in
cenaturio (see
Examples of Desiderative Verbs are esiirio, parturio, empturio,
Verbs in -urrio (-urio), e. g. Kgurrio, scaturio, are a quite distinct
A. L. L. i. 408
from Verbal Nouns in -uris (e. g. securis}
class, being apparently Derivatives
.
or
-lira (e.
31.
'
g.figwa}.
Of Latin
'
Intensives
in
repeated action
The
Iteratives.
-to,
-so
'
distinction of (i) Iteratives in -ttto, (2)

The suffix in all its forms denotes
'
untenable.
is
the usual type
is
that of a Derivative A-Verb from a Perfect
the first ConjuParticiple Passive, e. g. datare, dormltare, though from Verbs of

to
gation we have sometimes forms in -ito like clamito, wcito, vol-ito, pointing
As the fo-suffix of the P.P. P. became in
P. P.P. rodtus like crfyitus
92).
(
in an older form, merto, pulto

time so- (ch. iv.
155), we have Iteratives
mertare atque pultare dicebant Quint, i. 4. 14 Plautus puns on pultem
('
Subj. and pultem Ace. of puls in Poen. 729), and in the class, form merso, pulso.
Iteratives which add the suffix to a Present-stem, e. g. sdscito Plaut., noscito
Plaut., aglto, are especially frequent in Late Latin, e. g. mergito Tertull., mistito
Script. Gromat., while to the class of Iteratives with double suffix belong actito,
'
'
'
lectito, cantito, dicrtto,
whence
haesito, jactito, ventito, rictito, CMrstfo,/ac^fo,Vulg.-Lat. *taxitare,
Ital. tastare, Fr. tater, 'to taste, try.'
Iteratives are especially used in anteclass. and postclass. Latin. They are
avoided by Terence, and not much used by Cicero and Caesar, hardly at all
by the Augustan writers in fact they seem to have been regarded as a part
In the Romance languages they have often taken
of the uncultured speech.
;
the place of the parent verb, e. g. Fr. jeter (Lat.jacfare), to throw (Lat. jacio),
meriter (Lat. meritare), to deserve (Lat. mereo\ chanter (Lat. cantare), to sing
(Lat. cano). (See A. L. L. iv. 197.) DiiUtare is the Iterative of an O. Lat. verb
dubare (Paul. Fest. 47. 18 Th. 'dubat/ dubitat)
hortari of an 0. Lat. *horwr
[attested in 3 Sg. horitur by Diomedes (p. 382. 23 K.) for Ennius (A. 465 M.)
;
pranclere iubet horiturque], which seems to be a Deponent of I.-Eur. *ghr-yo

'
*heriu,
(Gk. X" 4'^)' a byform of *gher-yo (O. Ind. har-ya-mi, 'I delight in
;
word corresponding to Lat. volo, e.g. Umbr. heris, 'vis,'

heriiad, 'velit.' whence Herentas, the Oscan name of Venus) from the
giistare is apparently an I.-Eur. Iterative of this type (O. H. G.
gher-
the Umbro-Oscan
Osc.
root
coston) from *gus-to-, P. P. P. of geus-, 'to taste' (Gk. 7v((r)eti/, Goth, kiusan,
to approve,' Engl. choose
cf. Germ. Kur-fiirst)
ito, -are (Gk. irrj-rtov} from
*itus P. P. P. of eo, for *itayo (Umbr. etaians, ' itent
piito, -are, to prune, to
')
'
'
think, lit. to sift or cleanse often (in Romance to prune,' e. g. Ital. potare),
from a P. P. P. stem *pu-to-, cleansed (Lat. putus, clean, in the phrase purus
piitusj e.g. Plaut. Pseud. 1200), from the root of Lat. pu-rus, for *putayo (cf.
l
'
'
'
O. SI. pytaja, I investigate,' with u)

habito for habitus,
'
'
domito
which monopolized
from domitus
crepito
from
in class. Lat. the sense of
'
crepitus
to dwell,'
'
inhabit (cf. archaic Engl. to keep/ as in the Merchant of Venice, iii. 3 it is

the most impenetrable cur That ever kept with man), a sense which it shared
:
THE VERB.
30-32.]
in 0. Lat. with hdbeo,
Di
illic
and
tintinnio (also tinnio
non tu in
483
aedibus Habes ?
illisce
habitant, perduint.
Of Latin Derivative verbs
32.
verbs
Plaut. Men. 308
e. g.
homines, qui
illos
DERIVATIVES.
with. YO-suffix.
The onomatopoetic
(whence
tintinnare) , gingrio, to cackle, of geese
gingrina,the name of a small size of fife genus quoddam tibiarum exiguarum,

cf. Gl. Philox.) have a formation analogous to the
Paul. Test. 67. 23 Th.
Sanscrit Intensives (e. g. nan-nam-ya-te from the root nam-, to bend ') and
to Greek iran<paivca for *iraj/-<pav-yca, fjiap/j.aipoj for *fj,ap-/j.ap-yoj, &c., that is to say
:
'
suffix -yo- appended to the fully reduplicated root.

suffix -yo-, as was remarked before (
10), is often added to nasalized
Present-stems, especially in Greek, e. g. K\IVOJ for *K\i-v-yoj from the root klei-,
with the
The
linio, a Late Lat. derivative from lino, the Present tense of the
(Gk. -nriaao} for *imva-yoj} beside pinso; vincio from *vt-n-co, the
nasalized Present of the root vyek- (0. Ind. vi-vyak-ti, 'he encompasses');
sancio beside sacer.
These derivatives naturally retain the nasal throughout
the verb, e.g. P. P. P. pinslttts v,but from pinso, pistus), sanctus (in Vulg. Lat.
and so we have
root
lei-
sacttis,
pins-io
ch.
ii.
70).
Examples of Verbs in -ayo- from Noun A-stems are scintilla, -are from scintilla
lacrimo, -are from lacrima; multo, -are (Osc. woltaum Inf.) from multa; insulior,
morari from
-ari, insidiae
maculo, -are from macula praedor, -ari from praecla
mora [in 0. Lat. always transitive, 'to cause delay,' 'to detain,' whence nil
:
moror (hanc rem), I do not care for, lit. 'I do not (care to) detain']. Lat.
frompoena, may exhibit an alternative method of forming deriva-
poenio, punio,
from Noun A-stems, viz. with the mere suffix -yo-, the final vowel
Noun-stem being suppressed, as in derivative Adjectives like Gk. rt^-tos
from
or may follow the analogy of derivatives from I-stems, or deriva-
tive verbs
of the
TifjL-t]
from Consonant-stems.
Of Transitive Verbs from 0-stems amplant, 'pro amplificant,' Pacuv. Trag.
339 R. (ap. Non. 506. 30 M.
now, -are from novus sdno, -are from sanus wa-rro,
-are froiagndrus (?) v ch. ii.
spolior, -ari from
132)
arnw, -are from arma PI.
spolium mimero, -are from numerus loco, -are from locus
dono, -are from donum
cumiilo, -are from cumulus
damno, -are from damnum. This use of the -AYOsuffix for Derivative Verbs from 0-stem Nouns and Adjectives is common in
tives
all I.-Eur.
languages,
e. g.
Goth,
frijo,
1 love
'
(of
which Engl.
friend
'
is
Pres. Part.), O. SI. prija-ja, O. Ind. priya-ya-te 3 Sg., all from an I.-Eur. 0-stem,
*priyo- (O.-Ind. priya-,
dear'), O. Ir. caraid, 'he loves,' from I.-Eur. karo-.
'
'
dear
'
(Lat. cdrus).
On
the use of
-ato-
as a Participial Adjective suffix,
mean-
ing 'provided with,' 'clothed in,' &c., e.g. armatus, dentatus, pilatus, from
pilum, cordatus in Ennius' egregie cordatus homo (cf. re-cordari), see ch. v. 28.
It is probably seen in Gaulish yaiaaroi [gaesati, Gaulish mercenaries,' C. G. L.
'
23 (?)], from Gaulo-Latin gaesum, a spear.

The natural formation from 0-stems is sometimes in -eyo-, e. g. Gk. (pi\(ca.
to love, for *<îXe-?/cu, from ^'Aos, dear (stem $1X0- or <pi\-, ch. v. 2), dSwarecy,
to be unable, from dSvvaros, unable
sometimes in -yo- merely, e. g. Gk. /m\iffaoj for */ne<Atx-2/o> from /xctXtx 05
With the latter Lat. unio from unus, blandior from Nandus may be compared, as in Noun derivative YO-stems we have
somn-ium from somnus, Octarius from Octavus, &c. (ch. v. 4) with the former,
intransitive Verbs from second Declension Adjectives, like claudeo from
daudus, albeo from albus, cldreo from clarus, flaveo from Jlanis [as in Adjective
derivative YO-stems like aureus from aurum (i&.)], unless these follow the
v. 71.
I i
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

analogy of Intransitives like
sedeo
for I.-Eur.
[Chap. VIII.
*sed-yo (see above,
15),
(The correspondtheir ending will be not -eyo but -Syo.

I grow hard,' from
Lith. k4te-ju,
ing verbs in Balto-Slavic have -eyo, e. g.
The same distinction between transitive -o, -are and
which case
in
'
'hard')-
ketas,
in primary verbs like liquare and Kquere.

(On the
-eo, -ire is seen
e. g. ferv-eo, fulg-eo, O. Lat. fervo,
proneness of Intransitive Verbs to take -eo,
intransitive
ful-go, see
19.)
We have also
Participial Adjectives in -otus, e. g. aegrotus from aeger (stem

Gk. fjnaeu-ros from /naflos, Lith. ragii-tas from ragas, a horn,' with
corresponding Verb-stems in Greek and Lithuanian, e. g. Gk. /uÔou, Lith.
Derivatives from I-stems
juku-ju, but no *aegroo or *aegro, -os, -omus in Latin.
'
<w#ro-), like
have
-!yo-, e. g. O.
'
Ind. kaviya-te,
he acts
like a seer,'
from
kavi-,
seer,'
'
Gk. fj.rjTioiJ.at (f ) from nfjns,

he desires a wife/ from jani-, a wife
Kovica (T) from KUVIS; Latin examples are iflnio from finis, lenio
fjirjvio} (f) from prjvts,
from lenis; they show -I- in the Perfect Participle Pass., &c., e. g. Gk. a-Srjpl'
'
janiya-ti,
TOJ, Lat. finl-tus, lem-tus, molli-tus, insigm-tus, vestl-tus,
tus
from
sors,
0. Lat.
frompotis (0. Ind. pati-,

with an Active potio (e. g.
'
'
possit,'
putiians possint
'
Satrft-ya-ti,
acts like
(from U-stems,
dafcpv
stabili-tus, e-rudl-
which was used in Oscan

'
munl-tus,
comes sortior from pars, stem jparfi-, comes parfo'or

to become master of,'
lord,' Gk. Trocrts) comes potior,
Plaut. Rud. 911 piscatu nouo me uberi conpotiuit),
sort's,
as the equivalent of the Latin possum (Osc. putiiad

97)- U-stem derivatives have -uyo-, e. g. 0. Ind.
'X
an enemy,' from
e. g.
metuo from metus, with -v-
satru-,
'an enemy,' Gk.
Safcpvaj
(ti)
from
laxvu in the Dramatists), Lat. stdtuo from status,

in the Perf. Part. Pass., e. g. Gk. d-Sa/fpu-ros, Lat.
(from the stem argu- of 0. Ind. arju-na-, 'white,' Gk. dpyvFrom the analogy of a number of verbs of
a needle) 1
similar meaning, which happened to be formed with one or other of these
types of YO-suffix, a definite meaning came to attach itself in the various languages to certain suffixes. Thus in Sanscrit the ending -ryo- came to acquire
a desiderative sense and was used to convey this notion, not merely in derivatives from I-stems, e. g. jamya-ti, he desires a wife,' from jani-, a wife,' but
in derivatives from other stems too, e.g. putriya-ti, 'he desires a son,' from
a son (an 0-stem). In Latin, as we have seen, the desiderative
putra-,
ending is -turio, e. g.^rwtwn'o, but it is possible that the en ding -id conveys this
sense in catfilio from the 0-stem cai-ulus, equio from equus.
A fact of more certainty is that Latin -o. for *-ayo was used to give a transitive sense 2 e. g. claro, -are, to make clear, from the O-stem clarus, now, -are from
argu-tus
statil-tus,
pos), acu-tus (cf. acus,
'
'
'
'
notus (and so in other languages,

29, e. g. 0. H. G. niuwon, though in Greek
the ending -oca ousted -aco from this usage, e. g. veoca, to make new, from i/e'os,
vyioca,
had
to
make
healthy, from
1/71179),
-eo.
to give
e. g.
an intransitive
while
-io
possibly
to be
g. ferocio, -ire,
1
These Derivatives in -uyo- must
be distinguished from Presents ending in -nuo, like minuo (0. Ind. mi-
no-mi, from I -Eur. *mi-neu-mi, io),

as well as from a Present like pluo
(0. Lat. plovo,
6),
and Latin
dareo, -ere, to be clear, from the same stem, ctoro-,

attached to it the notion of a state of body or mind, e.
sense,
and from
from I.-Eur.
*plevvo,
fluo.fruor, &c.,
whose
root has a Guttural
(cf. fluxi, fructus,
Suo represents an I.-Eur.

*syu-yo (Goth, siuja, Lett, schuju,
Gk. Kaaavw).
39. 3).
On First Conjugation Deponents

with intransitive sense, e. g. aemulari,
2
fluctuari
(and Jluctuare), see
62, 64.
THE VERB.
32.]
DERIVATIVES.
485
(Cato, &c.), saevio, -ire, to be fierce, insdnio, -ire, to be insane, dentio,

to be teething, as -aca, -iaca were used in bodily ailments in Greek, e. g.
6(f>8a\îaa}, uSovriaca, or desideratively, e. g. roâca.
haughty
-ire,
The -Y6- suffix was thel.-Eur. suffix by which verbs were formed fromNouns
and Adjectives, e. g. 0. Ind. apas-ya-ti from apas-, pas- (Lat. op MS), Gk. bvoBut in Latin, denominative -yo}j.aiv(a for *6vofjLn-yoj from ovofj.a (Lat. nomen\
has been to a great extent supplanted by -a-yo- (see below). Thus the Latin
equivalents of the Sanscrit and Greek verbs, just quoted, are operari and notmThis process of extending the AYO-suffix at the expense of theYO-suffix
as late as the literary period. Many O. Lat. verbs of the fourth Conj.
e. g. 0. Lat. fulgorio (fulgur-io}, from
are in class. Lat. verbs of the first Conj.
fulgur, used by Naevius (Trag. 13 E.)
nare.
went on
suo sonitu claro fulgoriuit luppiter,

is in class Lat. fulguro, -are ; impetrire is the old form of impetrare, consecrated
to religious usage, like porncere the old form of projlcere (ch. ix.
44) ; artire,
Cato, &c. is in class. Lat. artare ; of. dolitus, Varro, Men. 7 B. for dolatus ; atritior,
Compar. of atntus, Plant. Poen. 1290 (if this is the right reading) gnarivisse
quoted (apparently from Livius Andronicus) by Paul. Fest. 68. 5 Th., for
C. G. L. v. 72. 9 gnoritur: cognitum
narrasse (cf. Gl. Philox. gnaritur: yvupi^Tcu
;
sive
compertum est).
The old formation remains
from custos
through lack of food
in custodio
dentio, to
grow teeth
'
in Mil. 34, where the

parasite apologizes to the audience for his complaisance in listening to the
soldier's bragging aiiribus Peraudienda suiit, ne dentes dentiant), though
'
(used by Plautus for
to suffer
the Participial Adjective. In dentio we have the

same -YO- or -lYO-suffix as in the Verbs indicating disease, state of body, &c.
(see below), like insdnio from insanus.
When a Verb is compounded with anything but a Preposition the Compound assumes the form of an A-Derivative, e. g. aedificare from aedes and
facio, sacriflcare from sacrum and/acio (cf. sacrificus), as in Greek we have -ecu of
Manddre seems to be a similar formation, as if a Derivative
olKoSofj-fcu, &c.
and the Derivative Verbs in
Verb from *mam-dus, giving into the hand
and not
dentdtus,
dentltus, is
'
'
-igo,
(on 0. Lat. purigo, jurigo,

Moriyerari, to
13) point to *navigus, &c. from navis and ago.
devote oneself to (also morem gerere), comes from the Adj. morigero-are, jur(i)go, -are
-are, e. g. ndvigo, -are, pu-r(i)gOj
see ch.
iii.
humour,
(Plaut. Amph. 1004 meo
a stem
*opi-tulo-,
&c.
(cf.
me aequomst morigerum
ch. v.
patri esse) opvtula/ri from

(On the predominance of the A-
80, p. 363).
33 a.)
type of Verb in Latin, see
Examples of these endings are
:
(i) -o, -are
nomino, -are
from nomen
coZoro,
from
from privus ignoro, -are to make unrecognizable, Plaut.
-are from pius
sacro, -are from sacer
probo, -are from p/rdbus
gravo, -are, to make heavy, from grams clcuro, -are from cicur (not ?, Rev. Philologie,
xv. 64) lew, -are, to make light, or to lift, from lecis pdro, -are, to make equal,
from par, Plaut. Cure. 506
-are
from
color
examen prlvo,
Men. 468 pio,
;
onero, -are
from onus
-are
scelero, -are
from
scelus
examino, -are
eodem hercle uos pono
et
paro
parissumi estis hibus.
Ampliare, to adjourn a case, is a rough-and-ready Derivative from amplius, the

judge's phrase in giving notice of adjournment similarly comperendinare, to
remand for two days, from (com^perendinus (dies'), Vulg. Lat. *hucare, to call
;
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
486
some explain negare as a Derivative of this

Germ, verneinen from nein), or rather from its byform
sort
the byform being chosen to avoid confusion with necare, to

the d so often seen in Verbs compounded with a Preposition,
kill.
hither (Fr. hucher), from hue
from
nee
(ch. x.
[Chap. VIII.
(cf.
neg-
18),
Whether
e. g.
proJUyare (from ftlgo}, occupare (from capio), aspernari (from sperno) is due to the
transitive sense of the Compound, or to derivation from lost Adjective-stems
not clear.
(On amplio see K. Z. xxxiii. 55.)
be hoarse, from raucus singultio from singultus (U-stem),
*profligo-, *occ?<po-, *asperno-, is
(2)
-ioj -Ire
raucio, to
from blandus, largior from largus, prae-sdgio from sdgus (an Adj.
especially found in the Fem. saga, a go-between, e.g. Lucil. vii. 6 M. saga et
bona conciliatrix)
-* re
wdeo from (Indus [0. Lat. ardus, e. g. C. 1. L. i. 577. (2). 21 see
k3)
ch. iii.
13], which is the Adjective corresponding to areo, as cdlulus to cdleo,
nitidus to niteo, &c. (ch. v.
74)
audeo, from amdus, the Adj. corresponding to
to have a mind to,' e. g. Plaut.
areo, had originally the sense of to be eager/
Mil. 232 auden participare me quod commentu's, whence the colloquial sodes
(Terence, &c.), 'if you please,' for si audes (Plaut., e.g. Trin. 244 da mihi
hoc, mel meum, si me amas, si audes) (ch. iv.
67 \ These two classes of
verbs in -eo must be kept distinct, the Derivatives from 0-stem Adjectives
ttkejldveo, ardeo, audeo, and the Intransitives with Nouns in -or and Adjectives
blctndior
'
>
'
'
in -idus, e.g. caleo (calor, caUdus}, areo (aridus), aveo (avidus), niteo \nitor, nitidus')
67, 74).
(see ch. v.
Of other Verb-suffixes
onjubeo withjub-, for *dyu-dh-, lit.

(i) -dhrouse to action/ see
29.
(2) -d- tondeo seems to be Causative of a lost *tendo (Gk. rtVSo;, to gnaw), for
*tem-do from the root tern-, to cut ' (Gk. Ttp.-vca) per -cello for *cel-do (cf.
33.
'
to set in motion,'
'
'
cla-d-es,
Gk.
K\a-S-affai-
atiaai,
Hesych.) from a root kel-
(cf.
Gk.
airo-rc\-d-s}
trudo
(Goth. us-]>riuta, 'I trouble';.

Since -dh- would become d in Latin (ch. iv.
114), it is impossible to
determine whether the suffix -dh- or -d- appears in cu-do (cf. Lith. kau-ju),
1
for *frem-do (cf. /re wo), ten-do from the root ten-, ' to
fren-do (and frendeo)
'
stretch
(cf. Gk. reivca for *T(vyca'), of-fen-do and de-fen-do from the root
ghen-
'cf.
95,
Gk.
Ocivca
for
*0fi/-ycy).
and on mando
(first
On
Conj.)
pando,
mando (third Conj.),
vendo, see
14,
32, above.
so some explained the name

methel, a reaper
cannot be dissociated from Gk. aâta
nor flee-to
from falx. But this formation is not so common in Latin as in Greek, though
all of the numerous Gk. Verbs in
-TTTOJ, e. g. TUTTTCW, x aX ** TQ}
y be formations
with the YO-suffix, for -py- seems to have become -ITT- in Greek, *Tvir-yoj,
The E-grade of root seems to be used with the
*XaA67r-?/cw, &c. (ch. iv.
65).
T- as with the D-suffix, so that plecto
(from root plek-, Gk. rr\o>) is the correct
form, 0. Lat. -plocto being due to false Analogy (cf. pondus with o by Analogy of
(3) -t-
Metellus,
me-to
L6we,
(cf.
Mid.
Prodr.
s.
Ir.
'
v.)
pondo-, ch. v.
(4) -s(
72,
and see above,

shows the ending
7).
-io of verbs
indicating bodily ailments, &c.
3 2 ) attached to a lost *pruro for *preu-so (0. H. G. friusu, Engl. I freeze) from
:
pru-r-io
1
The two forms frendo andfrendeo
have been explained by a supposed
original
declension like fren-des
(I.-
Eur. *-dhes) 2 Sg., fren-ditis (I.-Eur.

*-dhtes) 2 PI.
THE VERB.
33.]
DERIVATIVES.
487
with Gk. avca, a development of *avyca (cf. Lat. aug-eo, a Causa29) with the suffix -s- (cf. I.-Eur. *auges-, *augos-, a neuter noun,
O.Ind. djas, strength' cf. Lat. augus-tus), we may compare Lat. aux-ilium, and
the Umbrian formula in invocations of deities orer ose, if this means his (sc.
donis) macte,' ose being Voc. of a stem *aukso- with the sense of Lat. auctus.
If arcesso is connected with accMo as incesso with incedo, the suffix must in
this Verb have Causative force (cf. Lib. Gloss. arcesserat,' advenire compulerat
Porphyr. ad Hor. Epp. i. 17. 50 corvus cum accedit ad cibum, strepitu
the root p"reu-
tive formation,
'
'
vocis alias aves arcessit), but the use of r for d before c is peculiar (ch. iv.
ii2\ Accerso is a metathesis of arcesso and belongs to colloquial Latin (e. g.
Terence, Petronius), as arcesso to legal phraseology (see A. L. L. viii. 279).

Quaeso, in older spelling quaesso(c}\. ii.
129), from *quai-s-s-o, is in the earlier
writers used along with quaero (older quairo, C. I. L. i. 34, from * quai-s-o\
Plaut. Bacch. 178
e. g.
mirumst me, ut redeam,

Enn. Ann. 143 M.
te opere taiito quaesere,
(a description of Ostia)
idem
Ostia munitast.
loca nauibus celsis
munda
and
i
facit nautisque mari quaesentibus uitam,

liberum quaesendum causa 1 in classical Latin it is found in
i PI. quaesumus.
(On the spelling quacsimus in MSS. of Cic., see
The spelling with u seems to be an affectation due to the
437.
Trag. 97 E.
Sg. quaeso,
Neue,
ii
2
.
p.
archaic character of the word.)

These bear the same relation to the stems just mentioned as Lat.
(5) -ss-.
They are called Desiderativa by Priscian (i. 431,
amasso, &c. to dixo, capso.
18 H.), who explains capesso as desidero capere
In MSS.
(i. 535. 10 H.).
they are often confused with Inceptive' forms, e.g. lacescentem for Idcessentem,
'
'
'
'
'
capescit for cdpessit (for
(6)
Verbs in
-illo.
of examples, see A. L. L. i. 515).

These are hardly to be separated from A-Derivatives
a
list
from Diminutive Nouns in -ilia-, Adjectives in -illo-, &c., such as scintillare from
They are eviscintilla, stillare from st'illa (cf. sfiria), tranquillo from tranquillus.
dently Diminutive Verbs derived in the same style from Verbs instead of
Nouns. Examples are conscrtbillare from conscr'tbo, e. g. Catull. xxv. n
:
ne laneum latusculum manusque mollicellas

inusta turpiter tibi flagella conscribillent
Varro, Men. 76 B. itaque eas inceravi et conscribillavi Herculis athlis Varro,

Men. 280 B. astrologi non sunt ? qui conscribillarunt pingentes caelum
occillare from occo, Plaut. Amph. 183
sorbillo from sorbeo
obstringillare from
;
obstringo, e. g,
Enn.
.
Sat.
ii.
M.
restitant. occurrunt, obstringillant, obagitant.
(See A. L. L. iv. 68. 223.)

have -lo in vapulo, verttld-bundus,
We
(7)
-co
in
preceding
ventilo, ustalo,
suffix.
quaesere.
quaesentibus,
vocalic
quaesendum,
cannot be the 0. Lat. forms of quaeas

quaerentibus,
quaerendorum,
Valesius of Valerius, &c., for inter-
rere,
&c.
seems to have the same Diminutive force as the

As the Adj. suffix -co- is often combined with -lo- in Diminu-
albico, fodico, velltco
>.
had become
the time
of
(ch. iv.
148).
Plautus
long before
and Ennius
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
488
tives, e. g. piter-cu-lus (ch. v.
31), so
oneself (in yawning) Plant. Men. 834
we have
^Chap. VIII.
in Verbs pandfculans, stretching
(cf. gesticulari
from
gesticulus,
Dim.
ofgestus).
can hardly come from sldus, a star, but must with desldero
be an extension of a Verb-stem -sld-. Other examples of this formation are
ConsidSro
(8) -ro.
mdcero, recupero,
tolero.
Other formations. Verbs in -igo, -are, e. g. 0. Lat. gnarigavit, used by

Liv. Andr. for narravit (Paul. Test. 68. 5 Th.}, with an Auxiliary ago giving
a Causative force, have been already mentioned ( 27), and verbs in -fico, -are
(
32), e.g. ampliflco, -are, in which an Auxiliary fdcio plays the same part.
Facio does not enter into so close composition with the Verb in bene facio, are
fucio (Lucr. vi. 962 sol excoquit et facit are) calefacio later calefacio with the same
42), consue facio (Varro,
shortening of a final long vowel as in have (ch. iii.
R. R ii. 9. 13 consue quoque faciunt) (on this -e see
34), compendi facio, to cut
and we have an Accusative
short (Plaut. orationis operam compendiface)
case-form as the first element of venum-do (vendo~) venum eo (veneo\ pessum-do,
pessitHi eo (on credo, see
32 on pando, mando-, -ere, 14).
27 on mando, -are,
Other Latin Verb-suffixes are -ut()io of balbutio, to stammer, friguttio, to
(9)
-urrio (-urio) of ligurrio, scaturio (on which see above,

30) ; -cinor, -art
of patrocinor, lenocinor (cf. patrocXnium, lenocmium), ratidcinor, alucinor, tuburcinor,
&c.
-isso, -are, which is borrowed from Gk. -ifa, e. g. atticisso (dTTt/fiô')j graecisso,
chirp
33
patrisso (cf.
33
a.
a).
The Conjugations
in
Romance.
In
Romance
the
languages the Latin Conjugations are much better preserved than

the Latin Declensions (ch. vi.
The first Conjugation is the
i).
prevailing type.
Its
encroachment on the others even in the Latin
shown by Vulg. Lat. 1 forms like ficldre (Fr. fier, Span,

period
fiar), a Derivative homftdus, which supplanted cl&ss.fidere, as the
Derivative pectinare supplanted pecter e (Caper 93. 8 K. pecto caput
non pectino,' et pexum non pectinatum '), as well as from the
fact that Greek loanverbs appear
naturally to drift into it,
is
'
'
6\l/a)velv
becoming obwnare,
-npo-niveiv
loanwords in French take -er (Lat.
propinare,
&c.
as
just
-are), e. g. trinquer,
and
in
The freaks of
marschieren, amusieren.
false Analogy appear in
Vulg. Lat. fuglre, cuplre, &c. (Ital.
Sard, kubire, Prov. cobir), with
fuggire, Fr. fuir, Span, huir
transference to the fourth Conjugation
the
of their
German,
-ieren,
e.
g.
by
Sing. Pres. Ind.,fuffio, cupio
analogy
in Vulg. Lat. flonre,
complwe
compire cf. Fr. emplir), with
a similar transference, due to the
identity in Vulg. Lat. of -eo
(Ital.
fiorire,
Fr.
fleurir;
and -w (both pronounced

1
The same tendency appears
early
period.
from
*c?fa,
Celare,
concealment,
Ital.
-yo, ch.
at
an
Derivative
has
sup-
ii.
149); and the confusion
planted *celo (cf. occulo), and the same

explanation should perhaps be given
of sonare (Perf. sonui], &c.
(See
32.)
THE VERB.
33a, 34.]
IMPERFECT.
489
and third Conjugation Verbs, which we have already

remarked in the Latin of Plautus in the case otf&rveo, sordeo, &c.
of second
the
9),
e-
is
intensified in
and ^-sounds
forms
Romance through
141), so that
ii.
(ch.
like respondere (Ital.
the approximation of
we have Vulg. Lat.
Fr.
rispondere,
repondre), tondere
of the Perfect
tondre), and (by Analogy
(Ital. tondere, Fr.
tense sapid) sapere (Ital. sapere, Fr. savoir)

so Anal, of potui,
became
Lat.
posse
potere (Ital. potere, Span, poder), and
Vulg.
of
Anal,
velle
vole-re
became
volui,
by
(Ital. volere, Fr. vouloir).
;
The
Perfects struxi, tmxi, prostrdvi, contrivi have similarly produced the Vulg. Latin forms tragere (Ital. trarre, Fr. traire),
de-truire), prostrare (Span., Port,
strugere (Ital. struggere, Fr.

prostrar),
contrive (Span.,, Port, curtir).
Conjugation often show the

e.
'
'
Inceptive
g. Ital. unisco Pres. Ind., unire Inf.,
a fuller account of the

Liibke,
Rom. Gram.
ii.
Verbs of the fourth

suffix in their Present,
on which
28.
see
Romance Conjugations,
(For
consult Meyer-
pp. 137 sqq.).
Of
Derivative Verb endings may be noticed (i) -icare, a frequent formation in Vulg. Lat., e. g. ^mvware, to snow (Ital.
nevicare, Fr. neiger), (2) -uliare (Gk. -ifew), which appears in
Ital. as -eggiare, in Fr. as -oyer, in Span, as -ear, e. g. Ital.
biancheggiare, O. Fr. blanchoyer, Span, blanquear, (3) -antare,

-entare (cf. Lat. praesentare), used for Factitive Verbs, e. g. *expaventare, to terrify (Ital.
Span,
spaventare, Fr. epouvanter,
espantar)
(ib.
ii.
pp.
604
sqq.).
In Slavonic the Imperfect is formed

a
of the Substantive Verb (i Sg. *jachu
Preterite
by appending
from original *es-o-m, I was ') to a case form (usually called an
34. B. Imperfect.
'
Instrumental) of a Verbal Noun. Thus of the verb to see/ of

which the Inf. is vide-ti (Lat. vide-re), the Imperfect (i Sg.) is
vide-achu, lit. I was a-seeing ; of the verb to carry/ Inf.
'
'
'
'
(from the I.-Eur. root nek- of Gk. ezêy/cetr, &c.), the

Imperfect ( i Sg.) is nese-achu of glagola-ti, to speak/ the
nes-ti
'
Impft.
(i Sg.) is
glagola-achu.
an Imperfect was followed

chosen was not I.-Eur. es-.
The same method
of forming
in Latin, only the Auxiliary verb
Lat. vicle-bam, fere-bam, amd-bam,
are formations consisting of a Verbal
Noun-stem (probably
in
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
490
[Chap. VIII.
some case form such as the Instrumental) followed by the

The b of the Latin Imperfect
Preterite of an Auxiliary verb.
is in Umbro-Oscan f (Osc. fu-fans, 'they were'), and must
represent an I.-Eur.
puf, O.
$1. kiide,
bh or dh
Umbr.
g. Lat. ubi,
(e.
O. Ind. kuha from an
I.-Eur.
pufe, Osc.
DH-suffix)
of the
from the
which
is similarly
Latin Future vide-bo, amd-lo, &c. (see
36),
in the Italic languages /, e. g. Fal. kare-fo carebo/ but whose
equivalent in O. Ir., b, e. g. no charub, amabo [quasi *nu (nunc)
carabo] (cf. Lat. earns), shows it to represent I.-Eur. bh, not dh
(which would be d in O.-Ir.). The Auxiliary verb used must
(ch. iv.
It can hardly be separated
114).
Jj
'
'
then have been the I.-Eur. root bheu-, whence Lat. fui, O. Lat.
and Lat. -lam, -Ids, -bat, 3 PI. -bant (Osc.

may represent an I.-Eur. Preterite *bhwam, -as, &c.
Subj.fuam, &c.
-fans)
(on the loss of postconsonantal w,
see ch.
iv.
71),
seen in
ba (from *bam), and corresponding to the Lat. Preterite

of the verb es-, cram (from *esam).
The Verbal Noun-stem
employed recurs in such formations as the Fut. vide-bo, are-bo,
O.
Ir.
well as in Verbs
scl-loy as
an d
33- 9);
compounded with facio,
Adverbs compounded with
sei-licet, i-licet, (ch. ix.
e.
g. are-facio
licet, e.
g. vide-licet,
It appears in the Ace. case in O. Ind.
7).
Perfects like vid^-cakara, compounded of vidam, the Ace. Sg.

of a Verbal Noun
and cakara, the Perfect of kr-,
Lat.
(cf
'
make
'
vide-)
Gk.
Kp-aiva), Lat. creo). Lat. vide-, amd-,

be
as
the bare stem of the Verb without any
Jini- might
regarded
but
this explanation does not suit with lege-bam, for
Case-suffix,
the Verb-stem would here be lege- (lego-), and the only way of
to
(I.-Eur. ker-,
1
avoiding this difficulty would be to suppose that Verbs of the
third Conjugation followed the Analogy of Verbs of the second
Conjugation, *lege-lam becoming lege-bam after the fashion of

vide-bam, as in the third Declension of Nouns Consonant-stems
followed the analogy of I-stems in their
becoming
milit-es like part-es
Nom.
PL, *milit-es
-eyes, ch.
vi.
(originally
40).
similar change of their Imperfect formation was made
by
Verbs of the fourth Conjugation in the second century B. c., for
Some prefer to regard the Latin

Imperfect as formed of a Verbal Noun
in -es with an Auxiliary. In that
1
case legebam will represent *leges-bam

(cf.
ch. iv.
151).
THE VERB.
35, 36.]
FUTURE.
491
while these have -ibam (or -iebam} in Plautus and the earlier
writers, e. g. audi-bam (and audie-bam), they follow exclusively in
classical Latin the analogy of Verbs like facio in their Imperfect
audie-bam like fade-bam, as in their Future audiam (O. Lat.
audlbo and audiam) like faciam.
The Romance languages point
to a Vulgar Latin Imperfect of the second and third Conjugations
in -earn, of the fourth in -lam
Port, dormia, O. Fr. diseie
'
g. Sard, timia, finia,
(e.
disais,' senteie
'
sentais
Span, vendia,
while the
'),
Conj. Impft. had -dbam (e. g. Sard, istava from Lat. stdbam),
but whether this may be taken as evidence that byforms *time-am,
first
*Jim-am, &c. formed like er-am, *bhw-am, existed in Latin from

the earliest times is doubtful (see Meyer-Liibke, Rom. Gram.
ii.
p.
282
and
cp.
below,
37).
The Imperfect Subjunctive
is
formed with an
S-suffix
which
usually referred to the Substantive Verb es-, appended as an

auxiliary, though some explain it as a Noun-stem suffix, comis
paring dger-em (on Subjunctive e, see

55) to ay ere for *ages-i,
Loc. Sg. of a Neuter S-stem *agos, *ages-os Gen., ferr-em for
*fers-em toferre for ^ferse, dinar em, merer em, audirem to amare,
merere, audire (see
83).
Fourth Conj. Impft. in -ibam. These forms are very common indeed
35.
in the Dramatists, e.g. Plant. Aid. 178
praesagibat
and the Republican
mi animus
poets,
e. g.
frustra
Lucr.
v.
iiec scibat ferro
me
934
ire,
quom exibam domo,
molirier arva,
and are often used by the Augustan poets and their followers, where the
ordinary form would not come into a dactylic line, e. g. lenibat in Virg. A.
vi.
468
lenibat dictis
From
eo,
animum
lacrimasque ciebat.
the classical Imperfect remained ibam, ptr-ibam,
ven-llxtm,
and from
queo, qulbam, ne-quibam.
Aibam, a dissyllable, is the usual form in Plautus, but we have also a iebam,
Rud. 1080 quam esse aiebas (MSS. alebas).
The question whether -ibam or -iebam was the correct ending for these
fourth Conjugation Imperfects was a matter of discussion among Roman
grammarians. We hear of a certain Aufustius who wrote a treatise, dedicated to Asinius Pollio, to show that veniebam and similar forms were preferable
e. g.
to venibam, &c.
This forma(I.-Eur. *bhwd).

(i) In -bo.
shared by the Celtic languages [e.g. O. Ir. no charub
36. C. Future,
tion
is
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
492
'amabo,' quasi *nu (mine) carabo

in Faliscan, karefo carebo,' pipafo
'
'
'
(cf.
'
[Chap. VIII.
Lat. cams}], and appears

in the inscription on
bibam
'
hodie vinum
a drinking bowl foied vino pipafo, kra karefo
In
class. Lat. it
Scav.
carebo
eras
1887,
p. 262).
bibam,
(Not.
'
'
confined to the first and second Conjugations, amdbo, vide-bo,

but in the early Dramatists the fourth Conjugation Verbs show
-ibo as well as -iam in the Future, and in the plebeian Latin of
is
Novius' Atellanae, or rustic farces, we find vivebo, for vlvam,

dicebo for (Ucam (as in the Atellanae of Pomponius paribis for
These last forms are doubtless due to the
paries, Com. 20 R.).
influence of the Imperfect in -bam (see the preceding section),
a formation shared by the third Conjugation, as well as the
1
and fourth
wvebam, dicebam called into existence

;
on the analogy of videbam, cdrebam, which had Future
forms videbo, carebo. This -bo of the Future Tense, Falisc. -fo,
O. Ir. -b(o) is clearly some part of the Verb bheu- (Lat. j%, &c.),
second,
first,
vivebo, dicebo,
which we have seen -bam of the Imperfect Tense to be

The Future of Latin sum, ero, is a Subjunctive
with
a meaning which seems to
Future meaning
form, *es-6,
of
a Preterite.
have attached
(2)
In -am.
i^ Latin the
the I.-Eur. Subjunctive (see

55).
For verbs of the third and fourth Conjugations
Sg. of the A- Subjunctive (see
55) is used for
itself to
Sg. Future, though, as we have seen, in the case of

Verb-stems of the fourth Conjugation, this Subjunctive did
the
not succeed in entirely ousting the formation in -bo till the

classical period,
e. g.
i
ley-am
Sg. Fut. and i Sg. Subj.,
audi-am i Sg. Fut. and i Sg. Subj. (but in the older
literature,
also andl-bo).
For the other Persons of the Future
the E-Subjunctive forms (see

55) are used, leges, leget, legemiis,
The reason of this distinction
&c., audies, audiet, audiemns, &c.
between the
Sg. and the other Persons of the Future Tense

may be that the i Sg. Subj. had already for
a long time played the part of the i Sg. Fut. of these verbs,
as it played the part of the i
Sg. Imperative at all periods of
is
not
clear.
It
Latin, and still retained its place when the new Future forms,
which supplanted an older dixo, &c. (see below), were introduced.
The spellings affected by Cato dicae, faciae for dicam, faciam
seem to have had nothing to do with this variation of a and e
THE VERB.
37, 38.]
FUTURE.
493
Future of these verbs, but to be merely an attempt to

express by a written symbol the weak sound of final m in Latin
in the
(see ch.
This formation belongs to O. Lat., e. g. dixo.faxo.

The similarity in use between dixo,
discussed in
3 and 5.
(3) In
It
ii.
is
-so.
on the one hand, and dmasso, &c. on the other, suggests

stands for *dic-8so t faxo for *fac-sso, capso for *cap-sso.
the Umbro-Oscan Future, e. g. Osc. deivast
jurabit,'
faxo, capso
that
disco
But
'
censazet
one
Umbr.
censebunt,'
fust
'
from
ero),
with
liabeo
erit,' f urent
In Romance the Future has been
s.
'
had only
O.
Fr. ier
(but
its place being supplied by periphrastic formations
Thus Ital. cantero, Fr.
(the usual type), volo, &c.
'
erunt
lost
chanterai represent cantare habeo (reduced to liayo) (see MeyerLiibke, Rom. Gram.
37.
ii.
and 354
pp. 138
Fourth Conj. Fut. in
sqq.).
This formation
-I bo.
is
extremely
common
in
the Dramatists, e. g. Plant. Asin. 28 ut ipse scibo, te faciam ut scias, but was
not adopted (as the Impft. in -ibam was) by the Augustan poets, though
Propertius ventures on lenibunt,iii. 21. 32. In Late Latin poetry it reappears,
The existence of audiam beside audibo, and of
e. g. largibor, Juvenc. ii. 562.
dicebo beside dicam may have led in Vulgar Latin to the coinage of an Imperfect
without
b,
whence Eomance Imperfects like Sard, timia, finia (but

Red-dibo, an 0. Lat. Fut. of reddo, shows the
34).
istava, Lat. stabairi) (see
dcibo, e. g. Plaut. Men. 1038 (perhaps reddSbo

here and elsewhere by the MSS.
Fut. of do,
is
the spelling indicated
The
saluom
tibi ita, ut
Fut. of
eo
and
its
mihi
dedisti,
Compounds,
reddibo
me mane modo.
hie
as of nequeo, has
-ibo
in class. Latin as
well as in the earlier period and it is not till Late Latin that forms like
merses profundo,
rediet, transient came into use (exist in Hor. C. iv. 4. 65
pulcrior evenit, is the reading of inferior MSS., and like mollibit of C. iii. 23.
;
19 has
no probability \
Whether third Conjugation YO-stems took
this form of Future (and the

Paribis for paries, quoted from an
very doubtful.
Atellana of Pomponius (Com. 20 R.) may be a vulgarism.
Adgredibor is the
reading of the Palimpsest in Plaut. Pers. 15, as against adgredior (aggredior) of
the other MSS., and seems to be required by the metre congrediar of all the
MSS. (AP) in Plaut. Most. 783 is changed by editors to congredibor.
Imperfect in -ibam)
is
38. Third Conj. Fut. in -ebo.

Novius (Com. 10 R.)
Virebo is
quoted by Nonius (509.3 M.) from
tibi
1
Still all
dum
uiuebo, fidelis ero,
the instances of this spel-
ling of Cato's seem to be i Sg. Fut.

In MSS. of Plautus we find -em occa-
sionally in
(for
the
Sg. Fut. of Verbs in -io

see Neue, ii 2
references,
p.
447
and
cf.
above, ch.
ii.
i,
3,
on the Vulg. Lat. change of a
to
after j\
also
sinem.
MSS.).
e. g.
True.
faciem,
963
(in
accipiem
the Palatine
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
494
and
by Nonius
dicebo
(Com. 8 R.)
satigninem
iam ego
though
(507.
primum quod
M.
dicebo.
[Chap. VIII.
from the same play of the same author

Plautus (Epid. 188) uses the phrase exsugebo
me conuortam
in another passage
iam nunc ego
hirudinem atque eorum exsugebo sanguinem,
in
he has the usual exsugam in this phrase, Poen. 614
illic
egredienti
sanguinem exsugam procul
exurgebo quidquid umoris tibist).

(in End. 1009 the correct reading is
Late Latin inferebis, tremebit, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv.)
:
The
39. D. Perfect.
I.-Eur. Perfect-stem, denoting
(On
com-
pleted action, was either (a) Reduplicated, with O-grade of an

E-root in the Singular Active, and elsewhere the weak grade,
being the usual Reduplication-vowel e. g. from the root gen(Lat. gi-gn-o] the Perfect-stem was *ge-gon-, *ge-gn- (Gk.
cf. O. Ind. ja-jan-a,
ye-yoy-e, ye'-ya-juei>
ja-jn-ur), or (b) Un-
reduplicated, usually with a high grade of the Stem, and that

either confined to the Singular Active, or extended over all the
from the root weid-, to see, know' (Lat.

was *woid-, *wid- (Gk. ot8-e, t8-)uev,
the
Perfect-stem
vid-eo)
O. Ind. ved-a, vid-ma) from the root sed-, to sit (Lat. sed-eo),
the Perfect-stem was sed- (Goth, set-um, Lith. sed-es, Partic.).
declension:
e.g.
'
'
'
Verbs beginning with vowels, e. g. root ed-, to eat (Perfectstem ed-, O. Ind. ad-a, Goth, fr-ct), may have been the stepping'
stone
between these two formations.
Perfects occur in various languages side

cated forms, and show the same vocalism,
Other Unreduplicated
by side with Reduplie.
g.
O. Ind. sarpa (and
from the I.-Eur. root serp-_, to creep/ Horn. 8e'x-aTat

(beside 8e-8eK-rcu) from 8e')(oât, O. Ind. skambh-ur (and caskambh-a) from the root ska(m)bh-, to support (cf. Lat. scamc
sa-sarpa),
'
'
num).
In Latin both the Reduplicated and the Unreduplicated
and it is not always easy to decide

whether on the one hand the Reduplication has been lost in
what we may call the Latin period (e. g. tftli, which is in the
type of Perfect are found,
'
'
time of Plautus
te-tul-i
Gk.
cf.
re-TAajuiez;),
either
by that
Latin habit of discarding one of two

neighbouring syllables
with similar form \ar(ci)-cubii &c.
see ch. iii.
13. p. 176]
re-t(e)-tuli (so de-tondi, O. Lat. de-to-tondi beside to-tondi), or
,
by adaptation
to other Unreduplicated forms, or
whether on the
THE VERB.
39.]
other the
want
PERFECT.
of Reduplication dates
495
from what we may
call
'
the
Indo-European period/
Perfect had usurped the functions of the Aorist or
Preterite, and denoted action in past time, as well as completed
The Latin
action in present time, e.g. dedi (i) I gave, (2) I have given.
It thus drew within its sphere Aorist or Preterite formations,
such as what is called the S-aorist, e. g. Gk. c-Secf-a, O. Ind.
a-diks-am, and gave to these

(i Sg.
-I
from I.-Eur.
its
own
peculiar person-endings
O. Ind.
-ai or -#i,
-e,
the I.-Eur. Middle
that Lat. ded-l corresponds to O. Ind. da-d-e,

Sg.
a Middle, not an Active 2 Sg. -M, and so on see
65 sqq.).
Thus Lat. dix-i from the S-Aorist stem *deik-s- (Gk. c'-Seif-a) is
suffix, so
in
Latin called a Perfect, not an Aorist, and
is
declined like
a true Perfect, dwc-l (O. Lat. deixei, *deik-s-ai), 3 Sg.

(O. Lat. -ti, -eit) like memim, 3 Sg. meminit (O. Lat. -U
clixit
-eit).
Strong Aorists, both Reduplicated (e. g. Gk. t-jrt-tyvo-v from

gh~en-, 'to kill'') and Unreduplicated (e.g. Gk. e-yevo-^v from
gen-), may have been absorbed into the Latin Perfect with the
others,
but decisive evidence that will prove their existence
separate from true Perfects (Reduplicated and Unreduplicated)

hard to find. Thus Lat. full of dif-ful-l from Ji-n-d-o, root
is
bheid-,
may
lost in the
'
perfectly well be a true Perfect, with Reduplication

Latin period,' the weak grade of the stem being
appropriate to the whole of the I.-Eur Middle (e.g. O. Ind.

bi-bhid-e, i Sg.) as well as to the Plural (and Dual) Persons of
the Active Perfect (e.g. O. Ind. bi-bhid-ur, 3 PL).
It may
however be claimed for the Strong Aorist class, like O. Ind.

and similarly scul-l has been called a Strong
a-bhida-m, Aor.
Aorist (O. Ind. a-chida-m) with the Latin Perfect-ending, while
;
sci-cid-i is the true
ascribed
identified
to
Reduplicated
with Gk.
seems best to class
and
'
Perfect-form
even
sci-cid-i
Aorist-class,
as
might be
itself
has
been
tetigi
It
re-ray-coz;, pejngl with Gk. Tre-Trayo-t^y.
these Latin forms merely as Reduplicated
'
'
Unreduplicated/ without the more definite

'
Perfect.'
title of
'
Re-
To attempt
duplicated Perfect,'
Unreduplicated
a further subdivision into Reduplicated Aorist (or Preterite),
Unreduplicated Aorist (or Preterite) would be to go beyond the
evidence at our disposal.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
496
There
is still
[Chap. VIII.
another formation which in Latin has the
name
and the person-endings of the Perfect-stem, viz. the formation

adopted for Vowel-verbs (first, second, fourth Conjugations),
which appends v
(after a
audl-v-i, mon-u-i.
Consonant
u), e. g. amd-v-i, re-ple-v-i,
This formation has not yet been satisfactorily
explained (see below).
The
v disappears in audiit (pronounced

abU, as in
audlit in ordinary speech, audiit in Poetry), audit
from dlwtior, O. Lat. dlnus from dlvmus
flltior
for
>
53), sis
ii.
(ch.
si vis.
of the various types of Latin Perfect are

Reduplicated: de-d-l (O. Ind. da-d-e, Perf.
Examples
(i)
O. Ind. u-da-da-m, Impf.), Osc. de-d-ed

the
'
Umbro-Oscan 3 Sg. Person-ending,

Perf.
Ind.
Mid.
On
dedit/
see
Vowel
(in
Mid.;
cf.
Umbr. dede (on

69),
O. Ind.
credo,
da-dh-e,
(O.
C
I believe/ lit. 'put the heart to/ O. Ir. cretim. see
I.-Eur. Reduplication
cre-cU-d-i
rad-dha-,
27).
The
O. Ind. the vowel of the
often substituted) remains in class. Latin in forms like

me-mm-i (older *me-men-i), pe-jjer-i, but came to be assimilated
stem
is
in Latin fashion (see ch. iv.

163) to the vowel of the second
syllable in md-mord-i, tu-tud-i (cf. O. Ind. tu-tud-e), &c v although
in O. Lat. to the end of the Republic forms like me-mord-i were
in use.
What
the Latin Stem-vowel originally was
is
not always to
be discovered, owing to the Latin habit of weakening every

vowel in a short second syllable to i (e) (ch. iii.
1
Tu-tM-i,
8).
which has retained the ?*-vowel un weakened (ch. iii.

28),
shows the weak stem tud- of the I.-Eur. Middle and Plural
Active (O. Ind. tu-ttid-e i Sg. Mid., tu-tud-ur 3 PI. Act.),
while con-tud-it, quoted by Priscian (i. p. 518. 13 H.) along with
con-tud-it from the Annals of Ennius (11. 515 and 418
M.), may
be the trace of a Latin *tu-tud- y *te-taud- (O. Ind. tu-tod-a
i
Sg. Act., Goth, stai-staut i Sg. Act., stai-staut-un 3 PI.
Act., apparently from a root (s)taud-), like ce-dd-i from *ce-caidroot (s)kaidh-.
But to-tond-i, spo-(s)pond-i (O. Latin spe-pond-i),
from the roots tend- (Gk.
are not
spendt
rez/Sco),
necessarily derived
(Gk. oô^co),
from that form of the Reduplicated Perfect-
stem which was reserved for the Singular Active in I.-Eur., the
form namely with O-grade of an E-stem vowel, *te-tond-, &c.,
THE VERB.
39.]
for their o
PERFECT.
497
be due to the Causative Present-stems
may
with which they were associated,
tondeo
The
%pondeo (I.-Eur. *spondeyo-).
29)
*tondeyo-),
or of mo-mord-i (O. Lat.
(I.-Eur.
most naturally explained as the Latin equivalent

me-mord-i)
of I.-Eur. r, so that me-mord- is the weak stem, ^me-mrd-. from
root (s)merd-, and me-mord-l is exactly O. Ind. ma-mrd-e I Sg.
Mid. ; similarly the ul (older ol) of tetuli will be I.-Eur. 1 ( el)
is
(cf.
Lat. te-tul-i-mus , Gk. re-rA-a-juez^) from the root
Un reduplicated
vld-i, I
saw, have
tel-.
vid- represents I.-Eur. *woid- (ch. iv.

10, p. 228), exactly corresponds to
O. SI. ved-e, I know,' a Middle form, and perhaps the only
(2)
seen, if
'
trace of the Perfect Tense to be found in the Balto- Slavic family

of languages, with the exception of the Participle, while in Latin,
and Teutonic
Celtic,
lost,
it is
the Perfect Participle which has been

the Active form,
;
and the other parts of the Tense retained
I.-Eur. *woid-a, appears in O. Ind. ved-a,

I know/ Gk. oT8-a,
Goth, vait ; sed-i, unless it stands for *se-sd-i, as sldo for *si-sd-o
'
9)
shows the I.-Eur. Perfect-stem sed- of Goth, set-um
Lith. sed-s Partic.
Goth, fr-et
(O. Ind. aj-a,
egi,
Gk.
ed-i
PL,
shows I.-Eur. ed- of O. Ind. ad-a Act.,
the Perfect of ago, does not show I.-Eur. ag^y-jucu, O. Scand. 6k; cf. Lat. amb-ages), but
adopts a Latin raising of a to
vowel
<?,
seen in other verbs
whose
root-
pegi from root pag- (Lat. pango) [cf. ch. iv.

is shown that I.-Eur.
a, Lat. a, is the weak
is
0, e. g.
51, where it
grade of I.-Eur.
Lat. sdtus beside
Lat.
e,
e,
e.g. I.-Eur.
*sato-
from root
se-men, fac-io beside fec-i (Gk.
se-,
from
efl^Ka)
root dhe-].
similar absence of Reduplication appears in Umbro-Oscan,
e.
g. Osc. dicust dixerit' (beside Umbr. dersicust), Umbr. fakust
'
'
fecerit
(beside
ku-vurtus
'
Osc. fefacust),
'
'
verterit
S-Aorist (Preterite) dlx-l, older deios-ei (Gk. e-5etf-a ;

O. Ind. a-diksa-m) from the root deik-, a Reduplicated Per:
which appears in Umbr. de-rsic-ust

rs
expresses an intervocalic d-sound, ch. ii.
(Umbr.
an
apparently
Unreduplicated in Osc. dic-ust dixerit ;
fect (Aorist ?) of
'
and
converteris.'
(3)
cf.
Umbr. vurtus
Umbr.
pru-sik-urent
'
'
pronuntiaverint
Kk
'
dixerit
88),
'
and
'
itssi
(Gk.
has certainly I.-Eur. e (Umbr.
i).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
498
[Chap. VIII.
for *ew<ra) has a short vowel according to Priscian, i. 466.

has the weak grade us- o the root eus7 H., like us-tus which
Late Lat. ostile for ustile, &c., A. L. L. ii. 607). The S-Aorist
(cf.
forms show sometimes the weak stem, sometimes the E-grade in

I.-Eur. languages, e. g. O. Ind. a-diksam just mentioned, Gk.
e f-a, sometimes a still higher grade; e.g. from the root
<S-p
leiq"-,
O.
-leiq~-
or
the
Ind.
-leiq~-
(ch.
weak grade]
S -Perfects,
e.
g.
[Gk. l-Aet^-a may represent

a-riks-i Mid. has
45), O. Ind.
a-raiksam Act.
iv.
and the same variety appears in
cU-vulo, cfa-vlsi,
but
tiro,
ussi.
But
it
Latin
is
not
always possible to ascertain the quantity of the vowel in Latin,

for the grammarians of the Empire are uncertain guides about
the natural quantity of any vowels long by position, for which
One requires
they could get no clue from the classical poets.
Priscian
believe
one
can
further evidence before
fully
(sixth cent.)
7 H.), when he posits a naturally long penult for all Perfects in -xi which have the vowel e before this ending, e. g. il-lexi
(i.
p.
466.
from lacio, and for no others, e. g. dux-i from cluco (so perductm,
Audacis exc. 359. 15 K.,but deduxerunt in the Mon. Anc. iii. 26).
The use of the apex, or accent-mark, to indicate a long vowel, on
inscriptions, especially on inscriptions later than 150 A. D., is also
evidence of a more or less doubtful character
and even when the
length of a vowel seems fairly established, e. g. rexi (with apex

over the e on an inscr. of 105 A. D., C. L L. v. 875 ; also declared
to have long e by Priscian, /. c. j contrast Gk. o>-pea), there
remains a further question whether the long vowel is not due to
a similar phonetic law for the group (/-s, as that which gramma-
rians mention for the
group g-t
(in rectus, foetus, tectus, &c.), viz.
that a naturally short vowel is lengthened before this Consonantgroup.

(On the question of the quantity of the Stem-vowel in
these S-Perfects, see ch. ii.
144, and cf. ch. iv.
51, p. 254,
where the high grade of the root is accounted for by the syncope
of a short vowel, rex- for
The vocalism of the Perfect
reg-(e)s-.)
oijubeo may have been altered before the end of the Republic,
for the spelling jous- on old inscriptions
(see C. I. L. i. Index,
s.
an
ou
original diphthong
v.) proves
(probably I.-Eur. eu;
the root
is
yeudh-, O. Ind. yodhati), and O. Lat. joussei (with s
for ss before the practice of
writing a double consonant came in,
THE VERB.
39.]
PERFECT.
499
would become naturally in classical Latin jusl, as in

ch. i.
8)
the Perfect of mitto O. Lat. meissei became class. Lat.
(see
mm
ch.
ii.
Cedo has
129).
in -ssi often
cessi
i.
(Prise,
466. 6 H.).
come from Verb-stems ending
in
-s }
Perfects
e.g.
from
the root eus-, us-si ; thus premo probably takes its Perfect
nres-si from a lost Present *preso [cf. Gk.
and rpeV w )
rpe(cr)a>
Lat. ter(s)-eo and trem-o y
Fluxi
from
comes
the stem
3],
*bhlucj~- (Gk. ofoo-<Au), the guttural becoming v in ^wt-0, class,
^/fwo ; co-nixi from the root kneigh~- (cf nicto) ; ^#2 from the stem
dheig--, the O. Lat. Present being fivo (
7) ; vexi from the
.
root wegh-, Pres.
The S-Aorist
in Greek,
for
o-or
e.
ve/io,
is
and
so on.
not found with Vowel Verbs in Latin as
g. e-ri/xrj-o-a (Dor. -dcra),
ewa
as in
-</>t'A??-<ra
it is
<r
apparently
at least it is not
(with
for *e#o--a-a, quoted above) ;

But in Umbro-Oscan, if tt in these
found in the Indicative.
languages represents an original ss (as Att. irparrco for Trpdcrcra)),

we have this formation in Perfects like Pelignian coisatens
curaverunt quasi *curassunt, Osc. duunated donavit quasi
'
'
'
'
*donassit,, dadikatted
'
'
dedicavit/ prufatted, pruf attens probavit,

(
the examples
teremnattens
terminaverunt
probaverunt/
[all
preserved belong to the first Conj., and so do almost all of the
'
Latin examples of
-ss-
forms,
e.
g. amasso, amassim, amassere (see*
5)]-
(4)
With
This
v (u).
is
the Perfect-stem formation of Vowel-
Verbs, as of the first Conjugation, amdvi, necd-vi, and with the

v (u) added to a stem not ending in -a, nec-ui (so crepavi and
crepui, cubavi
and
cubui^ climicam
and dlmimd^
&c.), of the second
replem^ monui^ of the third strd-vi, se-vi, cre-vi, sl-vi, of the fourth
audwi, destlm, and desitivi. It is also found with some Consonant
Verb-stems, e. g. colm, aim, gemui, and is sometimes added to

a Perfect-stem already formed; e.g. mess-ui (but see
51).
When the stem ends in v (w) two v's are not written, but the
9
47 on fovi).
lengthened, e. g. cdvi, Idvi (see
Posui is
Statni, fui, &c. were in O. Lat. statni (statuvi\ fuvi.
a form introduced by the false apprehension of po-sUns [from
preceding vowel
is
the Preposition p&- (Gk.
diro,
Lat. ab, ch.
ix.
12) and situs
P, P. P. of sino (pono for po-s(i)no, ch. iv.

151)], as if it were
like
mom-tus.
The
true
Perfect, used by the older
posi-tus
Kk
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
500
[Chap. VIII.
but this could not become posui (imposui, Lucil.
writers, is po-sivi,
xxviii. 26 M.) by ordinary phonetic development.

Both the Perfect with v and the S-Perfect occasionally present
shortened forms, e. g. amasti, misti, which are best regarded as
the full forms amdvisti, misisti, due in
phonetic developments of
the one case to the Roman tendency to drop intervocalic v (see
and in the other to the practice of discarding one
ch. ii.
53),
two neighbouring similar syllables (see ch. iii.

13, p. 176).
The same shortening occurs in various parts of the Perfect-stem
amassem Pluperf. Subj., and
e.g. amdro Fut. Pft.,
of
conjugation,
on
so
(see
3).
The Perfect-stem was formed
in I.-Eur.
from the root of the
This is the reason why a

verb, not from the Present-stem.
Latin Perfect often presents so different an appearance from
Thus *e-vi is formed from the root se- (cf.
a Latin Present.
is a Reduplicated Present, for *si-s-6 (cf. Gk.
se-men), but sero
I determined, sl-vi, strd-vi and
for
*o-i-o-7)-/u,
ujfxt
9) ; cre-vi,
Nasalized
exhibit
others
Present-stems, cer-no, si-no, ster-no
10);
(see
Presents
'
cre-vi,
grew, no-vi,
Inceptive ''-stems
abtile-vi
cre-sco,
no-sco,
and
abol-ui
have as
abole-sco (see
28).
often happened that the Perfect was influenced by the

form of the Present-stem. Thus veni from root g"em- (Goth,
should be *vemi, but takes its n from the Present,
qemum i
But
it
PI.)
a YO-stem, which by the Latin Phonetic law changes

n before i (y), venio.
In Oscan the Perfect Subjunctive
differs
from the
its
to
Perf. Ind.
55), e. g. Osc.
only in its use of the Subjunctive vowel e (
in
the
Perfect
But
Latin
fecerit/
Subjunctive adds to
fefacid
(
which
-erit, &c. (3 PI. -erinf),

as
an
Optative form from the root es- (cf.
generally regarded
an
as
Others explain viderim, with videro,
used
Auxiliary.
sim)
which is seen in
a
Noun-stem
vidis&c., as containing
the Perfect-stem -erim, -ens,
(cf
its
proper form
in vidis-sem (see
52).
emu-),
In the Perfect
Sub-
junctive person-endings I, not *, is correct ; scansions with

due to confusion with the Fut. Perf. (see Neue, ii2 p. 5 IO )
.
its
Potential use,
first
Pers. Plur.
Deor.
i.
20. 52),
is
e.
g. dixerim, I
rare
(e.
would
is
are
ID
say, affirmaverim, &c. the
g. dioserimws, Cic. Tusc.
and in the Deponent Conjugation
iii.
4. 7
Nat.
this use is rare
THE VERB,
40, 41.]
PERFECT.
5OI
even in the Singular

Virg. G.
Ter. Andr. 203

(e. g.passus sim,
141) (see A. L. L. i. 347).
iii.
cf sit passus,
.
Other examples of Reduplicated forms

ste-t-l (O. Ind. ta-sth-e),
older *ste-te-tnos (Gk. t-ffra-ptv) pe-ped-l from pedo for *pezdo (0, Engl.
but with the Reduplicationce-cin-i, older *ce-cen-ei (0. Ir. ce-chan)
40.
ste-ti-mus,
fist)
vowel changed,
d%-dic-i,
Pres. disco for *dic-sco
*pe-prk (root prek-) with
po-posc-1,
O. Lat. pe-posc-i for
'
Inceptive '-stem suffix -sk- ( 22) (cf. O. Ind. pape-purk-urent rogaverint.' Peculiar to 0. Lat. are:
prach-a, Act.), Umbr.

te-tm-l (0. Ind. ta-tan-e from tan-, I.-Eur. ten-, 'to stretch'), which was used as a
Perfect of teneo (apud veteres 'tetini dicitur Diom. 372. 18 K.)
Nonius (178.
'
'
from Pacuvius, tetinerit from Accius

7 M.) quotes tetinisse
Plaut. Amph. 926 we should probably read abstinei for abstines of the MSS.
and
tetinerim
nunc quando
me
factis
in
inpudicis abstinei,
ab inpudicis dictis auorti uolo,
and
tetini, -tini should perhaps be read for tenui, -tinui in other passages of
Plautus (Studem. Stud. ii. 122 n.}
Paul. Fest. (335. 7 Th.) has preserved for
us an old augural phrase, discussed by Messala in his Treatise on Augury,
sciculi (sctscwW?), illustrated by Priscian
pwime tetinero 'purissimo tenuero
(i- 5 X 7- 3 H.) with several passages from the Dramatists.
;
'
The following, with short vowel, which are often

41. Unreduplicated.
referred to I.-Eur. strong (unreduplicated) Aorists, are more probably reduplicated forms which have lost their Reduplication, first in Compounds, then
in the Simple Verb tuli (see below)
sci-di (cf. 0. Ind. ci-chid-e Perf. Mid.,
a-chida-m A or.), in 0. Lat. sd-dd-l (see above), cf. ab-scidi, di-scidi, re-sddi, &c.
fidi (cf. 0. Ind. bi-bhid-e Perf. Mid., a-bhida-m Aor.), rare in the Simple Verb,
but more frequent in the Compound dif-fldi (e. g. Virg. A. ix. 588 tempora
plumbo diffidit Hor. C. iii. 16. 13 diffidit urbiiim Portas vir Macedo) -citti
only occurs in the Compound per-culi, just as -piili (in the Simple Verb jjeptt?-*)
:
only found in Compounds, dispuli, impuli, &c. (cf. rep(e)pnli').

a large number of the forms usually quoted as Unreduplicated Perfects
with stem-vowel unchanged rest on very insecure foundation -cendi occurs
only in Compounds ac-cendi, in-cendi, &c. the same is true of -fendi of de-fendi,
of-fendi, and -hendi of pre-hendi, nor can we be certain whether the e in these
Perfects was short or long *lambi is attested by Priscian (i. 506. 25 H.) with
the single example of a line of Lucilius (xiii.
M.)
is
And
iucundasque puer qui lamberat ore placentas,
where
lamberat is evidently Pres. of lambero (Plaut. Pseud. 743
eugepae
lepide, Charine,
meo me
ludo lamberas),
probably the very word which is quoted by Paul. Fest. 84. 30 Th.
lamberat scindit ac laniat for *psalli Priscian quotes only a line of Caesius
Bassus, the friend of Persius, with psallerat of mando he says (i. 419. 13 H.)
ejus praeteritum perfectum quidem alii mandui, alii mandidi esse voluerunt ;
and
is
'
'
Livius
tamen in Odyssia
cum
(a later
hexameter version)
socios nostros mandisset
impius Cyclops
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
502
[Chap.
VIIL
v&rri (cf. Prise, i. 532. 22 H.) is easily attested for Compounds, but not for the
a
Simple Verb, and the same is true of -cudi (Prise, i. 515. 16 H.), and to great
extent of vetti (Virg. Eel vi. 4 vellit et admonuit).
Of the remaining examples of Unreduplicated Perfect with Stem-vowel
unchanged,
Aorist ?
(Pft. of
lei
see
ico ?
v.), stridi, vlsi (an Sin -m, e. g arcess-lvi,

better attested than these, pdndi,
Wharton, Etyma
Lai.
the usual Perfect of these Present S-stems
from
quaes-wi,
arcesso, quaes(s}o,
3),
and
s.
is
(on sidi, bibi, see below) ; the Verbs with Present in -ndo
are sometimes credited with a Perfect in -dull instead of -di (cf. condidi, but in
prandi, sc&ndi,
v8rti
composition abscondi, though abscond idi is quoted from the Republican Dramatists by Nonius, 75. 22 M.), e. g. descendidi, quoted from Valerius Antias and
Laberius by Gell. vi. 9. 17, niandidi, a byform of mandi (Prise, i. 419. 13 H.,
just cited), prandidi, censured by Diomedes, 367. 17 K. This -d-idi is proper to
verbs compounded with do, (i) to give, (2) to put, so is applied by false analogy
to de-scendo, from the I.-Eur. root skand- (0. Ind. skand-, Gk. <rtca.v8a\r)0pov,
0. Ir. ro-sescaind)
the formation of pdndo
(cf.
Osc. patensins 'aperirent' (?)),
vorti (TO- became ve- in the

has probably the weak stem *wrt-,
with which we may compare either the O. Ind. Reduplicated Perf. Mid. vabut while the Umbrian
vrte or the 0. Ind. Unreduplicated Aorist a-vrta-m)
forms ku-vurtus, co-rortus, covrtust (or courtust, for covurtust?), converteris
converterit,' ku-vertu, co-vertu convertito,' point to a different stem for the
Present (wert- cf. 0. Ind. vartate) and the Perfect (wrt-), the 0. Lat. spelling
shows rort- (wrt-) both in the Present and in the Perfect, as well as in the Perfect Participle Passive vorsus (*wrt-to-, 0. Ind. vrtta-), so that the weak stem has
the appearance of having forced its way in Latin into the Present Tensesystem, leaving an identity of Stem-vowel between the Present and the Perfect.
The spelling rorto may, however, have represented the pronunciation
14).
mando, prandeo is not clear (see
course of the second cent. B. c., ch. iv.
Verti,
O. Lat.
10),
'
'
'
rerto (see
ch. iv.
10).
The alternation
of a in Present-
with
in Perfect-stem is seen in fdc-io
Osc. fakiiad 'faciat') and fec-i (I.-Eur. dhe-fr- of Gk.

frango (root bhregr-, Goth, brikan see ch. iv.
51), and fr8g-i, jdcio
(Umbr.
fa9ia,
cdpio
and cepi, pango and pegi,
ago
and
e-fljj/f-o),
and
jSci,
(Lucr.) and apere (ch. ii.

150), it
(Osc. i is I.-Eur. e), though *hebi is
egi, coepi
'
seen also in Oscan hipid habuerit

in Latin ; that of o with o in fod-io and fod-i
[the I.-Eur. root is
bhedh-, Lith. bedu, 'I dig,' W. bedd, 'a grave,' varying with bhodh-, Gk.
'
is
unknown
& for rr), Lith. badau, I prick,' 0. SI. boda] of a with a there is
one doubtful example, scabo (with a in scaberet, Hor. S. i. 10. 71) and
scaberat,
quoted as a Plupft. (with lamberat, on which see above) by Priscian from Lucil.
ix. 77 M. scaberat ut porcus contritis arbore costis
that of e with e is seen in
<
060pos (with
$do
and
umo and Smi,
and
and
(en for m, m, like Gk.

weak stem with short
vowel is seen in the Present, but not in the
Perfect, in fugio and fugl (root
bheug-), linquo and llqui (root leiqS-), rumpo and rupi (root reup-), video and
mdi (root weid-), vinco and mci (root
weik-), fiindo sindfudi.
tfcuVcu)
edi,
and
lego
rent for *vemi
legi,
(Goth,
sedeo
qemum,
sedi, venio
PI.)
the
42. Form of Beduplication. When the root of the Verb

began with
a group of consonants the
practice in I.-Eur. languages is to use only the first
consonant of the group in the
Reduplication-syllable, e. g. I.-Eur. *ke-klow-,
*ke-klu-, the Perfect-stems from the root kleu-, < to hear ' (Gk. K^-KKvrt ; cf.
THE VERB.
42-44.]
PERFECT.
503
O. Ind. su-Srava, O. Ir. ru chuala from *cu-clowa, both of these last having
the weak stem vowel ii instead of the Reduplication-vowel e). This form of
Reduplication appears in Latin Reduplicated Presents (see
9) like si-s-to
(I.-Eur. *si-st-,
Zend
the whole
Perfects
Gk. 'i-aTrjfu, Umbr. se-stu).

But in Latin
appears in the Reduplication-syllable when
followed by a mute, while in the stem-syllable
hi-staiti,
group
the group consists of
the s is dropped (possibly sometimes retained, as in Teutonic), whereas

in other I.-Eur. languages (e. g. O.-Ind., Gk.) only the mute appears in the
Reduplication-syllable,
Lat. spo-pond-i (spo-spondi
e. g.
is
occasionally found in
Goth, stai-staut, 0. Ind. ta-sthau (from 0. Ind.

Bibi shows the i of U-b-o, the Reduplication- vowel of
stha-, 'to stand').
Present-stems, as e of Perfect-stems. Similarly di-dic-i may owe its i to the
fact that disco is a Reduplicated Present for *di-dc-sco (cf. Gk. 5i-8a.attca for *StThe Roman grammarians were in doubt whether the
22).
SaK-atcQj) (but see
MSS.), sd-cM-i
(v.
1.
stiftcidi),
correct Perfect of sisto was sti-t-i or ste-t-i (see Georges, s. v.), Gellius (ii. 14)
speaks of an old MS. of Cato's speeches which had the reading vadimonium
emendatores to vadimonium stetisses the same
stitisses, a reading changed by
doubt existed whether sidi or sedi was the Perfect of sldo (*si-sd-o~).
'
43. Assimilation
of
Aulus
Reduplication-vowel to Stem-vowel.
with peculiar forms of the Latin Perfect (N. A.
Gellius, in a chapter dealing
9 cf. Nonius 140. 19 M.), says that although poposci, momordi, pupugi, cucurri
were the forms used in his time by almost all educated men (omnes ferme
vi.
doctiores), the older writers
used
memordi from Ennius (from his

his hero ?) (Sat. 20 M.)
in the Reduplication-syllable.
poem
to Scipio,
and referring
He
quotes
to the rivals of
meum
non
est,
ut
(v.
1.
at)
si
me
earns memorderit,
from Laberius, Nigidius, Atta, and Plautus (Aid. fr. 2 ut admemordit hominem), remarking that the last author used also prae-morsisset (the S-Aorist
form),peposd from Valerius Antias, pepugero from Atta, occecurrit from Aelius
Tubero, speponderant from Valerius Antias. He even assigns similar forms to
Cicero and Caesar (sic M. Tullius et C. Caesar mordeo
memordi,' pungo
'pepugi/ spondeo 'spepondi' dixerunt), although our MSS. of these authors,
'
and the older writers, hardly preserve a trace of them [see

2
Neue, ii 465. In Plaut. Poen. 1074 one of the Palatine MSS. has memordit
(D), another me mordit (C), another momordit (B)].
as of Plautus
.
44. Loss of Reduplication.
This assimilation
may have
in
facilitated the loss of the Reduplication-syllable in Compounds,

ascribed above ( 39) to the Latin practice of discarding one of
some cases
which was
two neigh-
This
13. p. 176].
bouring and similar syllables [e.g. ar(ci)-cubii, ch. iii.
practice of Latin [cf. Gk. d/*(</>t)-0opt;s], along with the liability of every short
second syllable to Syncope under the older law of Accentuation (ch. iii.
13),
must have operated most powerfully to the detriment of the Reduplicationsyllable in Compounds, so that it is wrong to refer all Latin Unreduplicated
Perfects to I.-Eur. Unreduplicated Perfect and Aorist forms. A Perfect like
tuli, which has in Plautus the form tetuli, in Terence usually the Unreduplicated form, tuli, as always in classical Latin, is most naturally explained as a
Reduplicated form which lost its Reduplication in the second cent. B. c. The
Compound rettuli (not retuli, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) has a double t, which
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
504
[Chap. VIII.
had the form red-, but like the

clearly not due to the Preposition having
double p of repperi (beside reperio), reppuli (beside repello}, to the Syncope of the
is
Reduplication-vowel,
re-t(e}-tuli,
like re-p(e)-peri, re-p(e)-pulL
Other compounds,
like con-tuli,ob-ttdi,at-tuU,sus-tuU have precisely the form which they would have
had if they, like rettuli, had suffered Syncope of their second syllable ; only,
while Syncope has left a trace of its operation in the double t of rettuli, this
trace has been obliterated by the phonetic conditions of these other Com*susttuli are impossible forms
they must in
pounds. *Conttuli, *obttuli, *atttuli,
Latin orthography be written contuli, obtuli, attuli, sustuli, so as to afford no
;
whether the Preposition was originally compounded with tetuli or

The one Compound however which does afford such a criterion pronounces for the first of these alternatives, and warrants us in asserting that
an original tetuli has been reduced to tuli in the Perfect of all the Compounds
of fero (tollo\ and in denying the theory that they show an original tuU, an
The shortened form tuli
Aorist formation like Subj. attulas, &c. (see
4).
having thus established itself in the numerous Compounds of fero, words in
constant use in the speech of every-day life, it may well have spread from
them to the simple verb. The habitual use of con-tuli, at-tuli, ob-tuli, &c. would
naturally lead to the preference of tuli for the more cumbersome tetuli, although
criterion of
tuli.
by a freak of language, by the caprice of that usus,

'
quern penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi,'

the shortened form -puli of the Compounds re-p(e)puli com-(pe)pidi, im-(pe)puli,
&c. did not supplant the full formpepuli at the same time. It is the Compound
Verbs which as a rule in Latin show the short form, the Simple Verbs which
are most retentive of the full Reduplicated form; e.g. de-tondi (detotondi is
quoted from Varro by Priscian, i. 482. 7 H., but is declared impermissible by
Servius, who lays down the law that 110 Compound can have a Reduplicated
'verba quae in praeterito perfecto primam syllabam geminant, cum
Perfect
t
composita fuerint, geminare non possunt),
attondi (in Plaut. &c.), despondi

(Plaut., Ter., Cic.), praecldi (Plaut., die.) beside totondi, spopondi, cecidi; and this
fact is additional evidence of Latin Unreduplicated forms having lost the
Reduplication-syllable in Composition.
45. Co-existent Reduplicated and Unreduplicated forms. A more certain
example of an Unreduplicated form existing side by side with a Reduplicated,
and not a phonetic development from the latter due to the loss of the
Reduplication-syllable, is Ihe Perfect of pango, pegi beside pepigi. Both forms
survived in classical Latin, the Reduplicated pepigi being reserved for the
I have agreed,' stipulated,' so that it is often called by the Roman
grammarians the Perfect of paciscor and in addition a third Perfect is mentioned by the grammarians for the Simple Verb (not the Compounds), an
S-Aorist formpanxi, e.g. in the elegiac epitaph of Ennius (ap. Cic. Tusc. i. 15. 34)
sense
'
'
maxima
hie uestrum panxit
In the same way 0.
facta patrum.
very ancient inscription on a PraenesManios med fefaked Numasioi, seems to be

from a Perfect-stem *fe-fac- (and similarly Osc. fefacust fecerit Fut. Pft., and
fefacid fecerit' Pft. Subj., will have a not a), anterior to the weakening of
unaccented vowels (see ch. iii. 18). It would have been in class. Latin, had
the form survived, *jeflci, related to fed sis pepigi to pegi.
~Lnt.fefaked of the
tine brooch (C.I.L. xiv. 4123)
'
'
46. S-Preterite.
Examples of
parallel Latin
and Greek forms are
dixi,
THE VERB.
45-47.]
PERFECT.
505
0. Lat. del- (Gk. e'8ta) (both Lat.dei- and Gk.Set- may before a consonant represent I.-Eur. del-, ch. iv. 45), rexi (Gk. wpcga), texi (Gk. 4'orea), depsi (Gk. 4'tfA.fâ),
The
*e/*ej/<ra), ussi (Gk. eu<ra for *evacra),pexi (Gk. ttreap.r)v].
for -xi (of scwxi, tinxi, &c.) in wwZsi from (i) mulceo, (2) mulgeo,
(i)/wZcio, (2~)fulgeo,parsi (and peperci) from parco, sparsifrom spargo, &c.
mansi (Gk. Zpfiva for

substitution of
-si
from
due to the preceding consonants Z, r (see ch. iv. 157). The same Verb may
use as its Perfect both the S-formation and the Reduplicated Perfect thus
parco has parsi and peperci praemordeo has praemordi and praemorsi (Plaut. /r.
120 G.) surgo has surrexi, but in Livius Andronicus often surregi (in the old
fulsi
is
Th.
'
sortus
'
pro surrexit, et
the difference between
surrectus, frequenter posuit Livius)
dl-lexi, neg-lexi (cf. intel-lexi) and de-legi, e-legi, &c. has been explained by referring
the Perfects with x to a lost Present *lego (Gk. a\tya, to care for)
emo, to buy
spelling suregi
quasi possit
Paul. Fest. 423.
suregit
et
fieri
redimo, coewo), in 0. Lat. to take (Paul. Fest. 53. 26 Th. emere, quod nuiic
est mercari, antiqui accipiebant pro accipere) as in ad-imo, to take away,
'
O. Lat. ab-emo with the same sense (Paul. Fest. 4.
Th. 'abemito significat
(cf.
'
emere enim antiqui dicebant pro accipere), dir-imo,

I take,' Lith. imu, 0. SI. ima),
inter-imo, ex-imo (cf. M. Ir. fo-emaim,
retains in these Compounds the Perfect-formation of the Simple Verb emi,
demito vel auferto.
'
'
ademi, &c., but in the Compounds como, demo, promo, sumo, in

connexion with emo is obscured, it takes an S-Preterite, compsi,
dempsi, prompsi, sumpsi (0. Lat. suremit however for sumpsit is quoted by Paul. Fest.
redemi, coemi,
which
its
similarly dmicio, a Compound ofjacio, is conjugated inconsistently

forgotten origin amicui and amixi, amictum, amiclre (cf. ambltum Supine
of ambio, a Compound of eo, but amb-itus, a going round, canvassing, &c.) why
elicio should have as Perfect ettcui, but allicio, allexi is not clear.
425. sTh.)
with
its
47. Origin of the Perfect in -vi (-ui). The v (M) of Perfects like ama-w,
has been variously explained as a case-ending of a Verbal Noun U-stem
mon-tii
followed by the Auxiliary Verb ei-, to go,' as a formation on the analogy of

Verb-stems which end in v (11) such as/ot-eo (ch. iv. 144) from the root dhegh^'
(fovi being regarded as a Perfect formed in the same way as fodi fromfodio,
and not in the manner stated in 39. 4) and other even less satisfactory
hypotheses. A very plausible theory supposes I.-Eur. -wi to have been the ending
of the first and third persons singular of the Perfect of roots ending in a long
vowel and compares 0. Ind. ja-jnau (with final unaccented i dropped; with Lat.
(g)novi (with the middle i Sg. ending -ai), O. Ind. pa-prau with Lat. plen.
These 0. Ind. forms are confined to the i and 3 Sg. of the Perfect of roots
ending in a long vowel, e. g. da-dau, 1 have given,' he has given,' but da-datha, 'thou hast given/ &c., so that the original Latin paradigm may have been
There is also an explanation possible which connects
plevi, plesti, pl&vit, &c.
these Latin Perfects with Oscan (and probably Umbrian) Perfects in -f- (-ff-),
such as Osc. aa-mana-ffed 'amandavit' 'faciendum curavit,' aikda-fed
fines ad normam derexit,' pruf-fed probavit/ fufens fuerunt.'
*aequidavit
This Oscan f has been naturally explained, like f of Oscan fu-fans 'erant,'
Falisc. kare-fo 'carebo,' as representing I.-Eur. bh, seen in 0. Ir. charub
1
'
'
'
amabo
'
'
'
'
'
(quasi
*carabo
').
But
Italic f
may
'
also represent I.-Eur.
dh
(see
Oscan Perfects, if separable from the Impft.

to
fufans, may contain an Auxiliary Verb connected with the root dhe-,
27 and p. 363). Latin v (u} in the middle of a word
put' (Gk. Tie-ripi, Lat. cre-do,
ch.
iv.
114), so that these
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. VIII.
dv (I.-Eur. dw, as in swims, I.-Eur. *swadu-, and probably also

at the beginning of a word I.-Eur. dwis represented by
while
dhw),
Latin b, e. g. bis from I.-Eur. *dwis (Gk. 5(f >Y), so that the v of the Latin Perfect
and the f ,ff) of the Oscan may both represent the dhw- of a weak stem from
the root dhe-, 'to put, place,' a stem which appears in a fuller form (the
numeral duo (see eh. vi.
59)
51) in Lat. cre-duas, as the
E-grade ? ch. iv.
which requires a good many possiappears beside bis. If this explanation,
will correspond to Latin cubavit, &c., Oscan
bilities, be right, Oscan -manaffed
-ss- of messui, &c. will be due to the comthe
and
Latin
to
cubuit,
&c.,
pruffed
bination of the final dental of the Verb-stem with the initial dental of the
may represent
I.-Eur.
Auxiliary (see below
51).
In cubui beside cubavi, crepui beside -crepavi, the %-forms may be referred to
the parallel Consonant-stems of cumbere, *crepere (percrepis, Varro, Men. 124 B.),
and similarly
But Perfects
Idvi (for *lavvi)
to 0. Lat. Idvere, sonui to O. Lat. sonere
(cf.
92).
come from forms in which a short vowel 1

the
Auxiliary *dhwai, just as eluo comes from elavo, denuo from de novo
preceded
24).
(*newod), ervum from *ero<jUo- (cf. Gk. opoftos, ipe@-iv0os) (seech, iii.
Perfects in -wi from Consonantal Verbs, such as petivi from pelo, rudivi from
rudOj lacesswi from Zacesso, arcessivi from arcesso (and similarly quaesivi for
*quaessivi from quaeso, older quaesso, used as Perf. of quaero), probably come
from parallel YO-stems, *pefto, *rudio, *7acess/o, &c. (cf. sallo and sattio, Perf.
sallim, lino and linio, Perf. liniri, &c.,
15).
48.
when
it
in
-id
may
also
Shortened forms of the Perfect in -vi. Latin

stood between two vowels, oftenest between two
for divlnus,
oblisci
for
obllvisci,
dltem for dlmtem (so
di-s
was often dropped
i's, e. g.
O. Lat. dinus
for dives) (see ch.
ii.
53),
but the dropping of u after a consonant is not practised in the same way
The only Latin Perfect form without u is the curious monerim
(ch. iv.
71).
of Pacuvius, quoted as an irregular formation by Nonius (507. 23 M.)
Trag.
30 K.
die quid faciam
quod me moneris
effectiim dabo,
atque amentiam auerruncassint tuam

(parodied by Lucil. xxvi. 35 M.), which seems to be a formation from a stem
mm- (cf. Gk. fj.e-fj.ova ?) instead of the ordinary Perfect-stem monu-, unless it
indicates a pronunciation mon(w}erim like db(y]icio of the old Dramatists
and
Trag. 112 R. di moiierint meliora
and possibly augur^y}a in a line of Accius (Trag. 624 E.) (quoted

488. 2 M., who makes the word augura, by some regarded as a Neut.
PI. like rdbora ; cf. 0. Ind. ojas- N.,
strength')
(ch.
ii.
50),
by Nonius
'
pro certo arbitrator sortis, oracla, adytus, augura,
and
progen(y~)em (? progmwrn} in a
I. L. i. 38, c. 130 B.C.)
period (C.
pentameter line of a Scipio epitaph of this
progenie
mi genui
facta patris petiei
(probably a graver's mistake for progeniem genui)

(Posisse, sdpisseare shortened
forms, not ofposuisse, sapuisse, but ofposlvisse, sapivisse, 39.4). But Perfect-forms
.
Domui, which
is
usually explained
as Perf. of *domeyo-, a Causative byform of *domayo- ( 29), is by some

referred to
a or -a
an
( cf.
stem ending in
Gk. d-5dfj.a.Tos with Lat.
I.-Eur.
An
example of a stem in
domttus).
I.-Eur. -a is 0. Ind. vami-mi (3 Sg.
Thematic
Vowel, vama-ti), the equivalent of
vami-ti, but also with the

Lat. vomo,
-ere.
THE VERB.
48.]
PERFECT.
507
in Cicero's time nosse, judicasse, &c. were

were extremely common
157 quid quod sic loqui, 'nosse, judicasse' vetant, 'novisse'
jubent et judicavisse ? quasi vero nesciamus in hoc genere et plenum verbum
recte dici et imminutum usitate) and in Quintilian's time the forms audwisse.
scwisse, comervdvisse were scarcely heard even in public speaking [Quint, i. 6.
without
usual
(Orat. xlvii.
'
tamen
17-21 inhaerent
'tribunale
'
insolentiae
quidam molestissima diligentiae

audacter,' licet omnes
potius dicant quam
'
his permittamus et audivisse et ' scivisse et
ei (sc. analogiae)
'
perversitate ut audaciter
oratores aliud sequantur
'
et 'faciliter' dicere
cujusdam
'
'
frivolae
est et
sed abolita
atque abrogata retinere
in parvis jactantiae.
multum enim
'
litteratus, qui sine adspiratione et producta secunda syllaba salutarit (' avere
est enim), et 'calefacere' dixerit potius quam quoddicimuset 'conservavisse,'
'
'
recta est haec via quis negat ? sed

his adiciat face et dice et similia.
adjacet et mollior et magis trita]. Servius, in a note on the form l&niit in
Virg. Aen. i. 451, tells us that the pronunciation of every-day life was lentit, the
'
'
form with the short penult being confined to poetry (sed hoc in metro ubi
necessitas cogit nam in prosa et naturam suam et accentum retentat).
Varro (L. L. iii. fr. p. 148 W.) mentions amasti, nosti, abiitas the favourite forms
of his time and in Terence the usual forms of Perfects in -evi, -wi and of novi
:
are the contracted (in Plautus the uncontracted, though in the middle, not
the end, of a line sm's, not slveris, is used), while the uncontracted forms of
Perfects in -am are used only at the end of a line (in Plautus equally with
Eo and its compounds have even in Plautus usually the
the contracted).
form -ii- in Perfect forms, except Ivi, exivi, amblvi, &c. All this indicates the
forms without v to have been phonetic developments of the others, and to
have gradually established themselves in exclusive use, the v being dropped

The
earliest and most persistently in forms where it came between two i's.
shortened form of -civit, if it did not push itself into literary usage, must
however have become, sooner or later, a part of every-day pronunciation, for
the Romance forms point to a Vulgar Latin -aid for -avit, e. g. Ital. compfo
from a Vulg. Lat. *comp(a)raut. (On audit, &c. for audivit, see ch. iii. 10. 2.)
The v of the Perfect of verbs whose stem ends in v (w) was not dropped to
the same extent a fact which may be explained by the different sound of -avBut even
for -aw- in cdveram (pronounced *cavveram ?) and -dv- in amdveram.
these Perfects when o, u precede v, are contracted almost as readily as the
others e. g. devoro for devovero in the Praetextata of Accius called Decius
(referring to Decius Mus) [Trag. (Praet.} 15 R.]
;
'
patrio exemplo et
me
dicabo atque
animam deuoro
hostibus
commorat, Ter. Phorm. 101 ; commorunt, remosse, Lucr. adjuro (or adjuero ?), in
a passage of the eleventh book of Ennius' Annals (1. 386 M.) describing the
;
Macedonian campaign of Flamininus (the words are addressed by a shepherdguide to the
Roman general)
O Tite, siquid ego
:
adiuro curamue leuasso,

et uersat in pectore fixa,
quae nunc te coquit

ecquid erit praemi ?
and the same form (3 Sg.) in Plaut. Rud. 305 and Ter. Phorm. 537, &c. Morunt,
moram, commorunt, commoram, commoss&m, &c. are not uncommon in the Augustan
poets, e. g. Hor. S. i. 9. 48
dispeream ni
summosses omnis,
:
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
508
and jiierint occurs in
Catullus, Ixvi. 18
non, ita
me
[Chap. VIII.
uera gemunt, iuerint
diui,
The
on
of the
.
inscriptions
usage
533).
(for other examples, see Neue,
3 PI. Pft. forms of cz7.ro, probo similarly points to the forms with v being
ii
older
[e. g.
coirarunf),
corauermtf, C. I. L.
i.
73,
the
courauerunt 1419, coirauerunt 565, &c. (once
but coeraverunt and- coeranmt, curarunf],
49. Shortened forms of the Perfect in
-si.
better case might be
presented for the theory that the shorter forms of Perfects in -si (-xi) are
really ancient forms of different origin from the full forms, for dixti, dixem,
are by no
dixe, &c. are most found in the early Dramatists, though they
means uncommon in Virgil and later poets. But the explanation of this
they were felt to belong more or less to colloquial Latin,

were freely admitted into Comedy and Tragedy (in both of which
the e very-day language of cultured society was employed), but not so freely
into other literature.
(Quintilian ix. 3. 22 remarks on Cicero's use of dixti
tact is rather that
and
so
'
'excussa syllaba in the pro Caecina, 29. 82.)

thing that is almost conclusive proof that dixem, &c. are not parallel forms to dixim, dixo, &c. is that
these shortened forms are only found with Verbs which form the Perfect in
we have no *capsem, answering

[On the wrongness of the readings
to capsim, no *axem answering to

sulaxet (for subaxif) in Pacuv. Tray.
2
163 R, faxet in Plaut. Capt. 712, accepsti, Trin. 420, 964, &c., see Neue, ii .
in
d
f
r
of
the
shortened
forms
-si
e.
an
of
Perfects
examples
P- 539>
g.
(-'),
-si
(-xi)
axiin.
I'ixe
and
vixein in
Varro (Men. 321 B. noneos optime vixe qui diutissime vixent
sed qui modest issime),
misti,
misse,
ad
rescripsti (Cic.
scripsti,
-sumpse, -cesti, -cessem, -cesse,

2
t-munxti, &c. see Neue, ii
pp. 536 sqq.]
-sunipsti,
duxe, -spexti,
d-uxti,
Att. v.
-spexe,
9.
2),
traxe,
vexti,
50. O. Lat. Perfects in -u(v)i. Varro declares that in the correct pronunciation of his time the u of verbs like pluo, luo was short in the Present
but long in the Perfect Indicative, as in the Perfect Participle Passive of

(L. L. ix. 104 quidam reprehendunt, quod
pluit et luit dica-
similar verbs
'
mus
in praeterito et praeseiiti tempore,

verba debeant discriminare. falluntur
'
'
'
cum
;
analogiae sui cujusque temporis

nam est ac putant aliter, quod in
praeteritis u dicimus longum 'pluit,' luit,' in praesenti breve 'pluit' 'luit' ;

ideoque in venditionis lege fuiidi ruta caesa ita dicimus ut u producamus)
'
'
'
(but cf. diriitus). Priscian (i. 504. 22 H.) makes this pronunciation, -ui in the
Perfects of Verbs in -uo, a feature of Old Latin, and quotes Ennius (Ann. 135 M)
}
adnuit sese
mecum
decernere ferro,
while in another passage (i. 503. 14 H.) he quotes plmisse, plmit with
quantity of the u is not mentioned) from Livy.
a
v (the
Institui is the reading of the MSS. in Plaut. Most. 86

(in bacchiac metre,
metre in which the long quantity of a vowel preceding another vowel is
often retained)
argumentaque in pectus multa institili.

The commonest instance of -Hi or -uvi is in the Perfect of the old verb /wo, viz.
/'', used as the Perfect of sum, as fuimus in the boast of Ennius on being
made
Roman
fait (along
citizen {Ann. 431 M.)

nos sumus Romani qui fuimus ante Rudini,
:
with profuif) in Plaut.
Capt. 555
quibus insputari saluti fuit atque
:
Is profuit,
THE VERB.
49-52.]
PLUPERFECT.
Ennius (Ann. 297 M.)
filerim, Mil. 1364, &c.,fuisset in
magnam cum
fuisset
partem
We
509
lassus diei
de summis rebus regundis.
have the spelling FVVEIT on an epitaph
(C. /. L.
i.
1051).
(See ch.
iv.
70.)
Some
Irregular Perfects. Besides the byforms in s of the Perfect

ofparco, -lego, &c. which are found in the older as well as the later literature
(
46), we have some which are more recent coinages on the type of other
51.
Velius Longus (74. 4 K.) speaking of sorpsi, a byform of sorbui, says

recens haec declinatio a sordidi sermonis viris coeperit (cf. Caper 94.
sorbsi/ sed sorbui), and similarly describes term (for trim) as
14 K. non est
a consuetude nova' (absorpsi is vised by Lucan, iv. 100). The Perfect ntlsi,
verbs.
cum
'
'
for
v.
velli,
594;
seems also to belong

cf.
Neue,
ii
2
.
to this class of later coinages (andsit in Lucaii,

-ccinui of concinui (Ov., Tibull.), occanui (Sail.),
and
503),
be a remodelling of a Perfect with lost Reduplication

the pattern of sunui, consonui, &c. Messui
(found in the older writers) is generally regarded as due to a similar
addition of the ending -ui to an already existing Perfect *messl, and also
nexui (with nexi\ pexui (with pext), although, if the theory of the origin of
the V-perfect stated in
47 be correct, the sibilant might be referred to the
influence of the dental in the auxiliary *dhwai (cf. 'iisus for *ut-tus, *oit-to-,
In late inscriptions we have e.g.
fusus for *fud-tus, &c., ch. iv.
95. p. 281).
reguit (C. I. L. v. 923, from Aquileia
septimae qui cohortis centuriam reguit,
a pentameter line), convertuit (viii. 2532 D b i) Apuleius uses contend (see
may
incinui (Varro), &c.
-am
(con-cini,
oc-cini,
in-cint) after
Georges Lex Wortf.

(older
s.
v.).
of/ero, see
tetulf)
On
Heteroclite Perfects like fid, Perfect of sum,
tuli
97.
In Vulgar Latin, as reflected in the Romance languages, the ending -ui

encroached still more. Cognovit became cognovuit (Ital. conobbe), movit became
movuit (Ital. movve),
(Ital.
stette), venit
cecidit
by
was replaced by
renuit (Ital.
cacluit (Ital.
venne), &c.
cadde),
stetit
by
stetw't
92 on the Vulg. Lat.
[cf.
The ending -si also

cacliitus, fallen (Ital. caduto)].
sphere, responclit passing to responsit (Ital. rispose), prendit to
(Ital. prese), cucurrit to cur sit (Ital. corse), &c.
(See Meyer-Llibke,
P. P. P. in -utus, e.g.
extended
pre(ri)sit
its
Rom. Gramm.
ii.
52. E.
pp. 297 sqq.)
Pluperfect.
The
Pluperfect- stem
adding to the Perfect-stem an

of the
Substantive Verb
es-,
as the
atnd-bam, uses a Preterite of the

-erat of amdv-eram,
formed by
is
S -suffix, probably a
Preterite
Imperfect in -bam,
Verb bheu-.
The
e.
g.
-eram, -eras,
meru-eram, replev-&ram dix-eram, vld-eram,

is most naturally referred to the Imaudlv-eram
pepfy-eram,
of
sum, though vlderam has been, with the O. Ind.
perfect
t
a-vedis-am, analyzed into a Noun-stem in -is

Gk. rjbta into a Noun-stem in -es (see 3).
(cf.
vidis-sem) as
-is- of the
The
Pluperfect Subjunctive dmdvissem, momdssem, vldi-ssem, audlvissem

must, if the old view be correct which sees in these forms an
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. VIII.
be a change of
Auxiliary essem appended to the Perfect-stem,
as
the a of Gk.
the
of
Perfect, just
-es- to the I-vocalism
of
as
the
a
appropriate
6eifara>, &c. is due to the apprehension
vowel of the Aorist Tense.

Future-Perfect.
53. P.
Perfect-stem
-ero,
-eris,
The Future-Perfect adds
to the
-ent, &c. (3 PI. -erunt\ which seems to
be nothing else than the Future (in form a Subjunctive,

55)
of sum, appended as an Auxiliary Verb, though those who
I.-Eur. -is-, the suffix of a Nounexplain the -er- of vlderam as
stem, see the same -is- in vid-ero (cf. O. Ind. vedisam) (see 3).
Scansions \\k.Q fecerlmus (Catull. v. 10), I PI. otftcero, are due
to the confusion of the Future-Perfect forms with Perfect
2
aderint is similarly
p. 510)
Subjunctive forms (see Neue, ii
used for wlerunt throughout the Lex Col. Jul. Genetivae
.
Urbanorum
Fut. Perf
ivero,
its
of
44
B. c.
(Eph. Epigr.
ii.
p.
122).
The use
of the
Republican Dramatists in sentences like mox

hardly differs from the Future, suggests that in
in the
where
original
it
usage the Tense was more of a Future than of
a Future Perfect (see A. L. L. iv. 594).

In the Umbro-Oscan languages we have a suffix -us-
(Umbrowhich is
supposed to be the termination of the Perfect Participle. Thus
fecerit will be like Gk. 8e8pa/co)s eo-ojitai, Umbr.
Osc. fefacust
fakurent like 8e8paKoYes lo-oimu.
(On the Umbro-Oscan Perfect
Oscan u may represent I.-Eur. 6 as well
'
Participle in -us, see

54. G.
as I.-Eur. u),
'
89.)
Tenses formed with Auxiliary Verbs.
We have seen
that the suffix used to form the Imperfect Tense of all Verbs.
-la-, and the suffix used for the Future of Vowel Verbs, -boare nothing but parts of the Auxiliary Verb bheu- (Lat.
the S-suffixes of the Pluperfect and Future-Perfect
that
fui\
Indicative, and of the Imperfect, Perfect and Pluperfect Sub(-&?-),
junctive are probably to be referred to the Auxiliary es- (Lat.

sum\ and we have seen the possibility of a similar explanation
of the V-suffix of the Perfect Tense as a form of the root dhe-,
to set, put/ used as an Auxiliary Verb.
These theories receive
a sanction from the proneness of the Latin and other Italic
languages for Periphrastic Tense-forms. Not only was the
'
THE VERB.
53-55.]
Perfect
Italic
Indicative
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Passive a form
of
511
this
kind [Lat.
amatus sum, (i) I was loved, (2) I am in a state of being- loved,

amatus fui, I was in a state of being loved, Osc. pruftu-set
probata sunt,' teremnatust terminatus est,' Umbr. screhto est
*
'
'
'
scriptum est
(the Auxiliary
Participle in frosetomestj\, and
joined in writing with the

other Tenses of the Passive
is
amatus eram, amatus fueram, Future-Perfect

amatus fuero, Perfect Subjunctive amatus sim, amatus
fuerim, Pluperfect Subjunctive amatus essem, amatus fuissem),
but we have many other examples of Periphrastic formation.
(Pluperfect, Lat.
amatus
ero,
The
PL
as
Pass, ending -mini, e. g. ferimini, is explained ( 81)

Part. Pass. (Gk. fytpoêvoi) with
the ending of a Pres.
suppression of estis, just as esse

Fut. Inf. dicturus, -a, -urn (esse) (
is
in the
commonly suppressed
Osc. manafum mando,'

86).
correspond to 'mandans sum,' is another example, showing
Pres. Part, with the Substantive Verb (cf. C.I.L. i. 196
'
if it
The Auxiliary eo
senatuosque sententiam utei scientes esetis).
appears in the Latin Fut. Inf. Pass., e. g. datum (i Sup.) in
(
87)* the Auxiliary habeo in such phrases as missum habeo for
misi or dimisi (e. g. Plaut. Pseud. 602 ilia omnia missa habeo,
quae ante agere
in phrases like
DHE- (reddo
occepi), the Auxiliary
missum facio for mitto or dimitto
do,
fado,
(e.
&c.)
Plaut.
g.
AmpJi. 1145), perfectum reddo for perfido (e.g. Plaut. Asm. 122),
factum dabo for faciam (e. g. Ter. Eun. 2 2). In the Romance
1
languages these expressions have supplanted

tenses
e.
many
of the Latin
g. cantare kabeo (Fr. chanter-ai, Ital. canter-o,
with
habeo, habes, &c., reduced to kayo, has, hat, haimt, &c.) has sup-
planted cantabo, &c so that the Latin Future survives in Romance

only in a few isolated forms, Ital. fia, O. Fr. ier from Lat.^fo^,
ero ; we find a Periphrastic Perfect consisting of the Perf Part.
,
Pass, with sum, sto (Intrans.) or with liabeo, teneo (Trans.); and
for the Passive the same Participle with sum,fio, venio, &c.
(See
Meyer-Liibke, Rom. Gram.

55. III.
ii.
THE MOODS.
pp. 138 sqq.)
A. Subjunctive.
I.-Eur. Optative Mood in Latin.)

the functions of a Future (cf. Horn.
avtpas ovbt
t8co/xcu),
as
(Relics of the
I.-Eur. Subjunctive had

262 ov yap TTOJ rotors tbov
The
11.
i.
well as of a true
Subjunctive
it
had
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
512
and in O. Ind. while Subjunctive
also Imperatival functions,

forms are frequent in the
survive in classical
Sanscrit
'
bhar-a-ni,
Imper.
let
literature, the Vedas, they

only in Imperatival use, e. g. i Sg.
To the un weakened stem
carry/
oldest
'
[Chap. VIII.
me
the short
(E-grade) was appended in the Athematic Conjugation
vowels e and 5, followed by either the Primary or the Secondary
e. g. from the Athematic Verb es-, 'to
Person-endings ( 65)
In Greek
have
we
be,'
3 Sg. Subj. *es-e-t(i) (O. Ind. asat(i) ).
:
these athematic Subjunctive forms are

retVere),
j3rj(TOfjii>,
and
later in a
from the Athematic Verb
'
ed-,
still
seen in
Homer
(e.
g.
few so-called Futures like 15-o-fuu

to eat,' as in Latin we have ero,
But in Greek,
3 Sg. similarly retained as a Future Tense.
forms
almost
the
athematic
have
been
Latin,
wholly
supplanted by the thematic forms, which show a long vowel,
erit
as in
sometimes
sometimes
like
<t)-jjLv,
as
a,
the
in
Italic,
Celtic
and other languages,
(which in Greek varies with 6, e. g. ^c'/o-rj-re, </>e'pathematic c-o in retV-ere, /3rj(r-o-juezj), as in the Italic
this process must have begun very

thematic Subjunctive forms of verbs belonging to the
Athematic Conjugation appear in many instances to have been
and Greek languages ; and

early, for
I.-Eur. forms.
Thus
*ed-a-, *ed-e-
must have been an
I.-Eur.
Subjunctive stem of ed-, to eat,' for we find in Lat. edd-mus,

edd-tis, in Greek
8co-/xez;, iSrj-re, and in O. Ind. ada-n 3 PI.
'
*es-e- from es-.

(O. Ind. a may represent I.-Eur. a, e, 6)
'to be,' appears in Gk. e^-re, ew-jutez;
O.
Ind.
asa-t 3 Sg.,
(cf.
asa-tha 2 PI.) ; and ey-a- from ei-, to go, in Lat. ed-$, ed-tis
;
'
The discarded athematic

(cf. O. Ind. aya-s 2 Sg., aya-t 3 Sg.).
forms are supposed to have been utilized in Greek as Futures
[the Future in
oei'er,
-o-o-
ri/xrjo-o/xei;,
(-<re-)]
thus Att.
n/x?jo-re, &c. will
reurojuiez;,
reurere,
Setter,
not be of the same class
as the ordinary I.-Eur. Future in

-syo-, e. g. O. Ind. dek-sya-mi
corresponding to Gk. dei'fco, Lith. bu-siu to Gk. $uo-a>, but will be
Subjunctives of S-Aorists and Latin Futures in -so-, like dixo,

&c., have been referred to the same source.
(On this
;
faxo,
theory, see
In
3.)
Latin the a-forms
were not
used for
the
first
Con-
jugation, probably because a Subjunctive like *amay-a-s(i) 2 Sg.

must have become amds, and so been
merged in the Indicative
THE VERB.
55.]
The E-forms only were used
2 Sg. amds.
in Latin,
tadait
'
'
e.
g. ames from %may-e-s(i)
censeat/ sakahiter
alphabet
diecula
i,
'),
SUBJUNCTIVE.
'
represents I.-Eur.
sacretur
'
513
for this Conjugation

l
Osc. clevaid
(cf.
Oscan
i,
juret,'
the
in
Latin
legatus/ zicolo- M.
have A-forms in kuraia ' curet,'
*
e, e.
but in Umbrian we
g. ligato-
Similarly the E-forms were not used for the

second Conjugation in Latin, to avoid confusion between *wideyand vides % Sg. Ind., only the A-forms
e-s(i), *vides 2, Sg. Subj.,
etaians
'
itent.'
e.
being allowed,
g.
*widey-a-s(i),
videds.
But
in the
other
Conjugations the A- and E-forms probably existed side by side,

until the latter were appropriated for the Future functions
(see
36), e. g. ferds 2 Sg. Subj. from *bher-a-s(i), feres 2 Sg.
Fut. from *bher-e-s(i),/0<?zW 3 Sg. Subj. (Osc. fakiiad, Volsc.
These A- and E-Subfagia, Umbr. fayia), faciet 3 Sg. Fut.
junctives
show
in
Umbro-Oscan the Secondary Person-endings
(-d in 3 Sg., -ns in 3 PL).
The Optative must have entered
into competition with the
Subjunctive at an early time, for it has almost entirely ousted

the Subjunctive forms in the Teutonic and Bal to- Slavic families
and in Latin we see the struggle still going on

between the Optative-forms edi-mus, edi-tis, and the Subjunctiveforms edd-mus, ecla-tls from the root ed-, to eat/ while in the
of languages,
'
case of the root es-,
'
to be,' the
Optative st-mns,
si-tis
have
driven out of the field the proper athematic Subjunctive forms
en-mus, eri-tis (from *eso-, *ese-), which have been relegated to

the Future function, as an *(e)se-mu8} *(e)se-tis may lurk in the
Imperfect Subjunctive ending (see

34).
The I.-Eur. Optative had in the Athematic Conjugation the
weak grade of stem, with a suffix which was in the Singular
Active -ye- (-iye-) and elsewhere -I-. and with the Secondary
Thus from the root es-, the I.-Eur. Optative
person-endings.
forms were
s-iya-s,
2 Sg. *sye-s (O. Ind.

2 PL *s-i-te
si.es),
O. Lat.
sya-s) or siye-s (O. Ind.

(cf.
Lat.
s-l-tis).
In the
Conjugation the suffix was -oi- in Singular and

Plural alike, e. g. from the root bher-, to carry, 2 Sg. *bher-oi-s
Thematic
I.-Eur. oi of
2 PI. *bher-oi-te (Gk. Qcp-oi-rc).
(j>tp-oi-s),
Thematic Optative would in the unaccented syllable in
Latin become -<?/-, then -- (ch. iii.
18), and I.-Eur. -ye- (-iye-)
(Gk.
the
Ll
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
514
of the Singular Active
mostly replaced by
the
-I-,
[Chap. VIII.
of the Athematic Optative has been

weak form of the suffix (e. g. class, aim
for O. Lat. siem, like slmns,
sitis),
so that a Latin Optative
form
like
might equally well represent an I.-Eur. athematic
*ed-i-s (with E -grade of stem and with I transferred to the
edls
Singular from the Plural, as -ye- is transferred to the Plural

from the Singular in Gk. o-ra-crj-jueu, a byform of orai/uiev), and
an I.-Eur. thematic *ed-oi-s. The probability however is that
the Optative was confined to the Athematic Conjugation in
Again,
Latin, and represents in every case I.-Eur. -ye-, -I-.
it
would be possible to argue that
stes,
&c.
stemus,
were
representatives of I.-Eur. *sta-ye- (Gk. o-Td-irjs, ora-^-juicv), and

The resolution of these doubts
not examples of E- Subjunctives.
must come from the Umbro-Oscan
which the
languages,, of
remains hitherto discovered offer too scanty material to enable us

to separate with certainty Latin thematic and athematic Optatives,
and Latin Subjunctives in
-e-.
The use
of the
weak grade
of
the suffix -ye- in the Singular of the Optative of es- appears in

(
these languages too, e. g. Umbr. si sis,' si sit, like sins sint,'
'
Marruc.
-si
'
'
sis
or
'
and has been referred
'
sit,'
weakening of unaccented ye to I.
assign an Optative force to forms
How
far
it
creduim
like
literature,
and a Subjunctive force to forms
doubtful.
The Optative
to
an
Italic
possible to
in the older
is
like
creduam
is
out clearly in their
origin of the old forms in -(s)sim comes

use in prayers (e. g. Juppiter prohibessis
scelus, di mactassint,
and the formula of the ancient Augural
bene sponsis beneque uolueris ; see

but in
prayer
5),
of
time
all
distinctions
in
between
process
-im, SubOptatives
in
-am
and
junctives
Subjunctives (possibly Optatives) in -em
:
came
to be effaced.
56. Some O. Lat. Subj. and Opt. forms.

In one of the_ oldest Latin
inscriptions preserved, the Dvenos inscription, we have an A-Subjunctive
mitat 'mittat' used as a Future, with the Optative of the root es-, sied 'sit/
used in the true Optative sense qoi med mitat, nei ted endo cosmis uirco
:
'
me
'
mittet, ne erga te comis Virgo sit (asted on the same inscr.

is variously interpreted as 'adstet' and as '
ast'; see ch. x.
Siem, sies,
5).
siet (on sient, see
73 *siemus, *sietis have not found their way into Latin
sied
qui
as syama, syata have into 0. Ind.),possi'm, &c. are by Terence used almost
only at tho end of a line or hemistich, i. e. through metrical necessity, but
THE VERB.
56.]
siem, siet are
21
SUBJUNCTIVE.
almost invariably used in old laws

200 passim), and Cicero
199. 6
198 passim
'
'
plenum
est,
Zander,
Vers. Ital.
imminutum
sit
p. cxx,
Plural, but a Latin
who
515
(e. g. C. I. L. i.
196.
30
(Orat. xlvii. 157) says,
197.
;
l
siet
'
utare utroque.
[For statistics, see
makes -I- of sit, &c. not the I.-Eur. I of the
licet
weakening of
as in Cornell Voc. for Cornelw. (? ch. vi.
-ie-
Besides the class. Lat. 'Subjunctives' (Optatives) in -im, sim, edim,

31)].
velim (in Plaut. veils and vis are used as the metre requires, without difference
of meaning), with its Compounds nolim and malim (on noli, see
58), we find
an 0. Lat. Optative duim. It comes from duo, a bystem both of do, to give
(root do-) and of -do, to put (root dhe- of Ti-Orj-fju, &c.), e. g. duitur (v. 1. arduuitur)
XII Tab.
x. 7, interduo,
Plaut.
Aul. 585, concredui, Perf, Gas. 479.
fr. inc.
G-.
ciccum non interduo,
concreduo,
We have
duim, perduim, especially in prayers and

inter duim (e. g. Rud. 580 ciccum
in Plautus the Optative forms

execrations (e. g. Most. 668 di istum
non interduim), creduim (in phrases

Amph. 672 si situlam cepero, Nunquam mihi diuini quicquam creduis
post hunc diem, may you never trust me again '), as also the A-Subjunctive
forms creduam e. g. Bacch. 504 nam mihi diuini numquam quisquam creduat,
Ni ego, &c.), and accreduam (Asin. 854 neque diuini neque mi humani posthac
quicquam adcreduas ... si, &c.), while an E-Subjunctive form (in Future
perduint),
like
sense
?) is
quoted by Paul. Fest.
20. 22 Th. addues, addideris (cf.
ib.
47. 6
Th.
pro dederis). We have in Conditional use, e. g. duit in a Law of Numa

(ap. Paul. Fest. 278. 9 Th.) si qui hominem liberum dolo sciens morti duit,
adduit in a Plebiscitum de Ponderibus Publicis (ap. Fest.
paricidas esto
duis
faxit iussitue
dolumue adduit, &c. Festus also
quotes an old form produit which he explains by porro dederit' (284. 16 Th.).
Duim was the form appropriate to Early Latin prayers, as in the prayer at
the 'agri lustratio,' preserved by Cato (R. R, cxli. 3) pastores pecuaque salua
322. ii Th.) siquis
'
bonam salutem ualetudinemque mihi domo familiaeque
seruassis duisque
it is used even
in Tiberius' letter to the Senate (Tac. Ann.
There are also uncertain traces of Optative forms from other verbs,
such as coquint, the reading of the Palatine MSS. in Plaut. Pseud. 819 (but
cocunt in the Ambrosian Palimpsest), tempering the reading of the same family
nostrae
iv. 38).
of
MSS. in
True. 60, a line for
which the evidence
of the Palimpsest is not
available (other examples, see in Neue, ii 2 442 carint of the Palatine MSS. in
Most. 858 is carent in the Palimpsest, and the corrupt reading of the Palatine
:
MSS. in Men. 984
a,
where this line of the Mostellaria is wrongly inserted,

shows carent to be the right form verberit of the law
culparent for culpa carent,
XII
Tables, ap. Fest. 290. 15 Th. si parentem puer uerberit, ast olle
plorassit, is a corruption due to the fact that the words were wrongly divided
in the archetype verberetas tolle, and the first word, being mistaken for a freof the
quentative Verb, was changed to
verberitas).
An
0. Lat. A-Subjunctive isfuam used in the sense of fiam, e.g. Bacch. 156,.
in the amusing conversation between young Pistoclerus and his 'paeda'
gogus Lydus
PIST.
LYD.
fiam, ut ego opinor Hercules, tu autem Linus.

metuo magis, ne Phoenix tuis factis fuam,
pol
teque ad patrem esse
sometimes merely in the sense of sim,
mortuom renuntiem,
e. g.
Virg. A. x. 108
:'
Tros Rutulusve fuat nullo discrimine habebo.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. VIII.
The equivalent of/omtaw (which is not used by Plautus, and only seldom,
e. g. Pseud. 432
by Terence, ch. ix. 5) is in Plautus forsfuat an,
if
ever,
fors fuat
(Cf. Ter. Hec.
Nonius
an
mendacia.
heaven grant it may

610 fors fuat pol
26 M.) quotes volam for velim from Lucil.
'
')
(xxviii. 15 M.)
(478.
eidola atque
and
istaec dicta sint
atomus uincere Epicuri uolam,
Plaut. Asin. 109 siquid te uolam, Ubi eris ? but in the second at least
it seems to be used in the Future sense.
;
of these passages
In the 2 Sg. Act. of the Present ImVerb is used, e.g. Athematic *ei,
of
the
bare
stem
the
perative
'
(
to
root
from the
ei-,
go (Gk. ef-et, Lat. ex-i from *ex-ei),
57. B. Imperative.
'
Thematic *bhere, from the root bher-, to carry (O. Ind. bhara,
Arm. ber, Gk. tytpe, O. Ir. beir, Goth, bair; Lat. age). But
'
the particle -dhi to the 2 Sg. in the

Athematic Conjugation (e.g. O. Ind. i-hi, Gk. l-di; O. Ind.
for *f i8-0i, O. Lith. veiz-di, O. SI. viz-di); the
vid-dhi, Gk.
a particle was often added
Mi
particle -k\ or -ê in Lithuanian,
e.
'
g. ei-k,
'
go,' dti-k,
give,' bu-k,
be'; the particle -u (cf. O. Ind. so for *sou, Gk. o5-ro9 for *<roubharantu ;
ro?) in Sanscrit to the 3 Sg. and PL, e. g. bharatu,
'
the particle -tod to various persons both in the Athematic and

Thematic Conjugations [e. g. O. Ind. vit-tat 2 Sg. Gk. torco for
Gk. c<r-ra>(8), Lat. e8-to(d)~\. In Latin the 2
^fir-Ttod 3 Sg.
;
Sg. Imper. in ~to(cl) is called the Future Imperative, because it

expresses a command, not for immediate performance, but for
performance after something shall have happened (e. g. Plaut.

Merc. 770 eras petito, dabitur; nunc abi; Hor. C. iii. 14. 23
per invisum mora janitorem Fiet, abito), and the same sense
attached to the O. Ind. 2 Sg. Imper. in -tat (see Delbriick,
Altind. Syntax, p. 363), so that it is not unlikely that this
particle -tod is nothing but the Abl. Sg. of the Demonstrative
si
is
Pronoun-stem toIt
upon.'
is
also
perhaps took with
stem
(e.
'
g.
Gk.
do thou
and means from this/ therefound with the 3 Sg. Dual and Plur., and
(ch. vii.
it
f-To>
'
'
13. i),
originally the
3 Sg.,
dfji-vt-TG)
weak grade
of the Verb-
3 Sg., O. Ind. kr-nu-tat
'
but not in Latin Uo, Umbr. etu, eetn, for

In
the
it is added to what is called the
PI.
*ei-tod).
3
Injunctive' 3 PL, viz. a form
resembling an augmentless Imperfect
2 Sg.,
'
THE VERB.
57, 58.]
IMPERATIVE.
517
(T.-Eur. *bheront like Impft. *e-bheront), e.g. Gk. fapovrv for

For the i Sg. and
*(f)povT-ra)b, Lat. ferunto for *fer6nt-tod*
was
Plur. the Subjunctive
the 2 PI.
we
ha.ve the
used,
e.
'
'
g. Lat.
form
feram, ferdmus. In
g. *bherete, O. Ind.
Injunctive
(e
Lat. agite from
bharata, Gk. <epere, O. Ir. berid, Goth, bairi]?
'
'
find
beside
which
in
we
Latin
a
form with
Future
*agete),
;
e.g. estate, apparently the addition of the 2 Plur. suffix -te
-tote,
'
'
72) to the 2 Sg. Future Imperative (e.g. esto.}

In the Latin Passive, the Injunctive form in -so (e. g. I.-Eur.
*bhere-s5, Zend bara-raha, Gk. <e'peo, contr. fyepov, e-(epeo, contr.
-()>pov) is used, e. g. age-re for *age-so (see ch.
2 Sg.,
and in the 2 PL the old Passive
iii.
38), in the
(Dat. Sg. of
Infinitive
a MEN-stem), e.g. agi-minl for *age-menai (Horn. Gk. dyein

Htvat), da-mini (O. Ind. da-mane Inf., Horn. Gk. bo-êvai)
;
'
the 2 Sg. Future Imper. and in the other persons the final d
of -tod is changed to -r, e. g. agttor, dator, aguntor (cf Umbr.
emantur, emantu, tursiandu).
byform for the 2, 3 Sg. is in
*
-wnno,
e.
formed apparently by Anal, of
g. prae-fdmino,
2 PI.
no Perfect Imper. in Latin, though memmi,

a Perfect used for a Present, has memento for *mement-tod
-mini.
(Gk.
There
is
ju/xaro> for *ju,eju^-rco5).
tives in -to, expresses a
Memento, like other 2 Sg. Imperathat usually has reference to
command
the future, a reference naturally suggested by the

remember.'
command
'
Other examples of 2 Sg. Imper. with, bare stem, (i) Athematic

athematic Ind. im-pU-s, vide-s, curd-s, finl-s are Imper. im-ple, ride (Lith.
Fer, vel, es (from smn) are then likely to be athepa-vyde-k), curd, finl, &c.
matic too, since their Ind. is athematic (e.g. 3 Sg. fer-t, rul-t, es-t; see
2).
Per cannot be an Injunctive form *fer-s (like ter for *ter-s from I.-Eur. *tri-s,
ch. vi.
61), if, as is probable, it is in Plautus a thoroughly short syllable,
capable of acting as a brevis brevians (see ch. iii.
42), in Cure. 245 aufer
In
istaec quaeso, whereas ter is a long syllable in Plautus. e.g. Bacch. 1127.
Mil. 1343 however one family of MSS. reads
fer aequo animo, the evidence
58.
like
Ambrosian Palimpsest being unfortunately wanting, a reading which

may easily be changed to fer animo aequo (as Cure. 245, for which there is
similar MS. evidence, is changed by some editors to aufer quaeso istaec). The
of the
Or the Plural of the old
Pres.
Part. Passive, agimini for *ago-menoi

(Gk. dyo-fjifvoi), with ellipse of este, as
2 PI. Ind. agimini for the same, with
The Inf. is
ellipse of estis (
82).
used for the Imper. in Italian &c.
in phrases like
speak.'
non
p.irlare
'do not
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
51 8
small
number
makes
of lines
it difficult
[Chap. VIII.
with decisive evidence on the quantity offer in Plautus

with certainty. Per is short in Asin. 672 fer amanti
to speak
Vel is a short syllable, capable of acting as a brevis brevians in

ero salutem.
Plautus, e.g. Amph. 917 vel hunc rogato; es, 'be,' cannot be shown (like es,
'art') to be long by position in Plautus (see Solmsen, Stud. Lautg. p. 185)
eat/ for which we should expect *ecZ, beside 3 Sg. esto, may be coined on
the type of es, ' be,' beside 3 Sg. esto, although both es, 'be,' and es, eat,' can also
be explained as Injunctive forms (like Gk. (Tri-<?x f -s, &c.) for *es-s and *ed-s *.
'
es,
'
Ce-do (with Plur. ce-tte for *ce-cZ#e?), 'give me or tell me,' seems to contain
the Pronoun *ke (perhaps Lith. sze, 'hither' see ch. vii.
15), prefixed as
an Adverb or Preposition, 'here,' 'hither' (cf. Osc. ce-bnust 'hue venerit,'
l
composed of *ke and a tense of the I.-Eur. root g Aem-, 'to come') to an
'
'
cf. Gk. 8t-5o>), the final vowel,

athematic Imperative *do (Lith. dii-k
shortened by the Law of Breves Breviantes after the short syllable ce-, being
invariably short owing to the rapid utterance of the word in every-day talk
(so hate for ave in the pronunciation of Quintilian's time, ch. iii.
42).
Da for *do shows the same transference to the A-Conjugation as Pres. Ind.
;
das, dat (0. Lat. dcit) (see
2).
Another example of an athematic Imperative may be fu in the Carmen

Arvale, if the words saturfu, fere Mars, are rightly interpreted satur esto, fere
Mars.' Fu will be Imper. of *fuo, like Lith. bu-k.
Noli may come from
'
a bystem of the fourth Conjugation, I.-Eur. *wel-yo- (Goth, vilja, 0.
SI.
(On Late Lat. aufere, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.)

The thematic Imperatives O. Lat. dice, duce, face (for *fad,
;2) Thematic.
from stem fac-yo-,
16) drop their final -e in classical Latin owing to their
frequent use in word-groups, i. e. in close connexion with a following word
velja) (see
2).
see ch. iii.

Die mihi, fac sciam
(like atq(ue\ neq(ue) before consonants
35).
are regularly used even in 0. Latin authors, and in Plautus we find die in
questions when the next word begins with a consonant, e. g. die quid est, but
dice is the form employed where there is anything of a pause after the word;
;
cf.
Mil 256 dice, monstra, praecipe, and especially Bud. 124

tu, siquid opus est dice.
Die quod te rogo.
Abduce, adduce and other Compounds of duco are still found in Terence before
a vowel, abduc, &c. before a consonant, while face is the form employed at the
end of a line ; edice in Virgil ('antiquitatis amans' Diom. p. 349. 30
in
K.)
Aen.
xi.
463
tu,
Voluse, armari Volscorum edice maniplis.
The Compounds however
offacio,
whose short penult was not
so favourable to
Syncope (ch. iii.

Catullus
13. p. 173) retain the -e, confke, affwe, infice, &c.
has ingermi (xxvii. 2) inger mi calices amariores, from which we
may perhaps
explain misc sane on an old Praenestine cista with a kitchen-scene (Mel. Arch.
1890, p. 303) as misc(e") sane from *misco, an earlier form of misceo (see
28).
The Interjection em (ch. x.
19) [e.g. em tibi, 'take that' (with a blow), em
:
ergo hoc
emo,
tibi,
the Ind.
&c., in the
which in
emis, emit,
Sins of the
may have
been originally Imperative of

(thematic *eme, to judge from
&c.), just as the Conjunction vel (ch. x.
4) was the
O. Lat.
Comedians]
46)
meant
'
Carmen Arvale (quoted
to take
in ch.
'
vi.
55) is a very doubtful form.
THE VERB.
59-62.]
DEPONENT.
519
Imperative (athematic) of volo (I.-Eur. *wel-mi) (cf. Umbr. heris

either
do you wish ... do you wish ?).
or,' lit.
.
heris,
Other examples of Imper. in
59.
'
'
The
-tod.
final -d is retained in Oscan,
e.g. 3 Sg. deivatud 'jurato,' estud, likitud 'liceto,' and in

'
tions, e. g. 2 Sg. statod, sistito on the Dvenos bowl [a
we are right in interpreting dienoine med Mano statod on
Early Latin inscripFuture Imperative if

the ninth day set me
(with an offering) for Manus'] sSg. uiolatod, licetod, datod with exuehito, exferto,
cedito 'caedito,' on the Spoletium inscription (C.I. L. ii. 4766), estod, licetod with
inscr.
ix. 782)
(C. I. L.
fundatid, proiecitad, parentatid on the Luceria
but in class. Latin, as in Umbrian, -d was by the phonetic laws of the
language lost after a long vowel (see ch. ii.
137), e. g. Lat. esto, liceto, ferto,
The curious forms in -tid and -tad
esto,' habetu.
hdbeto, Umbr. fertu, futu
on the Luceria inscr. (in hoce loucarid stircus ne[qu]is fundatid neue cadauer
proiecitad neue parentatid) are dialectal (Subj., with i for e in -tid ?). A Third
PI. form with -d, suntod, occurs on the Spoletium inscription.
(On Umbrian
i
'
'
*-to-ta in 2, 3 PI., see
73.)
Deponents sometimes show -to for -tor, e. g. nitito (Cic. ap. Diom. 340. i K.),
utunto [C. I. L. i. 204. (i). 8], and on the Lex Repetundarum we have the Passive
censento
(i.
198. 77).
60. Imper. Pass. 2, 3 Sg. in -mino. This is an 0. Lat. form, found as

2 Sg. in Plautus (e. g. progredimino, Pseud. 859 tu spectato simul,
:
quo hie gradietur, pariter progredimino),
si
(praefamino, R. E. cxli. 2 lanum louemque uino praefamiiio, sic dicito)

Paul. Fest. 62. 10 Th. 'famino dicito), and as 3 Sg. in early legal Latin
and Cato
'
(cf.
in ius uocat, ni it, antestamino, igitur em

fruimino in the Sententia Minuciorum of 117 B.C. (C. I. L. i. 199. 32
non parebit, is eum agrum nei habeto niue fruimino) profitemino in
XII Tables
antestamino in
capito
si
quei
the Lex Julia Municipalis of 45 B.C.
.
(i.
206.
11. 3, 5, 8,
ii).
Umbrian is -mu 3 Sg. (i. e. -mo, from -*mnod ?,

In Oscan
precamino,' with 3 PI. persnihi-mumo.
the Passive ending -r appears in 3 Sg. censamur (i. e. -mor) censemino,' but
the so-called Latin 2 PL Imper. Pass, in -minor is a fiction of the grammarians
(see Madvig, Opusc. p. 239.)
[Cicero in the archaic language of his laws
employs appellamino (MSS. -minor] as 3 PL Pass. (Legg. iii. 3. 8), but that this
The corresponding
ch. v.
suffix in
13), e. g. persnihi-mu
'
'
is
a genuine old usage

61. 3 PI.
may
Imperat.
amento (Sacerdos)
be doubted.]
The grammarians occasionally
probunto, doceunto (Probus;
cf.
PL
offer curious forms,
Ind. mereunt,
Commod.,
neunt, TibulL).
62. IV.
THE VOICES.
Deponent Verbs. Passive. Since
the Passive in Latin does not differ from the Active
in the
much as in the Person-endings, it is best discussed

immediately before we proceed to the consideration of the
Tense-stems so
here,
suffixes
used to denote the different Persons of the Verb.
close connexion
with
a Reflexive force,
e.
it
g.
In
goes the Middle, which had originally
Gk. rv^roâi
like
TVTITG)
efjiavrov,
or
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
520
a Neuter force, e.g. Gck. d^po/uuu,
[Chap. VIII.
In Latin Middle
p\oâi.
Thus
Verbs are called Deponents/
to
the I.-Eur. Middle *seq"-,
follow, accompany
(O. Ind.
the
saca-te 3 Sg., Gk. eVe-rat) is in Lat.
Deponent sequor, sequitur
(
e.
g. cingor like cingo me.

'
3 Sg. (O. Ir sechur, sechethar 3 Sg.). The R- endings of the

'
Passive and Middle or Deponent in the Italic and Celtic lan'
guages are discussed in 65, where it is suggested that the Passive

R-forms may originally have been restricted to an Impersonal
use in Latin, as in Umbro-Oscan and Celtic the Impersonal
Passive with
O.
Ir.
-r, e. g.
'
do-bera-r,
Umbr.
there
fera-r Subj.,
may
be giving
'
there
may be carrying/
'
(I.-Eur. *bhera-r),
is
by
absence of person-ending distinguished from the Deponent

with -r, e. g. Osc. karanter ' vescuntur/ O. Ir. sechethar
its
The Personal Passive of O.
'
sequitur.'
Third Person indicates
Ir.
by its restriction
to the
A Latin phrase like
its
Impersonal origin.
antiquam silvam, the peculiarity of which is commented on
by Quintilian (i. 4. 28 jam itur in antiquam silvam' nonne
propriae cujusdam rationis est ? nam quod initium ejus invenias ?
itur in
cui simile
'
fletur
')
may
then exemplify the oldest use of the
R-Passive, except that the original form would be *

(*ei-r)
without the 3 Sg. Person-suffix of itur (*ei-to-r)
and the
change from the Impersonal vitam vivitur of O. Lat. to the
;
Personal
vivitur of class. Lat. is parallel
vita
of invideor for invicletur
mi/ii,
itur to contumelia factum itur
factum
The Latin
Perfect, as
to Horace's use
OY Cato's change of
we have
contumeUam
87).
seen
(
39), represents the
I.-Eur. Perfect Middle, its i Sg. -, older -ei,
being I.-Eur. -ai
or -a\ (O. Ind. -e), so that a Perfect like renerti
(older -vorti,
-vortei
cf. O. Ind.
with a Present
va-vrte) goes
naturally
the other hand, the Participle in -to(
92), which
properly belonged to the Preterite Passive, was often used in an
-,
revertor.
On
Active (or Middle) sense,

that reversns (older -vorsm
also admissible.
More
e.
g. Lat. cendtus, pransus,
potm, so
cf O. Ind.
vrtta-), reversus sum are
is
verteux
as the Pres. Part,
questionable
;
of vertor in the phrase

intra finem anni vertentis, ' within the
current year/ vekens of vehor, &c.
In the older literary period
:
we
side,
and Middle forms of the same verb side

by
but by the time of the classical writers there is less freedom
find Active
THE VERB.
63, 64.]
521
example, had almost wholly supplanted

tells us that Sisenna the historian
time,
to
the
old-fashioned
assentio in giving- his vote in the
clung
of choice
assentio in
still
PASSIVE.
assentior, for
Varro
senate [L. L.
fr.
who
ap. Gell.
'
ii.
25. 9
'
nemo
sentior
dicit, et id
Sisenna
per se nihil est ; adsentior tarn en fere omnes dicunt.
unus ' adsentio in senatu dicebat, et eum postea multi secuti,
'
neque tamen vincere consuetudinem potuerunt cf. Quint, i. 5.

Quintilian however (ix. 3. 7) allows both assentior and
13.
;
assentio,
and the
the De Inventione
form of
latter
form
is
found in Cicero's Letters and
see Georges, Lex. Wortf.
assentior (as distinguished
from
s.
v.].
in
The Middle
sentio) is justified
by the
use of the Middle in verbs which express a state of feeling, e. g.

For the Greek Verb-ending -euco (e. g.
reor, vereor, Irascor.
c
in Derivative verbs indicating to play a part,'

KoXaK-v<i)), used
to act like, we have in Latin an A-Middle, e. g. aemul-or, -dri
5
from aenmlus, auguror, from augur, clommor from dominns, poetor

of Ennius' frank confession (Sat.
nunquam
M.)
poetor nisi sim podager.
hompoeta and
so on.
Examples of Frequentative Middles are
from O. Lat. *Jtorior (3 Sg. hontur Enn.), meditor from
a lost *medor (Gk. /xedojuuu), imitor (cf. imdgo)^ nitor for *mvitor
from a root with a Guttural (cf. nixus, and see ch. iv.
116).
hortor
63. Impersonal use of Latin. Passive.

by an Impers. Pass, is Ennius, Trag. 190 R.
An example
of
an Ace. governed
incerte errat animus, praeterpropter
uitam
uiuitur,
quoted by Gellius (xix. 10) in illustration of the word praeterpropter, 'inexactly.'

so so,' a word which was in his time only used in plebeian Latin (nescioquid
hoc praenimis plebeium est et in opificum sermonibus quam in hominum
'
doctorum disputationibus notius)
the
same construction has been seen in
Plaut. Mil. 24 (epityra estur), Pseud. 817 (teritur sinapis scelera), (but see edd.
ad Zocc.), Pers. 577 (ueniri hanc uolo) (but cf. Plaut. fr. inc. 1. 64 G. ego illi
uenear). Without an Ace. the Impersonal Passive

writers, e. g. Plaut. Pseud. 273
is
very
common
in the older
Quid
Pers.
agitur, Calidore ?
ut ualetur
Amatur atque
i
egetur acriter
'
is
Trin.
ibitur
Capt.
?, 386 facile nubitur,
580
309
easy
marriage
quom caletur, 'in hot weather'; Bud. 1018, &c. The Latin for 'No
admittance is PRIVATVM. PRECARIO ADEITVR, a notice preserved in
an inscription (C. L L. i. 1215).
;
80
'
64. Active
and Middle.
Gellius (xviii. 12) remarks on the 0. Lat. use
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
522
[Chap. VIII.
of Active Verbs like augeo, milto in a Neuter sense, instead of augeor, mutor, and
similarly of contemplo for contemplor, &c., and the seventh book of Nonius
contains a host of examples from the older writers, aucupo for aucupor, vago for
and so on. Quintilian (ix. 3. 6-7) remarks on the inconsistency of the
vagor,
Middle form of Transitive Verbs, fabrwor, punior, arbitror, suspwor with the
Active form of a Neuter or Passive Verb, vapulo, and mentions as parallel
forms luxuriatur and luxuriat, fluctuatur and fluduat, adsentior and adsentio (see
The same uncertainty with Active and Middle forms is shown for
62).
a later period by the precepts of the grammarians, e. g. Caper (93.10 K. ructo
et nausio dicendum, quamvis quidam veteres ructor et nausior dixerunt.
'
'
'
'
93. 21 K. suffragornon suffrage ';

dicendum, non autem egeor
The Passive use of Deponents (e. g.
95. i K. somnio dicendum, non somnior ').
vereor abs te) is discussed by Gellius (xv. 13) with examples from the older
writers, and a fuller list is given by Priscian (i. pp. 379 sqq. H.). A curious
non egeo
'
'
'
'
instance of Attraction
sum instead of
is
seen in the use of
with a Pass.
desii,
sum, instead of coepi, desitus

urbs coepta est aedificari (cf.
coeptus
Inf., e. g.
mitescere discordiae coeptae, Liv.), and in 0. Lat. we find potestur, poteratur,

used (instances in Nonius p. 508 M.), nequUur, nequztum (see
Georges, s. v.). The Neuter sense of/?o (cf. Osc. fiiet 'fiunt'), and its use as
possetur similarly
Passive of fdcio (on the occasional use of facior, apparently a vulgarism, see
Fiere was used by Ennius (see
fiere to fieri.
9 K.), perhaps in the line in which the spirit of Homer
related his experience of metempsychosis (Ann. 8 M.)
Georges), have changed its old Inf.
Gram.
Lat. v. p. 645.
memini me
while Cato
(ap. Prise,
i.
p. 377.
Imperat. fi, e.g. Plaut.

Lex. Wortf.
s.
v.)
and
desii
intransitively,
fieri),
fit,
fiebantur forfiebant.
(On
Cure. 87, fite Cure. 89, 150, &c., see Georges,
used for
venire
As
(venum
ire]
in Plaut.
sum and
Pers.
577
(cf.
sum replaced
(originally Middle formations), when these verbs were used
so Intransitive Verbs like soleo, gaudeo, audeo took a Perfect of
pereunda, Epid. 74,

coepi
pauom (MSS.
n H.) usedfitur for
Pers. 38,
so veniri is
fiere
pl-cicenda, Trin.
1159).
coeptus
desitus
Passive form
solltus sum, gav'tsus sum, ausus sum, in O. Lat. also solui, gavisi, ausi
Non. 508. 27 M.), e. g. Liv. Andr. quoniam audiui,
pp. 420, 482 H.
paucis gauisi. On the Deponent Imperatives nitito, utunto, &c., see
59.
(Prise,
i.
65. V.
THE PERSON-ENDINGS.
The
I.-Eur. person-
endings were slightly different in Primary Tenses (the Present

Ind., Future Incl., &c.) and in Secondary Tenses (the Preterites
Ind., the Tenses of the Optative
Mood, &c.),
e.
g. I.-Eur. *bhere-ti,
he was carrying/ he carried/

carrying,' *c-bhere-t,
*bheroi-t 3 Sg. Opt.
The Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood
'
he
'
is
seem
to
have taken sometimes the Primary, sometimes
(in
Umbro-Oscan perhaps always) the Secondary person-endings.

In the Perfect Tense an entirely different set of endings was in
use,
e.
g. I.-Eur.
knowest/ and
so
on
(
Sg. *woida, I know,' 2 Sg. *woit-tha, thou
and
in
the Imperative the persons are often
;
'
THE VERB.
65.]
PERSON-ENDINGS.
523
distinguished by the addition of particles, e. g. I.-Eur. *bheretod, with the particle *tod, Abl. Sg. of the Pronoun *to-, meaning
'
from this' or thereupon ( 57).

In Passive and Deponent Verbs, Latin departs widely from
the I.-Eur. scheme of Passive (or rather Middle) person-endings
'
'
(contrast ~La,t.feror, sequor with
seqmmur with Gk.
Gk.
êpo-jxat, CTTO-JLMU, ferimur,
<epo'-ju,e#a, e7ro-/me0a,
and with O. Ind. bhar-e,
Umbro-Oscan languages,
the characteristic mark of its pas-
Latin, as well as the
bhara-mahe).
and the Celtic family, uses as

sive and deponent flexion the
sechethar 3 Sg., sechemmar
sequitur, *equ$mur, sequuntur)
i
.
letter r (cf.
O.
Ir.
sechur
Sg..
PL, sechetar 3 PL, with Lat. sequor,

[In Celtic r is used in all persons of
Deponents (except 2 PL), but only in 3 Sg., PL of Passives.] This r

cannot be connected with the Reflexive Pronoun *swe- (Lat, se
Ace.), seeing that s between vowels does not become r in Oscan or
in the Celtic languages (e. g. Lat. senior might conceivably stand
for *seq"o-se, but O. Ir. sechur could not).
Nor does it go well
r of 3 PL suffixes in the Sanscrit Verb, and the -runt,
the 3 PL Pft. Act. in Latin (e. g. O. Ind. a-duh-ra, a-vavrtranta, Lat. dederunt^ dedere), since the Sanscrit r is confined to
3 PL suffixes, and is used in Active as well as Passive Verbs.
with the
-re of
may have
sense
Its original
'
antiquam
silvam,
been impersonal [cf. Lat. itur in

one goes ; originally without
they go/
'
any person-ending, as in Umbro-Oscan and Celtic, e. g. Umbr.

pone esonom-e ferar, when there is carrying to the sacrifice,'
when the carrying to the sacrifice takes place/ which would
'
Lat. feratur or feretur, with person-ending -tu- (-to-) ;

one gives/ Bret,
doberr or doberar,
they give,'
and
one
sees
the
gweler, they see/
original construction of
'] ;
be in
O.
Ir.
'
'
'
these Impersonals Passive seems to have been with an Ace. of

sakriiss sathe object (e. g. O. Lat. vitam vivitur; Osc., iuvilas
.
krafir avt
ultiumam
'
kerssnais,
let thejovilae
be consecrated with
'
victims, but the last with banquets ; Welsh, Etlym gledyf coch
gelwir, they call me Etlym of the red glaive/ like Lat. me
ym
appellatur (see
62).
This Impersonal (Passive ?) governing an Ace. has been explained as the Verb-stem with the Locative suffix r (seen in Engl.
'where/ 'there') used predicatively
like the i-Locative
of the
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
524
[Chap. VIII.
83) in such a phrase
Verbal S-stem (the Latin Inf. Act. ; see

as hostes apparere, the enemy appeared'
'
the enemy in the action of appearing.'
'
e.
(Historical Inf.),
lit.
On
the change from,

invideor for
to
amantur
like
Horace's
*amd-r
amicos
amid,
g.
invidetur mihi, see above,
66.
(l)
Active.
62.
(e.
Athematic Verbs ended
I.-Eur.
Sing.
Primary Tenses in -mi
in
g. I.-Eur. *es-mi, O. Ind. as-mi,
Arm. em, Gk. dpi
for *eo--ju, Alb. jam, Goth, im, Lith. es-mi,

O. SI. jes-mi), Thematic in -6 (e. g. I.-Eur. *bher-6, Gk. 4>epo>,
O. Ir. -biur for *bero, Goth, baira for *bero Lith. vezu, veho ').
'
In Secondary tenses the ending was -m (e. g. I.-Eur. *e-bhero-m,

O. Ind. abharam, Gk. tfapov, O. SI. nesu, I carried,' for *nesom),
*
after a consonant, -m,
had -a
e.
Gk.
g.
vait for *vaita
O.
In Latin, as
Ir. ro
we have
cechan
seen,
'
cecini
e.
e.
*bhero.
in
I.-Eur.
*es-mi, however,
originally *som% with
it is
1
,
final i
g.
bhara-mi for I.-Eur.
Latin sum, whether
(ch.
iii.
say,'
or
37) or merely
The curious
with the other Persons formed from a
and with Imper.

should
Syncope of
is
impossible to determine (cf. Osc. sum).
Sg. inyiiam
Goth,
i Sg.
for
Lat.
ed-o
I.-Eur.
g.
in Sanscrit
2), just as
Thematic Conjugation,
for I.-Eur. *wel-mi (
i-ol-o
018-0,
').
Thematic Verbs take the Athematic -mi,
*s8m
Gk.
Athematic Verbs form the
according to the
*ed-mi,
The Perfect
eSetfa for *e8eif-m.
(e.g. I.-Eur. *woid-a, O. Ind. ved-a,
'
iuqne,
resembles a
I shall say,' or
'
let
I Sg. inqnio,
f
l
Subjunctive in form,
me
'
say
55).
(see
The
Secondary Tense-ending -m appears in Imperfects and Pluperfects,

'
e.
I went,' Gk. c-8pd-y, Goth, idg. era-m (cf O. Ind. d-ya-m,
(
I went '), amd-la-m (cf. O. Ir.ba for *bam, I was
amdvdja,
'),
.
'
era-w, in Optative forms,
O. Lat. sie-m (O. Ind. siyam,

etT/-r), amdv-eri-m, ama-ssi-m, faxi-m, and in Subg. ame-m, amdvme-m, mclea-m, fera-m (also used as
e.
g. $i-m,
sya-m, Gk.
junctive,
e.
Fut
->
3 6 )> fwia-m (cf. O. Ir. do-ber for *-ram, O. SI. bera,
used as Pres. Ind.).
But the Future- Subjunctives (see 53)
take the Thematic ending, e.
g. er-o for *es-6 (Zend, araha,
'
'
Explained as *ind-(s)quam
*ind-(ve)quam from the roo
from the root seqH-
(ch.
iv.
158).
or as
THE VERB.
66, 67.]
Horn. Gk.
e'oo
for
PERSON-ENDINGS.
525
dmdv-er-o, ama-ss-o, fax-o, like />-<?,
*eo-<o),
fsto
for *stay-6
(Umbr. stahu\
In the Perfect, the ending of the Active Voice has been replaced in Latin by the Middle ending -ai (-01), which became in
-ei, then -I (ch. iii.
18), tutud-l (O. Ind.
tutud-e), ded-l (O. Ind. dad-e), vid-i from *veidei, a Middle form
which survives in the O. SI. vede, I know,' for *woidai (O. Lat.
the unaccented syllable
'
on the milestone of PopiLat. reverti, assensi, &c. are
fecei, poseiuei, conquaeisiuei, redidei, all

lius of
B.C., C.
132
I.
L.
i.
551)'
thus really Middle forms, and go suitably with Pres. revertor,

assentior.
The
67. 2 Sg.
and
*es-si,
O. Ind.
again of the suffix

the root
ei-,
I.-Eur. endings are -si (e. g. I.-Eur. *e-si

a-si, Gk. ei for *e-<ri, which with the addition
-s
became
ets,
'to go,' O. Ind.
Horn.
bhara-si, O. Ir. beri. Goth, bairi-s),
O. Ind. a-bhara-s,
*
'
vexisti
and
-s
O.
e-(/>epe-s,
in the Present Tense,
in the Perfect -tha

ola-Oa
Gk.
eo--<rt
Gk.
e-si,
ct
(e.
Ir.
I.-Eur. *ei-si from

for * t-o-i ; O. Ind.
g. I.-Eur. *e-bhere-s,
do-bir;
O.
Gk. ri^-j, Dor.
veze
SI.
cêpe-?),
g. I.-Eur. *woit-tha, O. Ind. vet-tha,
(e.
Gk.
O. H. G. gi-tars-t). In Latin we have -* in es, thou

(scanned as a long syllable in Plautus). whether
'
cf.
art,' for
*m
from older *ess!
(ch.
iii.
37) or not,
it is
impossible to say, agi-s for
*age-s (if from an original *age-si, like O. Ir. beri from *bheresi, the final -i must have been dropped before the fourth cent.
when s between vowels became r- see ch. iv. 146), i-s

(O. Lat. sie-s), agd-s, while in the 2 Sg. of the Perfect Tense we
have -sti, e. g. dedi-sti, the final vowel of which (O. Lat. -ei, e. g.
B.C.
-I
of
(-fli),
on a Scipio Epitaph of
c. 180 B. c., C. I. L. i.
33), like the
an
ded-l
must
Ind.
original -ai
Sg.
represent
(O.
dad-e),
while the -s reminds us of that -s- which so often appears
gesistei
in the endings of the second Person

e0e'A.?/-(r0a, /3aA.ot-o-#a).
(e.
g.
Gk.
tyri-aOa, TiQr)-a-Qa,
(For another theory which regards vidis-
of vidisti as a Verbal
Noun-stem, see
5 2.)
In the Imperative, the bare stem is used, as the bare stem is
used in Vocatives Sg. of Nouns, e. g. (Thematic) age from the
Thematic Verb-stem *age-, *ago-, to lead,' as *age is Voc. Sg.
of the Thematic Noun-stem *age-, *ago-, Gk. dyo?, a leader,
*
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
526
Lat. prod-fyus (Athematic)

stem ei-, ' to go (see
2).
'
[Chap. VIII.
for *ei from the Athematic VerbSometimes the particle *t6d (Abl.
'
'
thereupon') is added,
Sg. of the Pronoun-stem to-, from this,'
when the command refers not to immediate action, but to action
something shall have happened,
after
when he comes,
e.
quum
g.
venerit, scribito,
write thereupon.'
(So in O. Ind.,
* wit-tod from the root
I.-Eur.
vit-tat
for
2
weid-, 'to
Sg.
e.g.
1
know ; see 57.) The final -e of O. Lat. duce, dwe.fdce [for
'
'
lit.
write,'
*fac% (ch. iii.

37), from the stemfacpo-yfacv*,
16] is dropped
in classical Latin, through its frequent use in word-groups like
So in Catullus
dic(e) mi/ii, &c.
58
(see
ch.
iii.
mi for ingere mi
36).
The athematic
68.
(xxvii. 2) inger
Sg. offero, volo
would be
*fers, *vels.
which would become
153). The former word was changed tofer-s by the addi*fer(r\ *rel(t) (ch. iv.
tion of the 2 Sg. suffix -s, as in Greek 6? for *ecri was made efj, thou art
for the
;
latter
was substituted the word
(0. Ind. vi- 7 2 Sg. ve-si,
Whether dices
of the
the old spelling of
O. Tnd.
apparently 2 Sg. of a root wei-,
MSS. in Plaut.
clicis is
as-ti,
doubtful.
Gk.
to
wish
'
i'e//cu).
Trin.
It
606 non credibile
may
dices, is a relic of
be Future.
The Primary Tense-ending in I.-Eur. was
3 Sg.
69.
*es-ti,
Gk.
vis,
eV-rt,
O.
Ir. is.
O.
&c.),
the Secondary Tense-ending was
is-t,
Dor. Gk. 8i'8-ri, Att.
es-t,
SI. (Russ.) jes-ti
Goth,
-t
(e.
-ti (e. g.
Lith. es-ti
and
8i8o>-<ri, Titty-cri,
g. *e-bhere-t, O. Ind.
Gk. e-$epe for *-êpe-r), and the ending of the

Perfect -e (e.g. *woide, O. Ind. ved-a, Gk. olb-, Goth, vait;
O. Ir. ro cechuin cecinit ').
In Latin all trace of the -i of
a-bhara-t,
'
I.-Eur.
-ti
has been lost
but in Oscan
On
we
the
find -t
(e.
g. Lat. es-t, fer-ty agi-t for *age-t),
for I.-Eur.
-ti,
and
we
oldest Latin
-d for I.-Eur.
-t.
-d for
the
very
inscriptions
Secondary ending, but certain instances of Primary endings are
Thus the Praenestine fibula has fefaced,
unfortunately wanting.
'
fecit/ the
find
Dvenos
inscription has feced, sled (but mitat, apparently 3 Sg. Subj. used as Fut.), and in Oscan we have deded
1
'
(
dedit/ kum-bened
con-venit/ f usi-d foret/ deivaid juret/
*
heriiad
'
while Primary Tenses show -t, e. g. faamat

These endings had been ( levelled to t in Latin
before the second century B.C.; for a Praenestine
cista, not of
'
velit/
'
habitat/
the same antiquity as the fibula

just mentioned, has dedit beside
fecid
(C.T.L.
i.
54 Dindia
Macolnia
fileai
dedit.
Nouios
THE
VERB.
med Romai
fecid),
68-70.]
Plautios
PERSON-ENDINGS.
and in
537
other old inscriptions we

of
189 B. c.), uelet vellet
(ii. 5041,
cemuit (all on the S. C. Bacch. of 186 B.C., i. 196),
have invariably
-t, e.
all
'
g. iousit
fuit y
on the (restored) Columna Rostrata (i. 195), fuet,
declet on one of the oldest Scipio Epitaphs (i. 32.).
eset,
cepet
'
cepit,
In the Latin Perfect the original ending seems to have been

1
-eit,
written in the very oldest inscriptions -eel (with that use of e

which we have seen in Norn. PI. ploirum.e
to express the <^'-sound
on a Scipio Epitaph, Dat. Sg. Diove Victors, ap. Quint, i. 4. 17

see ch. iv.
Before
34), then -et, -eit, and in class. Lat. -it.
;
a long vowel was shortened in the course of the

B. c. (ch. iii.
49), so that in class, poetry this -it
of the Perfect is a short syllable.
But in Plautus it is invariably
a final
-t
second cent.
scanned long, unless shortened in iambic words,, &c. by the Law

of Breves Breviantes (e. g. dedU may be scanned cleMt, but only
The long quantity is found in every type of

&c.).
Perfect in Plautus (see
39), in vixit, habntt, adnumeravlt, as
This -eit can hardly have
well as in Perfects proper like melt.
vldlt, fecit,
been anything else than the I.-Eur. ending of the 3 Sg. Mid. of
the Perfect Tense (which was, like the i Sg. Mid. ending -ai,
a diphthong- weakened in the unaccented syllable in Latin to -ei,
class, -i, ch. iii.
18), augmented by the 3 Sg. Act. Secondary
suffix
So that all trace of the I.-Eur. 3 Sg. Act. ending -e is

In the Oscan Perfect, however, the ending -ed,
-t.
lost in Latin.
e.
g.
deded
aamanaffed
'
dedit,'
'
prufatted
-mandavit
'
(cf
probavit
(quasi *probassit,
3),
'
k5er, avaFaKtr, Pel. afded abiit ')
usually referred to the I.-Eur. Preterite ending -et, or to the

Perfect Active -e augmented by -t, though whether Umbrian -d
* ef
ef
ured, dede for *deded) was dropped after a short
(f ure for
is
vowel, so readily as after a long vowel (like Latin -d) is doubtful.

In the Imperative the same form is used as the 2 Sg. 'Future
'
Imper.
e.
g. es-to(d],
The
on which see above,
67.
We
have found (ch. iii.

49) that the
shortening influence of final -t on a preceding long vowel is already seen in
the poetry of Ennius (239-169 B. c.), who scans, e. g. mandeWt beside ponebdt,
spkndet beside jubet. potesset beside esset, though it probably does not appear in
Plautus (c. 254-184 B. c.), that Terence (195-159 B. c.) follows the same usage
as Ennius, while Lucilius (148-103 B. c.) scarcely ever allows a vowel before
70.
final
-t
3 Sg. Pft. in Latin.
to retain its original length.
It is
thus the versification of Plautus
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
528
which must decide the
-it.
[Chap. VIII.
original quantity of the vowel in the 3 Sg. Pft. ending

-it in Plautus are emit, Poen. 1059
Indubitable instances of
emit, et is
vixlt,
Pseud. 311
me
sibi
adoptauit filium
ilico uixit
amator, ubi lenoni supplicat
are the readings of both families of MSS., while
which
uicit et
adnumerdvit, Asin 501
domum
we have vicit, Amph. 643
laudis compos reuenit (a bacchiac line)
adniimerauit et credidit mihi neque deceptust in eo,
where the evidence of the Ambrosian Palimpsest is wanting. (For other

The instances of -U in Plautus,
examples, see Muller, Plant. Pros. p. 71.)
except where the Law of Breves Breviantes operates (e. g. dedit like dedi, abi,
and even if
are very few and uncertain (e. g. dixit, Pers. 260)
obit, (ibis, &c.),
it were true, as it almost certainly is not, that this scansion occurred now
and then in Plautus, it would only prove that the shortening influence of
final -t showed itself even earlier than Ennius, for there is no indication of
;
one type of Perfect having had -it and another type -it. In other writers we
have, e.g. exddlt Naev. Trag. 5 E., dcdlt Ter. Eun. 701, stettt, Phorm. prol. 9,
crissavit Lucil. ix. 70 M., and the long quantity is found after i in the com-
pounds of
Lucr.
iii.
The
eo
in Ovid,
1042
and
e. g.
interiit,
abiit, redilt
cf. interieisti, C. I.
L.
i.
Lachmann and Munro on
(see
1202).
on the Praenestine
spelling in the very oldest inscriptions is -ed fefaced

:
Manius me fecit Numfibula (C. I. L. xiv. 4123 Mauios med fefaced Numasioi,
erio '), feked (orfeced- ?) on the Dvenos bowl (Zvet. I. I. L 285 Duenos med feked).
'
This can hardly be equated with Osc. -ed, since the other spellings -eit, -it point
merely that symbol of theez-sound which is oftenfound in
in Oscan
old inscriptions (ch. iv.
34), derivable from an I. -Eur. -ai, for which
we should expect to find a diphthong rather than the simple vowel e. Other
to this early e being
-it.
Examples of -et arefuet and dedet (beside
-et, -eit, -id, and
on a Scipio Epitaph, perhaps of the end of the third cent. B. c. (C. 7. L.
i.
32), dedet in two old inscriptions with Ablatival -d (i. 63 de praidad Maurte
dedet i. 64 de praidad Fortune dedet) and this is the spelling adopted in
old spellings are

cepif)
The classicepet.
ornauef).
195 exemet
cal spelling -it occurs as early as the Scipio Epitaph, just mentioned, with
cepit ; the dedicatory tablet of Minucius, 217 B. c., with vov-it (i. 1503 Hercolei
sacrom M. Minuci C. f. Dictator uouit) a Scipio Epitaph of c. 200 B. c. (i. 30)
the (restored)
Columna Rostrata
(i.
the dedication of Aurelius, 200 B. c. (Not. Scav. 1887, p. 195),

with didit, probauit the decree of Aemilius Paulusof 189 B. c. (C. I.L. ii. 5041)
with decreiuit, iousit and the contemporary decree of Fulvius Nobilior 189 B.C.
the S. C. Bacch.
with cepit (i. 534 Aetolia cepit,
took from Aetolia ')
186 B. C. (i. 196) with censuit
while we have both -it and -id on the old
withfuit,
cepit
Praenestine cista (end of third cent. ?) quoted above, with dedit, fecid. But -eit
is not common, e. g. probaveit (with coeravit) (i. 600, of 62 B. c.), fuueit (i. 1051),
redieit (i. 541, of 145 B. c.), venieit (i. 200. 58, &c.. of in B. c.), so that if we had
only the spellings of inscriptions to guide us, and not the versification of the
we should be inclined to suppose the original form of the 3 Sg. Pft.

have been -et, -M, which, with the usual change of unaccented e to
became about the end of the third cent, -it (-id}. It has been suggested that
in some types of Perfect, e. g. dixit (cf. Gk. Z8tt(T^ fulit (cf. 0. Ind. a-bhidearly poets,
suffix to
THE VERB.
71-73.]
at
it
but see
was
529
the final syllable was originally short, while in other types

versification of Plautus points to no distinction having
between the different types in his time at least. The pronuncia39),
But the
long.
been made
PERSON-ENDINGS.
tion of his age must have been dixit, fidlt, amamt as well as tutudlt, vidlt, fecit,
and this T-sound can hardly be dissociated from the final -1 of i Sg. tutudi, &c.
This -I of tutudi we have seen to be the I.-Eur. -ai, the ending of the i Sg. Pft.
Mid. (0. Incl. tutud-e). In the 3 Sg. of the Perfect Middle, Sanscrit shows
a similar form to the i Sg.. viz. tutud-e. We are therefore led to suppose
that in Latin as in Sanscrit *tutudai was the original form both in i Sg. and
3 Sg. This *tutudai, which would become in Latin *tutudei, then tutudi, was
in the 3 Sg. discriminated by the addition of the 3 Sg. suffix used in Secondary
Tenses in the Active Voice, -t, and became tuiudei-t (written in the old ortho-
The other
tutude-f), then tutudl-t, then in the second cent. B.C. tutudit.
types of Perfect followed in the 3 Sg., as in all other persons, the type of
I.-Eur. Perfects like tutudi.
graphy
71.
(class,
1 Plur.
In Lat. we have in
while
-mm),
all
*-mos
tenses the ending
in the other I.-Eur. languages
we have
a variety of endings, e. g. Gk. <e/>o-jixi>, eêpo-jue^, Dor. ^C/QO-JUICS

(this I.-Eur. *-mes varied with *-mos, the Latin person- suffix),
The scansion -mm in Plaut.
O. Ind. a-bhara-ma, Vedic vid-ma.
is
illusory (see Miiller, Plaut. Pros. p. 57).
The ending -te of Gk. <e'pe-re, &c. appears in

72. 2 Plur.
Latin only in the Imperative, e. g. fer-te, agi-te for *age-te, &c.
Elsewhere it was replaced by -tis (older *-te$), an ending like
the 2 Dual ending (with th- apparently) of O. Ind. bhara-thas,
Goth, baira-ts, the use of which discriminated agitu Ind. from
agite Imper., as agis Ind. differed from age Imper.
Corresponding
to the 2 Sg.
'
Future
'
Imperative in
-to (older
-tod),
we have
'
PL Future Imperative in -tote, apparently composed by

adding to the Sg. form the 2 PI. suffix -te, -tote (e. g. estdte),
a 2
'
for -tot-te (ch
ii.
73. 3 Plur.
127).
The
I.-Eur. suffixes end with
not in Secondary Tenses.

-nt, -nt are
Dor.
-VTL,
Thus
-i
in
-enti, -nti, -nti are
Primary but
Primary, -ent,
Secondary, e. g. *s-enti (O. Ind. s-anti, Gk. eto-t for

O. Ir. it, O. W. int, Goth, s-ind ; so Umbr. s-ent,
Arm.
Osc. s-et for *s-ent), *bhero-nti [O. Ind. bhara-nti,
Dor. Gk.
(frepo-vTL,
O.
Ir.
berit,
Goth, baira-nd, O.
berati], *e-bhero-nt (O. Ind. a-bhara-n,
Gk.
!-<epo-z>).
SI.
beren,
(Russ.)
In
class.
Lat. the ending both for Primary and Secondary Tenses is -nt,
e. g.
feru-nt (older *fero-nt, e. g. coxentiont on a Scipio Epitaph,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
530
[Chap. VIII.
fereba-nf, fera-nt, si-nt [Umbr. sins\ but O. Lat.

siet (see
55), or with
iient, either by analogy of Sg. siem, sies,
But in
C.LL.
i,
s-unt
-ent for -nt, *siynt],
1166).
(older sont,
C.LL.
i.
32,),
Umbro-Oscan
there
a distinction.
is
but -ns for I.-Eur.
-nti,
-nt,
e.
g.
We
Umbr.
have -nt for I.-Eur.
sent, Osc. set for
*sent in
the Ind. of the Substantive Verb, but Umbr. sins, in the Opt.,
'
Osc. prufattens probaverunt/ so that it is likely that at some early
period Latin, like the other languages of Italy, distinguished
Primary -nti and Secondary -nt. The 3 PI. tremonti in the

fragment of the Carmen Saliare, ascribed to Numa's time, is
a doubtful reading [Ter. Scaur. 28. 9 K. Cum
quoniam antiqui
pro hoc adverbio cuine dicebant, ut Numa in Saliari carmine
.
'
'
cuine tonas (MSS. ponas), Leucesie, prae tet tremonti (MSS. praetexere
monti)],
is confirmed by another corrupt passage of Festus
Th.
he is quoting from the Carmen Saliare): 'prae tet
(244. 17
tremonti (MSS. pretet t.) praetremunt te (MSS. praetemunt pe).
In Old Latin we have a curious form in -nunt (older -nont) in
though
it
'
the Pres. Ind. only,
e.
g. dtit-nunt, exple-mmf, prodi-nunt, nequi-
nout, which has been explained on the theory that the 3 PI.
of the Pres. Ind. had once ended in -n, *dan, *explen, *prodln,
*neqiim, and that these forms were expanded by the subsequent

addition of the Thematic Secondary ending -ont, later -unt, much
as
Gk.
et
Secondary
to sind-un.
for *cri, 2 Sg. of
et/^t,
was by the addition of the

'
expanded to et-?, or O. Engl. sind, they are,'

were a mere case of Nasalization like tu-n-do,
suffix -s
If
it
tt-n-o, *sta-n-o in desffinofi), &c.,
Lith. einu,
'
'
go
10), it is
why should be confined to this single person,

the third person plural of the Present Indicative Active.
But
difficult to see
it
how
*danti could become *dan, *eks-plenti become *explen, has

not yet been satisfactorily shown (see /. F. ii.
302).
I.-Eur. -nti, -nt (e. g. O. Ind. dad-ati, Gk.
AeAoyx-ao-t for -nti)
does not appear in Latin, unless possibly in O. Lat. sient
(see
But in Umbro-Oscan -ent, -ens [I.-Eur. -ent(i) or
above).
-nt(i) ] is as universal as -unt [I.-Eur. -ont(i) ] in
fiiet
'
'
nunt,' prufattens probaverunt,'

censazet for -ent 'censebunt.'
Latin,
Umbr. furent
'
e.
g. Osc.
erunt,' Osc.
THE VERB.
74, 75.]
PERSON-ENDINGS.
531
The ending of the 3 PL of the Latin Perfect -erwnt is to be

compared with the O. Ind. 3 PL endings with -r- of various
Tenses
(e.
g. a-duh-ra
duh-rate Pres., bhare-rata Opt.,

very rarely -ranta, in a-vavrt-
Pret._,
duh-ram and duh-ratam Imper.
Ind. Perfect has in 3 PL Act. -ur, e.g. dadur,

have
they
given,' and in 3 PL Mid. -re, e.g. dadire, representing probably I.-Eur. -r and -rai). The byform -ere is in O. Lat.
The O.
ranta.
'
-en
L.
(decleri,
fi.
C.I.L.
i.
187, probably from Praeneste
P. Condetios Ua.
fi.
aidiles
M. Mindios
uicesma parti Apolones dederi).
In the Imperative we have in Latin, as in Greek, the particle

f
f rom this,' 'thereupon,' added to a 3 PL form, e.g. Lat.
*tod,
The final
ferunto for *feront-tod, Gk. êpoVrco for *0epo^r-ro)8.
-d is seen in suntod on the Spoletium inscription (C. I. L. xi. 4766).
The Umbrian ending appears to have been -tota, e.g. etuta and
etuto
eunto.'
Danunt for dant is quoted from the older poets

74. 3 PI. Pres. in -mint.
by Nonius, 97. 13 M., e. g. Caecilius, Com. 176 R. patiere quod dant, quando
optata non danunt (cf. Paul. Fest. 48. i8Th. 'danunt' dant) it is often used by
Plautus (the references are given in Neue, Formenl ii 2 p. 412), and is found on
a Saturnian dedicatory inscription of two brothers, money-lenders, called
;
Vertuleius
(C. I. L. i.
1175, Sora
donu danunt Hercolei maxsume mereto)

prodlnunt for prodeunt is quoted
158 M.)
by Festus
(284. 22 Th.)
from Ennius (A.
prodinunt famuli
turn Candida
lumina lucent
so obinunt for obeunt (id. 214. 4 Th.), redinunt for redeunt (id. 400. 12, a passage
badly preserved in the MS.), quoted from Ennius [possibly with mention of
inunt for eunt, so that the Philoxenus Gloss (p. 75. 23 G.), int Tropcvovrai may
be a corruption of inunt iropfvovrai (see 2)]; nequinont for nequeunt (Fest.
162. 24 Th.), quoted from the Odyssea of Livius Andronicus
:
partim errant, nequinont Graeciam redire,
and paralleled with ferinunt (MS. femunf) for feriunt (MS. fereunt cf. 400.
14 Th.), and solinunt for solent [rather for solunt, the obsolete verb of which
solino idem (Messala) ait esse
consulo is a compound
cf. Fest. 526. 14 Th.
inserinuntur for
consulo] explenunt for explent by Paul. Fest. (56. 14 Th.)
millia alia in isdem
inseruntur is used by Liv. Andr. (ap. Fest. 532. 24 Th.)
;
'
'
inserinuntur.
The isolated forms dedro on an old inscription of Pisaurum

177 Matre Matuta dono dedro matrona; beside dedrot on another
inscription from the same place, i. 173 lunone re. matrona Pisaurese dono
75. 3 PI. Perf.
(C. J. L. i.
dedrot) and emeru on an inscription of Cora (i. 1148 Q. Pomponius Q. f. L.

Tulius Ser. f. praitores aere Martio emeru) cannot be taken as a proof that -ro
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
53*
was a byform of -n in the Latin 3
PI. Perfect.
[Chap. VIII.
For the dropping of
final
a feature of the Latin of Pisaurum (see the inscriptions quoted

and cf. the loss of -t in dede, i. 169, and apparently
-s, -r dropped
of -nt in i. 177 M'. Curia, Pola Liuia deda), and emeru on the Cora inscription
be a similar dialectal variety, or merely a graphic contraction for erne-
consonants
above with
is
may
Final -nt often loses the dental on late inscriptions and is written -n or
m\ thus we have fecerun and fecerum (alsofeceru, vi. 24649) in plebeian inscripSome Koman grammarians called the
tions of the Empire (see ch. ii.
137).
form with -re the Dual form, a theory which is rightly rejected by Quinthat it is a weakening of -runt, cannot
tilian, though his own explanation,
stand (i. 5. 43 quanquam fuerunt qui nobis quoque adicerent dualem scripsere
quod evitandae asperitatis gratia mollitum est, ut apud
legere
In the older
veteres pro male mereris male merere ') (cf. Serv. ad A. ii. i).
writers -runt and -re seem to be used at will, e. g. Plaut. Trin. 535 alii exolatum
abierunt, alii emortui, Alii se suspendere, and Cicero (Orat. xlvii. 157), quoting
runt.
'
'
'
'
'
'
a line of Ennius, says nee vero reprehenderim scripsere alii rem

scrip'
serunt esse verius censeo, sed consuetudini auribus indulgenti libenter obsequor.
(Ennius, however, seems to prefer -erunt to -ere in his Annals Terence
'
'
prefers
-ere.)
The older spelling
quotes dederont arid probaveront,

C.
L.
mentioned by Quintilian (i. 4. 16), who

found on early inscriptions (see Index to
-ront,
is
i.).
The ending -re (older -rf) seems to come from an I.-Eur. -ri, cognate with the
the ending
I.-Eur. -rai of the 0. Ind. 3 Sg. Pft. Mid. -re, e. g. dadire, 'dedere
-runt (older -ront}, either from an I.-Eur. -ront (cf. O. Ind. a-vavrtranta), or
'
Thematic suffix -unt (-oni) to

?) would become deder-unt
we have supposed an earlier *explen to have become
from a subsequent addition of the usual 3

a 3 PI. Pft. in
-r.
Thus
*deder (a
'
doublet
'
PI.
of dedere
by the same process as

In view of the presence of r in these O. Ind. third persons plural
this is a more likely explanation than to suppose that r is the Latin substitute
txpttn-unt.
for intervocalic
s.
With regard
to the quantity of the e in -erunt, the short quantity, though it

is in the classical and later period more prominent in Dactylic Poetry than in
other verse, owing to its suitableness for the dactylic metre, is not by any
means unknown in the older (and later) dramatists, e. g. in Plautus subegerunt,
Plaut. Bacch. 928, fecerunt, Amph. 184 locaverunt, Pers. 160, cessarunt, Mil. 1432,
Plautus appears, howemerunt, Ter. Eun. prol. 20, conlocarunt, ib. 593).
&c.
ever, to use it only at the end of a line or hemistich, so must have regarded
its use as a licence to be resorted to under metrical necessity.
It does not
appear to have been used in Tragedy, nor by the earlier Epic writers, like
see
Ennius, and not very frequently by Lucretius (e. g. institerunt, i. 406
Munro's note), which points to its having been a pronunciation of colloquial
Latin that won its way only gradually into the higher literature. It is generally explained as a 3 Plur. of the Auxiliary stem es-, to be,' and is compared with Gk. -caav of 3 Plur. Plupft., so that dcderunt from *dedesunt would
be a quite different formation from dederunt and dedere, with I.-Eur. r. Another theory makes it *dedis-ont, the first part being a Verbal Noun-stem
;
*dedis- (see
52).
on inscriptions, see
76.
(2)
[On curarunt
for curaverunt beside the older coirauerunt
(e ?)
48.]
Passive
(Deponent).
Sing.
The
Italo-Celtic
THE VERB.
76-78.]
PERSON-ENDINGS.
533
ending was -or in the Pres. Ind. [e. g. O. Lat. sequor, class, sequor
(ch. iii.
49), O. Ir. sechur], apparently an addition of Passive
the Active ending
-r to
Those Tenses and Moods which in
-6.
Sg. Active in -m substitute in the Passive

-/ for -m } e.
and &\&>]., ferela-r Impft., except in the
Fut.
g,fera-r
Perfect group, where a periphrastic form is used, e. g. Idtus sim,
Latin formed their
latus essew, not *tulerir, *tnlisser, also latus ero, not *tuleror (see
54), though in Oscan we do find this adaptation of the Active
'
forms in comparascmter, Fut. Pft. Pass, (pon

custer
cum
ea res consulta erit
*compara8cwt
89)
'),
ioc egmo comparasthe Active of which would be
but in Umbr.
we have
pihaz fust
'
piatus
&c.
erit,'
'
shows the
sequeris
O. Ind. a-di-thas, Gk.
Since O. Ir. sechther
77. 2 Sing.
'
I.-Eur. (athematic) ending -thes (e. g.

which is retained in the O. Ir. Imperative (e. g. cluine-8o'-0T7s),
do thou hear,' Dep.), with the usual ending -r, we might
te,
'
expect to find in Latin the I.-Eur. (thematic) ending -so (e. g.

Zend bara-iaha, Gk. cêpeo for *-<ro, e-$epe-o), which is retained
for *sequeso,
(e. g. sequere
57), with an
in
class.
Lat.
But
the forms
*sequerur.
appended -r, *sequesor,
same
as
are
the
the
found
Imperative 2 Sg.
actually
(i) sequere,
in the Latin Imperative
(this is the usual
form
in
O. Lat., and even in Cicero)
(2)
sequens, which adds to this the ending -$ of the 2 Sg. Act,

The addition of this
*sequere-8 becoming sequens (ch. iii.
18).
-s discriminates the Ind. from the Imper. form as agu differs
from
age,
agWis from
-r the -d of its 2
t'Ocl
2 Sg. Act.
The Future
(
agite.
'
Imperative changes to
Sg. Act., e. g. fer-tor 2 Sg. Pass. 3</b^0 from/^r[On the O. Lat. ending for the 2, 3 Sg. Imper.
-mmo, formed apparently from 2 PI. -mini on the type of

Act. -to(d), see
60, and on forms like utito for utitor,
78.
For
Terence uses
(He puns on
statistics of
-re
the use of
only, Plautus both
obloquere
Ind.
and
-re
-re
obloquere
3 Sg.
59.]
and -n's, see Neue, ii 2 pp. 393 sqq.

and -n's, but -re far more frequently.
.
Imperat. in
in all other tenses than the Pres. Ind.,

Verbs. Quintilian is wrong in supposing
-re
2,
and in
-re
Cure. 41.)
Cicero prefers
this tense too in
Deponent
weakening of -n's (i. 5. 42
ut apud veteres pro male
to be a
quod evitandae asperitatis gratia mollitum est,

mereris male merere '), for -is did not become -e in Latin (ch. ii.
137), nor
can an isolated spelling like tribunes [milita]re for miUtaris on an old inscr. (C. L L.
l
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
534
i.
64) be quoted as a proof of this change.
[Chap. VIII.
The form -rus on a few inscriptions
1220, Beneventum ; utarus, i. 1267, Venusia figarus, iv.

a mere dialectal or vulgar variety,
2082, Pompeii), none of them old, may be
but it may also (like -us in the Gen. Sg. of the 3rd Decl., ch. vi.
22) be a
(spatiarus,
I. L.
C.
i.
genuine tradition of an older form, which arose from the addition of -sto
Thus *spatia-so would

its weakening to sequere.
which would become *spatidros, spatiarus.
*sequeso, &c., at
a stage prior to
be expanded to
*spatidso-Sj
79. 3 Sg.
from
tur
The
Italo-Celtic ending
^seque-ttir, O.
Ir.
sechethar
cf.
is
-tor [e. g. Lat.
Osc. sakarater
'
seqmsacra-
with -ter from syncopated -t(6)r as Umbr. ager from *agr(os)],

formed by adding Passive -r to the L-Eur. Secondary ending -to
Gk. l-So-ro ; O. Ind. a-bhara-ta, Gk.
(e.g. O. Ind. a-di-ta,
tur,'
The Imperative changes
e-<epe-To).
to -r the -d of the Particle
appends to the bare stem in the Act., e.g.fer-tor

Pass., fer-to(d) Act., agi-tor Pass., agi-to(d) Act.
(On O. Lat.
him
let
take
to
see
e.
-mmo,
witness/
60, and
g. antestamino,
-tod which
it
'
on
-to
for -tor in utito, &c.,
80.
1 Plur.
The
59.)
Italo-Celtic ending
is
-mor (e.g. Lat.
sequimur
*sequo-mor, O. Ir. seche-mmar with a curious
of
the
doubling
m), formed by changing to r the s of the Active
-mos (Lat. feri-mus for *fere-mos, O. Ir. do-beram for -mos?).
for
2 Plur. Both the Celtic and the Italic languages

from
the ordinary procedure in this person.
In O. Ir.
depart
we
have
the
Active
in
Latin
we
have the
Deponents
ending ;
Nom. Plur. of the old Pres. Part. Passive with ellipse of estis,
e. g. femmini from *fero-menoi
(Gk. têpo'/xeyoi) in the Present
and
in the others, e. g. ferebd-mml,
formations
Tense,
analogical
81.
fera-mini,
ferre-mmi.
The
2 Plur. Imper., though similar in
form to the 2 Plur. Pres. Ind.,

as an old Infinitive (Dat. of a
menai (Gk.
<epe'-/u>ai) (see
e.
g. ferimini, is usually explained
MEN-stem),
for I.-Eur. *bhere-
57).
The Italo-Celtic ending is -ntor (e. g. Lat.

from
sequuntur
*sequo-ntor, O. Ir. sechetar ; cf. Osc. karanter
pascuntur with -nter from syncopated -nt(o)r, like 3 Sg. -ter
82. 3 Plur.
'
for
'
-t(o)r ; see above), formed by adding Passive -r to the I.-Eur.

Secondary ending -nto (e. g. O. Ind. d-bhara-nta, Gk. e-ô-z/ro.
Cf. Gk. e'fx-7rAi]-i;ro with Lat.
im-ple-ntur). In the Imperative the
THE VERB.
79-83.]
INFINITIVE.
535
-d of the particle -tod appended in the 3 PL Act., is changed to

e
ftruntor Pass., ferunto from *feront-tod Act. (see
57,
->
and on O. Lat.
censento for censentor,
59).
THE INFINITIVE.
83. VI.
The
I.-Eur. Infinitive
was
merely a Case (usually Dat. or Loc. Sg.) of a Verbal Noun, and has
best retained its character in the Celtic languages, where its object
stands not in the Ace., as after a verb, but in the Gen., as after
The form of the Inf. varied not merely according to
the case employed, but also according to the Noun-stem which
a Noun.
In O. Ind. we have a great variety of Infinitives,

stem which was the same as the
was chosen.
e.g. (i) Dat. of a Root-stem, a
root of the Verb,

cf.
Gk. xe-ai
[cf.
?)
e.
g. -aje, 'to drive/
(2) Dat. of an S-stem,
Lat. da-n, O. Lat. da-sei
MEN-stem,
mini 2 PL Imper.
e.
da-mane,
g.
Pass., see
Loc. of a
//ezmt]; (4)
dhar-man,
'
e.g. dha-tave,
a TU-stem,
e.
for driving
e.
g. ji-se,
MEN-stem (without -i,
up
(cf.
dha-tum
'
(Lat. agl
to conquer
'
'
'
Gk.
8o'-/me*>)
to
know' [Gk.
see ch. vi.
(5) Dat. of a
to set' (cf. Pruss. da-twei,
g.
'
85), Gk. Tret-crai] ; (3) Dat. of

to give (Gk. boêvai ; Lat. da-
57), vid-mane,
'
to keep
'
'
lit.
'
to give
') ;
(F)fo-
37), e.g.
TU-stem,
(6) Ace. of
(this is the classical or Sanscrit
form of
the Infinitive of every verb) (Lat. con-dvtum ist Sup., Lith. de-tu
Sup., O. SI. de-tu Sup.; the Balto- Slavic Supine in -turn is fused
with the auxiliary verb of the same root as Lat. fid to form
Compound Tense, e.g. Lith. detum-bime, i PL Opt., as the
Lat. ist Supine is joined with impersonal in to form the Fut.
Inf. Pass., e.g. siibldtum iri or sublatuiri, see below); (7)
Dat. of
The Teutonic
see,'
g. drs-aye,
Inf. is Ace. of an ONO-stem, e. g, Goth, itan, Germ, essen from
*ed-6no-m (cf. O. Ind. adanam, a Neut. Noun). The form
chosen for the Latin Inf. Act. was a Loc. Sg. of an S-stem, e. g.
an I-stem,
from
age-re
fmi-re
from
'
e.
from
*age-si^
to
others.
amd-re from *ama-si, vtde-re from *vide-M 3
*faii-8i, es-se
*fer-tn,) vel-le
and many
from
from *es-n,
*vel-si,
dedis-se (see
52), fer-re
the last two showing the regular
rs to rr
ch. iv.
(cf. torreo from *torseyo,
153), Is to U
For the
collum
from
iv.
ch.
Germ.
Hals,
*c0ho-,
(cf.
146).
Inf. Pass, a Dat. Sg. was chosen, either (i) of a Root-stem, e.g.
ag-l (O. Lat. ag-ei) from *ag-ai, mor-l (with the diphthong ai
change of
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
536
in the
weakened
unaccented syllable,
first to
[Chap. VIII.
ei,
then to
I,
as in
an S-stem, e.g.
*oc-caido, oc-ceido, oc-ddo, ch. iii.
18), or (2) of
amd-ri (O. Lat. ama-rei) from *ama-sai, vide-rl from *wide-sai,
so that the Lat. Inf. Pass, differed from
flm-fl, O. Lat. mon-ri,
Inf.
Act.
the
only conventionally, and had no distinctive Passive
however seems to be present in the by forms agier,
This
suffix.
amdrier, moririer,
doubtful
though the exact origin of
this -ier,
-rier is
For the Perfect Inf. Passive the Perf Part. Pass,
was used with the auxiliary verb
esse, e.g.
constat id factum esse,
constat ea facta esse ; for the Fut. Pass, the ist Supine with m,
Inf. Pass, of eo, to go,' e. g. constat id factum iri, constat ea facl
tum
iri.
The Fut.
Act.,
g. constat id
e.
eventurum
(esse),
is
most
naturally explained as a combination of the Fut. Part. Act. with

esse, though its Old Latin indeclinable use, e. g. credo inimicos
meos dicturum (from a speech of C. Gracchus) has suggested the

theory that it is a compound of the 2nd Supine in -tu (e. g. eventu, dictu, Locs. of TU-stems, ch. vi.
37) with an old byform of
*erum
later
viz.
*esom,
esse,
(Umbr. erom, Osc. ezwm, Ace. of Ostem), dicturum for *dictu-erum being in time made personal
dicturus -a -um (the Fut. Part. Act.) in the same way as O. Lat.
dicendum est orationem changed to class. Lat. dicenda est
'
'
'
oratio' (Postgate in Class. Rev. v. p. 301). The Umbro-Oscan Pres.

Inf. Act. is the Ace. Sg. of a Verbal O-stem (e. g. Umbr. er-om,
{
Osc. ez-um, deic-um, molt-aum mult-are ') (ch. v.

2).
On Lat. are in are-facio and similar Verb-stems, see
34.
In Vulg. Lat., as reflected in the Romance languages, the

esse has become essere (Ital. essere,
Perf. Inf. has been lost
;
Fr. etre)
Span,
verb having
ser,
been
velle, volere
(Ital. volere, Fr.
vouloir), this
(by the analogy of its Perf.

volui like monui, habui, &c.) to the second Conjugation, voleo
transferred
Sg. Pres. Ind. (Ital. voglio), voleat, 3
Sg. Pres. Subj. (Ital.

as
became
posse
voglia),
potere (Ital. potere, Sp. poder) through
the likeness of its ~PerLpoîi to the second Conjugation type.
i
cf
33
Some make it an addition to I of

the Active Inf. ending, with Syncope
of the final e, as in Mber for btbere
1
(A. L. L.
vii.
Vulg. Lat.
below).
132).
esse-re
Similarly
replaced
esse
in
(see
THE VERB.
84-86.]
INFINITIVE.
537
Biber for bibere in the phrase biber dare (quoted by

84. Pres. Inf. Act.
Charisius 124. i K. from various early authors, and censured as a mispronunciation by Caper, 108. 10 K. bibere non biber '), seems to be a case of syncope of
final -e (like nee for neque, animal for animate, calcar for calccire, ch. iii.
36),
'
it
though
has been also regarded as a veritably old form, a Locative without
Instar maybe a similar synco(ch. vi.

37), like Gk. 86-fjicv Inf. (see above).
pated Inf. (for instare) used as a Noun (cf. bustar, an oxstall see ch. iii.
36).
;
On
we
8369, of 128 A.D.) and

on a lamp found in the oldest Esquiline cemetery (Ann. Inst. p88o, p. 260),
Sotae sum. noli me tanger.
late inscriptions
have,
e. g.
haber (C.
I.
L.
viii.
The form in -ier, -rier belongs to 0. Lat. and is

85. Pres. Inf. Pass.
employed as an archaism by the Augustan poets and their imitators (see
2
statistics in Neue, ii p. 409).
Even in the time of Plautus it can hardly have
been so current as the form in -?, -ri, for it is confined to the end of iambic
and trochaic lines, e.g. percontarier, Most. 963 (see Lorenz, ad Zoc.), and is never
found with a short antepaenultima (except denpier, Men. 1006), restrictions
which indicate that it was a form used only for the sake of the metre.
That the -r of -ri was originally s we see from the 0. Lat. form dasi men.
tioned by Paul. Test. [48. 19 Th.

dare ? )].
The occasional scansion
'
dasi
'
dari (should
of the Pres. Inf. Act.
with
we
-e
read
'
dasei
in Plaut.
'
or else
(e. g.
Pseud.
355, 1003) has been explained as a relic of the use of -ai (0. Lat. -ei or -e, ch.
iv.
But it may be otherwise explained,
34) as Active suffix (L F. iv. 240).
as syllabaanceps before final dipody (see Miiller, Plaut. Pros. f>. 22). The theory
that the
i-
and
Act. or Pass,
is
were in the O. Lat. period used indifferently

enough but lacks proof.
ai- suffixes
plausible
86. Fut. Inf. Act.
Gellius in the seventh chapter of the
first
as
book of
his Nodes Atticae quotes several instances of the indeclinable use of the Fut.
Inf. Act. from the older authors, in connexion with the reading hanc sibi
:
rem
praesidio sperant futurum (Cic. Verr. II. v. 65. 167), found in a copy
of Tiro's edition (libro spectatae fidei, Tiroiiiana cura atque disciplina
This reading was defended by such examples as credo ego inimicos
facto).
:
meos hoc dicturum (from a speech of C. Gracchus) hostium copias ibi occudeos bonis bene facturum (from the Annals of
patas futurum, and again
Clavidius Quadrigarius)
omnia ex sententia processurum esse (from Valerius
;
Antias
the use of esse is irregular) altero te occisurum ait (so. Casina) (from
Plaut. Cas. 693, where our MSS. are almost unanimous for occisuram !) ; non
putavi hoc earn facturum (from Laberius, Com. 51 R.). Priscian (i. p. 475.
23 H. ) quotes from Cato illi polliciti sese facturum omnia from Lucilius
(xvii. 8 M.)
nupturum te (sc. Penelope) nupta negas.
;
The existence of nouns like scriptvra, versura, pidilra

scripturus -a -um, versurus -a -um,, pidurus -a -urn, &c.
as Gk. iaxvpo-,
from a U-stem
cf.
ch. v.
16,
points to the Fut. Part.
(formed from "LT-stems,

60) having been
ch. iv.
an old formation
(cf. offensa beside ojffensus, repulsa beside repulsus], and makes

unlikely that the declinable Fut. Part, arose from this indeclinable Inf.
So it may be better to regard O. Lat. didurum as the Neut. Sg. of this
it
participle used (without esse) impersonally, just as the Impersonal constat,

e.g. 'constat inter omnes haec ita esse,' becomes in the Fut. Inf. Pass.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
[Chap. VIII.
constaturum inter omnes haec ita esse.' Similarly

seems the older form and the Gerund in -ndum
est
eundum
analogous to itur (see 62). On the other
being
an Impersonal use,
hand the preference shown by Plautus and Terence for the omission of esse
constaturum, e.g. 'spero
the Gerundive in
-nclus -a -urn
se
Postgate in 1. F. iv. 252 cf. Plaut. Bacch. 592 negat
85 is nunc dicitur Uenturus peregre), and the rarity of the
use of the Fut. Part, in apposition (e. g. Enn. Ann. 412 M. carbasus alta
uolat pandam ductura carinam) are quoted in support of Prof. Postgate's
(for statistics, see
iturum, with True.
explanation.
87. Fut. Inf. Pass. Iri is impersonal, like itur in Virgil's itur in antiquam
rumor uenit datum iri gladiasilvam, so that the line of Terence (Hec. prol.)
should be translated that they are going to exhibit gladiators,' that
:
tores,
Gellius (x. 14) quotes a curious

is going to be a gladiatorial show.'
extension of this usage from a speech of Cato, contumelia mihi factum itur :
mihi per huiusce
atque euenit ita, Quirites, uti in hac contumelia, quae
there
petulantiam factum itur, rei quoque publicae medius fidius miserear,

This throws some light on the development of the Italo-Celtic
Quirites.
mihi istaec
(Cf. Plaut. Eud. 1242
passive from an Impersonal K-form ( 62).
uidetur praeda praedatum irier.) The word-group factum iri, &c. seems to have
become a single word in ordinary language, for we often find the Fut. Inf. Pass.
written with
-turi
as if
Alex.
xix.
-tuiri
in MSS.,
which
is
frequently corrupted in later copies to
of Bell.
PI. Masc. of Fut. Part. Act. (e. g. sublatuiri in Cod.
but in other MSS. suUaturi ; for a list of examples from
Nom.
2,
Lactantius, see A. L. L.
like the suppression of
The suppression of -m of subkitum, &c. is

349).
of circum in circuit for circum it (see ch. ii.
153).
ii.
THE SUPINES.
The First Supine, used after

the Ace. Sg. of a Verbal Noun, a TU-stem
'
ire spectdtum, lit. to go to the seeing,' like ire domum, to go to
(e. g.
the house, ire Romam, to go to Rome), the same form as is in San88. VII.
a Verb of motion,
is
the regular Infinitive of the verb (see 83). An O. Ind. usage

drastum a gachanti, they come to see/ hotum eti, c he goes
'
to sacrifice (cf. O. SI. videtu ideti, ' he goes to see ')
(Delbriick,
scrit
'
like
Aliind. Syntax, p.
428)
is
what the Latin
First
Supine has
developed from.
The Second Supine, used after an Adjective, is the Loc. Sg. of

the same Verbal Noun (e.g. agttis cursu, nimble in running).
The Loc. Sg.
in -u of U-stems often played the part of a Dat.

curru
for
currui in Virgil, see ch. vi.
(e. g.
37, 23, 27) ; and we
find the Second Supine used not
as
a
Loc., but as a Dative,
only
e. g.
for
(falula) lejrida wemordtu, pleasant
telling, where in the
older language the Dative proper in -id
memoratiii (Plaut.), as well as the Locative,
is
e.
used,
e.
g. lejnda
g. ndicula
THE VERB.
87-89.]
(Plant.), (in Plant.
SUPINES.
PARTICIPLES.
539
End. 294 sunt nobis quaestu et cultu, this Loc.
plays the part of a Predicative Dative).

This TU-stem bulks largely in the language of Plautus and
the older Dramatists, e.g. opsonatu redeo (Plant. Men. 288),
essum vocare,
'
'
to invite to dinner' (Men. 458), nuptiim dare,

'
give a girl in marriage (Pers. 383).

nsed almost like perdere
In Aul. 736 perclitum
to
ire is
quam
(cf.
6b rem ita faceres meque meosque perditum ires liberos,
mi
Bacck. 565
ires
consultnm male), and the nse of the
Accusative without a Preposition is paralleled by phrases like

I malam crucem
Like
(Plant.), supp&tias, infttias, exsequias ire, &c.
nuptum dare and nuptum ire are vennmdare or venundare (vendere)

and venum ire (venire ; but cf. O. Ind. vasna-ya-ti, 3 Sg., Gk.
similar
cWojmcu) pessumdare or pessumdare and pessum ire.
Ace. of a Verbal Noun TU-stem is asom (class, assum, ist Supine
of ardeo) in the phrase asom fero on an old Praenestine cista with
;
the representation of a kitchen scene (Me!. Arch. 1890,

a phrase which recurs on a Marrucine inscription, asum
p. 303),
The
feret
Supine is also found in Umbrian, e.g.

observatum ito/ In the Romance languages the
Supines have been lost.
(Zvet. /././.
aseriato etu
8).
ist
'
89. VIII.
THE PARTICIPLES.
The
I.-Eur. Participles
were merely Verbal Adjectives formed with the various suffixes

already mentioned in the chapter on Noun- and Adjective-stems
(chap. v).
Thus
for the Perf Part. Pass, the TO-suffix

.
was used
O. Ind. -dhi-ta-, Gk. 0-ros, Lat. cre-cll-tus, Lith. de-tas

(e. g.
-suffix (e. g. O. Ind. pur-na-,
Goth, vaurh-ts, 'wrought'), or the
NO
O. Engl. bund-en, ' bound-en/ O. SI. nes-enu, carried' cf.

ii&t.ple-nus); for the Gerundive, the YO-suffix(e.g. O.Ind. drs-ya-,
'filled/
'
seeable, worth seeing,'
O.Sax. un-fod-i, 'insatiable'
venerable, Lat. ea&m-iu*), or
-TWO-, -TEWO-
cf.
(e.g.
Gk.
ay-ios,
O. Ind. kar-
worth doing,' Gk. dico/c-re'ôs, worth pursuing), and so on.

is formed the second Past Participle Act. in
O. SI., e. g. nes-lu, used in the periphrastic neslu jesmi, I have
'
tva-,
With
the LO-suffix
'
carried/
and the Aor. Part. Act. or Pass,
in
Armenian,
e.
g. gereal
'
capiens, captus.'
The
Pres. Part. Act. (and all Active Participles, except the
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
540
[Chap. VIII.
-ont- (see ch. v.

63) (e. g.
Perfect) took the suffix -ent-, -nt-,
Goth,
O. Ind. bharant-,, Gk. Qeptov, -OVTOS,
bairands, O. SI. bery),
The Perf. Part. Act.
Lat. fer-ens, -entis, sedens (Umbr. zedef).
took -wes-
in
(e.
O. Ind. ririk-vas-, Gk. \t\om-(F}(*>s Lith. lik^s

having milked ') ; and this formation appears
g.
O.
cf.
SI.
mluz-u,
Umbro-Oscan
in the
the Lat. Put. Perf.
(e.
Compound
Tense, which corresponds to
g. Osc. fefacust
'
f ecerit
'),
and probably
in
Osc. sipus, knowing, with full knowledge [from *sep-wes- (?).

That the u is long (I.-Eur. u or 6) is inferred from the absence
of Syncope, for *sipus, *sipos would become in Oscan *sips ; but
but in Latin the Perf. Part. Act. is not used.
see ch. iii.
16]
Neither is the Pres. Part. Middle (or Pass.), which was formed in
;
O. Ind. bhara-mana-, Gk. $epo'-/xeyos

Pruss. po-klausi-manas, being heard ), though it is found
-mcno- (-mono-, -mno-)
(e.g.
'
cf.
in the 2
nouns
PL
like
Ind. Pass.,
alumnus
(cf.
shows the
Perf. Part,
Osc. scrifto-)
e.
g.
Gk.
ferimml
6 Tpe$o'/x
suffix -to-,
e.
(sc. estis,
see
o9, see
ch. v.
g. scriptus
the Fut. Part. Act. in -turns
is
81),
and
13).
(Umbr.
in
The
screihto-,
probably a form-
from a Til-stem Verbal Noun, e. g.

scriptwrus, stem *scriptu-ro- from the stem *scriptu- of scriptus,
-us, picturns from the stem *pictu- of pic f us, -us, &c., like Gk.
I(rxy-p6s from ivxvs.
[On its relation to the Fut. Inf. Act. in
ation with the suffix -ro-
O. Lat. scripturum, in class. Lat. scripturus (-a -urn) (esse), see

86
For a Participle the Latin writers, especially the poets,
.
an Adjective,
often substituted
e.
g. Idcer for lacerdtus (Virg.

'
lacerum crudeliter ora), and these Adjectives or truncated Participles have to some extent encroached on the Perf. Part. Pass, in
'
Romance languages, e. g. Ital trovo beside trovato.

Liibke, Rom. Gram. ii. p. 375.)
the
(Meyer-
90. Pres. Part. Act. The Pres. Part. Act. was liable to become in all
languages an ordinary Adjective or a Noun e.g. Goth, frijond-s, lit. 'loving,'
assumed the sense of 'friend' Lat. rMens (see 6), lit. 'rattling,' assumed
the sense of a rope, tackling
benevolens is a noun in Plautus, e. g. Trin. 46,
;
'
'
1148. &c.
Very early examples of this seem to be Lat. dens (Osc. dont-?),
a Pres. Part, of the I.-Eur. root ed-, to eat,' sons a Pres. Part, of I.-Eur. es-,
'to be' (cf. O. Scand. sannr, 'sooth, true,' which acquired the sense of 'truly
<
charged/
'guilty').
Of Pres. Parts, becoming Adjectives in Latin examples
are congruens (beside congruus),benevolens (beside benevolus), bemmerens (cf. -merus

in Lucilius' mercedimerae legiones} ; indigene, not indigus, and insciens, not inscius
(but nestius), are used
by Plautus.
The
result of this close
connexion of
THE VERB.
00-92.]
PARTICIPLES.
541
Verbal Adjectives (especially Compounds) in -us with Participles in

a Comparison like benevolus, benevolentior, benevolentissimus, magniflcus,
-entissimus (see ch.
The O-grade
<(>pa)v,
vi".
&c.), euntis,
-i,
-em,
-entior,
55).
suffix
which predominates in the Greek declension,

appears in Lat. sons (beside prae-sens, prae-sentia, ab-sens,
of the
-OVTOS, -OVTI
-ens, is
-es,
&c. (beside
Nom.
Sg. iens), vohmtas (beside wlens).
It
can hardly be due to a mere accident that all these traces of the suffix -ontare found in verbs belonging to the Athematic Conjugation, I.-Eur. *es-mi,
It almost seems as if the declension of the Pres.
*ei-mi, *wel-mi (see
2).
Part, of Athematic Verbs in Latin had originally exhibited the suffix -ont-,
perhaps varying with -ent- (I.-Eur -nt- or even -ent-), e. g. ab-iens Nom. Sg.,
*ientemAcc. (see ch. vi.
euntis Gen., eunti Dat.,
p. 367),
i,
Gen. from an I.-Eur. *sonts Nom., *sntos Gen.
or sons Nom. Sg.,
sentis
O. Ind. sant-, satas Gen.),

*sentia Fern. (cf. prae-sentid) from snt- like Dor. Gk. eaffffa for *4o7nra, the
equivalent of Att. ov<ra (ch. iv. 81). The use of euntis, eunti, &c. cannot well
(cf.
have been due to the dislike of the combination
-ie- (iens has ie-, the vowel

being lengthened before ns, ch. ii.
144), for this combination is not
objected to in other Participles, facientis, capientis, &c. The survival of the
suffix -ent- in the struggle for existence in the Latin Present Participle,
athematic and thematic, was probably aided by the Latin tendency to turn
18
every short unaccented vowel before a consonant-group to e (see ch. iii.
and cf. below, 94, on -undus and -endus in the Gerundive).
This has been lost also in Celtic and Teutonic,

91. Perf. Part. Act.
but in Balto-Slavic is the only part of the Perfect Active retained.
Some
find traces of the formation in Lat. cadaver, pdpdver, others in 0. Lat. gndrures
'
Plur.,
knowing,' e.g. Plaut.
Most. 100
simul gnaruris uos uolo esse hanc rem mecum.

'
'
Gloss. Philox.
gnarurem
gnaruris gnarus, sciens
gnarurat yvapifa). Memor seems to be
ignarures dyvoowrcs
not a Perfect Participle, but an Adjective derived from a Perfect Participlestem, as Gk. ucKpa.yfj.6s (Eurip.) is a Noun derived from
(Cf.
Gloss. Placid.
'
'
yvwptp.ov
'
'
This participle too became often an ordinary

92. Perf. Part. Pass.
Adjective (Engl. 'cold,' 'dead,' &c. are TO-stem Participles), e.g. titus, swift,
lit. 'bestirred' (0. Ind. si-ta-)
cdtus, sharp (this was the meaning of the
word in the Sabine district, Varro's home, Varro, L. L. vii. 46), then (metaphorically) (i) piercing, of sounds, e. g. Eim. A. 538 M. cata signa, the shrill
;
clarions; (2) shrewd, of persons, literally 'sharpened/ from I.-Eur. ko- (cf.
Lat. cos, a whetstone) (ch. iv.
54) ; Idtus, 0. Lat. stlatus, broad, lit. extended
J
or a Noun, e.g. ndtus, a son (in Plautus
(cf. 0. SI. stel-ja, 'I spread, extend')
'
'
and Terence we have as a rule gnatus, a son, natus, born), legdtus, a lieutenant,
deputy. When used as an Adj. it sometimes passes into the I-declension,
the favourite Adjective declension (ch. v.
34), e.g. fortis, 0. Lat. forctus,
c
originally P. P. P. of the I.-Eur. root dhergh-, to establish' (0. Ind. drdha-,
Another
is
example
which has
(for co-0mcfew ?),
participial
sense
in
cunctus
still
Plaut.
its
Most.
1168
fac
Accuratus
O. Lat.
is
istam cunctam gratiam.

always a Participle in
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
542
'established, firm'), in-gens, lit.

Engl. un-cOfr, 'uncouth').
(0.
[Chap. VIII.
'unknown,' from the root gen-, 'to know'

When used as a Noun the Neuter often
appears, e.g. lectum (also Masc. lectus, of the fourth or second decl.), tectum,
'
'
'
fatutn (the sense of destiny probably originated in the phrase fari fatum
alicui,' to lay a doom or spell on one, like the Welsh tynghu tynghed ; see
Rhys, Proc. of Intermit. Folklore Congr. 1891, p. 150), and (especially in the case
of Abstract Nouns) the Feminine, e. g. offensa, repulsa.
The Participle in -to- of Intransitive Verbs has the sense of a Perfect Part.
'
Active, e. g. cenatus, having dined, pransus, potus, like our learned in such
a phrase as a learned man/ ' a learned judge.'
Hence its use as the Perfect
'
'
Deponent Verbs, e. g. asperndtus, seciitus, and the coexistence of

and Act. Verb, e. g.flsus beside fldo, maestus, sad, beside
These participial TO-stems from roots which have developed in
Participle of
Deponent
maereo.
Perf. Part,
Latin into Deponent Verbs often retain their true passive sense, e.g. abusa
Pass. (Plaut. Asin. 196; cf. Pelign. oisa aetate 'confecta aetate '), so that
there is a justification for Virgil's oblita carmina, Horace's detestdta bella, and
the like.
have taken in I.-Eur. the weak grade of the Verb-root, e. g.

from the root weid-, 'to know' (O. Ind. vitta-, Gk. a-taros,
Goth, un-vis), *klu-to- from kleu- [0. Ind. sruta-, Gk. K\VTOS, Lat. in-dutus,
O. Ir. cloth for *cluto-, O. H. G. Hlot-hari (the equivalent of Gk. K\VTOIn Latin this is
ffrparos, cf. Germ. Heer, an army), the name 'Lothair'].
also the rule, e. g. duc-tus from duco, iis-tus from uro, tentus for *tn-tos
(Gk.
TUTUS) from root ten-, putus (Plaut. Pseud. 1200) used with its equivalent
See ch. ii.
pil-rus.
144, where it is suggested that the long vowel of rectus,
&c. may be due to a Latin tendency to lengthen a vowel before the
group
The Perfect Ind. Act. too has often influenced its vocalism. The
y-t.
same influence caused the substitution of -sus for -tus, which spread from
Dental Verb-stems, where it was due to a Latin phonetic law (ch. iv.
155),
It
seems
to
I.-Eur. *wld-to-
e. g.
tensus for *tend-t-us,
t'isus
older
for *ut-tus, *oit-to-, flexus for
iissus,
*flecttus,
salsus for *sald-to- (cf.
Goth, saltan), perculsus for *fcld-to- (cf. clddes}, to others

where the Perfect has s (oc), e. g. farsus (cf. farsi Perf.), fixus (cf. fixl but
flctus from fingo, finxi), just as the analogy of haesi has produced the late form
;
haes-urus,
and
hausi (P. P. P. haustus), haus-urus beside hausturus, or as the

is followed in 0. Lat. sartus (surtus
?) with -rt-
analogy of the Present Tense

for
'
-ret-,
sortus
ch. iv.
157)
for
*surrectus
(Paul. Fest. 423.
Th. 'suregit' et
'
pro surrexit, et quasi possit
expergitus for experrectus (Lucil.
On Oscan
prufto-
'
surrectus, frequenter posuit Livius),
iii. 56 M.
Lucr. iii. 929, &c.).
probatus,' Umbr. vaseto- (from stem vaka-), &c., which
with Lat. crepitus from crepdre, imptidtus from implicare,
have been compared

see von Planta, i. p. 214.
satisfactorily
fieri
The
difficulties
which they
offer
have not yet been
removed.
In Italian, French, and Roumanian the

ending -utus (like statutus, minutus,
has become the normal ending of the P. P. P. of the third
Conjugation
&c.)
venduto, Fr. vendu, Roum. vindut, point to a Vulg. Lat. vendutus

for venditus(see
Meyer-Liibke, Rom. Gram. ii. p. 370).
(Cf.
51, above, on the
encroachment of the Perfect in -ui in Vulg. Lat.) For the Past Part, of sum
the Italian and French languages use states
Fr.
e. g. Ital.
(Ital. stato,
Romance example
the sense of
'
narrow
of a P. P. P.
ete, &c.) (16. p. 385).

is strictus with
which has become an Adj.
'
(Ital. stretto, Fr. etroit,
Span, estrecho).
THE VERB.
93, 94.]
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
543
93.
Truncated' Participles. Priscian (i. 534. 6 H.) says
'retus' pro
retitus dicebant, quomodo 'saucius' pro sauciatus, et lassus' pro lassatus,
et
lacerus pro laceratus et potus pro potatus ; Gellius (xix. 7) quotes
i
'
'
from Laevius
'
oblitteram
'
gentem
'
such as accipitret for laceret,

'
antibus for intolerandis.
'
for
oblitteratam, with other novelties

'
auroram, curis intolerl
pudoricolorem
THE GERUND AND G-ERUNDIVE.
94. IX.
The Ger-
undive (Adj.) in -ndo-, Umbro-Oscan -nno- (e. g. Osc. triibum

operandam dedit,' Umbr. esonir
upsannam deded domum
'
'
popler anferener
populi circumferendi et
arcis piandae/ Gen. of 'Purpose') has beside it in Latin, but not, so
far as we can tell, in Umbro-Oscan, a Gerund (Neut.Noun) in -nclo-,
et ocrer pihaner
sacris
which seems to stand to the Gerundive in the same relation as

an Impersonal to a Personal Verb, eundum est in antiquam silvam
Until more
being Impersonal like itur in antiquam silvam.
Umbro-Oscan inscriptions with this formation have been dis1
rash to attempt a history of the Gerundive and

The evidence at present at our disposal
soil.
to
the
as having been the original one, shared
use
points
Adjectival
all
the
Italic
by
languages, e.g. domus aedificanda, iter cognoscencovered,
it is
Gerund on
Italian
dae antiquitatis (ch. vi. 20, p. 383 n.). In the older Latin writers
when this formation is turned into finite form, i. e. when a state-
ment is made by means of it, the usual method is to employ the

Gerund with est governing an object, e. g. agitandum est vigilias,
imperandum est servis, carendum est urbe but in classical Latin
the Gerundive is preferred if the Verb is one which governs the
;
Accusative,
imperandum
e.
g.
agitandae sunt vigiliae, but still as before,

carendum est urbe (see Roby, Lat. Gram.
est servis,
Pref. pp. Ixi sqq.); and the transition from the impersonal to
the personal mode of expression, marked by a construction like
Plautus' nominandi istorum copia (a construction allowed by
ii
Cic.
with a Gen.
PI.
for the sake of euphony, e.g. facultas

like the transition from 'factum itur
is
agrorum condonandi)
contumeliam' to Cato's contumelia factum itur
87).
The
origin of the Gerundive suffix still remains doubtful, after

all the theories that have been started to account for it (see
Brugmann, Gmndriss, ii.

69 and 1103 Thurneysen,
K. Z. xxx. 493 Conway, Class. Rev. v. 296).
In the third and
fourth Conjugations the form -endo- cannot be a phonetic
especially
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
544
[Chap. VIII.
development of -ondo- through weakening of the vowel o in the

unaccented syllable, for we have aufereno- for *umbhi-bherendoin Umbrian, where a weakening of this kind would not be
Although the form
found.
classical Latin,
to the legal
and
form
classical
-enclo-
became the approved form in

-foido-) was relegated
while -undo- (from an earlier

is
archaistic
style,
found on the
e.g. res repetundae, yet
the
On
the
earliest inscriptions.
Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus of 186
B. C. (C. I. L.
i.
196)
we have exdeicendum edicendum' andfaciendam, and on the Lex

'
Repetundarum of 122-123 B.C. (i. 198) trlbuendei, fruendeis,

fruendtim, &c. stand side by side with legundis, scribundi, deferThe two are rather parallel endings like
undo, qnaemndai, &c.
the Pres. Part. Act. (see
90), although the
in
cases may have
the
both
these
of
fi-form
ultimate acceptance
-out-
and
-cut- in
been helped by the Latin tendency to turn a short unaccented

1
vowel before a consonant-group into e (ch. iii.
8).
With
the Gerundive suffix are evidently connected the suffixes
of Adjectives in -bundo- ,-cundo-, &c., e. g. errd-bundus, wa-cundm,

'
rubl-cundus, rotund us (cf. O. Ir. cruind, round,' alaind, beauti'
'
ful
?).
The
h of
the
bheu- of fui &c., the

t
albl-care, &c. (above
first
of these has been referred to the root
the second to the suffix seen in
c of
27, ch. v.
95. Origin of the suffix -ndo-.
rutti-care,
31).
The
suffix -do- of lud-dus, &c.
has been
'
referred to the verb dare, so that luci-dus would really mean giving light
In the Gerundive this same suffix (cf. Aius from aio, Panda
(ch. v.
67).
'
from panda, &c., ch. v.

2, 3) may perhaps be joined not with a stem, as in lucidus, but with an Accusative case, as -dcx (from dico) is in vin-dex (ch. v. 80), or as
the finite verb is joined in composition with an Accusative in i-enun-do, vendo,
pessum-do. These may be relics of a mode of expression that prevailed much
more widely in the pre-literary period of Latin. The combination of Active
and Passive sense, which is so peculiar a feature of the Latin Gerundive
'
'
e. g.
agitandum est vigilias Act., and agitandae sunt vigiliae Pass.,
and 'anulus in digito subtertenuatur habendo' Act.-Pass., may then be
explained from the double sense that can be attached to an expression like
ruborem dare, (i) to blush, Neut., (2) to cause to blush, Act. The Accusatives
will be Accusatives of Verbal Noun-stems *rotam-dus, *ktudam-dus (lauddndus,
'
forms,
Audacis exc. 359. 15 K.), *rubem-dus, *habem-dus

dus),*ferom-dus (with *ferem-dus
&c.,
and
cf.
the Zend Inf. dqm,
cf. fere-bam,
'
(Ital.
34) (see
to set, to give
').
provienda points to haben34 on nibe-facio, &c. , l-licet,

That -md- became -nd- in
Latin, but -nn- (often written w) in Umbro-Oscan, we see

yuan-do, Umbr. ponne and pone, Osc. pon from *q Aom-d8.
from
Lat. quon-dam,
96. Adjectives in -bundo-, -cundo-, &c.
Examples of
-bundo-
from Verbs
THE
95-97.]
VERB..
of the first Conjugation
IRREGULAR VERBS.
erra-bundus, praedu-biitidus (Sail.,

108 B.) ; of the second
(Liv., &c.), vertila-bundus ^Varr. Men.
545
popida-bundus
c.),
pudi-bundus (Aug.
of the third fiiri-bundus, morl-bnndns, qu^ri-biindus, trcmc-bundus (cf.
poets)
of
treme-facio, treme-sco), fretne-bundus (Accius, with fretm- ?, and Aug. poets)
the fourth lascivi-bundus (Plaut. Stick. 288 the quantity of the third vowel
is not decided by the metre, but must be
long).
Examples of -cnndo- are from
the first fa-cundtis (cf.fa-tus), ml-cnndus (cf. -im-tus), jii-cund-us (cf. -jutus)
and
:
from the second

riibi-cttndus
fS-cund-us
(Ter., &c.
cf.
vere-cundus (from Plaut. onwards),

Rutiind-us has -undo- (cf. Ital. rotoiido,
(cf. fe-tus*,
rubS-facio}.
Span, redondo, &c.) from -undo- (on the spelling rutundus, see ch. iii.
33^.
Socienmis, a Plautine word for socius (Avl. 659), may be a dialectal form
(Plautus was an Umbrian\ of which the true Latin equivalent would be
*sociendus.
97.
Some
The
Irregular Verbs.
irregularity
of
many
verbs consists in their use of different stems for different tenses.
The Substantive Verb shows

the root
BHEU-
in others,
e.
ES-
the root
g.
Pft.
fid
some tenses ( 2),

and the heteroclite
in
1
;
'
conjugation of verbs like to be,' to go seems to date from the

Other Latin examples are fo (for *ficlo from
I.-Eur. period.
'
'
bhw-, a weakened form of the root bheu-
cf.
Osc.
fiiet,
fiet
and factns sum ferio and percussl fero and tuli (O.
')
Lat. tetuli,
39), the Perfect being taken from the root of
O. Ind. tul-, to lift/ Gk. rerXdvai, Ir. tallaim, I take away/
'
fient
'
'
Goth. Jmlan, 'to endure,' Scotch thole
with the Nasal Present-stem and
Preposition and Aorist- or Weak stem
arguor and convictus sum
and m&licatus sum
tollo
fortol-no
sustuli for smtetifdi
rem/tniscor
3)
and
(Ir. tallaim),
(
44), with
wscor smdpastus sum
recordattis
sum
nicdeor
%urgo differs from snrrexi and surrectus in

being syncopated (cf. porgo and porrlgo) ; a contracted form of
the P. P. P., sortus, is said by Fest. 422. 5 Th. (cf. Paul. Test. 423.
i
to
(A.
have been frequently used by Livius Andronicus ; Virgil

183) uses the full form sub-ngo in an active sense: tot
iv.
subrigit aures ; on vis beside volo, see

as Irregular, are the Defective Verbs
found
is
in
3.
:
Other verbs, classed
coepi (the Present coepio
O. Lat., see Georges, Lex. Wortf.
s. v., e.
g. Plaut.
Men. 960 neque ego litis coepio ; Pers. 121 coepere Inf.; on
coepi dissyll. and coepi trisyll., see ch. ii.
150); inquam for
1
Joret beside esset
seems to be a form
*bhwe-;et, like soror- from

*swesor (ch. iv.
10), or Marci-por for
of
*fueretj
-puer
cf.
N n
the CXscan equivalent
Osc. fust Fut.
is fusid,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
546
[Chap. VIII.
'
*ind-squam (ch. iv.

heb, O. W. hepp,
(
158) from the root seq~-, to speak (W.
quoth he,' &c.), the unweakened form of
'
'
which appears in O. Lat. inseqne Imperat., msequis, narras,

L. v. 78. 10 [or *in(d)-verefers, et interdum pergis,' C. G.
root
the
from
weq"- ?] inque, an Imperat. of inquam,
quam
;
used
is
by
and the 2
Plaut.,
inquio Pres. Ind. is

C. G. L. iv. 250. 27).
*Cigk-io (ch. iv.
Pres., inquis,
in-
of Fut., inquies, inquiet are frequent, but

f
not found till Late Lat. (cf. inqnio dico,'
and
quit, inquiunt
of
Sg., &c.
parts in use of inquam, aio for
[On the
116),
infit,
from Varro by Priscian,
i.
p.
Neue
see
450. 17
ii
H.
p.
612
infio is
quoted
ai Imperat. (a dissyll.)
used by Naevius, Com. 125 R. uel ai uel nega (but aie 'incipe,
die,' C. G.L. v. 165. 7, like infe 'incipe, die, narra,' ib. 211. 10,
is
'
dicens,'
infens
21
ib.
1.
united in a diphthong,
phrase like ain
vero ?
37)
e.
*
g.
the two vowels of aio are sometimes
aibam
do you
(dissyll.),
really
ain (monosyll.) in a
that ? ; on the
'
mean
spelling aiio, see ch. i.

7']
Possum is found in the older writers in its
uncompounded form
potis a,nd ptite sum (examples in Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v., Neue,
2
est
ii
p. 600) ; pate is properly the Neuter of potis, e. g. pote
.
but the Masc. (and Fern.) and Neut.

forms are used of any gender and of any number, e. g. potis est, it
is possible, Ter. Phorm.
379, credo equidem potis esse te, scelus,
(class, potest)) it is possible,
1302; so with potis and pote, without sum, just

f
can/
able,' which is used with the sense of
with
the
sometimes
though generally agreeing
subject,
appears in
the stereotyped form Isvaras (Delbriick, Altind. Syntax, p. 88). In
Plaut. Pseud.
as O. Ind. isvara
'
Oscan we have a derivative verb used in this sense, putiians and

(
putians possint,' putiiad and putiad
possit
(cf Lat. potui,
like mtinui from
but
Latin
derivative
the
potio is used in
moneo),
'
'
the sense of
'
'
potem
facere,' potior (fourth
'
potis fieri
Cas.
fieri],
[cf potior fieri

.
and third Conj.) of
used in the sense of potiri, Plaut.
112 quam tu eius potior fias, like certior (and certus)

eum nunc potiuit pater seruitutis, Plaut. Ampli.
e. g.
178; postquam meus rex est potitus hostium, Capt. 92; regni
potiri,
Cic.
On
possimns for
in
possimm
MSS.
of
Virgil,
23 and perhaps viii. 63 non omnia possumus omnes, also

in the Verona Palimpsest of Gains
101. 2), &c., see ch. ii.
(99, 14
Eel. vii.
THE VERB.
98.]
IRREGULAR VERBS.
547
Possem for potessem has been explained by the Analogy of
1 6.
possum
(for pot(e)-sum) beside potis-sum, passim beside potis-sim.
Halo, a contraction of mdvolo
seems to come similarly from
mage (a byform of magis, ch. ix.

4) united into a word-group
with volo, and nolo from the Negative ne- and volo, though
the exact process of phonetic or analogical change by which
the various parts of these verbs arose is not easy to trace.
Perhaps mag(e)-volo became *mavvolo (written mdvolo, as *cavvi
was written
cdvi,
Lat.
iv.
(ch.
39. 4),
much
And
139).
as I.-Eur. g~ or gw became
ne-volo (for the word-group cf.
cannot) may have

I.-Eur. *newos became Lat. novus (ch. iv.
ne-scio,
ne-queo,
*novi$,
*novolf<,
Engl.
become *nov8lo as
and similarly
10),
*novolumus, *novoltis, *novolunt.

By loss of
form
known to
arose
ii.
nolo
(the only
53)
intervocalic v (ch.
Plautus), nolumus, noltis (ap. Diom. 386. 19 K.), nolunt^ while

O. Lat. ne-vis, ne-volt, as well as class, non-vis, non-vult, uon-
On
vultis are re-formations.
spellings mallo, nollo, ch.
makes
ch. x.
ii.
2, and on the
Imperat. noil see
of md-volo
account
Another
129.
element the Comparative Adverb

6 on im-mo), and not mage.
its first
*ma *m6
5
(see
Verbs in Komance. Of Lat. sum the Vulg. Lat. Inf. essere

Span, ser), and P. P. P. status (Ital.stato, Fr. ete), have been
the Pres. Subj. seems to have been siam (ItaL
already mentioned (
83, 92)
For Lat. eo various verbs were united in the Vulg.
sia, Span, sea, 0. Fr. sole).
98. Irregular
(Ital.essere, Fr. etre,
Lat. paradigm, e. g. Fr. je vais (from Lat. vado\ nous allons (from Lat. amLat. htibeo was, owing to its Auxiliary use, shortened to a declension
bulo ?)
haunt (Ital. ho, hai, ha ... hanno Fr. aL as, a ... ont
Span, he, has, ha ... han). Vulg. Lat. voleo, volere Inf. (Ital. voglio, volere ;
Fr. veux, vouloir) by Analogy of Pft. volui, as Vulg. Lat. potere (Ital. potere,
Span, poder) by analogy of potui, have been cited in
33 a, 83.
like kayo, has, hat
1
Both mavolo and maZo, tnavelim
and malim occur in Plautus, but malo,
malim, &c.
are
predominant
though we have mavolo once
later,
at the
N n
end
of a line in Terence, Hec. 540.
is
not found in Plautus,
only marellem (Solmsen, Stud. Lawtg.
Mallem
p. 55.)
CHAPTER
IX.
ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.

1.
Latin Adverbs are for the most part cases of
ADVERBS.
Nouns, Adjectives (or Participles), and Pronouns, the cases most

O. Ind. naktam,
frequently found being the Accusative (cf.
Ace.
Sg. Neut., prataram Ace. Sg.
by night/ satyam, truly/
Ace.
Sg. Neut., naKpav Ace. Sg. Fern.,
Fern., Gk. irporcpov
'
'
'
KpvQa Ace. PI. Neut.), Ablative (cf. O. Ind. durat, afar ') [also
l
Instrumental (?), cf. O. Ind. diva, by day/ Gk. aAArj] , and
Locative (cf. O. Ind. dure, afar,' Gk. OLKOI, duai/Morel, ZKOVTL),
'
'
and often retain case-forms which have become obsolete in the

Thus, -im, the original form of the Ace.
ordinary declension.
29), which in classical Latin was reSg. suffix of I-stems (ch. vi.
e. g. partem from the stem
of
the
-em
Consonant-stems,
placed by
the
stem
from
militem
like
milit-, is retained in Adverbs
parti-,
like partim,
and
in the Adverbial Accusatives of
raptim from the stem
Verbal
Noun
rapti- (class, raption-, ch. v.
I-stems, e.g.
42),
sensim from the stem sensi- (class, sension-), imi-versim (Osc. uiniveresim) &c. ; nose, an old equivalent of noclu, seems to be an early
byform of noctis Gen. ; -e (older -eel), the suffix by which

Adverbs derived from Adjective O-stems are formed in the
Italic languages, is an Abl. Sg. suffix (parallel with -<?, older
The
-dd, ch. vi.
33), which has been reserved for Adverbs alone.
Adverbial suffix -tus (I.-Eur. *-tos) of funcU-tus, cllvim-tus, &c.,
O. Ind. occasionally used as an Ablative suffix (Sing, or
is in
Plur.) of
the
Nouns,
e.
g. matr-tas, Abl. Sg. of matar-,
In 0. Ind. the Instr. Case is in

Noun Declension used to denote
the sphere of motion,

of.'
a mother/
by the route
(Delb. Altind. Synt. p. 129.)
ADVERBS.
1.]
Abl. PL of
Noun and Adverb
satru-tas,,
satru-,
of
suffixes
and fast
line
between the
Adverbs, and the
549
'
'
suffixes
an enemy
and this close relation
makes it difficult to draw any hard
;
suffixes
used in the formation of
used in the declension of Nouns.
An
example of a purely Adverbial suffix is -ies (older -iens), by

which most Numerals form their Adverbs, e. g. sex-ies (cf tot-ies,
.
quot-ies), or
the *-mente of the
Romance languages,
e.
g.
Fr.
facile-ment, Span, facil-mente, which is nothing but the Abl.

Sg. of Latin mens, just as the -versus, -versum (older -vorsus,
-vormtm) of qudqudversus (-#z), aliovorsum (contracted aliorsuni),
(contracted retrorsum, retrosimi^ rursus (-m) for

reversus (-m), &c. are nothing but the Nom. Sg. Masc. (see below)
and Ace. Sg. Neut. of the P. P. P. of verto, to turn, or as the
retrovorsum
attquatenus, &c. is the Ace. Sg., employed

of
old
neuter noun tenus, a stretching, used by
the
adverbially,
Plautus in the sense of a string or snare ( 54). The Adverbs
-temis of hactenus,
derived from Pronouns,
e.
g. ibi, inde, illinc, offer special difficulty,
because of our ignorance of the full number of case-suffixes used

Thus -am of quam,
in the I.-Eur. declension of the Pronoun.
taut,
also
nam, jam is naturally taken as Ace. Sg. Fern., but it has

been referred to an Instrumental formation with the suffix
-m, -mi, which appears in the Instrumental case of Nouns and

Pronouns in Balto-Slavic (ch. vi. 36) ; and various other Latin
Adverbs in -m, usually called Accusatives, have been referred to
the same source.
Adverbs in
-ter } e. g. lreviter are best

t
explained as Nominatives
Singular Masc. of stems in -tero-, a Stem-suffix which occurs in

various pronominal and locative Adjectives, e.g. al-ter, dex-ler, &c.
(ch. v.
16) (i-terum
is
an Ace. Sg. Neut. of a similar formation),
though they have been also referred to the noun ^ter^ brev-iter
Other examples of a Nom.
corresponding to German kurz-weg.
as
an Adverb are probably
Masc.
Adjective stereotyped
Sg.
deinceps,
which was declined in O. Lat.
like princeps,
though
it
might be regarded as Ace. Sg. Neut. (cf. exordium princeps),

demus an O. Lat. byform of demum-, more certainly adversus,
rursus, &c., the byforms of adversnm, rursum, and other compounds
of versus (-m), &c.
Examples of Ace. Sg. Neut. forms are, beside the Adverbs in
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
550
[Chap. IX.
-tim (-sim) just mentioned, Adverbs in -um like i-terum, another

time (Ace. of *itero-, O. Ind. itara-, other,' from the Pronoun'
stem
i-,
(ch. x.
ch. vii.
like
suffix -tero-, ch. v.
16), ce-lerum
commodum
(beside commode), multum, parnm ( 7),

559), verum, tantum, along with some Superlatives
(usually minime), potissimum, insdnum (not insane in
5),
plerum-que
13,
with the
(p.
minimum
Plaut.) 'very/
and occasional Adverbs from I-stem Adjectives,
e.g. facile, difficile, sublime
(though
-iter is
the usual
suffix,
e.g.
in -e being reserved for poetry,

breviter,fif!eliter, the formation
ridentem
dulce
e.
dulce
loquentem, Hor.). The comparative
g.
.
degree of the
Adverb
is
always the Ace. Sg. Neut. of the Com-
Accusatives
g. longiits, facilius, brevius.
parative Adjective,
of
Nouns
used
are
id
vicem,
Sing,
genus, &c., to
Adverbially
e.
which we may add an Ace. PI. fords, which is only used with
verbs of motion towards (foras ire, like rus ire, domum ire), and
seems to be Ace. PL of *fora (Gk. Bvpo), a door.
Of Ace. PI.
Neut. forms we have cetera (Virg. A. ix. 656 cetera parce puer
C. I. It.
bello), omnia (Virg. A. iv. 558 omnia Mercuric similis
;
1144 omnia magno Constantino), possibly the O. Lat. forms

contra [for which contra, an Abl. Sg. Fern., was used in class.
Lat., and contrud, an Abl. Sg. Neut. (cf. Lat. contro-versia), in
vi.
Oscan], andfrnstra (class, frustrd).

Of Ablatives we have for O-stems, beside the <V/-suffix already
quoted (a suffix used to form the Superlative Degree of Adverbs,
e.
g. facillime,
suffix
(ch.vi.
O. Lat. facilumed, brevissime), the ordinary od-
33), e.g. cerlo (beside certe), vero (beside vere),assidiio
(usually assidue), explordto (and explorate), merito and immerito

(neither of these are Adverbs in Plautus, for they are used with
meo, tno, &c.), feslindto (also festinatim), fortmto (also fortwitu ;

see ch. v.
49).
Examples of Ablatives Sg. Fern, are dexterd (scil.
parte), recta (scil. via),
eddem
(scil.
opera), extra, supra.
As was
pointed out before (ch. vi. 36), the loss of final d after a long vowel
at the beginning of the 2nd cent. B. c. makes it
impossible to be
certain that some of these
Ablatives (e. g. Una, omnino) are
not really Instrumental
(e.g. Gk. \a6pd, KOLVTJ?); for it is
natural to suppose that the Instrumental
suffix, whose existence
in the Latin declension of Nouns is difficult to establish
vi.
{
'
(ch.
3 6 )>
ma7
nave survived in Latin as an Adverbial
suffix.
The
ADVERBS.
1.]
shortening of -o (by the

in c%to, modo,
and of
Law
551
of Breves Breviantes, ch.
-e in bene, male, is
iii.
42)
no proof that these words
ended originally in -o, -e (Instr.) and not in -del, -eel (Abl.), but
should be referred to their greater use in every-day speech (cf have
.
beside mone,&Q. in Quintilian's time, ch. iii.

42), and their more
frequent occurrence in word-groups, e. g. bene-rem-geras, malesdnus (cf. diequinti beside fide, ch. iii. 44). It is only rarely that
the occurrence of an Adverb on an old Latin inscription, or on

inscriptions written in Oscan, or some other dialect which retained
enables us to decide,
e. g. O.
Lat. merited (meretod), porod,
Osc.
Falisc.
rected, which are Abl. forms,
extrad, suprad,
contrud,
OsCo suluh,' wholly,' from the stem sollo-, all, whole, which is called
-d,
an Instrumental form (but see ch. vi.

36). The third Declension
'Abl.' (originally a Consonant-stem Locative, ch.vi.
37) appears in
forte, sponte, repente (O.
Lat. derepente\ &c., and the Plural Abl.

for mere thanks (cf Ter.
(Instr. Loc.) in gratis (older gratiis\

si
non
e.
g. foris venire), alternis.
'
'
pretio, at gratiis), ingratiis (ingratis), fans (used with verbs

of rest, e. g. f oris manere, occasionally with verbs of motion from,
Examples
U-stems are
of Locatives of
found in Terence, Anclr. 7i6)^postn-die,

(first
noctu (cf O. Ind. aktau) (see ch. vi.
37-38).
Imml
die crasffini,
Pronominal Adverbs show various
suffixes:
with locative sense, e.g. ibi, ubi, also ib%,

either shortened by the Breves Breviantes
originally short (cf. Osc. puf)
O-stem
suffix, e.g.
O. Lat.
(2)
illi. isli,
-I
(i) -bl (older -bei)
Law
(older
which
there,
with
nbi,
vowel
final
42), or
iii.
(ch.
the Locative
-ei),
in classical
Latin
always have the particle -c(e) appended, ill-i-c, ist-l-c (3) -c7, to
indicate motion to a place, e. g. eo, quo, istd, alio, apparently Abl.
;
forms
like porro (O. Lat. porod)
O. Lat. hoc, istoc, illoc may

*istod-c(e), *illod-ce, Ace. Sg. Neut., for in
;
represent *htid-c(e),
class. Lat. we have /me, istuc, illuc
(4) -a, to indicate direction,
manner, &c., e.g. qua, ea, which like quo, eo are Abl. forms
(O. Lat. arvorsum ead), not Instrumental like Greek 77?^, ravr-r]^
Travrr)
(afterwards confused with Dative
-77)
to indicate
(5) -im,
motion from a place,
e.g. illim, istim,
append the particle
-ce, illinc, istinc (cf. /tine,
with
similar sense, in unde, inde
syncope of the
final
vowel to
-in in
which in
this
the
inde
class.
Lat. always
dekinc)
is
(6) -tide,
shortened by
Compounds
proin,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
552
[Chap. IX.
Other endings like -dam of quondam (cf.

iii.
36).
*
of
-dem
tan-dem, with the sense of exactly/
qtu-dem,
qitidam),
exin, &c. (ch.
ch. vii.
21), -tern of
precisely' in ioi-dem, tanti-dem (cf. idem,
case-forms
of
are
-fa
of
stems,
pronominal
7-fo,
t-tetn,
apparently
as -cjuam of im-q?iam, its-quam (cf. qîi$-qnam), appears to be Ace.
(See ch. x. on the Conjunctions.)
Sg. Fern, of the stem *q"o-.
'
Other Adverb formations are
(i)
in -fdriam, indicating division,

-(pdo-ios from -$anoy, e.g.
motion from a place ; this
appended to Adverbial forms
Gk.
e.g. bi-fariamj qnadri-fariam (cf.

in -secus, indicating
Tpi-(j)a<TLos)
seem
(2)
an Adverbial Noun, and
is
is
in -in/, e.g. extrin-secus, mtrin-secus, altrin-secus, as -tenus to Abl.
Sg. Fern, forms, e.g. qua-tenm, aliqud-tenus, ed-tenus\ it is

derived from the root seq~-, 'to follow/ and must be distinguished
from (i) the Adverb seats, otherwise (O. Ir. sech, 'beyond/
W.
'
heb,
without
')
the Adverbial
(2)
of semis, used in phrases like
byform
Noun
secus,
a Neuter
trecenti occisi sunt virile

'
300 were killed of the male sex (see 50 on the Preposition secus).
The Abl. fini (fine] occurs in O. Lat., like fenus,
after an Abl., e. g. senem osse fini dedolabo, Plaut., oleas operito
but came to take a Genitive, e.g.
terra radicibus fini, Cato
nolito
amphoras
implere nimium, ansarum innmarum nni, Cato
secus,
'
fine
inguinum ingrediuntur mare,
Sail.
Instances of Adverbial word-groups are ad-fatim, sufficiently,

'to weariness/
lit.
ad-modum, qnem-ad-modum,
qiid-re,
quam-ob-
rem, de-nuo for ch novo, se-dulo for se dolo, l-lico perhaps for in
sloco (old
form of
loco), i-Ucet. scl-licet, vtde-licet,
im-primis,
dum-
taxat, &c.
In the Romance languages Lat. mente (p. 549) is the favourite

suffix, though Lat. -o(-nm) is not uncommon, e. g. Vulg.
Adverbial
Lat. alto or alt urn

lost).
haut, Span, alto) (-Her has been

a trace of its independence
retains
metis)
(Ital. alto, Fr.
Mente (Abl. of
in usages like Span, temeraria

y locamente, O. Fr. humle e
dulcemente. So firmly has it established its footing as Adverbial
even added to already formed Adverbs, e. g. Ital.

quasimente, O. Fr. ausiment. (For fuller details of the formation
of Adverbs in Romance, see
Meyer-Liibke, Rom. Gram. ii.
suffix that it is
pp.
637
sqq.).
ADVERBS.
2.]
Nominative Adverb-forms.
2.
553
&c. are better considered
Breviter,
Nom.
Sg. Masc. than Ace. Sg. Neut. for *brevi-terum, since the loss of -um seems only
to occur in a few words of constant use, such as noenum, ni(hi)lum, which came
to be employed exclusively in that doublet-form which the words assumed
before a vowel, e. g. no(e)n(um) est, ni(hi)l(wri) habeo (ch. iii.

Iterum did
52).
not become *iter, nor ceterum, *ceter. The crystallizing of the Nom. Sg. Masc. of
the Adjective as an Adverb, used with any number or gender, finds a parallel
in the extension of potis, properly Nom. Sg. Masc., Fern, only, e. g. polis sum, potis
es,
potis est
ille,
polis est
ilia,
to all persons
and numbers of the Verb,
e. g.
qui istuc
with Neuter subject (see ch. viii. 97). The Adverbs

(Prepositions) praeter, propter, &c. might be similarly explained praeter it Me,
*praetera it ilia, *praeteri eunt illi became praeterit, praetereunt without, distinction
potis est fieri?, Plaut.,
number (but see p. 554). Nuper (Superl. nuperrime) appears to be

Nom. Sing. Masc. of the Adjective nupero- (Plaut. Capt. 718 recens captum
hominem, nuperum, nouicium) for *novi-pero-, newly acquired/ unless it is
of gender or
Ace. Sg. Neut. of an I-stem Adj. (ch. v. 34) for *nupere.

Facul (Paul. Test. 61.
'
32 Th. facul antiqui dicebant et 'faculter' pro facile Fest. 266. 20 Th. perl
'
'
facul' antiqui, et per se

facul
dicebant, quod nunc facile dicimus Non.
in. 21 M. facul pro faciliter, huic contrarium est 'difficul '), a word used
;
'
'
by Lucilius in his description of the
Eoman
patricians
(vi.
2 M.)
peccare inpune rati sunt

posse, et nobilitate facul propellere iniquos,
better regarded as Neut. Sg. for facile, with syncope of -e, as in whip for
volupe, Neut. of *volupis (ch. iii.
36), than as Nom. Sg. Masc. of an Adj.-stem
faculo- (cf.
sacri-ficulus), since the reduction of -16s to -I seems to be dialectal
is
only
(e.g.
Qsc&nfameT)
(e. g.
Lat.,
Umbr. ager, Gk.
(ch. vi.
Neut. in Varro Men. 46 B.
quod utrum
dypos},
4),
and
not, like the reduction of -ros to -r
shared by Latin.
We
have
difflciil
Nom.
Sg.
sit
magnum an parvum,
facile
an
difficul.
Simul (older semol, C. I. L. i. 1175, in MSS. of Plautus semul, e. g. Rud.

760, Men. 405) (Umbr. sumel ?) may be Ace. Sg. Neut. of slmilis, unless it
rather shows the L-suffix of 0. SI. ko-li, ko-le, when,' to-li, to-le, then,' &c.
'
'
simul
and
spond to facul and

(Paul.
byform of
simulter (a
Fest.
53.
similiter,
used by Plaut. Pseud. 382) corre-
Deinceps was declined like princeps in O. Lat.

'deincipem' antiqui dicebant proximo quemque
faculter.
Th.
cf.
ib.
captum, ut principem primum captum
50. 5), and may have
been associated with princeps in a fragmentary line on the Lex Kepetundarum (C. L L. i. 198. 79) iudex deinceps faciat pr[incipe cessante]. Demus
it is
(cf. Gk. rfjfj-os} was used by Livius Andronicus (Paul. Fest. 49. 27 Th.)
the reading of the Palatine family of MSS. in Plaut. True. 245 qui de then;
sauris integris demus danunt (demum oggerunt A), and is required by the
metre in Trin. 781. In the Adverbial compounds of versus the terminations
-us and -um compete in the early literature, e. g. rursum and rursus (also russum,
rusum, &c., ch.ii. 104; rursum appears to be used in Plaut. after Compounds with
re-, e.g.
redeo rursum, and at the end of the line^ prorsum (with local sense in
,
Plaut. Pers. 677 simulate quasi eas prorsum in iiavem Mil. 1193, &c.) and
prorsus (cf. prosa orafa'o), sursum and sursus, but in the classical period one of the
rival forms often has the monopoly, e.g. rursus, prorsus, sursum (for statistics, see
;
Ritschl, Opusc.
ii.
259
Neue,
3
Fortnenl. ii
743).
These compounds show other
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
554
[Chap. IX.
adverbial suffixes in umversim (Osc. uiniveresim), unose for *uno-vorse (Pacuv.

On the
Trag. 213 R. occidisti, lit multa paucis uerba unose obnuntiem).
Adverbs in -ter are in classical Latin almost
58.
Preposition versus, see
confined to Adjectives of the third Decl. (Cicero in his earlier writings uses
humanXter, but finally discarded it for humane), but in the older literature are
often formed from O-stem Adjectives [Priscian, ii. 70. 20 H. gives a list of these
from the older writers, e. g. amldter, maestiter, Plaut. and the eleventh book of
Nonius is devoted to obsolete Adverb forms, especially (i) Adverbs in -ter from
O-stem Adjs., (2) in -e from I-stem Adjs, e. g. celvre, fidele, (3) in -tus, e. g. medulThe NT-stems have -nter, e. g. vehementer, impudenter,
lltus, largitus, commumtus].
,
instead of-nt-ter
(cf.
3 PI. Imper. ferunto for
*feront-tdd, ch. viii.
57),
by dissimi-
From auddx we have audacter
some
13, p. 176).
say, for *-nt-i-ter (ch. iii.
(less commonly auddciter ; see Georges, Lex. Wortf.
lation,
s. v.), but from falklx, falldcfrom procdx procadter, &c. Difficulter is more usual than
jaculter is mentioned by Paul. Test. (61. 32 Th. facul'
diffldliter (see Georges)
antiqui dicebant et faculter '), but fadliter (see Georges) was the form that
from
-iter,
loquaxloquactter,
'
'
325 cum difficulter dicamus, cur faculquoted from Plaut. Pseud. 382 by Nonius
170. 19 M.
Quintilian condemns both audaciter and faciliter [i. 6. 17 inhaerent
ei (sc. analogiae) quidam molestissima diligentiae perversitate, ut 'audaciter'
potius clicant quam audacter, licet omnes oratores aliud sequantur, et emi-
competed
ter
'
dici
\vithfacilS
non
Mart. Cap.
(cf.
potest
?)
'
iii.
simulter is
'
eavit
'
'
non emicuit,
scivisse' et
'
et
'
tribunale
conire
'
'
et
'
non
coire
faciliter
'
his permittamus et
'
audivisse
dicere], regarding audacter
'
and facile
et
as
the true Latin forms.
Other Adverbs that might be called Nominative forms are eminus and
commmus (the spelling co-minus is due to the analogy of e-minus see Georges
s. v.), which may be Nom.
Sg. of Compound Adjectives (cf. Gk. avro-xîp, e. g.
:
Soph. Ant.
175
AI/J.QJV 6'AcuAei/,
5'
avroxfip
al^dcra(Tai); recens (used
with a Perfect
791 nocturnumque recens extinctum lumen), which

is equated with libens by Charisius
utimur sic 'recens venit,'
(114. 21 K.)
quod est pro adverbio nomen, ut 'libens dixit.' (Similarly repens comes very
near rtpentc in phrases like Liv. xxii. 8. i repens alia nuntiatur clades) ;
Participle,
e. g.
Lucr.
vi.
may be the Nom. Sg. of an

O-stem, as the (somewhat doubtful) form pro-tenis (Afran. Com. 107 R. comissatum protenis recta domum Digredimur) may be the Nom. Sg. of an I-stem
(ch. v.
34) secus in intrin-secus, &c. has been sometimes explained as Nom.
But these, and indeed all
Sg. of an Adj. *seco-, lit. following from within.'
the Adverbs cited as Nominatives, are capable of other explanations recens
'
l)ro-tmus (also pro-tenus],
stretching forward/
'
Ace. Sg. Neut. cominus, eminus [with the other Adverbs in

rursus and other compounds of versus
(iwsus)] as augmented with the same
(like deinceps} as
-s,
-s (p. 573) as
appears in Greek /t<:'x/(s), d/x^t's (and dî), t0v(s), &c.
(with demus cf. Gk. TÔS, rrjôs, and for -tenus, -secus, see above) praeter, propter,
suUer are best explained as suffixless Locatives
vi.
37) like 0. Ind. pra-tar,
particle
(ch.
'
early,' sanu-tar,
Locative
'
away/
Lat. super
and Gk.
virtp (cf.
0. Ind. upar-i,
with the
Ind. antar (but antari-ksa-), though they are

also capable of being referred to the 0. Ind.
ending of local Adverbs, -tra
suffix), Lat. inter and. 0.
(I.-Eur. -tre
'
there/ yatra, 'where/ anyatra (Lat. cfZtfer?), 'elsebecoming by syncope *prai-ter, &c. prowl has been similarly explained as ^pro-tie (ch. iv.
105), by Dissimilation from *pro-tre (ch. iv.
84), or as Ace. Neut. Sg. of a compound Adjective, whose second element
where/
?),
e. g.
*prai-tr8,
&c.
tatra,
ADVERBS.
3, 4.]
555
from the same root, qel-, as Gk. rrj\e, naXai, but it is more naturally
some extension of the Preposition pro by a co-suffix (cf. reel-promts
from re-co- andpro-co-, O. SI. pro-ku) nup&r (Superl. nupemme) may have as its
second component the Preposition per of antio-per ( 7), sem-per (?), Osc. pert
in petirO'pert quater,' and as its first the adverbial particle *nu (0. Ind. nu,
is
referred to
'
'now,' Gk.
vv-v, vv, Lat.
nu-dius tertius,&c., ch. x.
is
si
si
nox,
noctu,
in O. Lat.
si luci,
of
thus at once natural
Genitive Adverb-forms. Examples of nox, used for

Enn. Ann. 439 M.
si nox furtim faxit
3.
XII Tab.
are
The existence
10).
Adverbs in Latin derived from Nom. Sing, case-forms

to imagine and difficult to prove.
mox,
si
Plaut. Asin. 598, and see Gell. viii.

qualified by media, as if node
jam data
lemm.
(cf.
frux
sit
In Lucil.
i).
iii.
22 M.
it
is
hinc media remis Palinurum peruenio nox.
The
Adverbs in other
parallel
I.-Eur. languages,
e. g.
Gk. VVKTOS, O. Ind.
aktos, 'by night/ vastos, 'by day '(cf. Germ, nachts), suggest that it is a Genitive
form (see however ch. iii. 16). Dins, in 0. Lat. by day,' may then be likewise
'
a Genitive form (I.-Eur. *diw-os was the Gen. of the word for day,' O.-Ind.
divas Gen., Gk. Atfos Gen.) and inter -clius. They have also been explained as
suffixless Locatives (ch. iv.
37), like O. Ind. sa-divas, 'at once,' pdrve-dyus,
early in the morning (so perns may be a suffixless Loc. of penus Neut.
37).
'
'
'
Titin. Com. 13 R.
dius are, Plaut. Here. 862 noctu neque dius
noctu diusque. Interdius is more common, e.g. Plaut. Asin. 599 nunc enim esse
Examples of
negotiosum interdius uidelicet Solonem
(other instances in Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.), just as interdiu became the usual
for by day,' while diu [formed on the analogy of noctu, a U-stem Loc.
word
according to one theory] is seldom found in this sense. (It is

found only in conjunction with noctu, at least in the older writers). Nonius
^98. 20 M. gives as examples Plaut. Cas. 823 (apparently anapaestic)
(ch. vi.
37),
noctuque
Aul.
et
diu ut uiro subdola
sis
4 nee noctu nee diu; Titin. Com. 27 R. (in his play about the
fr.
the/wHones)
life
of
nee noctu nee diu
licet fullonibus quiescant.
12
we have quandius for quamdiu in the
epitaph of a litter-bearer (C.I.L. vi. 6308), quamdius (vi. 13101)]. Mox has been,
like the Adverb nox, explained as an old Genitive-form, or a form with the
Adverbial suffix -s (a variety of -su, -si, the suffix of the Loc. Plur. ?, cf. Gk.
its cognates are O. Ind. maksu, soon, quickly,' an Adverb
T(pt and pcTagv')
from the Adjective maksu-, 'quick,' 0. Ir. mos- (e. g. mos-ricub, 'I will soon
come'), moch, early.' Vix (connected with vicem ?) must be of similar formation.
Per-nox is an Adj. (e. g. luna pernocte, Ov.), so in Late Lat. pemox et pcrdius,
[On
diu, for a
long time, see ch. x.
'
'
-a,
-um.
4.
Accusative Adverb-forms.
The Adverbial use
of the Accusative Case
was a
feature of I.-Eur. syntax. In addition to the Latin examples already

given (vicem, id genus, secus in virile secus, &c.), may be mentioned partetn (e. g.
magnam partem, maximam partem\ principmm (e.g. Cato, R. R. 157. i de brassica
pythagorea, quid in ea boni
sit
salubritatisque, principium te cognoscere
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
556
[Chap. IX.
used alone as an Adverb, the Ace. Sg. partem retains its old
hominum venerunt and Cato's cum partim
(see Gell. x. 13 on partim
<
'
If saltern is Ace. Sg. of **?-, a leap, lit. with a leap,' swiftly,
illonim eraf).
-tern by analogy of au-tem, i-tem, &c. [sattim, e.g.
has
taken
it
easily, assuredly,'
s. v., a late spelling,
C. G.L. v. 146. 13, is, according to Georges, Lex. Wortf.
8 ; cf. B. P. W. xiii. 310], for the other Adverbial
ii.
like deeim for decem
When
oportet).
form partim
(ch.
Accusatives of Verbal Nouns retain, in addition to the old Stem-suffix -tiof the Case-suffix, -im. Other examples of
class, -tioti-, ch. v.
42), the old form
these Verbal Adverbs are datatim from the Frequentative ddtare, whence
datatim htdere, to play at ball (Plaut. Cure. 296), a phrase used in the famous
x
description of the coquette
('
Naev.' Com. 75 B.)
alium tenet,
alii
adnictat, alibi
est occupata, alii peruellit

alii dafc
cum
facit.
manus
a labris
alio cantat,
dat digito litteras
aliis
quasi in choro
pedem,
anulum aspectandum,
alium inuocat,
communem
ludens datatim dat se et
attamen
'
<
in the front row (cf. disertim 0. Lat. for diserte) ;
praesertim from sero, lit.
connected with toUo strictim (e. g. strictim
tulutim, at a trot (see Nonius, 4. i M. ),
from stringo, to graze,
tondere, as opposed to per pectinem tondere, Plaut. Capt. 268)
;
touch the surface
'
pedetemptim, cautiously, like sensim,
lit.
feeling,' (Nonius
quotes a byform pedepressim, 29. i M.) passim from pando cursim, hastily, for
which Virgil and others use cursu [Abl. Sg. of the Verbal Noun-stem cursu-,
like the Comedians' curriciilu v fugere, abire, percurrere, &c.), Abl. Sg. of
;
curriculum
(cf.
'on the spot
'
Plaut. Trin. 1103, Stick. 337)]; statim, at once, lit. 'standing,'

7), is the Ace. Sg. of the Verbal Noun statt- (class.
;like ilico,
while 0. Lat. statim (for the a, see Nonius, 393. 5M. Donat. inPhorm.
v 3- 7)> comes from abystem stdti- (cf. statu- and stdtu-) in Plautus the word
has the sense of 'standing to one's ground/ e.g. Plaut. Amph. 239 nee recedit
it does not mean
ib. 276 ita statim stant signa
loco quin statim rem gerat
at once till Afranius' time (Langen, Beitr. pp. 16 and 337). Parallel with the
station-'),
'
'
Adjectives in -tito- derived from Nouns, e. g. togatus from toga, and, like them,
not postulating the existence of a verb in -are (e.g. *togare) (ch. v.
28), are
Adverbs in -utim
like as&idati-m,
from
assiila,
a splinter
(e. g.
Plaut. Capt. 832
ambas foris, Prius quam pultando assulatim foribus exitium

iidfero), guttatim from g-utta, ostiatim from ostium, vicatim from mcus, gradatim
from gradus, &c., also paulatim, pauxillatim, nostratim from noster cf. nostrates),
and from proper names, tongiliatim (tongiliatim loqui, ... a Tongilio parasite, qui
aperite hasce
see Lowe, Prodr.*),zopyriatim, Lucil. ix. 74 M.

nritim (so proprltim Lucr. ii. 975).
Confestim
a byform of which, *festion-, is indicated by the Verb
salutatus convicio responderet
Vir forms its
Adverb with
comes from a stem
*festi-.
-Itim,
These Adverbs
Latin (Gellius
xii. 15 remarks on their frequency in the historian Sisenna), but returned
into fashion at a later period (see A. L. L. viii. 98).
Vicissim (which some
derive from *vic-essi, a Loc. Plur. of *vix, Ace. vicem) is an abnormal form. In
0. Lat. we have also vicissatim, with that substitution of-atim for -im, -m, which
we see in two forms mentioned by Paul. Fest. 79. 12 Th., interatim for interim
festmo, from which Virgil (A. ix. 488) coined the Adj. festmus.
in -tim (-sim) were more frequent in early than in classical
and
interduatim
prft-tenus;
see
(cf.
Plaut.
Georges, Lex.
True.
882?) for interdum.
Wortf.
s.v.)
meant
(i)
Pro-tmus (also spelt
forward,
onward
(of
ADVERBS.
4.]
557
sic vives
space or time), e. g. en ipse capellas Protenus aeger ago, Virg.
protinus, Hor. ; (2) without interval of space, e.g. Virg. A. iii. 416 cum
protinus utraque tellus Una foret, of the traditional connexion of Italy with
;
without interval of time, forthwith
qud-tenus
(its usual sense)
see Georges), whose earlier form quatenos is quoted by
Festus (346. 34 Th.) from a speech of Scipio Africaiius, meant originally
(i) 'as far as,' of space, then (2) 'as long as/ of time, then acquired a causal
Sicily
(3)
falso spelt qua-tinus
sense like our 'in so far as,' a usage found first in Lucr. ii. 927, &c., but
avoided by the classical prose writers, as well as by Virgil in later Latin it
took also (4) the sense of quomodo/ 'qua ratione,' (5) the final sense of ut,'
the consecutive sense of 'ut,' (7) the force of an Ace. before an Inf., and
V 6)
was very widely used (see A. L. L. v. 399). (On the Prep, tenus, see
54.
Adverbs in -am are usually called Accusatives Sing. Fern., though a new
theory makes them relics of the old A-stem Instr. Sg. in -am, of which -a was
;
'
'
a byform, and explains Gk. Adverbs in -a like rax, Si fa, Kpv<pa as Instrumentals in -m
see 1. F. i. 17).
Other examples quoted are: perpcram,
;
wrongly, said to be Ace. Sg. Fern, of perperus (cf. C. G. L. iv. 141. 19

perperum,' perversum), sc. viam, an Adjective used by the Dramatist Accius
in his poem on stage technique (PragmaMcon, fr. inc. i. M.), a precursor of
Horace's Ars Poetica
discribere in theatre perperos
falsely,
'
popularis,
along with the derivative noun perpcntudo
(fr. inc. ii.
M.)
plectuntur poetae quam suo uitio saepius

ductabilitate dnimi nimia uestra aut perperitudine
et eo
protinam, forth, forward, an 0. Lat. Adverb, used always of motion forward

from a place of rest (Langen, Beitr. p. 163), e. g. Plaut. fr. 16 G. dare pedibus
protinam sese ab his regionibus, and sometimes wrongly written protinus in

MSS. of Plautus and Terence (e. g. Ter. Phorm. 190), seems to be an Ace. Sg.
Fern, of an Adjective-stem *protmo-, as contmwl is Abl. Sg. Neut. of the
Adjective-stem continuus
laetus
promiscam
siet
pro-miscam
cf.
(e. g.
Plaut. Pseud. 1062 ut
Paul. Fest. 281.
Th.)
mea
laetitia
similarly related to the
is
usual pro-miscue (also projnisce].

Of Accusative Plural, alias (sc. vices), at other times, alterds quoted (apparently from Cato) by Paul. Fest. 20. 8 Th., utrasque, on both occasions, used by
the historian Cassius Hemina (ap. Non. 183. 25 M. in Hispania pugnatum
:
utrasque nostri loco moti), and by the comedian Caecilius

(Com. 225 E.
atque hercle,
utrasque te, cum ad nos uenis, subfarcinatam uidi),
bis.
Statins
have been called Locative Plural forms like Gk. Ovpdai, and the occasional use
of fords in the sense offorls (better explained as a vulgarism, e. g. Petron. 30,
Ill et pridie Kalendas Januarias C. noster foras cenat, the entry on
p. 21. 10 B.
the engagement-tablets of the wealthy parvenu, Trimalchio cf. <'&. 47, p. 32.
4B.) has been referred to the same source contra is an Adverb, not a Preposition (but Pers. 13 contra me astat cf. Pseud. 156), in Plautus and Terence, e. g.
tueri contra (cf. Liv. i. 16. 6 and ix. 6. 8 contra intueri), auro contra vendere, &c.,
and has the final vowel short like frustrd (for the quantity -a, see Brix, Trin?
;
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
558
[Chap. IX.
introd. p. 20) [ne frustra sis, 'don't mistake,' is frequent in Plaut.. but frustra
is avoided by classical writers (A.L.L. ii. 3),
(cf. ita sum, bene sum, &c.)
though frustra in Plautus usually, occurs with this verb (with other verbs
sum
Contra can
mquiquam)].
hardly be anything else than Ace. Plur. Neut.
(cf.
Gk.
avria PL, avriov Sg.) of *con-t(e)ro- (ch. v.

16) ; and frustra may be the same
ease of a stem *frustro-, whence frustrari [cf. Liv. ii. 31. 9 neque frustrabor cives
meos neque ipse frustra dictator ero; Ennius in one of hisSaturae (inc. 84 M.)
plays on the words frustra and fruslrari for four lines consecutively: nam qui
lepide postulat alterum frustrari, Quern frus.tratur frustra eum dicit esse
and so on,
Wives of Windsor']
somewhat
frustra,
torra inert
in the style of the Schoolmaster in the Merry

and similar adverbial Accusatives PI. Neut.
belong, like dulce ridentem, to the language of poetry. (Servius ad Aen. iii. 594
cetera Graius, &c., quotes from Sallust sanctus alia ; cf. Tac. Ann. xii. 3 juvenem
and see A. L. L. ii. 90).

The Comparative Degree of the Adverb
et alia clarum,
is in Latin (as in Greek) expressed

by the Ace. Sg. Neut. of the Adjective (the Superlative in Greek, but not in
Latin, by the Ace. PI. Neut.), e.g,pejus (Superl. pessime), longius (Superl. lonThe Adverb corresponding to the Compar. Adj. major (pronounced
rjissime).
maj-jor,' ch. ii. 55) is not *majus but magis this magis, properly *ma(h)is (Osc.
1 16) takes its g from
mats), takes its g from magnus, nsfigura for *fihura (ch. iv.
fingo, and represents either I.-Eur. *mais (*mais?), (Goth, mais), from astern
ma-, seen in O. Ir. mar (mor), great/ or more probably *maghis from a stem
magh-, seen in 0. Ind. man-, great' (cf. the Oscan name Mahio-). In either
;
'
'
case the suffix
is -is,
the weak grade of the Comparative suffix
-ios,
seen in
Superlatives like Gk. ir\f-ia-ros, Goth, ma-is-ts, &c. (ch. vi. 52", just as the -iv
of Att. TT\av, a byform of -rrXfiov and -rrXtov, is the weak grade of -ion (see on
these
weak grades
ch. iv.
51,
and on the Compar.
magis-tro-, minis-tro-, Osc. mins-tro-).
This
-is
suffix, ch. vi.
53,
and
cf.
seems to have been confused by
Romans with
-is, the Nom. Sg. ending of I-stem Adjectives, like facilis, potis,
mdgis, regarded as a Nom. Sg. Masc. or Fern., was formed mage, a
Nom. Sg. Neut., as potc from potis (cf. Serv. ad Aen. x. 481 nunc mage sit, &c.
.
propter metrum dictum est pro magis, sicut etiam 'pote' pro
'mage'
the
so that
from
quod adeo in usum venit ut etiam in prosa inveniatur Cicero in

Frumentaria
mage condemnatum hominem in judicium adducere non
posse), whence mai-olo (pronounced *mavvolot, ch. viii.
97) for mag(e)-volo nimis
did not produce a parallel Neuter in -c, *nime, perhaps because there existed
already a cognate Neuter in -ium, nimium (Neut. of the Adj. nimius] with
but satts, a Noun meaning sufficiency (cf.
Comparative sense, too much
fails,
7), and properly used in sentences like sails est mihi divitiarum, then
extended as an Adverb to sentences like satis divitiarum habeo, satis dives sum,
1
developed a Neuter *sate, curtailed to sa^ ) plus, if pious on the S. C. Bacch.
i.
of
I.
L.
186
an
B.
be
c.)
(C.
196,
merely
expression of the sound plus (nsplouruma, Cloul[i~\ on the epitaph of the actor, i. 1297, seem to show ou for u,
potis,
'
'
'
'
Another explanation of sat makes

Neut. Sg. of a stem satu- (cf. Lith.
it
sotiis,
'satisfying'),
dition of the suffix
whence, with ad-ro-, was formed
the Latin Adj. satur (stem satu-ro-~).

Paene may similarly represent *paenu
(cf.
penuria}.
Satin
(with the Inused in ques'has he gone?'
terrog. Particle -ne) is

tions, e.g. satin abiit?
Terence puns on satin and

Phorm. 683: Satin est id?
hercle tantum iussus sum.
:
satis in
Nescio
ADVERBS.
5.]
iii. 3.
and nimis, the comparative suffix -is, and will

'plura/ an archaism used by Cicero in his laws (Legg.
plurimi/ on one of the oldest Scipio epitaphs (i. 32, end
c. ?)], with root plo-, a variety of the root pie- of Greek
37\ will have,
ch. iv.
represent
like magis
*plo-is [cf. ploera,

'
6), plo-ir-ume,
of the third cent.

irXfivTos
Tr\ficw,
559
B.
(ch. vi.
That forms
55).
like mage, &c. are not
mere
137), we
expressions of a tendency to drop final s in pronunciation (ch. ii.
contentiores mage erunt atque auidi
see from a line like Plaut. Poen. 461
78 on -re and -ris
minus, where the final of the word is elided (cf. ch. viii.
:
in 2 Sg. Pass.).
For plerum-gue, plerum is used in a passage of the historian Sempr. Asellio

i.
p. 182. 13 H. ut fieri solet plerum, ut in victoria mitior mansuetiorque fiat), an Ace. Sg. Neut. of the 0. Lat. Adjective plerus, used for
(ap. Prise,
example by Pacuvius, Trag 320 R.
periere Danai, plera pars
pessum
datast.
Other examples of the Adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of I-stem Adjectives are
iii.
impunS from impunis, a compound of in andpoewa
36)
in common use in the time of Charisius (116. 7 187. 7
183.
vile, an Adverb
14 and 1 8 K.) fidele, quoted from Plaut. Capt. 439 (fac fidele sis fidelis) by
Nonius, 512. 59 M. sublime, aloft. For this last we often find sublimen, as in
the Plautine expressions sublimen rapere, ferre, auferre, which is nothing but an
Adverbial word-group sub limen, under or up to the lintel (on the confusion
in MSS. between sublime, sublimem and sublimen, see Ritschl, Opusc. ii. 462)
saepe, Neut. of an old Adj. *saepis (whence saepio} of which the Superl. is
:
volup for volupe (ch.
'
possibly to be read in Plaut. Pers. 633
ubi rerum
omnium bonarum
copiast saepissuma,
'
the most closely packed store,' the densest store (frequens seems to b' connected with J'arcio by a similar transference of meaning).
Gellius (x. i) says that Pompey consulted various authorities, and finally
Cicero, on the question whether he should write tertium or tertio consul in
<
'
the dedicatory inscr. on the temple of Victory, and by his advice wrote merely
tert.
The distinction between the two words is a slight one, during the
'
third year'
5.
tion of
the
and
'in the third year.'
Ablative (Instr.) and Locative Adverb -forms.

Adverbs from O-stem Adjectives was in -e, older
The normal forma-ed (e. g. facilumed
on
'
196 cf. Falisc. rected, Osc. amprufid improbe,'

Umbr. rehte, totce publice '), a suffix which in classical Latin was distinctive
The ending -6 (the Abl.
of 0-stems as -(i}ter of 1- and Consonant-stems.
possibly in some words the Instrumental suffix, origisuffix, originally -od
S. C.
Bacch.,
C. I. L.
i.
but see below) competes, as we have seen, with -e in some Adverbs

formed from O-stem Adjectives, and is exclusively used by good writers in
subito (cf. O. Lat. desubito), omnmo, merito (merited, C. I. L. i. 190), the Abl.
of merit-urn, desert (cf. Plaut. Asin. 737 meritissimo ejus), &c.
Charisius
seems to say that the use of -o for -e in Adverbs was a feature of some
dialects of Latin (193. i6K. non quia negem ultra Safinum interque Vestinos
Teatinis et Marrucinis esse moris e litteram relegare, o videlicet pro eadem
littera claudentibus dictionem). Adverbs formed from O-stem Nouns have -o,
e. g. modo, with Adverb or Preposition prefixed in postmodo, propemodo [these
nally
-o,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
560
[Chap. IX.
postmodo is indeed read in Ter. Hec. 208, but propemodum

the only form used in the old Drama. Asinius Pollio (Cic. Fam. x. 33. i)
seems to have introduced the form postmodo into prose, and Livy prefers it to
3
postmodum (see Neue, ii p. 600)] O. Lat. antigerio (antiqui pro valde dixerunt,
are not early forms
is
Paul.
18 Th.
Feist. 6.
vel
admodum
word described by Quintilian
vel imprimis, Gl. Placid. cf. Gl. Philox.),

25 cf. i. 6. 40) as quite obsolete in his
;
(viii. 3.
4), anti-gerium
day, apparently Abl. Sg. of a Verbal Noun, an 10-stem (ch. v.
0. Lat. numero, quickly, or too quickly,
ante and ycro, a carrying in front
e. g. Plaut. Men. 287 numero hue aduenisad prandium, whence Varro (ap. Non.
from
name Numerius, 'prematurely born/ a Beneventan name

introduced into the Roman aristocracy, according to the tradition, by a
Fabius who married the daughter of a rich citizen of Beneventum (Fest. 178. 32
Th.) numero, probably used originally with Verbs of motion, may mean 'with
352. 32 M.) derives the

first
musical note or rhythm,' like Germ, nach Noten vulgo from vulgus princtpio
7
impendio (Abl. of impendium, outlay), used as an
(rarel} Ace. Sg. printipiwrn)
Adverb (Gell. xix. 7. 10 translates it by impense) by the Republican Dramatists,
;
especially with magis, minus, e. g. Ter. Eun. 587 impendio magis animus
gaudebat mihi. Instead of forte, the Nom./ors is sometimes used (e. g. Virg.
A. ii. 139) with an ellipse of sit an [cf. forsitan (first in Terence 1 ) and forsan (first
in Lucr.), often -written forsitam and/orsam (see Ritschl, Opusc. ii. 570) by Anal.
of Advbs. in -ain't cf. p. 69], while fortasse and fortassis (in 0. Lat. followed by
Ace. and Iiif e g. Plaut. Asin. 36 ubi fit polenta, te fortasse dicere, but also,
e. g. End. 140 fortasse tu hue uocatus es ad prandium) seem to be parts of
a verb *fortare, to assert, affirm, derived from 0. Lat. forctus, strong, as af-flrmare from firmus. Opere, Abl.' of opus, appears in a great many Adverbial
,
'
magnupere, tantopere for magn(o] opere, tant(o) opere (cf. Plaut.

75 me opere orauit maxumo). Eite is a similar formation from *m, a byform of rltus (cf. 0. Ind. rtu-, 'the fitting time,' esp. for a sacrifice, rta-, 'fitting,
suitable,' P. P. P.. rteiia, 'fitly, duly,' Adv. (Instr.)].
expressions,
e. g.
Mil.
Temere (on the quantity of the finale, see A. L. L. iv. 51) is either the Loc. Sg.
Noun *temus (cf 0. Ind. tamas-, 'darkness'), lit. 'in the dark,' or Ace.
of a lost
Sg. Neiit. of a lost Adj.*fewem,

the adverbial Locative cases of
see ch. vi.
where
37-38.
lit.
'darkly, blindly'
O. Lat. temtriter).
(cf.
On
Nouns in common use, hiiml, doml, militiae, &c.,

Die whether with original -e (cf. eod die, C. I. L. xi. 4766, an
not invariably written after a long vowel die noine or dze noine,
'on the ninth day,' on the Dvenos inscr., if this reading be the correct one)
or with original -ed [cf. Falisc foied, apparently hodie (Not. Scav. 1887, pp.
262 and 307) foied vino pipafo kra karefo hodie vinum bibam, eras carebo']
inscr.
-d is
'
'
'
occurs in a great
Adverbial word-groups, e. g. postn-die (cf. die crastini},

pri-die, cottl-die and coti-die (spelt quotidie only by precisians, Quint, i. 7. 6), perendie, ho-die, men-die (see ch. iv.
112), from which was formed the Noun meridies.
Cotti-die can hardly represent
anything but a compound of dies and the word
2
quot in some form or other (cf. quot Kalendis
Plaut. Stick. 60 quotannis, and
in Late Latin quot diebus and quot dies} with co- written for quo-, its equivalent
in sound (ch. iv. 137), but what that form was is not easy to say. Some make it
many
quo-tus, a correlative of tot us (cf. totos dies,
Whether
Terence
is
forsitan really occurs in
doubtful.
1894, p. 284.)
(Fleck.
Jahrb.
Plaut.
Aitf.
cotidie,
73
totis horis, Nil. 212);
the reading of the MSS. in
Plaut. Stick 165,

to quot dies.
is
changed by editors
ADVERBS.
6.]
561
others postulate a *quot-tns (beside quo-tus from quo-} formed from quot- with
that TO-suffix which is used in Ordinal Numerals, quar-tus, quin-tus, &c., just
asquot-umus (Plaut. Pseud. 962. 1173) i g formed on the type of septumus ; others
again suppose *quot()ius (0. Ind. katitha-) to have been a byform of quotus
peren-die, the day after to-morrow, is connected with Osc. perum, without
cf. Gk. irepa), of the phrase perum dolom mallom
sine
(originally beyond
dolo malo,' and means literally 'on the beyond day' ho-die seems to join to
;
'
'
'
the bare stem ho- (but see ch. iii.

51 on si-quidem). (For other Abl.
Loc. Adverb-forms, see ch. vi.
38.)
Eadem, at the same time, always with the Fut. or Fut. Pft. in Plautus,
die
Trin.
577
e. g.
i hac, Lesbonice,
dies constituatur
is
and
mecum, ut coram miptiis

eadem haec confirmabimus,
occasionally found without ellipse of opera,
e. g.
449
Capt.
sequere me, uiaticum ut dem a tarpezita tibi

eadem opera a praetore sumam syngraphum
und may, in some uses at

Pseud. 318
least,
have sprung from a similar phrase
cf.
quia pol qua opera credam tibi,

una opera alligem canem fugitiuam agninis lactibus.
Of Adverbs in -e from O-stems may be noticed valde [the full form valide is
found in Plautus, Pseud. 145 (AP), &c.] from validus; Cicero was the first to
use it with an Adj.
fere and ferme are related as Positive and Superl. (cf.
:
p. 185).
6.
Adverbs in
-tus.
The
were
best established in classical usage
anti-
dlvmitus, providentially, funditus, lit. 'from the ground/ 'from the

bottom' (derived from, fundo-, 0. Ir. bonn, Gael, bonn, 'the sole, the ground
quttus,
or base
'
cf.
0. Ind. budhna-, Gk.
irv6p.r]v
and
TrvvSag,
O. Engl. botm), p&mtus, lit. 'from within' (see

Intus is used not only of motion from within,
the bottom of a vessel,
37 on penes), radicttus, intus.

e. g. Plaut. Men. 218 euocate
intus Culindrum, but also like Greek IVTOS (cf. I/CTOS), of rest within,
Capt. 192 ibo intro atque intus subducam ratiunculam cf. Lucil. ix. 59 M.,
;
explains the distinction between ad and apud as the

intro
and
intus
same
as that
e. g.
who
between
intro nos uocat ad sese, tenet intus
apud
se.
Quintilian declares the use of intus in the sense of intro (motion to within) to
be a solecism (i. 5. 51). (The suffix -tus, when added to another preposition,
sub, has the same variety of meaning for subtus, like intus, denotes not merely
motion from, but also rest in, e. g. uti subtus homo ambulare possit, Cato,
But in the older and the later literature many other of
E. R. xlviii. 2).
these Adverbs occur. Nonius in his eleventh book, which deals with the
Adverb forms of the older writers, cites commumtus, publidtus, pugnitus, with
;
the
fist,
humamtus,
'
anim/itus, germdmtus, medullitus
'
and elsewhere mentions

pro large
[from the Saturae of Ennius (1. 7 M.)
immortcilitus, largitus,
Enni
poeta, salue, qui mortalibus

uersus propinas flammeos medullitus],
O O
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
562
[Chap. IX.
&c. From the Adverb penitus Plautus coined the

Plautus penipenitissumus
(see Varro, Men. 522 B. ut ait
Adj.
Superlative
He uses in one passage an
tissumae'), which is common in Late Latin.
ocutttus, primitus, sollemmtus,
Adj. penitus (Asm. 40 usque ex penitis faucibus), which also found currency
in the late literature (cf. penite Adv., Gatull. Ixi. 178).
7.
Adverbial word-groups and compounds.
Antioper vpb TOUTOV, Gloss.
represent *antia [Ace. PI. Neut. of

cf. antiae (sc. comae), front curls], with the Preposition per
*antio-, Gk. dvrios
18), as
(on o for u after i in the unaccented syllable, e. g. filiolus, see ch. iii.
paruni-per represents pdrum (Ace. Sg. Neut. of *par-o- f little, a byform of
Philox., seems,
the reading
if
is right, to
par-no-, parrus)
with the same Preposition
(cf.
the Umbro-Oscan Numeral
on the
three times,' Osc. petiro-pert, four times
form pert, see
Topper, a word quite obsolete in Quintilian's day
38).
J. 6. 40 ab ultimis et jam oblitteratis repetita temporibus, qualia sunt
Adverbs, Umbr. triiu-per,
'
'
'
topper et antigerio et exanclare et prosapia,' et Saliorum carmina vix

sacerdotibus suis satis intellecta) seems to be a similar word-group with an
cf. is-twrf)
Ace. Sg. Neut. *tod (from the Pronominal-stem to-, ch. vii.
13
'
'
'
governed by the Preposition per according to the Roman grammarians (see

Festus, p. 532 Th.) the word had two meanings, (i) cito, celeriter. temere/
e. g. Liv. Andronicus (a translation of Homer, Of?, viii. 138 sq. )
;
'
namque nullum peius macerat humanum

quamde mare saeuom, uis et cui sunt magnae
topper corpus confringent inportunae undae,
and
in his translation of Bk. xii. 17
and
of Bk. x. 395
topper
citi
ad aedis uenimus
Circa-/,
topper facit homines ut prius fuerunt

'
(2
fortasse.' a later sense, e. g.
topper tecum
sit
Pacuvius
(Trag.
potestas faxit
424 R.
si
mecum
uelit,
and the historian Caelius Antipater (cotemp. of C. Gracchus) eadem re gesta,

topper nihilo minore negotio acto, gratia minor esset. Sem-per may likewise
have as its first element an Ace. Sg. Neut. *sem (Gk. eV), and as its second
:
the Preposition per (sempiternus 1 may then be a formation on the analogy of

but see Suppl. Arch. Glott. Ital. i. 58). These examples suggest that
aeviternus
in paulis-per"*, tantis-per, aliquanlis-per the first element may be a Neuter-stem in

-is, possibly a weak grade of Comparative -ius (cf. magis, p. 558), and not, as
usually thought, an Abl. (Loc. Instr.) Plural form, paulisj 'by littles,'
by little.' The -per of these words however may be the Greek -irep of
is
'
little
wffnep, KaOairep,
&c. (ch. x.
i).
(On
nuper, see
2.)
naturally analyzed into in praesentia rerum (a phrase

1
loss
Explained as *sempe(r)ternus with

of r by Dissimilation (ch. ii.
103)
Impmesentiarum is more
which actually occurs in
2
Paulisper, with the tall form of I
to indicate the long quantity, occurs
in
C. I. L. vi.
27788.
ADVERBS.
7.]
form
563
n), with suppression of one of two similarly

than into in praesmlia harum, with ellipse of
rerum.
Another adverbial word-group, consisting of a Preposition with its
Noun, is affatim, for ad-fatim from a lost noun *fatis, weariness (cf. fatlgo), e. g.
Liv. Andr. Com. 5 K. aifatim edi, bibi, lusi Plaut. Poen. 534 bibas
usque
its full
see A. L. L. iv.
sounding syllables
(see p. 176),
where affatim (perhaps better written ad

would have become *affetim) means 'abundantly
affatim,
'
fatim, for
it is also
an early
affatim
used with a Gen.
in the sense of 'abundance,' e.g. Plaut. Men. 457 affatim hominumst.

Paul.
Fest. 8. 34 Th. says
Terentius affatim' dixit pro eo quod est ad lassitudinem,
which shows that the grammarians of the Empire still realized that affatim
:
of the Preposition ad with a Noun (like ad saturiiatem.

ad ravim, Aul. 336, Cist. 304 ; praeconis ad fastidium, Hor.
Indeed from the words of Gellius (vi. 7) we gather that in the
was a combination
Plaut. Rud. 758
Epod.
4. 12).
second century
A. D.
the Adverb was divided in spelling and pronunciation
two words ad
fatim, for he speaks of the pronunciation affatim (like

as unusual, only to be defended on the supposition that the phrase
into
ddmodum)
was one word and not two (quod
affatim
'
duae partes orationis,
lion essent
sed utraque pars in unam vocem coaluisset). It was possibly this pronunciation ad fatim that gave rise to the curtailed Adverb fatim, which was in use in
the time of Servius (4th cent. A. D.) (Serv. ad Aen. i. 123 fatim' enim abim'
Amussim (Paul.
daiiter dicimus).
Test. 5. 3 Th.), Accus. of amitssis, a carpen-
may be a similar late curtailment of ad amussim, though we find

examussim as early as Plautus. Another word-group of the kind is sedulo,
from se, a Preposition used in O. Lat. in the sense of its cognate sine ( 51),
and dolus. From the Adverb se-dulo (with it for o in the unaccented syllable,
26^ was formed the Adjective sedulus. That this is the true account
ch. iii.
of sedulo is clear from se dido malo of the Lex Agraria (C.I.L. i. 200. 40), and
from the comparison of phrases like Plaut. Trin. 90 hand dicam dolo, 480 nor/
tibi dicam
dolo, Men. 228 non dicam dolo, with Capt. 886 quod ego dico sedulo, Ter.
ter's rule,
hum dixisse credo (but sedulo is commoner with facio than

though the confusion of sedido with an Adverb from an Adjectivesedulo- must have been very early, for the byform sedulum is found in a
line of Plautus (fr. 41 G.) sedulum est, and in a plebiscitum about weights
and measures quoted by Festus (322. 3. Th.) ex ponderibus publicis, quibus
hac tempestate populus oetier qui solet, uti coaequetur sedulum, uti quadraii-
Phorm. 453
with
stem
dico)
ego sedulo
'
'
siet, congius uini decem pondo siet, &c. (cf. later

The Roman grammarians usually explained the word in this way
Acron however, in his commentary on Terence, derived the word from an Ad-
tal
uini octoginta pondo
sedule).
sedulo-, asfalso from the Adj. /also- (ap. Charis. 192. 30 219. 5 K.j.
Another combination of Preposition and Noun is ob-viam, which has its literal
sense in Plautus (usually with esse, ire, venire, &c.)
thus in Capt. 791 the
jective-stem
parasite Ergasilus,
son, cries out
who
is
hurrying to give Hegio news of the arrival of his
eminor interminorque nequis
obstiterit
obuiam,
'
that no one stand in my way

it has not the sense of praesto in Plautus nor
in Terence. From obviam was formed the Adjective obvius (but cf. pervium,
pervius), as from sedulo, sedulus. Like obviam (and inter-vias with vias Ace. PI.) is
obiter, a word regarded with suspicion by purists, though Augustus gave it his
'
sanction, and reproved Tiberius for using per viam instead. The Emperor
Hadrian seems to have reversed his predecessor's decision (Charis. 209. 12 K.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
564
[Chap. IX.
divus Hadrianus Sermonum I quaerit an Latinum sit ... quandivus Augustus reprehendens Ti. Claudium ita loquitur scribis enim
'
is explained by Charisius (201. 17 K.) as in'per viam dvrl rov obiter). Ilico
loco (the length of the initial 1 could be accounted for by the old form slow,
see
ch. iv.
150), and has often this sense in Old Latin authors (for examples,
'
obiter
'
quam
Charisius, 1. c. and Nonius, 325. 6 M.) (in Plautus the local sense is not nearly
so common as the temporal, and is found only with verbs of rest, e. g. Bud. 878
ilico manete
836 illic astate ilico) Nonius (1. c.) makes it the equivalent
of 'in eo loco,' but the sense of ibi is foreign to ilico, a fact which tells against
IHco has not the sense
its derivation from *l, an old Abl. Sg. of is, and locus.
*
of on that spot,' but of on the spot (e. g. ilico hie ante ostium, Plaut. Trin.
ibidem
'
'
change from a local to a temporal meaning finds an exact

counterpart in our phrase on the spot,' which may be used in the sense
of immediately,' without delay.'
Curiously enough the O. Lat. adverbial
word-group llkct, which in the Comedians has the sense of Ire licet (e. g. Plaut.
and
608),
its
'
'
'
Capt.
469
maxumam malam
ilicet parasiticae arti

'
may
the profession of diner-out
gallows
Plaut.
go hang
from which by an easy transition
'),
685 perii, opinor, actumst,
Cist.
by Virgil in the sense of ilico,
e. g.
muros
ilicet in
ilicet,
Aen. xi. 468
crucem,
on the highest possible

acquired that of actum est [e. g.
was brought again into fashion
itself
it
tota discurritur urbe.
(ilicet) nunc pro

[Charisius quotes the note of a commentator on this line
ilico, id est statim. antiqui pro eas licet,' and mentions a somewhat similar
use of the word in a line of Afranius (Com. 215 R.) an tu eloquens ilicet?,
'have you become an orator all at once?']. By another freak of language
the confusion of ilicet with a word of similar sound was repeated some cen:
tures later, when it was used (e. g. by Sidonius Apollinaris, fifth cent. A. D.)
verbal
in the sense of scilicet (cf. Paul. Fest. 74. 22 ilicet,' sine dubio).
'
group
like
ilicet
is videlicet,
struction of videre
licet, e.
which
in the earlier period occurs with the conPlaut. Asin. 599
g.
nunc enim
esse
negotiosum interdius uidelicet Solonem,

Lucret.
i.
210
esse videlicet in terris
primordia re rum,
construed like scire licet in such a line as Plaut. Pseud. 1179 scilicet
solitum esse, of course he used to (on these verbal Noun stems i-, vide-, sci-,
also
scilicet,
'
'
see ch. via.
34).
Inf. in Plaut. Asin.
Sis (for si
309
sis
vis,
ch.
ii.
53), sultis Plur., similarly takes
amanti subuenire familiar!
an
filio.
The word modus enters into several adverbial word-groups. Besides admodum, propemodum (and later propemodo), postmodum (and postmodo'), which have
been already mentioned, we have quemadmodum, quomodo [cf. cujusmodl, hujusmodi, ejusmodi, &c., which in Plautus are scanned as cretics or the equivalents
of cretics (ch.
vii.
22), cuicuimodi (perhaps not in Plautus)], quodammodo, tantummodo and (in Late Latin solummodo, &c. (cf. the compounds omni-modis, multi3
We find res in qud-re, quam-ob-rem,
modis, on which see Neue, ii pp. 609 sq. ).
)
&c., dies in in-dies, prope-diem.
Preposition with a
Noun
(or Adj.)
appears also in de-nuo, for de now (with
ADVERBS.
8.]
for unaccented
ov,
ch.
565
24), like de integro, ex-templo (in Plaut. also ex-
iii.
from templum in itsO. Lat. sense of locus (e. g. Acherusia templa, Enn.),
in-cassum, lit. 'into the empty' (cf. cassa nux, Plaut.), like its synonyms in Late
Lat. in vanum and in vacuum im-prmiis, cum-primis (cf. apprime, used with an
tempulo),
Adj. in the sense of a Superlative in ante-classical and post-classical Latin).

verbal phrase is seen in dum-taxat [taxat is Pres. Subj. of *taxo, a byform of
tango, as viso of video, quaeso of quaero (ch. viii.
whose
33. 4) for ^tag-so'], a legal
original sense appears in O. Lat. laws like
C. I.
L.
197. 12
phrase
sei
quis
inrogare uolet, [quei uolet, dum minoris] partus familias
so long as he assigns a fine of the smaller portion of his
taxsat, liceto,
property,' of less than half of his property (for dumtaxat the Oscan expression
i.
multam
magistratus
'
'
'
is ampert from the Negative particle an- and the Preposition pert,
beyond
thus on the Tabula Bantina in[_im'\ svae pis ionc fortis meddis moltaum herest,
ampert minstrels aeteis eituas moltas moltaum licitud et siquis eum fortius (? forte)
meddix multare volet, dumtaxat minoris partis pecuniae multas multare
Actu-tum is merely actu, lit. 'on the act,'
liceto') (Zvet. I.I.I. 231. ia\
followed by turn, then.
'
'
One of the puzzles of Latin etymology is the 0. Lat.

the equivalent of simul, found as an archaism on some inscriptions of the Empire in the forms simitu (C. I. L. vi. 7578), and certainly once
Other Adverbs.
8.
Adverb
simitu,
(possibly twice) simitur (vi. 9290, a slave-girl's epitaph of 13 B. c., and read by
Ritschl in x. 174, an epitaph in illiterate verse". Nonius mentions simitu
with three examples from Lucilius and Plautus
(175. 16 M.)
so that this
249 mecum
simitu ut ires ad sese domum. The later (plebeian) form simitur can hardly
be due to a change of -d to -rlike that seen in 0. Lat. apor, apurfor apud ( 19)
it is more likely to be a corruption caused by confusion with the Impersonal
form
well established.
is
Plautus elides the last syllable in
Stick.
3 Sg. Pass, of
root sem- (ch. vi.
itur,
Noun
Verbal
eo,
Simitu has been explained as a
to go.
57) in
some form or other with
itu,
Compound of the
the Abl. Sg. of the
a going.
itus,
Another puzzle is igitur (the quantity of the final syllable cannot be determined in Plautus), the oldest sense of which is 'then,' thereupon' (cf. Non.
128. 14 igitur' positum pro postea), e. g. the first clause of the XII Tables si in
'
'
ius uocat, ni it, antestamino

igitur em capito, a clause well known to Roman
schoolboys of the first cent. B.C. as the beginning of one of their most formidable
:
lesson-books (cf. Cic. Legg. ii. 4. 9 a parvis

Quinte, didicimus si in ius vocat'
atque alia ejus modi leges nominare) Plaut. Cas. 215 mox magis quom otium et
mihi et tibi erit, Igitur tecum loquar mine uale Mil. 772 quando habebo, igitur
rationem mearum fabricarum dabo igitur turn (e.g. Most. 689), igitur deinde, igitur
demum are all frequent in Plautus. This makes unlikely the theory that igitur
is a curtailment of quid igitur ?, a form of quid dgitur ?, with d weakened to i in
the unaccented syllable of the word-group quid-agitur ? Another theory con'
'
'
nects
it
with Lith. -ktu of toktu, so,' koktu, 'as,' or with 0. SI. -gda of togda,
It has also been resolved into the three Pronominalhitherto.'
'
'
then,' igda,
stems
i-
(ch. vii.
-icit- to-igit-
and
13-),
others
ko-
[ib.
digitus is
quoted as a parallel case of the change of
make the
particle *ge (Gk. 7*) the second element ofigitur],

the ending -r, seen in 0. Ind. tar-hi, ' then,' kar-hi,
the last with

Its use varies in different authors
thus it is placed normally
as first word of the sentence in Sallust and Tacitus, but almost never in
Cicero's speeches and it is avoided by purists like Terence (except in his
'
to- (ib.)
when,'
&c.).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
566
[Chap. IX.
earliest plays), Lucilius, Caesar, and the older and the younger Seneca (for
A. L. L. iii. 560). Its formation evidently seemed to the Romans
statistics, see
have something irregular about it (cf. Quint, i. 5. 39 ex quo genere an sit

initio sei-monis positum dubitari potest, quia maximos auctores in
diversa fuisse opinione video, cum apud alios sit etiam frequens, apud alios
to
'
'
igitur
Another Adverb (?) of uncertain etymology is

reperiatur).
siremps in the formula found on old laws, siremps lex esto, the same law shall
hold' (C.L L. i. 197. 12 198. 73 200. 27 ; 202. (i).38, (2). i, &c. ; see Georges,
numquam
'
Lex. Wortf.
s.
and
v.).
of siremps, 93. 24
of Plautus, 1. 73
in the
146.
form
sirempse
(which Charisius
K.) in the (un-Plautine
?)
calls the Ablative

prologue of the Amphitruo
sirempse legem iussit esse luppiter.
One theory declares it to be composed of sis (si vis} and empse, the old Ace. Sg.
Masc. of ipse (ch. vii.
20), and to have originally meant 'the aforesaid'
(person), but to have been in course of time wrongly associated with lex esto
(Wien. Stud. 1891, p. 296).
Setius, less (esp. non setius, nihilo setius, also quo setius like quo minus}, is the
correct spelling, not secius, which is not found till the period when ti began to
be confused with ti (see ch. ii. 90, and Fleckeisen, Fimfzig Artikel, p. 28), so that
the word cannot be equated with Gk. ijcrffuv (for *^nycav cf. iJKiffTos}. Though
by the Roman grammarians as the Comparative of the Adverb (Pre;
treated
position) seats and as a byform of the normal comparative sequius (e. g. Afranius 293 R. sin, id quod non spero, ratio talis sequius ceciderit) (from the
root seq^-, 'to follow,' Gk. ciro/jiai lit. 'following/ hence 'inferior'), it seems
;
Gellius (xviii.
impossible to connect setius with secus (see
i) or with sequius.
9. 4), describing a controversy he had heard over the spelling of the 0. Lat.
verb inseco (insequo}, to narrate (Gk. eviairov}, mentions as an argument adduced
by one of the disputants, that the form sectius was found in Plaut. Men. 1047
(our MSS. in this line of Plautus, a line unfortunately undecipherable in
the Ambrosian Palimpsest, vary between setius quam, seel usquam, and secus
quam}
haec nihilo esse mihi uidentur setius
and that
so that the line
quam
was connected with the 0. Lat.

really meant nihilo magis narranda
this sectius
'
somnia,
insectiones 'narrationes,'
esse
quam
si
ea essent
On
the strength of this very questionable authority, it has been

attempted to connect setius with the root seqS-, to follow,' by the theory that
sectius was the oldest form (from
cf. secta,
secto-, a participial- stem from sequor
somnia.'
'
sector},
this
which became
form
sectius,
*settius,
much more likely

bene, pejus
setius.
But even granting the
existence of
a form most probably due to an error in the copy of Plautus

ft is a late one
(ch. ii.
95), and the substitution of
used, the change of ct to

(it for etttoo doubtful
(ch.
and
then
that
and
ii.
130) to
make
this theory at all convincing.
It is
and secus were entirely different words (like melius

associated as Comparative and Positive owing to
setius
male},
their similarity of meaning.

Oppulo is another of the problems of Latin etymology.
The most likely
theory is that oppulum, a town, meant originally the part on the plain (06*pedum ; cf. Gk. irc8iov} as opposed to the arx. This distinction seems to be
expressly made in the Titulus Aletrinas (C. I.L. i. 1166) in a passage refer-
ring to the water supply of a town
aquam
in
opidum adqu[e] arduom.
The
ADVERBS.
9, 10.]
567
Adverbial Abl. oppido will then be exactly similar to plane.

goes usually with a Verb, but in Terence only with an Adj.
9.
Numeral Adverbs in
-ies (see ch. vi.
In Plautus
it
56).
Pronominal Adverbs.
10.
(On the Eelative Adverbs which show

the simple word, but as the second element of a compound -CM-,
initial u- in
26).
unde, si-cunde, see ch. vii.
-U (Umbr. -fe, Osc. -f, e.g. Umbr. pufe, Osc. puf, 'ubi,'
The Umbro-Oscan forms point to -fi as their original suffix,
e. g. ubi, si-cubi,
With
Umbr. ife).
suffix
(1)
with f representing I.-Eur. bh (Gk. -<t)> as in the Dat. Sg. of the Personal
Pronouns (e. g. Osc. sifei sibi,' I.-Eur. *sebhei, ch. vii. 5), or more probably
'
dh
Latin -bi is in O. Lat. -bei [e. g. ubei

(Gk.
on the S. C. Bacch. (C. I. L. i. 196) other examples in Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.
on the spelling ube, e. g. Varro E. R. i. 4. 4, see ch. vii. 6], and is in poetry
scanned as a long or as a short syllable (similarly ibidem), a variation of
quantity which is most naturally explained by supposing that the last syllable
was originally long (representing I.-Eur. -ei), and was in time shortened
through the influence of the short first syllable (ave from ave, &c., ch. iii. 42).
The Oscan form however suggests that the short final vowel may not be a late
-Oi
cf.
O. SI. kude, O. Ind. kuha).
development
(cf.
uti-
and
ch. x.
utei,
n).
Latin examples of this forma-
tion are u-bi, si-cub?, num-cubi, &c., ubi-que, ibl, ibidem (rarely ibidem in Plaut.\
In-ibi [inibi esse like in eo esse
(uf), 'to be on the point of], inter-ibi (often used
by Plautus for interea, interim), post-ibi (used sometimes by Plautus forposfea),

alibi and the less usual aliitbi
(as early as the Lex Agraria of in B. c., C. I. L.
i. 200. 86
aliubeiue aliterue), -utrubi, ulrubique and utrobique (on these spellings,
:
see Georges
s. v.),
With
suffix
neutrubi.
In the language of Plautus itti or illlc (older

-i (older -ei}.
Paul. Test. 231. 2 Th.), isti or istic may be Dat. Sg., 'to him,' or Adverb
Loc. Sg.), ' there.' The scribes of our MSS. however have gone on the prinv
(2)
ollic,
i
to ittic, istic, usually (e. g. Capt. 278. where

itti, isti, 'there,'
the metre requires itti\ and almost always illic, istic, to him,' to illi, isti, so
that the relative frequency of the two forms of the Adverb in Plautus, or
ciple of correcting
other writers, cannot well be determined.

seems to have had the enclitic -c(e) at
hie
older heic
i
(C. I. L. i.
551. 590. 1007. 1009)
The Adverb from the pronoun

all
periods of the literature, hlc,

on the epitaph of an actor,
heicei
1297:
Protogenes Cloul[i] suauei heicei situst mimus,

plouruma que fecit populo soueis gaudia nuges,
be a graver's error, for the orthography of the inscription is erratic
But on late inscriptions we
1049 me heice situm inmature).
(i.
occasionally find hi (e. g. ii. 3244 hi jacet). [Faliscan he, hei in the formula
he (hei) cupat 'hie cubat, -ant' may owe the suppression of its -c to the
From the Pronominalcf. Zvet. I.I. I. 66.]
initial c- of the following word
l
stem *so- (ch. vii. 13) we have si, and with the enclitic -c(e), sic (cf. Umbr. i-sek
may
heice
For an example of the
spelling
seic
we may
older
take this touch-
ing epitaph of a girl called Flavia
Amoena
[Mitth. (row.) viii. 150]
ut rosa
amoena homini
primo tempore
quei
me
fui
est
quom
floret,
viderunt, seic ego Amoena
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
568
[Chap. IX.
from the Relative (Interrog., Indef.) the Adverb qui (which is

item ')
perhaps rightly regarded as an Instr. (cf. 0. Engl. hwl, 0. SI. cimi) from a stem
x.
16), as well as the
25), and with the suffix -n(e), quin (ch.
qui-, ch. vii.
'
compounds alio-qui and alio-quin, cetero-qui and cetero-quin, ne-qui-quam (ch.

and quippiam (quipiam) (see ch. x.
28), and perhaps quippe (if for qul-pe)
vii.
ch. vii.
28).
(3) With suffix
not the earlier of
-o, e. g. eo,
eo-dem (id-eo has only the later sense of purpose,

*
that for that purpose,' and that indeed
'
motion towards,
with that object'), quo, quo-cunque, aliquo, cilio, utro, utroque, neutro. These have
the same sense as Adverbs formed with -versum, -s (older -vorsum, -s), and often
have this participle added, e. g. alwvorsum and aliorsum, Plaut. (for the suppresThe Preposition
sion of v between the two vowels, see ch. ii.
53), quorsus, -m.
and prefixed in ad-eo (used in a literal sense in the

Cato, R. E. xl. 3 surculum artito usque adeo quo
praeacueris cf. adeo res rediit, 'things have reached such a pass,' in the
Comedians), and ad-quo, a variety of quoad, 'go far as,' for which Nonius
E.
(76. 6 M.) cites two lines of Afranius, Com. 278
ad
is
appended in
quo-ad,
older literature, e.g.

;
ut scire possis adquo te expediat loqui,
and 249
R.
iratus essem adquo liceret.

have the same suffix -6 in Adverbs indicating motion towards, formed
from Prepositions by means of the tro- (ro-) suffix, re-tro, ti-tro, ul-tro, por-ro
We
and that this -6 represents earlier -od, the Ablative case-ending of 0-stems,
we see from the spelling porod on an old Praenestine cista (Mel. Arch. 1890,
Oscan adpud in a Capua inscr. (Rhein. Mus. 1888, pp. 9 and 557.
P- 33)adpud fiiet) seems to be the equivalent of Latin quoad (cf. Afranius' adquo] and
In Umbrian, where, as
to have the sense of so long as,' Lat. quoad fient.
in Latin, final -d is dropped after a long vowel, we find ar-ni-po with another
'
. pesnis
sense of quoad, 'until,' followed by a Future Perfect, sersitu arnipo
'
sedeto quoad precatus erit (the -ni- of arnipo seems to be like the -ni- of
.
fust
'
Latin do-m-cum, ch. x. 12, and -po may represent *pom rather than *pod) the
Adverb corresponding to Latin quo is pu-e with that suffix -i (?) (Gk. ovroa-i]
written -i, -ei, -e, which is added not merely to the Nom. Sg. Masc. of the
Umbrian Relative, po-i, orpo-ei, orpo-e (Lat. qul for quo- with I, ch. vii. 25), but
the Adverb from
to other parts of its declension, e.g. Ace. PL Fem.pa/-e
;
0. Lat. sed-uter-que (Plaut.),

each separately,' is in Umbrian sei-podruh-pei,
with uh expressive of the long o-sound (a close o, nearly or altogether u see
The fact that the 0-stem Abl. shows -u in Umbr. has been used
ch. ii.
20).
'
an argument that Umbr.

Similar formations from ille,
as
ulo
'
'
'
illuc,' postro
retro,
&c. are Instrumental.
are found at all periods of Latin, Ulo
iste
(cf.
Umbr.
ulu, ulo), isto (for examples, see Georges), but the Adverbs generally
used are illuc, istuc, with final syllable scanned long in poetry, and similarly
from
hie
we have
hue, hither, ad-huc, hither-to (is *hd indicated by the form

In the earlier literature the forms with the enclitic
horsum for hovorsumt).

-c(e)
end in -oc, with final syllable again scanned long,

where the parasite is touting for a dinner
Capt. 480,
quis
ait.
'
hoc
an archaic form employed by

the passage)
e. g. hoc (as
in Plaut.
'
aut quis profitetur
?),
Virgil, A. viii. 423 (see the note of Servius
hoc tune Ignipotens caelo descendit ab alto
on
ADVERBS.
10.]
569
w.
statistics of the spelling

;
[for other examples, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.
hoc and hue in Plaut., &c. are given in Fleck. Jahrb. (Suppl.) 1891, p. 293 n.~}.
This -uc has been referred to an earlier -oi-ce with the Locative suffix -oi,
which is used in Adverbs of motion towards in Greek, iroT. oiroi, &c., but it
seems unnatural to regard it as anything but a phonetic development of the
earlier -oc.
If the vowel in these endings be naturally long, it must have
been originally ou (ch. iv.
41), and the parallel Adverbs in Greek will be
not TTof, OTTOI but irov, Kirov, which mean in Greek where,' not whither.'
But it may have been naturally short for the metrical value of the syllable
can be explained by the fact that c really represents cc, from an earlier dc,
*hod-c(e), *is-tod-c(e) (ch. iii.
51), so that the forms would be really Accusatives
Sing. Neut. (cf. however O. Lat. illuc, istuc, and class, hoc, Ace. Sg. Neut.), and
'
'
not Ablatives.
have also other senses in Latin, as with Comparatives eo major,

Welsh po, by how much the '), quo
jfi with Comparatives
major, quo minor, &c., from which comes the use of quo for ut in final sentences
with a Comparative, e. g. quo facilius haec fieri possint, and the word-group
quominus, lest, e. g. quominus haec fieri possint also quo, whereby, &c. These
too are Ablative forms, originally *quod, *eod, as we may see from Osc. pod
mins quominus' in the Tabula Bantina (Zvet. I.LI. 231. 10)
nep
neve fecerit quo quis
fefacid pod pis dot eizac egmad min\_s~] deivaid dolud malud
Quo,
eo
eo,
minor
&c.
(cf.
<
Lith.
'
de ea re minus juret dolo malo'; Osc. svaepod

svaepod 'sive
sive,'
Umbr. eno (iso) from the stem *ek-so-, also esoc (issoc) for *ek-sok
svepo
sic
with the last, cf. the Latin gloss soc, ita (Lowe, Prodr. p. 350, a doubtful form).
In a leaden execration tablet (Zvet. I.I.I. 129), written in
Oscan (presumably not the best Oscan), we have svai puh (h indicates the
length of a vowel in Umbrian), a spelling which, if found on a magisterial
proclamation, or any carefully written inscription, might establish the
existence of an Oscan po (pu), an Instrumental form, beside pod (pud),
the Ablative form.
But the character of this inscription diminishes the
value of the evidence of this, as well as of the other Instrumental Adverb,
which occurs on the same tablet, suluh omnino (from the stem sollo-, 'all,
whole') besides it is doubtful whether h indicates vowel-length in Oscan. In
another Oscan execration scroll (J. F. ii. 435), we have the form sullud (the
last letter somewhat doubtful), but the fragmentary state of the inscription
makes it impossible to determine satisfactorily that sullud is an Adverb.
and ').
in which direction (cf. qua
qua, both
(4) In -a, e. g. qua,
.
Umbr.
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
ne-qua-quam, haud-qua-quam, qua-propter (cf. Plaut. Amph. 815 quaistaec propter

dicta dicantur mihi), ea (often appended to Adverbs, propter-ed, praeter-ed, posted, ant-ed,
and on the
S. C.
Bacch. arvorsum ead in the sentence
quei aruorsum ead fecisent,
quam suprad
scriptum
sei
ques esent,
est), ea-dem, alia, aliqua,
hac (appende d like ea to Adverbs, post-hac, ante-hac, praeter-hac, and in a plebiscitum ap. Test. 322. 8 Th. adversus hac; cf. Osc. post exac 'posthac'), iliac,
istac.
With tenus appended these Adverbs indicate distance quatenus, ( how
:
far
'
(on the subsequent development of meanings, see
thus
evidently the
i
4), hactenus,
The formation
Hor. est quadam prodire tenus).

same as that of Adverbs derived from Prepositions with the
far'
(cf.
e. g.
extra (exstrad S. C. Bacch.), supra (suprad S. C. Bacch.) (cf.
is
suffix -tro- (-ro-),
Oscan pullad
an Adverbial Ablative Sg. Fern, of the Relative, formed by adding the

Abl. Sg. Fern, of the Oscan Demonstr. stem olio- (Lat. illo-, older olio-, ch. vii.
'
qua,'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
570
1 8)
to the Kelative
flexa (?) est,' Zvet.
stem po-
(ch. vii.
23)
is
[Chap. IX.
[p]ullad viu uruvu ist

for quo-ad on late
'
qua via
found
irifecripQua-ad
variant in good MSS. (see Georges).
tions, and is a not uncommon
illim (found in Cicero as well as in the older writers,
(5) In -im. utrim-que,
whereas istim is doubtful see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. w.), but usually illinc, as
him. The same suffix is found in the forms to which the Adverb secus
1. 1. 1.
136. 56).
istinc,
is
appended,
intrin-secus, altrin-secus, extrin-secus,
and apparently in
exim, interim
though in two at least of these three last words, it has not its usual
sense of motion from. Interim is equivalent to inter-ed, inter-ibi (Plaut.), while
that time (often answering to quum in Plautus, e. g.
olim, from meaning at
olim quom caletur maxime, True. 65), came to mean at any former time,'
formerly/ once upon a time,' then at any time,' occasionally' (e. g. Lucil.
iii. 4 M. uiamque Degrumafots uti castris mensor facit olim), and to be used
even of future time (e. g. Hor. non si male nunc, et olim Sic erit). Olim can
hardly come directly from the Pronoun-stem olio- of 0. Lat. oUus, olle (class, ilk},
best analyzed into *ol-so- (ch. vii.
13), for oil- would not become ol- (ch. ii.
130) it is rather to be derived from the stem 61-, a grade of the OL- (AL-) stem,
without the suffix so- (cf. Umbr. ulo 'illuc with u the equivalent of Lat. 6).
The origin of the suffix -im has not yet been satisfactorily explained.
This suffix seems to be the suffix -m (hardly the Ace. Sg. suffix)
(6) In -ndt.
augmented by the particle -de. As the Adverbs meaning thence,' ille, iste
added to -im the particle -c(e), the corresponding Adverbs from is, qui add to
-m the particle -de (cf. Gk. 4j/0eV-8e), which, like -ce, was liable to be curtailed
Thus we
of its final short vowel in every-day pronunciation ( ch. iii.
36).
have inde (which should not be derived from the Preposition in, but must go
with unde), indt-dem, and with prefixed Adverb de-inde (curtailed to dein), proinde (and prom), cx-inde (and exin, a different word from exim
see Georges, Lex.
For utrinde,
Wortf. s. v.), 8cc.,unde, sl-cunde, ne-cunde, undi-que, aliunde, alicunde.
quoted from a speech of Cato by Charisius (224. 14 K. utrinde factiones tibi
and
olim,
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
we should
expect utrunde.
the Ace. Sg. Neuter, e.g. turn and with the enclitic -c(e),
tune (cf. nunc and etiam-nutri), quum, older quom, with appended jam in quoniam (ch. x. 13), and appended -dam in quon-dam (cf. qui-dam, ch. vii. 28),dum
From the Pronominal-stem i- (Lat. is) an
(ch. x.
12), du-dum (ib.\ non-dum.
Adverb in -m was in use in O. Lat. in the sense of then,' variously written
pares)
(7)
In -um
(-om},
as im
and em
(ch. vii.
have the um- of un-quam
19)
(
cf.
and from the Relative-stem seen in
O. Lat. *umquis of
necumquem
nee
u-bi,
&c.
we
umquam quem-
'
Fest. 162. 22 Th.), and with negative ne- prefixed, nun-quam (neumquam
the reading of the MSS. of Plaut. Most. 307)
though some make this
originally to have ended in n, not in m, and find the form with initial c (like
si-cubi, si-cunde) in the -cun- of qui-cun-que (ch. x.
2), ne-cun-quem (so interpreting
the 0. Lat. word mentioned by Festus), which they compare with Goth, -hun-
quam
is
none so ever.'
In -am, apparently the Ace. Sg. Fern., though some make it an Instrumental case (suffix -m or -mi, ch. vi. 36). If Festus is right in quoting tame
as an O. Lat. form of tarn from the Carmen Saliare (Fest. 546. i Th. tame in
Carmine positum est pro tarn), all these Adverbs in -am may have originally
ended in a short vowel. From the Relative Pronoun we have quam, the correlative of which is taken from the Pronoun to- (ch. vii.
13), not from the
Pronoun i-, tarn. The two are united in tan-quam. Whether jam, now (cf.
of ni hvas-hmi,
'
(8)
'
'
ADVERBS.
10.]
Lith. jau,
'
already '),
is
571
the corresponding formation from the stem
i- is
not
The indeclinable Adj. ne-quam maybe a colloquial compound of quam,

as the Adverb ne-quaquam is of qudquam, so that nequam would literally mean
'a no-how' (cf. 0. Lat. nequalia detrimenta Fest. 162. 23 Paul. Test. 163.
13 Th.). Another compound isperquam, exceedingly (cf. admodum quam, Plaut.).
The addition of the Preposition do ( 27) to quam gives the Adverb quando
certain.
'
'
(ch. x.
12), originally temporal, then causal (cf. quandoquidem, ali-quando,
quando-que (Umbr. panu-pef) (cf. 0. SI. kadu,
qua, unde ?), while O. Lat.
quam-deis a byform of quam, than, as in a passage of Livius Andronicus (quoted
in
peius . . quamde mare saeuom, and Lucr. i. 640 quamde gravis inter
7)
'
'
Graios qui vera requirunt.
Other derivatives are aliquam in aliquam-diu, &c.,

quam-ws (rarely with Subj. in Plautus, and always with an Adj. or Adv.
not in Terence), and quam-quam (cf. tam-quam), n(e}-iiti-quam, ne-qua-quam, &c.
From the pronominal-stem *no- (O. Ind. na-na, in various places or ways,'
lit.
there and there,' thus and thus '), connected with the stem *eno- (*ono-)
0. Ind. ana-, this/ Lith. anas, that,' 0. SI. onu) we have nam used in empha;
'
'
'
sizing a question, e. g. quid cerussa opus nam ? Plaut. ;hence quis-nam, who ?,
O. Lat. quid-nam, why ?), and in the sense of for
from the stem *do-, -dam
'
of quon-dam
(cf.
With
(g)
i-td-que,
qui-dam).
other suffixes
therefore (ch. x.
8)
we have (a) -ta in i-td, so (Umbr. itek),

may be inferred from 0. Lat. ali-uta (cf. alifrom the Laws of Numa by Paul Fest. [4. 27 Th.
of ^-suffixes
;
*uta, as,
uU,p. 564), otherwise, quoted
quisquam aliuta faxit, ipsos loui sacer esto cf. the gloss aliutea (leg. aliuta),
aliud, amplius, Lowe, Prodr. 432]. The final a was no doubt originally long, if
every final short vowel became -e in Latin (ch. iii. 37), but there are no traces
si
of this quantity in itaque in the older poetry (on itaque in the Saturnian epitaph
of Naevius, see ch. x.
So that the
8), and probably none in ita either.
shortening of the final vowel under the influence of the preceding short
syllable must have established itself in this word of common use at a very
early date.
(&) -tern in z-tem, au-tem (cf. 0. Ind. -tliam of ka-tham, 'how,' &c. ?).
(c)
in
ut,
-t
(originally with a short final vowel, probably
uti-nam, uti-que.
after the
The Umbro-Oscan equivalents
cf.
0. Ind.
'
i-ti,
of Latin ut
thus
show an
')
Umbr.
puze, puse, ending originally in -tsi or -tse, Osc. puz (pous

on the Bantine tablet must surely have ou for w), which in Latin appears in
t,
the local Adverbs us-quam, nus-quam.

Us-que is a different word, derived from the I.-Eur. Preposition ud-, as ab-
from ab
57 for usque).
appears also in aut, which probably ended originally in a short
-i (Gk. av-T6 has re for I.-Eur. *-q lAe, ch. x.
2), as we see from Umbr. ote,
Osc. avti. The long -i of ufl is probably Loc. -ei ( n).
Of d-suffixes, besides (a) -dam of quon-dam (temporal Adv. of qul-dam) and (6)
dum, with idea of time in [du-dum, non-dum, vix-dum, inter-dum already mentioned, we have (c) -clem in qui-dem (ch. x. 6), and with the sense of exactly,'
just (cf. is demum, iU demum) in a large number of Adverbs, such as tantl-dem,
s-que
The
suffix
(see
'
'
'
ibi-dem, indi-dem,
W-dem,
toti-dem
(from
*toti,
the older form of
tot,
ch. vii.
29),
of Identity, l-dem (ch. vii.

21), with its curious
'
derivative ulentidem, repeatedly (explained as idem ante idem or 'idem turn
idem '), also with the idea of time (cf. dum in inter-dum, non-dum) in tan-dem
as well as in the
Pronoun
'
(cf,
demum), pri-dem.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
572
Prepositions are Adverbs, which

with certain cases of the
PREPOSITIONS.
11.
came
[Chap. IX.
to be specially used in connexion
Noun, or in composition with a Verb. In the early stage of a lanto indicate the sense, but as
guage the cases alone were sufficient
became
suffixes
weakened, or as the necessity
the force of the Casemore
was
for clearer definition
recognized, the Case -suffix was
of
an Adverb. Thus ire monte
strengthened by the addition
might mean 'to go out of the mountain' or 'to go down
from the mountain.' To indicate the first sense, the Adverb ex
was
used, ire monte ex
Adverb
to indicate the second, the
de, ire
These Adverbs which,

associated with
are
most
their
to
frequently
meaning,
owing
in
used
or
are
of
cases
Nouns,
composition with Verbs,
particular
monte (h
or ex-Ire monte, *de-ire monte.
and the process, by which Latin Adverbs

became Prepositions, may be seen in operation at various periods
Thus contra, which has hardly passed the
of the language.
Plautus and Terence, is a Preposition in
with
Adverb stage
are called Prepositions
Latin and governs an Accusative Case coram is not

a Preposition till Cicero's time simul in Augustan poetry and
classical
Silver
Age
prose; retro not
till
Late Latin
(e.g. vade retro me,
customary now in writing Latin

to write the Preposition and the Verb in one word, e.g. exire,
but not the Preposition and the Noun, e. g. ex monte and this
practice is justified by the fact that a Verb compounded with
S.
Marc.
viii.
33, Vulgatd).
It
is
a Preposition had, so to speak, a separate life of its

compound form. Extyo, for example, was a different
ago,
and
so suffered
own
in its
word from
weakening of the vowel a in the unaccented
pdno ceased to be recognized as a compound of posyllable

(see
12) and sino, and changed its Perfect po-nvi to posui
;
summitto shows that assimilation to which the

39. 4)
internal consonants of a word were liable.
On the other hand
(ch. viii.
Noun with a Preposition is as a rule not so treated (although

unless
there are not wanting examples like sedulo for sedolo,
7),
a Compound Adjective is formed of the Preposition and the
compounded of per- and ager

must
be
remembered
that in the Roman
38).
a word-group
the
and
the
Noun
formed
pronunciation
Preposition
orthoin
iii.
1
a.
and
the
Roman
ch.
2
(e. g. circum-Uttora,
6),
Noun,
(ch. vi.
e.
g. peregre, Loc. of *peregris

Still it
PREPOSITIONS.
ii.]
573
graphy they were usually written together (e. g. mgalliam,initaliam y

Mar. Victorin. 23. 12 K.), sometimes with consonant-assimilation,
summanus for sub manus, Plaut. Pers. 450). This close

union of the Preposition with its Verb and Noun must have led
at a very early time to the syncope of a final short syllable of
Prepositions and it is possible that byforms like Gk. kvi and tv
(e.g.
be doublets of very ancient date, representing the forms

assumed by the word when used independently and in compo'
'
sition (cf. Engl. by and be '-witch, Germ. bei and be '-leben,
may
'
'
similarly
which
'
and
off
'
'
'
of/
'
too
and
'
'
'
are
to
doublets,
one of
used as Adv., the other as Prep.). Tmesis, or the

separation of the prepositional part of a Compound, from the
is
other part,
and
is
is
a feature of the older stage of every language

in O. Lat. (e.g. sub uos placo was the archaic
common
phrase for supplico retained in Latin prayers ; transque clato and

endoque plorato are legal archaisms for traditoque and imploratogne,
An
Fest. 444. 30 Th.).

arrangement like sub uos placo, ob iios
'
sacro (for obsecro vos) (cf Vedic vi no dhehi, lend us ') became
the rule in the Celtic languages, thus in O. Ir. at-om-aig
.
'
adigit
me
'
the Pronoun
is
'
infixed
'
between the Preposition
and the Verb, as if we had in Latin ad me agit.'

In the later stages of a language the use of Prepositions
In Latin this culminated in the loss
increases more and more.
of Case-suffixes, and the use of Prepositions in their place, as we
'
As early as the first cent. A. D.

see in the Romance languages.
a grammarian points out that in manus aqua is the phrase in
vogue instead of the older aqua manibus (Caper 92. 8 K.). New
meaning were expressed by compounding Prepositions with one another, e. g. de-ex, de-sub, &c.
C. J. L. xi. 147, Fr.
[cf. abante,
avant]. a process which may have
at
a
for
I.-Eur. Prepositions often show
begun
very early stage
distinctions of prepositional
an appended particle (Pronoun and Adverb), such as

Gk. -o-e, e.g. a^, e, Lat. abs, ex, sus- (2) -d(e), Gk.
;
e.g. Lat. postid, antid, prod- (cf.

(3) -ti, e.g.
O. Ind.
prati,
Zend
O.
patiy,
SI.
(i) -s(e),
5o'juoz>-6e,
-du of pre-du-, 'before');
Gk.
irpori, TTOTL,
Osc. pert-
pone for *pos-ne (cf. Germ, von, O. H. G.

These particles, whose original form is not
(4) -n(e), e.g. Lat.
fona and fon).
always recognizable (thus a Latin -d from -de might come from
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
574
[Chap. IX.
be
an original *de, *di, *do, *du, &c., ch. iii.
37), cannot
x.
stems
in
mentioned
ch.
the
from
10,
pronominal
separated
of
Gk.
-8e
from
Adverbial
the
the
i
bopovbc
pro(e. g.
'
'
'
and it is doubtful how far there

-8e of Gk. 6'-6e)
was originally any real distinction between them. In Latin
their original form is especially obscured by the Latin tendency
nominal
'
to syncopate a short second syllable (ch. iii.

13), a process
which may have led to the confusion of the Preposition endo-,
indu- with the different Preposition en-, in-, in such words as
indw-gredi, in-gredi, indn-perator, im-perator, and ultimately to
the disuse of endo, indu, in favour of en, in.
(In Terence inaudio
alone is used for earlier ind-audio and in-audio.
similar con-
fusion of I.-Eur. *endo
and *en may have taken place
in Celtic).
And
the tendency of a Latin Preposition, because unaccented,

to be obscured brought about that confusion of ob- and ab-, de-
and
di- (dis-) in
which even
notice of the
di-
in
Compounds which we
see in
Late Latin, and
in thje earlier centuries of the
grammarians (Yel. Long.
64.
Empire attracted the

19 K., &c., on de- and
Romance
*abdurare, *abaudire, *abtenere have supplanted

much earlier opportunity of
obaudire, obtinere).
obdurare,
confusion was afforded by Prepositions which represented different

developments, case-forms, &c. of the same root, e.g. Lat. per,
(
through, and Umbro-Osc. per, on behalf of, before,' the equivalent
of Lat. pro (both I.-Eur. *per and *pro being derived from the
same root per-, on which see
38) and this confusion is very
;
hard to
changes
trace.
its
The
meaning
readiness
is
too with which
an obstacle
in the
way
a Preposition
of identifying its
Oscan up, op governs the Abl. with

cognates in other languages.
the sense of Lat. apud, while Latin ob (governing the
Ace.) has
'
from
that
sense
to
its
classical
of
sense
on
account
passed
(
35)
of
'
O.
a with Abl. following has the sense of

to/ but
be
translated
from ; examples
preceding might
show that a difference of meaning between a Preposition
which
'
Incl.
with Abl.
'
'
language and in another is not a valid proof that the two

words were not originally identical. Much less is the difference
in one
of case governed to be taken into account.

of every language the Prepositions must
In the
earlier stage
have been used with
great elasticity, sometimes with one case, sometimes with another
PREPOSITIONS.
12.]
575
O. Lat. in potestatem esse, &c.), the fixing- down of Prepoa particular case being* always a feature of an advanced
stage of language.
[Servius may thus be right in saying (ad
(cf.
sitions to
29 longo post tempore) that

with the Abl. in earlier times
circum were used

'
enim
ante
antiqui
post
'circum' etiam ablativo jungebant, quod hodie facere minime
possumus
Pompeius (278. 21 K.) attributes ante templo and
Eel.
also
i.
post, ante,
'
'
'
propter homine to
Umbro-Oscan
Pacuvius].
should be noticed that
It
in
local Prepositions, indicating rest in a place, &c.,
go with the Locative
case,
not the Abl. as in Latin.
In
Their
Latin a Preposition, especially a monosyllabic Preposition, precedes the noun

}
(hence Pre-position ), except in particular circumstances (e. g.
position too varied in course of time.
classical
'
metu
in
magno, &c.
see
Neue,
ii
3
.
pp. 942 sqq. for statistics),

it
and in Umbro-
but in the older literature often follows
Oscan postposition is common, e.g. Umbr. asam-ad~, 'ad aram,'

termnom-e in terminum/ (So our in here was earlier here
In I.-Eur. the Preposition seems to have preceded
in').
'
'
'
the Verb, but to have followed the Noun,, while between

the Prep, and the V erb a Particle or Enclitic Pronoun (ch. iii. 12)
18 ?, sub vos placo,
might be inserted (cf. O. Lat. anti-d-eo,
p. 569).
On
the Vulgar Latin treatment of Prepositions in composition

it is reflected in the Romance languages, see
with Verbs, as
To the ordinary
Meyer-Liibke Horn. Gram. ii. pp. 617 sqq.
were
added
e.
Lat.
g. Vulg.
Prepositions
foris,
foris-facere (Fr.
forfaire, Ital. fuorfare), and other words.
12.
Ab, ap-, po-, abs,
a-, au-, af,
absque.
Ad, from,
is
I.-Eur. *ap (Goth, af Engl. of, off), a curtailed form of *apo

'
(O. Ind. apa, Gk. euro, e.g. O. Ind. apa-i-, to go away/ Gk. cur-ei^t,
,
Lat. dpud for *apo-d, see below), of which another

curtailment was*po (O. SI. po-, Lith. pa-), found in Lat. po-s%fus,
Lat. ab-eo
cf.
pono for *po-s(i)no (with Pft. po-sivi changed to pos-id owing to

a false apprehension of po-situs as if it were posi-tm like moni-tus).
(Po-lubrum, a wash-basin, po-lire, and Germ, vo-n, O. H. G. fo-na
fo-n, have also been referred to this I.-Eur. form,
39). The
form dp- appears in ap-erio, and was no doubt the shape assumed by
the word in such collections as ab templo alj is due to the same
and
-,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
576
[Chap. IX.
Latin preference for -b rather than -/?, as substituted ob for op

sub for *sup (ch. ii.
The form
73).
(Osc. op ; cf. Lat. op-erio),
abs (pronounced
and often written
ops, see ch.
ii.
80), in
which the
augmented by the
particle *-s(e) (Gk. a\l/), is used

Preposition
in Composition before Tenues,e. g. before t,c in abs-traho,abs-condo,
while before p it is, by a law of Latin phonetics (ch. iv.
157),
is
reduced to as-,
e.
g. as-porto for *ap8-porfo, as-pello for *ap*-pelloi
appears also in the O. Lat. phrase absque me (te, &c.) esset

'
si sine me esset/ where que, like its O. Ind.
foret), equivalent to
it
(
equivalent ca in the Rig- Veda, seems almost to have the sense of

'
an for and) ; at a later period absque me, &c.
if
(cf O. Eugl.
the
was used without
verb, and absque came to take the sense of
'
sine,
without (A. L. L.
vi.
That a
197).
(Osc. aa-manaffed
amandavit,' Umbr. aha-, aa-, a-, e. g. aha-vendu beside prevendu] is another form of ab, as e of ex (see below), is generally
believed, though it is difficult to see why ob and sub did not
'
develope corresponding forms *#,**#;

word, associated with ab because of
it
may be an entirely different
its
resemblance in meaning,
form, and usage *. Au- of aufugio,

association of this kind.
aufero, &c. is an example of an

It has not been produced from ab by any
phonetic process, but represents a different I.-Eur. preposition,

*aw(e) (O. Ind. ava, Pruss. au- e. g. O. Ind. ava-bhr- au-fero '),
'
which was brought into requisition in these Compounds before

initial / to avoid confusion with the compounds of ad, e. g.
an
offer o.
(On the confusion between
Contrib. Lat. Lex. s.v.).
dfluo
and
affluo, see
A curious Preposition af
Nettleship,
used in Cicero's
time occasionally in account-books, with the name of the person

whom money had been received, occurs on a few inscrip-
from
Whether it is
tions, and in O. Lat. afvolant for dvolant.
a dialectal form (cf Pelign. af-ded ' abiit ' ?) with
representing some I.-Eur. aspirate (cf. O. Ind. adhi, on/ used with Abl. in
'
from '), or a Latin variety of ab (or au ?) with

/ produced originally under the influence of some following conthe sense of
sonant (most probably v), it is impossible to say. It may be

a mere (Greek ?) trick of writing, with the symbol F
employed
to denote the u- or w- sound, like the Greek
digamma (cf. Prise,
i.
35. 17 H.).
1
Lat. a
and
W.
Teut. o are referred to I.-Eur. *a
by Buck,
Osk. Spr. p. 25.
PREPOSITIONS.
13-16.]
577
In Plautus ab is used before vowels and j, s, r a before

and Guttural sounds) abs (and a) before tu, tuus,
&c. ab and a before
in class. Lat. ab is used before vowels and I, n,
d, 1. n
abs before c, q, t (Cicero began with abs te, but discarded
r, s,j' a before b, p,f, v
this expression for a te}
in Late Latin ab is used before vowels, a before con13.
b,
p,
Ab, abs,
m, f,
a.
g (Labial
v, c, q,
t,
sonants (see Langen, Beitr. 331 Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v. A. L. L. iii. 148). The
usage of in the older period allows of its being a mere phonetic development
of ab, ford fceZJomay be simply an expression of the sound abbello (ch. ii.
130),
and so the shortening of a by the Law of Breves Breviantes in Plautus, e. g.
quid a bello portat ?, will not be a case of the shortening of a naturally long
;
vowel by this law
(see ch.
iii.
34).
14. Af. Cicero's words are (Orat. xlvii. 158) una praepositio est af/ eaque
nunc tantum in accepti tabulis manet, ne his quidem omnium, in reliquo
sermone mutata est nam a-movit dicimus et ab-egit et abs-tulit/ ut
jam nescias 'a' neverum sit an <ab,' abs.' Quid si etiam au-fugit,' quod
ab-fugit turpe visum est et a-fer noluerunt, aufugit et aufer maluerunt. Quae praepositio praeter haec duo verba nullo alio in verbo reperietur.
Velius Longus (60. 13 K.), who refers to this passage of Cicero, gives as an
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
now obsolete use of af in receipts, af Longo (his own name);

Festus (19. 31 Th.) mentions a/volant as an actual form used by an
ancient writer. On an inscription of Amiternum (Not. Scav. Oct. 1891) we
illustration of the
Paul.
have
afvinieis,
(C. I. L.
af villa (beside ab castello, ab segete] on the Epistula ad Tiburtes

c. too B. c.) afuobeis
on the milestone of Popillius (i. 551,
;
201, of
i.
of 132 B. c., from Lucania) af Capua (besides ab Regio} on a bilingual (Greek and
on an inscription
Latin) inscription ascribed to c. 81 B. c. (i. 587) af Lyco
;
of Praeneste
15.
(i.
Ad,
1143) af micro,
and
at, to, I.-Eur.
so on.
*ad (O.
Ir. ad,
'
e.
at-om-aig adigit
Goth, at-tiuha with
g.
ad me agit/ Goth, at, Engl. at ; cf.

lit.
Lat. ad-duco. Goth, at-baira with Lat. ad-fero)
me/
'
is a different word
from the Conjunction at, I.-Eur. *at (Goth, a]?- in a]?-]?an, but '),
though often confused with it in Roman spelling (ch. ii.
76).
On the old form ar, e. g. arfuenmt^ arvorsum, due to the phonetic
1 1 2.
This
change of d to an r-sound before f, v, see ch. iv.
as
in
in
which
Umbro-Oscan
the
Ace.
Latin,
Preposition,
governs
is found
augmented with the particle *s(e) in Oscan, e.g. az
hurtum'ad hortum' but also ad, e. g. adpud adquo' 'quoad/ idad
ad id/ In Umbrian we have ad, e. g. ad-fertur ( adfertor,'
'
'
'
adputrati
arbitratu
'
(ch. iv.
z),
postfixed
asam-ad ad aram/ written ar- in arnipo

'
to
Nouns,
10. 3).
e.
g.
'
quoad
16. Ambi-, around, on each side, I.-Eur.*ambhi (Gk. a^fyi; cf.

O. Ind. abhi, Gaul, ambi-, O.Ir. imme, imb-, W.am-, O. Engl. ymb,
O. SI. obi-), a Locative of the same stem as I.-Eur. *ambho, ( both
'
pp
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
578
[Chap. IX.
cf. O. Ind. ubha-, Goth, bai, baj-5)?s, Lith.

in Latin compounds in the forms, (i)
appears
abii,
amb- before a vowel, e. g. amb-arvdle (sacrificium) quod arva
(Gk.
Lat. ambo
a/u<6o,
O.
SI. oba),
ambiat victima' (Serv. ad Eel.

circum terminos urbis
c
amb-ustus
77), amb-wrbiales (hostiae) 'quae
iii.
Romae ducebantur
circumustus
'
4.
(ib.
17),
'
(Paul. Test. 4. 15 Th.),
whence by
false
analogy
comb-nstus, instead of *com-ustu (unless this rather represents

f
circuitus' (ib. 4. 18); (2) am- before
co-amb-ustus), amb-ltus
'
a consonant, e. g. am-ter-mini (oratores), a phrase of Cato's qui

Macr.
circa terminos provinciae manent
(Paul. Fest. 13. 9 Th.
'
i.
14.
Gl. Philox.), am-jrfector,
'
quod circumquorum ager viam
am-pendices
'
'
(Paul. Fest. 16. 3 Th.), am-segetes

Charis. 231.
K. seems to quote a similar
tangit' (ib. 16. I
for
The
form
ambi- in compounds bears
am-wio
am-jicio.
amfmes),
'
in ambl-dens (ovis)
the sense of f both
quae superioribus et
pendebant
'
inferioribus est dentibus'
(Paul. Fest. 4. 9 Th.), amli-lustrum
ambos censores post quinquennium lustrare

'
civitatem (' Serv/ ad Aen. i. 283), ambi-vium. In Umbro-Oscan
the word appears with an r-suffix (cf. inter), Osc amfr-et
ambiunt,' Umbr. ainbr-etuto
ambiunto/ but also e. g. Osc.
am-nud circuitu/ am-vianud vico,' Umbr. an-ferener cir-
'
quod non
licebat nisi
'
'
'
'
'
cumferendi.'
'
An-, a curtailment of I.-Eur. *ana, on (Zend ana, Gk.

ava, Goth, ana, Engl. on, O. SI. vu for *on) (cf. I.-Eur. *anu),
'
17.
(O. Ind. anu, Zend aim) may appear in an-helus (also derived from
the root an-, to breathe,' whence animus, &c.), an-qulro [by some
explained as *amb(i)-quird\, an-tennae, an-testari (or for *ante'
tennae, *ante-testari, ch.
certain in
'
getuzet
iii.
Umbro-Oscan,
proposuerunt,'
13, p. 176).
e.g. Osc.
Its presence is
ava-FaKT
Umbr. an-tentu
'
more
consecravit,' an-
'intendito,'
am-pentu
'
impendito/ unless indeed it is here some variety of Lat. in, as

an- the Umbro-Oscan negative prefix
(ch. iv.
81) is of Lat. in-.
'
AntS, before, I.-Eur. *anti(O. Ind. anti, opposite, near/
'
Gk. azm, opposite, instead of, Goth, and, to wards/ Engl. an-swer,
Lith. ant, on '), a Locative Sing, of some stem connected with
18.
Lat. antes, rows, O. Ind. anta-,

of which
Gk.
'
vicinity,
end/ Goth, and-eis, 'end/

In Oscan
avra, opposite (cf. avrr\v\ is another case.
PREPOSITIONS.
17-20.]
579
the Preposition (governing the Ace. as in Latin) appears without

the final short vowel (this loss of a final i is common in Oscan),
(
e.g. antpunttram ante pontem;'but in Latin, though poste was
reduced to post (see below), ant is not written for ante [in Plaut.
Rud. 509, if the reading of the MSS. is right, we must pronounce
ant(e)positast, a quadrisyllable
:
On
quam quae Thyestae quondam antepositast Tereo.

With the particle *de
antenna and antestor, see above].
appended, as in postid,
545 sed
Plaut. Trin.
patientia), antid-liac
required
is
the form antid- in O. Lat. antid-eo
(e. g.
Campans genus Multo Surorum iam antidit

(used by Plautus when three syllables are
by the metre, antekacloeing a
dissyllable
cf. antidit,
&c.
anteit, &c.), antul-ea (Liv. xxii. 10. 6 in the Vow of the Ver
Sacrum ; antea is not found in Plautus,, and only once in Terence,
viz. Andr.
In antid- the -i of I.-Eur. *anti, not being final,
52).
and
does not sink to

19.
e (cf . anti-stes, &c., ch.
Apud, which
is
iii.
also spelt aput,
39).
seems to be the I.-Eur.
Preposition *apo (of which Lat. ab is a curtailment ; see above),

augmented by the particle *d(e), or *t(i), and must have been
An old form apor,

originally *apo-d, or *apo-t (cf. Dor. TTOTI).
with that change of -d to an r-sound (before/, v) seen in arfue-runt,
ar~vorsum } &c. (ch. iv.
112), is quoted by Paul. Fest. 19. 34 Th.
(cf.
apur fnem on a Marsic
by Mar. Viet.
sed, see ch.
ii.
Zvet. /. 7. /. 45 ; apur is quoted

the
9. 17 K.).
spelling aput, like at, set for ad,
In
Oscan
76.
up, op (Lat. ob) is used with the
inscr.,
On
Abl. in the sense of Lat. apud, e. g. op tovtad

up eisud sakaraklud apud id sacellum.'
apud populum/
20. Circum, circa, circiter.
Cimim, around,
is
the
Ad-
verbial Ace. Sg. of circus (Gk. KpUos, a ring ; cf O. Engl. bring,

with nasalization), which had in O. Lat. the sense of class, circulus
.
(Dub.
Nom.
example, by
573.
cf.
above, ch. v.
quot liina circos annuo in cursu
In the early
24),
and
is
Accius of the moon's orbit (Trag* 100 R.)
used, for
institit.
literature circum is the only form,
whether Adverb
or Preposition, but in class. Lat. a byform circa appears, first

found in Cicero (who uses it in three passages of the Verrine
orations, but afterwards seems to
have discarded
p p 2
it),
possibly never
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
580
in Caesar, but
much
affected
[Chap. IX.
Circa
by Livy.
a formation on
is
the type of supra, extra, &c., perhaps originally employed with

verbs like esse (Cicero's three examples of the words are Verr. II.
:
i.
51. 133 canes esse circa se multos

iv.
sehaberet;
48. 107
i.
Henna, quam
48. 12,6 canibus, quos circa

circa lacus sunt plurimi),
suitable only for verbs of
owing to a feeling that circum was

motion, e.g. legates circum civitates mittere, 'to send ambassadors
'
circum urbem, to go a circuit of the city
Circiter, an adverbial formation like breviter,
a tour of the
'
states,' ire
(A. L. L. v. 295).
O. Lat. amiciter (see
came
i),
to be restricted
to the logical
'
g. Plaut. Cist. 677 loca haec circiter.

about/ almost/
The form circo appears in the Adverb id-circo, as circa in quocirca, with the same logical sense (cf. Osc. amnud, because of,
sense of
'
e.
'
in egm[as tovti\cas amnud 'rei publicae causa/ an adverbial Abl.

Sg. Neut. of amno-, a formation with the suffix -no- from the
Preposition
am- [Lat. am-,
ambi-~\, as
comno-
'
'
comitium from the
Prep. com-).
Cis, citra, on this side (cf .Umb. cimu, simo, retro'?), are formed
from the I. -Eur. pronominal root ki-,' this' (Gk. -/a of oL/a,7roAAaKi
'
Goth, hi-na,
'
Engl. he, Lith. szis, O. SI. si), exactly as their

on that side, from the I. -Eur. pronominal root
this,'
opposites uls, ultra,

that (ch. vii. 1 3), the
'
'
ol-,
(p.
573
on nls for
the suffix -tero- (ch. v.
by the addition of the particle *s(e)

by
The Adverb citro (Abl. Sg. Neut. or
first
56), the second (an Abl. Sg. Fern.)
*oll, see
16).
Masc.) corresponds to citrd as ultro
(e.
g. ultro citroque) to ultra.
Clam, clanculum. Clam, an Adverbial Ace. Sg. Fern. (?)

from' the root /el-,
to hide (Lat. celo, occulo, &c.), had in
21.
'
'
O. Lat. a byform clam-de, clande (written clade in the MSS. of

Placidus 15. 32 G. ; but cf. quamde from quam, ch. x. j i), whence
was formed the Adj.

cattim in the
MSS.
pro clam, ut
'
more
form
nis
clandestlnus.
'
pro nobis,
difficult to explain.
to the
Another O. Lat. form written
of Paul. Fest. 33. 6
Analogy
of
'
('
callim
sam pro suam,
'
antiqui dicebant
'
im pro eum)
is
(Should we
palam ?
read calam, and refer the

It may be merely the coinage
of some grammarian to support his etymology of

Clam,
clam).
which governs the Ace. always in Plaut. and Ter., and perhaps
never the Abl. at any period of Latin (Langen, Beitr. p, 230),
has in the Comedians another, apparently a Diminutive form,
PREPOSITIONS.
21-25.]
581
elanculum (but cf procul,

used as a Preposition by Terence,
2),
elanculum
Cf
the glosses clanculae c absconsae'
AdelpJi. 52
patres.
.
(C. G. L. v. 277. 58); elanculum
occultum'
C6m-, (cum), with, and co-
22.
I.-Eur.
'
*/om and */o
or
(?) (with palatal
(e.
278.
(ib.
for
cogo
g.
i).
with guttural k
co-ago),
(O. Ir.
Umbr.
Osc.
com-, co,
cord, con, co-,
com, -co, co-) is in
cyf-, cy,
written
quom (Bersu, Gutturale, p. 42), like the
early inscriptions
Relative Adverb quom^ when, because quo- had the same sound as
?)
W.
co- (ch. iv.
The o
37).
the word (ch.
of com
became u
and before certain
in the
unaccented use of
consonants (ch. ii.

iv.
20),
22), and cum became the recognized spelling of the simple Preposition, though in compounds, e. g. com-es, the 6>-form was retained.
On the form co-, e. g. co-eo (Quint,

and the like, see ch. ii.
61, 65.
com-
in
(cf.
Umbr. com
'
prinvatir
postfixed in the sense of

aram,' veris-co (opposed to
asa-ku,
hoc
'
'
Tabula Bantina
is
juxta
at the gates.
23.
from
Osc. com, with, governs the Abl., and is

cum privato on the
compreivatnd, conpreivatud
Umbr. kum, com
Bantine
O. Lat. co-ventionid,
6. 17),
Its original difference
not certain.
is
prefixed
verir),
i.
initial
fecerit,' is
legatis
but
'),
'
apud,'
juxta,'
verir
pre
e.
g.
and post
Osc. contrud in the phrase on the

contrud exeic fefacust si quis contra
followed by the Adverb (Locative) exeic, as Lat.
Contra
Law
cum
(see
I, 4).
svae pis
arvorsum in the S. C. Bacch. by the Adverb (Abl. Fern.) ead

It is Abl. of an
sei ques esent, quei aruorsmn ead fecisent.
O-stem
24.
(cf
Lat. contro-versia), as contra of an A-stem.
Coram,
in presence of (not a Preposition
till
Cicero's
time), seems to be connected with os, Gen. oris, the face, perhaps
being an Adverbial Ace. Sg. Fein, of a stem *coso- (*cdro-), comof the preposition com- (cum) and this noun (cf. O. Ind.
Incoram with a Gen., e. g. incoram omnium, is found
saksad).
in Apuleius.
pounded
down
de
from, concerning (Fal. de in the phrase
di
W.
cf
zenatuo sententiad, Zvet. /. 7. 7. 70) O. Ir. dl, O.
O. Ir. di-mor, ' very great,' with Lat. de-magis, &c. corresponds
25. De,
to Osc. dat
(e.
g. dat senateis tanginud
'
de senatus sententia'').
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
582
particle -t(i) affixed, as per-t, Lat. per

-d, in which case *dad may be an
which seems to have the

(
3^)?
un l ess the
stand for
-t
Ablative (Lat. de for *ded

-d or
(with final
(cf.
The Umbrian Preposition is da

Umbrian fashion), if da-etom
?).
-t dropped in
on the Eugubine Tables

Osc. da-did
[Chap. IX.
(vi.
28) stands for Lat. demptum

dedicavit ').
dedat,' da-dikatted
'
most naturally referred to some byform

two (Goth, tvis-, e. g. tvis-standan, to
With the w the same
w
the
(see ch. iv.
71).
separate"'), wanting
formation expressed the Numeral Adverb *dwis [O. Ind. dvis,
Gk. b(F)is, M. H. G. zwis], and is in Latin bis (ch. iv. 68). Before
a vowel dls- becomes, by the phonetic law of Latin, dir- (ch. iv.
148), e. g. cKr-imo, and before voiced consonants (see ch.iv. 151)
26. DIs-, apart,
is
of the root dwo-, dwi-,
cli-)
'
'
'
e.g. fli-moveo (dis-mota on the S. C. Bacch., C.I. L.

27.
Endo.
O.
Ir.
ind-.,
e.
'
ind-riuth,
i.
196).
I attack/
(Cf
under the form indu, the i and u being apparently weakening of e and o due to the unaccented use of
Gaul, ande-
g.
also
?),
It corresponds in meaning to in (both with

the Preposition.
Abl. and Ace.), and was in classical Latin replaced by in, e. g.
class,
im-perdtor, O.
Lat.
class,
indu-perator,
in-gredi,
O. Lat.
an I.-Eur. *en-do (Gk. eV5o-0i,

indu-gredi.
tvbo-OeV) Mov), compounded of the Prep. *en (Lat. in) and the
Prep. *do (cf. Lat, do-nec ; O. Ir. do, Engl. to, Lith. do, O. SI.
It seems to represent
do), the last
*d(e) (Gk.
element being connected with the Adverbial particle

The final -6 has been preserved from
bofjiov-be).
becoming -e in Latin (ch. iii. 37) by the frequent use of the

word as the first element in a compound. (So *pro remains pro
in Latin
and does not
compounds
\fcQpro-jiciscor, &c.).
I.-Eur. *endo-
Endo and
and I.-Eur. *en- are seen in

The form
indu.
endo occurs,
quoted by Cicero, in his De RepuUica

soli caeli
in a clause of the
struit,
manum
prosecutor
may
si
maxima
XII Tables
endo
in the epitaph of Ennius,
(ap. Sen. Epp. 108. 34)
est,
porta patet,
(ap. Fest. 452.
6 Th.)
si
caluitur,
pedemue
he deceives, or attempts to run away, the

arrest him,' a clause alluded to by Lucilius, xvii. 10 M.
<
iacito,
if
non
ferto
e. g.
Celtic.
endo plagas caelestum ascendere cuiquam
si fas
mi
become *pre } owing to

Traces of the same confusion of
in unaccented use
it,
capito, inquit,
manum,
eum,
et si caluitur,
endo
PREPOSITIONS.
26-29.]
583
and in other laws, and is one of the archaisms used by Cicero in drawing up
his code of laws (Legg. ii. 8. 19) ; it is employed too by Lucretius (vi. 890) endo
mari
[cf.
peiOpov
amoena
the glosses
endoclusa fyKfKXeia^vr) ; endo festdbat; endo rivum Kara

ii. 61. 35); endogenia (-ua ?) 'naturaliter
endodicarit ftrjvvaci (C. G. L.
'
'
'
endoriguum irriguum
;
in a line of Ennius, referring to
indotuetur
ibi
The form indo- appears

(C. G. L. v. 193. 25)].
Romulus and Remus (Ann. 59 M.)
:
lupus femina. conspicit omnis
in Ennius, Ann. 298 M. indu foro lato sanctoque senartu

(cf. Lucil. inc. 17 indu foro) ; in Lucr. v. 102 nee jacere indu manus (cf. ii.
1096 indu manu), as well as in the compounds induperator Enn., Lucr., indupedio Lucr., indugredior Lucr., &c. By the time of Plautus the word seems to
the form indu,
e. g.
have dropped out of ordinary usage, for it occurs in his plays only in compounds like indaudio (Terence knows only in-audio), ind-ipiscor (cf. class, indand though it occurs at the end of Varro's Res
tgeo, indi-gena, ind-oles, &c.)
ille inde endo suam domum, nos nostram, the phrase is
Rusticae (iii. 17. 10)
a quotation from Ennius' curious experiment in language, mentioned by
Ausonius (Techn. 18) and others endo suam do, with do, an apocopated form
of domum, after the type of Homer's 5u>.
;
28. Erga, ergo.

Erga, originally local (e. g. Plaut. True.
tonstricem Suram Nouistin nostram quae erga aedem
sesed habet?, if the MSS. reading be right), must be connected
405
with
ergo,
on account
in O.
of,
Lat. a preposition or rather
postposition, governing the Genitive, e. g. funeris ergo, XII Tab.

Whether the two words have been differentiated on the type of
whether they came originally

Ergo has been
impossible to say.
of
the
and
the Abl. Sg.
as
a
&
Preposition
compound
explained
to stretch '), meaning
of a stem *rego- (from the root reg-,
ultra and
from two
and
^dtr^, intrcl
intro, or
different stems, it
is
'
direction/ so that its change of meaning would resemble that

of German wegen (originally von wegen).
Erga might similarly
It is not restricted to
represent e *regd, like e regime, opposite.
the expression of friendly feeling in Plautus, e.g. Pseud. 1020

me sit, ut erga ilium fuit; Cas. 618 aut
ne malus item erga
quod ego umquam erga Uenerem inique fecerim.

29.
O.
Ex,
Ir. ess-,
W.
ec-,
es-
Gaul, ex-,
I.-Eur. *eks (Gk. e
Lith. isz ?) appears to be a compound of
out
e,
cf
of.
a Preposition *ek and the particle *s(e), as Gk. ch//-, Lat.

append the same particle to *ap, a curtailment of *apo (
abs,
12).
In Latin compounds the Preposition often appears before the

/ in the form ec- in MSS. (cf. Ter. Scaur. 26. 14 K.
Ter.
effatus, non exfatus nee ecfatus/ ut quidam putaverunt
letter
'
'
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
584
Maur.
1.
[Chap. IX.
949 K. muto vel partem prioris, si fit hirtum, syllabae,

dicam, vel illud, 'hoc tibi effectum dabo '), e.g.
ut
'ecfer'
ii .
p. 870), often
ecfdri (for examples, see Neue,
et (see Class. Rev. v. 295 ; Fleck. Jahrb.
to
haec
and
to
corrupted
is often a corruption also of ex owing to the
ecfodio,
ecfero,
(Et
1890, p. 771).
fact that the symbols for these words in minuscule writing were
t
This
very similar.)
ec-
may
of ex before/, as e of ex before
e-miUo]
Lat. e
(e.
cf se-decim),
g. e-cluco
m (e. g.
Corresponding to
151).
se-mestris), &c. (ch. iv.
find in Osc. ee-stint (apparently with a different sound
e,
which
is
in Osc.
e(ve)hiandarum/ Umbr.
(see ch.
cf.
we
from I.-Eur.
'
be merely a phonetic development
ii.
e.
i, i,
ehiato-
'
g. tigud lege
'),
evehiato-,' easa
'
eehiianasum
ex
ara,'
&c.
6).
Extra. (O. Lat. extrad cf. the S. C. Bacch., C.I.L. i. 196

exstrad urbem) is an Abl. Sg. Fern, of an extension of ex by
the suffix -t(e)ro- (ch. v.
Oscan
16), like in-tra, ci-tra, ul-tra, &c.
;
ehtrad (with hi for ct^ as in Uhtavis, the Oscan form of Octavius),

O. Ir. echtar ma}' represent an original stem *ek(s)-tero- or
*ek-tero-.
30.
In, in, the unaccented
form of O. Lat. en
[cf.
enque,
but indltod on the (restored) Col. Rostrata (C. I. L, i. 195)] is

I.-Eur. *en (Gk. h, O. Ir. in, W. yn, Goth, in, Lith. J).
The
same form
senses,
is
i) in,
used in Latin and other languages with the two

(2) into [whereas in Greek the second is distinguished
by the addition
of the particle *s(e), hs, Att. ei's], and appears

formed without the case-suffix -i (ch. vi. 37).
to be a Locative case,
(The Greek byform hi shows this case-suffix ; but cf. above, 1 1).
Before labial consonants in became im by the Latin phonetic law
e.
g. im-pleo, im-mitto, imbello (in war), C. I. L. iii.
the derivative Prepositions endo, intery see
27, 32.
Umbr.
have
with
and
Loc.
Ace.
en,
(in),
(not Abl.) the
two senses of Lat. in, but are postfixed, e. g. Osc. exaisc-en ligis
(ch. iv.
4835, &c.
Osc. en
1
78),
On
hisce in legibus,' Pel. eite uus
'
pritrom-e,
do ye go past or
forward,' Umbr. arvam -en in arvum,' arven

'in fanis.'
Osc. -en with the Abl. imad-en
'
eisuc-en ziculud
'
'
in arvo/ fesner-e
ab ima (parte)/
ab eo die (*dieculo)/ which has the sense of
Lat. ab, has been referred to Lat. inde

(but see
'
'
10. 6).
PREPOSITIONS.
30-35.]
585
Infra (infera, C.I.L. i. 1166), an Abl. Sg. Fern, like

supra, citrd, intrd, connected with the Adj. inferus (on which see
31.
ch. v.
6).
32. Inter, between (O. Ind. antar, O. Ir. etar

e. g. O. Ind.
antar-chid- 'inter-scindo '), is formed from in by the addition of the
;
i6),like interior (cf. introîntra), as ex-tero-,
suffix -tero- (see ch.v.
The Oscan form is anter (with Ace., but once with

Abl.-Loc. Plur.), the Umbrian form is anter, ander (governing
&c. from ex.
the Ace.), both with an- corresponding to Lat. in-, the Preposition,
as to Lat. in, the Negative, e. g. Umbr. an-takro- ' in-tegro-/
Intrd
33. Intra, intus.

class, contra
(while intro is
an Abl. Sg.
is
an AbL Sg. Neut.
Fern, like
extra,
like Osc. contrud,
Lat. contro-versia) (cf. Osc. Entra-, the name of a goddess).

Intus (Gk. ez>-ros with the I.-Eur. affix -tos, implying usually
Adverb and a Preposition
motion from,
i) wavers between an
in such a phrase as VirgiPs tali intus
within
'
or
'
within such temple
'
templo,
in such temple,
'
(cf Lucr.
.
vi.
798).
34. Juxta, which is first used as a Preposition by Caesar, is

Abl. Sg. Fern, of a stem *juxto-, whether this be P. P. P. of a verb
*juxo formed from jungo as viso from video, quaeso from quaero
(ch. viii.
33. 4). or a Superlative with the I.-Eur. Superlative
suffix -isto-
(Gk.
TrAe-io-ros, &c.).
early as Livius Andronicus (Trag.
The Adv. juxtim
is
found as
R.).
35. 6b, I.-Eur. *op(i), apparently a variety of *epi (Gk. em,

'
*
on, to, O7ri-o-0ey, behind, O. Ind. api, by/ Lith. api-, around ;
'
Lith. ap-szvesti,
to make light/ with Lat. ob-caeco, to make
is in Oscan op
dark),
(with the sense of Lat. apud, governing the
cf.
Abl.,
id
e.
g. op tovtad
sacellum'),
compounds
'
'
apud populum,' up eisud sakaraklud apud
and often
retains
-p in Latin
its
optenui on
like
spelling
in
op-tmeo (e.g.
Scipio Epitaph,
38 cf. Quint, i. 7. 7), op-erio, though in the simple
word the Latin usage substituted the Media for the Tenuis as
C. I.
L.
i.
the final consonant (cf ab for ap, sub for sup, and see ch. ii. 76).
In classical Latin it has the sense of 'before/ e.g. ob oculos
.
ponere, to describe, or
ture
it
on account of
'
had other shades of meaning;
but in the
cf.
earlier litera-
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
586
[Chap. IX.
ob praepositio alias ponitur pro circum, ut cum dicimus urbem

'
'
alias pro ad, ut Ennius
obvallari/
obsideri,'
.
ob
Romam
noctu legiones ducere coepit
interpreted ob Italiam in Virgil, Aen.

juxta Italiam/ with the old sense of ob ob enim
233
veteres pro juxta ponebant.
(This variety of meanings has been
ob represents, not only I.-Eur.
that
Lat.
the
theory
explained by
Servius
us that
tells
as
i.
*epi, *opi,
many
but also an *ebhi, seen in O. Ind. abhi.)
By
the addi-
tion of the particle *s(e), as ab became abs (e.g. abs te, abstineo),
so ob became obs, a form occasionally found in compounds before
dicebant antiqui, quod nunc est

Th. ' avide trudant' Test.
t-j e.g. obstinet (Fest. 228. 6 Th. o.

ostendit), obsimdant (Paul. Fest. 221. 3
220. 1 4) (so Umbr. os-tendu
'
ostendito ').
(On omitto, see ch. iii.
34.)
Palam, like its opposite, clam, an Ace. Sg. Fern, (but

connected with the Plautine
i) of some stem, perhaps
36.
see
verb dispalesco (Bacch.
quam
046)
periisse suauiust
illud flagitium uolgo dispalescere
(from the root of pdlari, to wander, be dispersed abroad). Others

connect it with palma, the hand, and make it mean literally ( in
the hand/
Besides the Adv. palam we have jpro-palam, as early
as Plautus, but palam
is
not a Prep,
till
the Augustan Age.
Penes (governing the Ace., usually of a person), represome case of pemis, -oris N., or a kindred stem, from the
37.
sents
root pen- of
vix,
some
i),
pene-tro,
Dor.
&c.,
a Loc.
a suffixless Locative
PL
according to others,
(cf
ales),
a similar explanation of mcissi-m (ch. ix.
4), semissi-,
mox (cf. 3). The final syllable may have been prevented
according
who
pem-tus
to
offer
from being weakened to -is by the fact that the stress of the
voice fell on it in the common phrases penes-me, penes-te, penesnos,
penes-vos, &c.
(ch.
iii.
a.
3).
Penes
is
used only with
Pronouns in Plautus.
38. Per, through (Goth, fair-, Lith. per), connected with
I transport, bring or pass through (O. Ind. pr-,
I.-Eur. *pero,
'
'
Gk. Treipco, Tretpa, Lat. ex-perior, &c.),

cf.
to
Osc.
corresponds
per- of peremust, Fut. Pft. of a verb used
O.
SI.
perjj;
PREPOSITIONS.
36-38.]
587
apparently in the old sense of Lat. peremo (Fest. 266. 31 Th.

peremere Cincius in libro de Verbis Priscis ait significare idem,
'
'
at Cato in libro qui est de Re Militari pro vitiare

is
est), though the commoner form of the Oscan Preposition
the
suffix
-ti
comono
temest
of
Gk.
pert (with
irporC,
per
n), e.g.
quod prohibere
usus
'
'
eomitia peremet/ am-pert, c not beyond (used like Lat. duntaooat,

'
'
and to
four times
(cf Lat. sem-per,
7),
7)> petiro-pert,
.
Umbr.
per, pert, e.g. per-etom

peremptum/
times/ which with the Abl. has the sense of Lat.
'
per
'
'
The
pro nomine.'
trio-per,
three
pro, e.g.
nomne-
intensive sense of per- in per-magnu%,
per-quam, &c. (often separated from the qualified word, e.g. per
pol quam paucos reperias, Ter. ffec. 58 ; hence per-taevu& did not
become per-ffisus,
'
seen in Lith. per-saldus, very

'
sweet
cf Gk. Trept-pJKrjs', very long, &c. (cf. Engl. c through
'
and thorough '). Again "Lab. per- approaches the usual sense of
ch.
iii.
23),
is
'
Gk.
of
'
The sense
about, around, \npertego, per ungo, pervolUo.
'
viam
trans
Osc.
viam/
past,'
am-pert, pert
beyond (cf
ircpi,
'
'
Umbr.
'
pert
spinia
trans spinam'(?)) appears in per-go, &c.
and with the implication of wrong or injury (cf. Gk. irapa-paivw,

irap-6iJ,vviu), mper-jurus [from which pejero, perjero (see Georges,
Lex. Wortf.
to
s.
v.),
can hardly be separated, though the
explain], per-do,
per-fidus,
and of
difference
in
c is
hard
peregre
thus appears that per represents a considerable variety of

meanings, and this variety is increased if we take into account
It
Umbro-Oscan
behalf
(tio
For besides the sense of
per, pert.
of, seen in
Umbr. nomne-per,
ocre-per
Fisiu,
subocau
&c. in the
tota-per lovina,
Lat.j0f0, on
Eugubine Liturgy:
nomne-per, erar
erer
'
te pro arce Fisia, pro populo Iguvino,

nomne-per
pro ejus (M.) nomine, pro ejus (F.) nomine, subvoco,' estu esunu
.
f etu fratrus-per Atiiettie
'
ista sacra f acito pro f ratribus Atiediis '),

once written -pert in the phrase
Petruniapert natine pro
Petronia natione/ it has the local sense of Latin pro-, forward,
'
in front, in the words, Mmbr.per-ne, per-naio-, opposed to post-ne

(Lat. pone} behind), post-naio-, Osc. Perna-, the name of a god-
dess [cf. I.-Eur. *per- in

*per-ut(i), from *wetos-, a year,' O. Ind.
in
the
former
parut,
year/ Gk. Trepwt, Dor. irepyn). The reason
of this is that the I.-Eur. root per- produced a large number of
'
'
Prepositions, representing different case-forms, &c., *peri Loc.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
588
ros Gen. (O. Ind. puras,

cf para, Gk.
Ind.
para, beyond
Trapos), *perm (O.
f
Lat. perem- of peren-die, Osc. perum dolom mallom sine
(O. Ind. pari,

'
around/ Gk.
'
itepi),
*p
'
before/ Gk.
Trepa
[Chap. IX.
'
The weak grades of the root, pr-, pr-,

Goth,
seen in Gk. napd,
faura, faur, Engl. be-fore, appear in Lat.
this be
por- of por-tentum, &c., Umbr. pur-titu, pur-ditom (unless
dolo malo
'),
and
so on.
merely a metathesis of pro], and in Lat. pro, Umbr. pro, pru,

Osc. pro, pru, as well as in Lat. prae from *prai (Pel. prai-,
Osc. prae, Umbr. pre), perhaps a Dative form (cf. Gk. Trapai,
O. Ind. pare).
few Compounds, po-situs, po-luwith (Goth, mi)?, Germ, mit,

'
retained
English
only in the compound mid-
39. P6-, retained only in a

brum, porceo, &c., as Teut. *mij?,
like
wife
Gk.
/êra)
'
(see
in
is
under
ab,
'
'
2).
40. Post, pone.

Post, behind, from *posM, O. Lat. poste,
the
posti-d (with
particle *d(e)), adds the suffix -ti (
n) to
I.-Eur. *pos (Lith. pas, &c.),
'
which seems
to be derived
from
'
*po- (Lith. pa-, under/ O. SI. po, about '), a curtailment of *apo
In certain collocations the -t was dropped by the
(see
12).
Latin phonetic law (ch. iv. 157), e.g. C. I. L. i. 1454 postempus ;
of Virg. Aen.
res Asiae,
non
Marius Victorinus says (22.

K.): posquam
and this pos might be further reduced,
postquam
iii.
'
(before m, &c., ch. iv.

151) to po-, e.g. po-merium (so spelt, not
'
dictum,
post-moerium
pomoerium), quod erat post murum
Varro L. L. v. 143.
Pone (Plaut., &c.) adds the

opposed to perne
Umbrian
e.g. post
post
verir
cf.
suffix -ne
1 1
pustnaio-, pusnao- Adj., opposed to pernaio-).
is
joined with the same case &spre (L&k.prae),
Treblanir and pre verir Treblanir, in O. Umbr.
pusveres Treplanes and preveres Treplanes, and similarly Osc.

pust f eihuis post fines/ while Osc. post exac corresponds to Lat.
'
posthac.
In Umbro-Oscan we find a Preposition postin governing the

Ace. case with the sense of Lat. secundum, e.g. Umbr. pusti
'
kastruvuf, according to their lands,' Osc. pustin slagim, accord*
ing to the locality
(?).'
PREPOSITIONS.
39-43.]
589
Poste, posti-d, pos, po-. Poste, which shows the regular change of
e (i not final is retained, e. g. posti-d, see ch. iii.
39), is found
in a fine line of Ennius, Ann. 244 M., an exhortation to rowers
41.
-I
when
final to
poste recumbite, uestraque.pectora pellite tonsis,
frequently in Plautus, e. g. Asin. 915 (see Ritschl, Opusc. ii. 541 sqq.), and probably in Terence, Eun. 493 (see A. L. L. ii. 140). Its reduction to post is like
that of animate to animal, neque to nee, &c. (ch. iii. 36).
The Adverb postid is not
unfrequent in Plautus
(e. g.
postid locorum, Poen. 144, &c.), as also postid-ed (cf.
compounded with the Adverbial Abl.Sg. Fern, of is( 10. 4)

(e. g. postidea loci, Stick. 758, &c.), and has on account of its exclusively adverbial
use been regarded as a compound of post(e} with id, the (adverbial) Ace. Sg.
antid-ed, antid-hac),
Neut. of is (cf. post-ed, ad id locorum, Sail., Liv.), though this explanation requires
us to see in postidea, antidea,&c. a pleonastic repetition of the pronouns, post-icl-ed,
ant-id-ed. Cicero (Orat. xlvii. 157
cf. Vel. Long. 79. 3 K.) says that he preferred
posmeridianas (quadrigas) to postmeridianas, while Quintilian (ix. 4. 39) seems
to mention the form pomeridiem.
(On the spelling pos for post in MSS. of
;
Plautus, see Ritschl, Opusc. ii. 549 of Virgil, see Ribbeck, Prolegg. p. 442
of other authors, see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.).
The evidence points to Lat.
pos- being not I.-Eur. *pos,but a syncopated form of I.-Eur. *pos-ti (see Stolz,
;
Beitr. p. 21).
42. Prae, before, I.-Eur. *prai (Lith. pre cf O. Ir. re or

with
a dropped final nasal).
In O. Lat. also pri, according to
ria,
Paul. Fest. 282. 27 Th. (cf. pris-cus, pns-tmiis, primus for *pris.
',
mo-, Pelign. Prisma-, pri-stafalacirix
ably I.-Eur. *pri (Lith.
pri,
O.
'), probconnected
prae-stabulatrices
SI.
pri,
Goth,
fri-),
before/ and with Gk. Trapo?, O. Ind. puras,

Goth,
xvii. 17), possibly a Dative
faura,
pura,
Engl. be-fore (B.
formation from the root per- (see above,
The Preposition
38).
with I.-Eur.
'
"*pro,
is
found with the same use as in Latin, but with prominence of
the idea
'
languages
before
'
(often for Lat. ante),
in
the
Pel. prai-cim, Osc. prai, prae-sentid
Umbro-Oscan
'
praesente
(with
the usual sense of Lat. praesens ; in the Columna Rostrata we
have praesens in its older sense
dictatored
praesente[d]
;
'
ol[or]om, 'being in command,' C.I.L. i. 195), prae-fucus praefectus/ Umbr. pre verir Treblanir ante portas Treblanas/ pre-pa,
'
'
priusquam,'
lit.
'
'
prae-quam,' pre-habia
praebeat/
43. Praeter, past, except, is formed from the preceding by

means of the suffix -tero- like the Adverbs brevi-ter, &c. ( 2), as
from I.-Eur. *pr! is formed Pelignian pritro- (in an epitaph,
Zvet.
terum
7. 1. 1.
in
').
13 eite uus pritrome

(Cf.
Umbr.
ite
vos praeter
pretro-
prior.')
'
'
quasi
prae-
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
590
[Chap. IX.
44. Pro, por-.

Pro, before, forth, is I.-Eur. *pro (O. Ind.
used like the Greek augment with preIr.
O.
Gk.
ro-,
Trpo,
pra,
The long vowel
terite tenses, Goth, fra-, Lith. pra-, O. SI. pro).
seems to be the vowel of the Oscan preposition (or I.-Eur. *pru,

c
Gk.
quam,' and
e.
'
prohibuerit/ pruter-pan priushave been I.-Eur. (Gk. TT/XO-I, early, O. H. G.
TrpvTavis, &c.),
may
g. pru-hipid
These Oscan forms suggest that

pru-jam, forth ').
not
was
Lat. pro
originally *prod an Abl. form (which would be
in Oscan *prud-, not pru-) so that the prod- of prod-est, prod-ire,
*
f ruo, Lett,
may
be a form augmented by the particle *-d(e) like anti-d-,

In Late Latin the form prode (cf Charis. 236.
posti-d, r-ed-, &c.
29 K.)
is
common,
especially with esse (cf. Charis. 237. 8 K.,
and
ulterius, longius, a prodeundo,

662) (prodius
quoted by Nonius 47. 10 M. from Varro, is generally corrected
see
Neue,
ii
p.
The por- of por-rigo or porgo, porricio for

Lat.
*por-jicio, por-ro (O.
porod), &c. is either a metathesis of
by
editors to propins).
an I.-Eur. by-form *pr (cf. Gk. napd) (see

In Umbrian we have JMY?- for Lat. pro, before, e.g.
pro-, or represents
ch. iv.
92).
'
procinuerint,' affixed in ie-pru (cf. promo- 'primus'),

and pur- in a verb corresponding in sense to Lat. porricio and in
form apparently to Lat. pro-do^ with P. P. P. pur-ditom, Imper.
procanurent
pur-dovUu.
45. Pro- and pro-.
The variety pro- and proin Compounds (the simple
preposition has always the long vowel) is seen more in the early literature
than in the stereotyped usage of the classical age provehat atque propellat, Lucr.
iv. 194 and vi. 1027
Lucr. prSpagare 0. Lat. pro-tinam. Pro- almost ousts pro:
in class. Latin, but pro- is normal before/-, e. g. pro-ficiscor, pro-fundo, except in

as in Late Latin ?) ; but Catiillus (Ixiv. 202) has profudit:
f
prd-ficio (for prode- ado,
Plautus (Men. 643) and Ennius (Trag. 293 E.) proftteri; Plautus (Trin. 149)
The Greek -rrpoXoyos is prologus in the Comedians (cf. propola, Lucil.
v. 28 M.), irpomvoj is propinare.
Even in classical poetry we have procuro.
profecturus.
might be similarly explained, were it not for the fact that

there are indications of an old form propterw- (so in the MSS. of Plaut. Bacch.
612, and in the Ambrosian Palimpsest in True. 256: see L8we, Gloss. Nom.
Probus (cf. O. Ind.
pp. 142, 184, who connects the form with Gk. TrpoTreTjfc).
O. Lat. prd-tervus
prabhii- preeminent ') apparently adds to pro the same formation (from the
root bheu- ' to be ?) as super-bus (cf. Gk. vttfp<pvr]s} to super.
'
46. Procul
is
formed from *pro by the
suffix -ko- [a suffix
often attached to adverbs, e.g. Lat. pottl-cm, anti-cm

(ch. v.
31),
*recoand
and
L-suffix
some
reciprocusfaom
*proco-, 49],
(see
2).
It
is
used as a Prep, as early as Ennius (Trag. 220 R.)
PREPOSITIONS.
44-50.]
47.
Prope
(e.
g. Plant. Cure.
*pro the particle -pe (eh. x.

later than Plautus (A.L.L.
i.
97 prope
The
4).
ix.
should expect *prqp-(i)s-ime, ch.
591
adds to I.-Eur.
is
perhaps
For Superl. proxime we
165).
vi.
me est)
sense 'nearly'
54).
48. Propter, near, on account of (in Plautus this latter sense

always expressed by propter, not by ob, when a person is spoken
is formed from the Adverb prope by means of the suffix
of),
is
-tero-, as praeter
faomprae
43), circiter
from circum
20).
49. Be-, back, has in O. Lat. a byform red-, with the addi1 1 ; cf anti-cl,
tion of the particle *d(e) (
posti-d), which in
.
class. Lat. remains in red-eo, red-do, &c. (redi-vwus is peculiar),

but is before a consonant usually discarded for re-, e. g. re-duco
(O. Lat. red-duco, but perhaps only re-dux), (before a vowel, not
Late Latin, e.g. reaedijico-, see A. L. L. viii. 278). From rewas formed the Adverb re-tro (like in-tro, ci-tro, ul-tro), which in
till
Late Lat. became a Preposition,

33, Vulgata.
31)
is
e.
vade retro me, S. Marc.
g.
viii.
An Adjective-stem *reco- from this Preposition (ch. v.
seen compounded with a stem*proco- from the Prep. JM-O-
In Umbrian this Prep, appears in two

'
'
Compound Verbs, re-vestu revisito and re-statu restituito.'
in the
word
reci-procus.
'
50.
Secnndum, secus. Secundum, according to, close behind,

the Adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of secundug, following ( 4).
In plebeian Latin secus was used for secundum (Charis. 80. 1 8 K. id
&c.
is
quod vulgus usurpat, secus ilium sedi,' hoc est secundum ilium,
et novum et sordidum est ; cf. Caper. 103. 12 K.
so on plebeian
'
inscriptions, secus merita ejus, secus viam, &c., but also in
O. Lat.
f
authors, for Charis. (220. 14 K.) quotes hoc secus, soon after this,'
from the historian Sempr. Asellio), which may be Nom. Sg.
Masc. of an Adj. -stem
h. secundus,' C.I.L. iii.

or
of
a
Ace.
Neuter
S-stem
*secus, like tenus ( 54).
Sg.
387),
connected
with
the
secus
are O. Ir. sech, past/
Apparently
Prep,
(cf.
heret secus,
'
W.
heb, without/ from a stem *seq"o- and the Latin Adv. secus
appended to Adverbs in -im, e.g. extrin-secus ( 10. 5), as well as the
'
secus of phrases like secus accidit, non secus atque (Comp.

sequius) has
been also referred to our Preposition on the theory that this Adverb
meant originally ' following but coming short of,' less/ as O. Ir.
'
sech meant following and going past/ more than (see
8).
'
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
592
50
a.
in Silver
[Chap. IX.
Simul, used as a Prep, in Augustan and later poetry, and

Age prose, is perhaps Ace. Sg. Neut. of similis (see 2).
51. Sine,
Sine, if
se.
connected with O. Ind. sanu-tar
(cf.
sun-der (which have the suffix -tero-), must

sani-tur),
e
*s
ni (*s e nu), and must have been in O. Lat.
I.-Eur.
represent
i
being due to the unaccented use of
*se?ie, the change from e to
M. H. G.
The
the word, as in mihi for *mehi (ch. vii.

i).
on the Lex Repetundarum (C. I. L. i. 198. 54)
like letteras
for I (ch.
on the same inscription, as a case of
ii.
is
except in
wrongly used
another Preposition of the same meaning,

'
an Adverb meaning
(as
ei
130).
In O. Lat. there
se(d]
spelling seine
best explained,
is
Compounds
apart
like sed-itio,
lit.
as Plautus), se-dulo
(a dissyll. as early
'),
which became obsolete
a going apart,' se-orsum
from
se dolo
(-s)
(whence the
it is evidently
se-cerno
Adj. 8edulu8
7), se-curus, se-cedo,
connected with the Conjunction sed (ch. x. 5) the d of sed-ttio,
;
&c. need not be the Abl. Case-suffix, but

(cf. re-d-,
may be
the particle *d(e)
This Preposition occurs in the legal phrase
49).
se
fraude, without hurt,' free from penalty, written sed fraude on

the Lex Repetundarum of 123-122 B.C. (C. L L. i. 198), and on
(
the
1.
Lex Agraria
40)
of
1 1 B.C.
(i.
Paul. Fest.5oo. 6 Th.
(cf.
200, 11. 29 and 42, but se dulo malo

f
sed pro sine inveniuntur posuisse
'
sed-uterque (cf. Umbr. sei-podruhpei)

in Plaut. Stick. 106 sedutraque ut
Fern,
Sg.
The compound
antiqui).
occurs in the
Nom.
dicat mihi.
This
I.-Eur. Reflexive
has been plausibly connected with the
se(d)
Pronoun-stem *swe- (Lat.
se Ace.),
and explained
as originally meaning
by oneself/ The Old Slavonic Prepositions sve-ne, sve-ni, sve-nje, except, without/ in which this root
'
'
swe- appears with an N-suffix, suggests that Lat. *ge-ne may also
be connected with the Reflexive Pronoun.
The first part of the
Compound Verb
to Charis. 83. 16
and the Adjs. so-brius (cf. e-ltrius, according

K. from bria vas vinarium '), so-cors (cf. secordis
sol-vo,
'
stultus, fatuus,' C. G. L. iv. 282. 52), is of kindred origin. Festus

{
quotes nesi pro sine positum" from an inscription on the temple of
Diana on the Aventine, but the fragmentary condition of the MS.

of Festus for this passage (nesi pro sine positum
Dianae Aventinen
166. 26
makes it doubtful whether the word is
.
Th.)
PREPOSITIONS.
50a-54.]
not really the conjunction
nisi,
593
used in a context which gave
it
the force of sine.

52.
Sub,
(O. Ind. upa,
'
subter,
to/ Gk.
The
Goth, uf ).
subttts.
Sub,
is
under,
VTTO, under, for VTTO, O. Ir. fo,
initial s-,
which
is
I.-Eur.
W.
gwo-, go-,
found also in the Urnbrian
'
'
Preposition su(b), e. g. subocau, subvoco/ su-tentu subtendito,'
as well as in super ( 53), is generally explained as a curtailment
of prefixed ex (I.-Eur. *eks), so that sub would represent an

I.-Eur. compound Preposition *eks-upo, but is as likely to be
This particle -s(e) is postfixed in the
the particle -s(e) ( n).
form
sus- for snb-s,
e.
g. sus-tmeo, sus-que de-gue (in the O. Lat.
phrase susque deque fero> habeo (Plant. Amph. 886), explained by

'
Gell. xvi. 9 as meaning aequo animo sum '), apparently used by
in old forms of sumpsit and sumpserit quoted by
Sub-ler is a formPaul. Fest. 425. 3 Th., suremit and surempsit.
and
The
ation like prae-ter ( 43),
sub-tus like in-tus ( 33).
wrong analogy
diminutive sense of Lat. sub in sub-absurdus, &c. is shared by Gk.

VTTO (e. g. virohtVKos) and O. Ir. fo (e. g. fo-dord, a murmur ').
'
53. Super, supra, insuper, superne.
Super is I.-Eur. *uper,

for
O.
Ind.
Gk.
Ir. for, O. W. guor-,
vnep
virfp,
*uperi (O.
upari,
Goth, ufar) with a prefixed s- as in Lat. sub, just mentioned.
Umbr. super governs the Loc., e. g. super kumne ' super comitio/
an Abl. Sg. Fern, (suprad on the S. C. Bacch.) like

The form supera is quoted by Priscian (ii. 30. 3
in-trd, ci-trd, &c.
and 55. 23 H.) from Cicero's poems, and is found in Lucretius as
Supra
is
well as on C.
valent
is
I.
L.
sobra,
i.
101
1.
1 (see p.
(2). 1
governing the Ace.,
181).
e.
The Umbrian
g. sobra
tudero
equi-
'
supra
Super-ne (also superne, Adv. of supernus) is formed from

as
It is not used as a Preposition in
pone from post ( 40).
super
at
least
in
classical
Latin,
Latin, but is so used (governing an
fines.'
Ace.) in
is
Umbrian, superne adro
a Prep, as early as Cato (R. E.
super atra (vascula).'
Insuper
xviii. 5).
54. Tenus, apparently the Adverbial Ace. Sg. of a Neuter

S-stem*tenes-,from the root ten-, 'to stretch' (cf.&fc#*N./a cord,'
793 pendebit hodie pulcre ; ita intend! tenus) is

used as a Preposition as early as Ennius. It takes the Abl. Sg.,
in Plaut. Bacch.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
594
[Chap. IX.
Tauro terms, Cic. (originally ' from T. in a line/ then used

for usque ad '), and the Gen. PL, e. g. crurum tenus, Virg., and
in Late Latin the Ace., e. g. Tanain tenus, Val. Flacc. It is not
e.
g.
'
found in prose till the Silver Age (see A. If. L. i. 415). Tenus is
appended to Adverbs in -a (older -del Abl. Sg. Fern.) in the sense
*
of
as far
(on which
as,'
see
lit.
'
10.
e.
stretching from,'
4;
55. Trans, across
cf . pro-tinus,
(Umbr.
traf,
g. atiqua-tenw, hac-tenus
4).
trahaf\
is
either the Pres. Part,
of *lrdre, in-trare, pene-trare (probably the Nom. Sg. Masc.

cf.
or is an extension of
crystallized in Adverbial usage
2),
;
an obsolete Preposition *tram (an Ace. Sg. Fern, from the same
by the same
root)
kindred meaning,
particle *s(e) as appears in the Prepositions of

It is clearly connected with O. Ir.
ul-s, ci-s.
tre or tria, trl, trem-, tar,
W.
trwy, trach, O. Ind.
tiras, all
'
'
from
'
the root ter-, to go through, drive through (O. Ind. tr-, to bore/
Gk. reipo), Lat. tero, &c.). The -ans, pronounced -as (ch. ii. 66), of
trans
became before voiced consonants a by the Latin phonetic law
(ch. iv.
151),
e.
g. trd-do (but transdo C.LI/,
i.
198,
11.
54, 58, &c.),
Umbr.
trd-mitto
traf, trakaf (i. e. traf), tra

(and trans-mitto].
the
with
a
of
Ace.
verb
motion, e. g. traf sahatam etu
governs
'trans Sanctam ito/ the Loc. with the idea of rest, e.g. trakaf
sail ate vitla
56.
'
triffeetu
Ills,
trans
ultra, beyond,
Sanctam
vitulas tris facito.'
on the other
side,
came from the same
(whence Lat. ille, O. Lat. otte for *ol-so, ch. vii. 13),
being augmented by the particle *s(e) ( n), the
root. I.-Eur. ol-
the
first
second (an Abl. Sg. Fern.) by the suffix -tero- (ch. v. 16).
has become u before the combination I with a consonant
The o
by the
Latin phonetic law (ch. iv.

20), but the original vowel appears in
oltimns (Osc. ultiumo-) in Ennius' description of Servius Tullius
(A.
337 M.)
(The
reddidit ut
summo
ovis of the
MS.
mortalem summum fortuna repente

regno famul oltimus (MSS. optimus)
of Varro L. L. v.
50 is a
scribe's
esset.
emendation
the same miswriting of uls as occurs later in v. 83, or is

due to the correction of ols to uls, and should not be printed ouls,
of
vis,
which would imply uls. The shortness of the vowel is proved by

Romance forms of ultra-, cf. Gell. xii. 13. 8 on the extension
the
PREPOSITIONS.
55-58.]
of
in,
cis,
uls to infra, citra,
ultra
595
quoniam parvo exiguoque
sonitu obscurius promebantur, addita est tribus omnibus eadem

It is a mistake to suppose that there is an accent to
syllaba.
indicate length over the first vowel of ultra in Claudius' tablet
An original *ol-s(e) must have become *o//in Latin
at Lyons.)
the form uls is due to a later re-addition of s on the analogy of
;
&c.
ci-s,
(cf. ch. viii.
68 oufer-s).
57. Usque, with long u, to judge from Romance forms like

O. Fr. usque, Fr. jusque for de usque (for Lat. u would be
represented by o, see ch. ii. 26), is formed from the I.-Eur. Pre'
up out (O. Ind. ud, Goth, ut, Engl. out) in the
same way as absque from I.-Eur. *ap(o) ( 12), so is not
*
position *ud,
out,
connected with usquam ( 10. 9).

The Prepositional use of this Adverb (see
n), e.g. usque

Cic.
Gels,
&c.
so Ter.
diem,
Romam/
quintum
only usque
(in
Ad. 655 Miletum usque, but Cato R.R. xlix. 2 usque radices
'
persequito), is due to a curtailment of the proper phrase usque

ad, much as in Attic Greek &>s (for o>? eis) came to be used as
a Preposition, e. g. o>s TOV /BacriAe'a Uvai. The Latin grammarians
point out that usque, unlike other Prepositions (cf. p. 573), can
take a Preposition as prefix, e. g. abusque, adusque (Expl. in
Donat. 517. 22 K. nemo enim dicit de post forum/ nemo enim

(
ab usque
ab ante ; at vero dicimus ab usque et ( ad usque ')
'
'
'
'
was a poetic inversion
which found
of Virgil's
its
way
into Silver
prose (A.L.L. vi. 80); ad usque (first in Catull. iv. 24) is

likewise a phrase of Augustan poetry and Silver Age prose
Age
(A.L.L.
vii.
107).
58.
Versus, versum, adversus, adversum, exadversus,

Versus apparently a Nom. Sg. Masc., as versum
exadversum.
is an Ace. Sg. Neut., of the P. P. P. versus, corresponds to the
Celtic Preposition
W.
wrth, O.
W.
'
meaning towards/ against
gurt).
On
its
'
(O.
Adverbial use, see
Qq
Ir. frith, fri,.

2.
CHAPTER
X.
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.
CONJUNCTIONS. As
1.
Prepositions are hardly separable
Locality,, so Conjunctions are closely connected

These pronominal Adverbs, as
with pronominal Adverbs.
not always capable of being
are
ix.
we have seen
10),
from Adverbs of
(ch.
referred to their proper case-form
(e.
owing
g. ?M, ubl\
to our
imperfect knowledge of the declension of the I.-Eur. pronoun.

Nor is it easy to find their cognates in the various I.-Eur.
languages
so
Thus
alter.
rapidly
Latin
the
does
enim,
of
meaning
which
the
in
older
Conjunction
literature
is
a particle of asseveration, indeed/ had by the classical period

appropriated the sense of 'for'; and in French, pas (Lat.
passus) and point (Lat. punctum) have acquired a negative sense
'
from their use in the phrases ne

of
I.-Eur.
is
pas,
ne
their
feature
point.
to append other
tendency
Conjunctions
Conjunctions or conjunctive Particles (e.g. o>s in Greek may
append 5?j, Trep, &c., o>s 4 &* êp) and this habit puts another
obstacle in the way of identifying cognate Conjunctions in
;
different
extended
languages,
by one
The exact form
for
in
particle,
one
in
language
another
may
they
language
of these conjunctive Particles
is
appear
by another.
also a difficult
thing to ascertain ; we often see parallel stems in -o. -i, -u, &c.
of the
(e g. *qô-, *q-e-, *q"i-, *q"u- are all various forms
Relative and Interrogative Pronoun-stem, ch. vii.
23 ; -te and
appear in O. Ind. u-ta, Gk. aS-re, O. Ind. i-ti, Gk. c-ri), and
forms with long and with short vowel (e.g. Negative
*ne and *ne appear in O. Ind. na and na, Lat. ne- and ne- I.-Eur.
-ti
parallel
*we,
'
or/ O. Ind. va, Lat. -ve)
and the tendency was always
CONJUNCTIONS.
i.]
597
present to adapt the ending of one Conjunction to the ending of

another Conjunction of similar meaning (e. g. Lat. saltern for
It will therefore
adapted to au-tem, %-tem?, ch. ix.
4).
be best to designate these conjunctive Particles according to their
consonants, as, for example, (i) the T-particle of Lat. tarn., %-tem,
saltim,
-*(*),
Gk.
ati-Tc,
O. Ind. u-ta(-a),
D-particle of O. Ind. i-da,

Gk. 6rj, 8e, o-8e (3) the
'where/
now
DH-
O.
SI.
i-ti,
(2) the
dum, %bi-dem,
(Lat. Mo-neus ?)
of
Gk.
O.
Ind. ku-ha,
Zv-Oa,
particle
'where;'
kii-de,
'so/ O. SI. te, 'and'
'
(4)
the
of
P-particle
'
Lat.
'
'
so
teip, so
quip-pe, nem-pe, Lith. kai-p, how, as/ szeip
of
Lat.
the
O.
Ind.
nam, num, nem-pe, qms-nam,
-particle
(5)
.
These particles are not easily

from
hand
the particles affixed to Pre*-ne
positions (e. g. *-ti of O. Ind. pra-ti, Gk. irpo-rt, Osc. per-t
of Lat. po-ne, Umbr. post-lie. Germ, vo-n), as has been already
mentioned (ch. ix.
n), nor on the other are they always to be
from
Indeed the usage of the oldest
Case-suffixes.
distinguished
'
for/ O. SI. tu-nit,

distinguished on the one
hi-na,
'
then/
Indian literature, where, for example, the particle
kam
is
often
added to a Dativus Commodi or to a Dative of Purpose (see

Delbriick, Altind. Syntax, p. 150), and other particles are more or
less allotted to special cases,
suggests that the Case-suffixes
may
originated in this way, just as Gk. av came in

time to be a sign of a Mood of the Verb. Thus not only has
the -s of the Nom. Sg. Masc. been with great probability
have at the
first
referred to the pronominal -stem *so- (*se-) (ch.
vii.
13),
but also
the Abl. -d to the suffix *de expressive of motion, joined with

an Accusative, in the sense of motion towards, in Gk. boôv-oe,
Gen.
of
-s
(which in Greek and other languages has the function

to the similar *se of Gk. aAAo-o-e.
The person-
an Abl.)
suffixes of
Verbs
may
The
often have had a similar origin.
*-dhi of the 2 Sg. Imper. in O. Ind., Gk. &c., e.g.
t-0i,
is
the
asseverative particle *dhT, joined to Imperatives, as Lat. dum in

age dum ; the *-tod of the 2 Sg. Fut. Imper., e. g. quando uidebis,
dato, Plaut.,
is
the Adverbial Abl. Sg. Neut. of the Pronoun *to-,
from this/ c thereupon ' (ch. viii. 57). And in the declension of
the Pronouns themselves we have clear instances of the progress of
appended particles to case-suffixes in *ge (Gk. ye) used as the sign

of the Ace. Sg. in Goth, mi-k, Germ, mi-ch, *ghi (O. Ind. hi,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
598
[Chap. X.
Gk. raf-xO as the sign of the Dat. Sg. in O. Ind. ma-hy-am, ch.vii.
The -d of the Ace. Sg. of the Personal Pronouns in Latin
i).
has been similarly explained as the particle *id, so common in the
oldest Indian literature, where it is used to emphasize a preceding
word, so that Lat. ted was originally *te id (cf. tuam id in the
(see ch. vii.
Rig-Veda)
i).
Quo,
Conjunctive.
2. (i)
atque, ac, quoque, etiam.
et,
'
-Que, I.-Eur. *-q"e (O. Ind. ca, Gk. re, Goth, -h, e.g. ni-h ne-que'),
apparently the bare stem of the Relative *q"o- (*q~e-) (ch. vii. 23),
is
in Latin, as it
word
was
in I.-Eur.,
of the sentence.
Through
an
enclitic
appended to the first

which final -e was
Syncope, to
iii.
36), it has become -c in nee (neque),
and probably often had this sound before
always liable in Latin
(ch.
ac for *at-c (atque), &c.,

an initial consonant in the rapid utterance of every-day
In
life.
696, Capt. 246, Poen. 419, &c.) we

must, if the reading of the MSS. be right, scan
dumq(ue)
se exornat ; perq(ue), conseruitium commune, &c. (Skutsch, For-
some
lines of
Plautus
(Stick.
I.-Eur. *-q-e gave a relative and indefinite

so in O. Latin, though in the classical
i.
p. 151).
sense to pronouns,
schungen,
and
period the fuller ending -cunque (O. Lat. -quomque, e. g. queiquomque, C. I. L. i. 197. 5
198, &c. ; see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.) is
;
quem-que Plaut. for quem-cunque (O. Ind. kas-ca,

Horn. Gk. os re, Goth, hvo-h F.) so quis-que, each (cf. O. Ir. ca-ch,
preferred,
e.
g.
W.
pawb, O. W. paup, apparently from I.-Eur. *q"6-q"e or

*q-a-q"e). This -cunque seems to be nothing but cum-que, when*
'
ever (Hor. C. i. 32. 15), though some connect it with O. Ind.

cana (with ka-, &c 'whoever/ &c.), and others make the -cum10. 7).
(-cun-) a byform of urn- (un-) of um-quam, &c. (ch. ix.
,
The corresponding
particle in
'
Oscan
is
Lat. quo-que
-pid (O. Ind.

composed of
-cit),
e.
g.
some part
pokka-pid quandoque/
of the Pronoun-stem quo(que-) and the enclitic -que (perhaps
the bare Pronoun-stem; cf. O. Ind. kva-ca, anywhere, in any case/
from kva, where/ and ca, Lat. -que). Similarly, at-que, of the
Preposition (Adverb) ad and the enclitic, lit. 'and to,' 'and
is
'
further
'
in O. Lat.
Most. 1050
it
often signifies
'
forthwith,'
e.
g. Plaut.
quoniam conuocaui, atque
illi
me
ex senatu segregant.
CONJUNCTIONS.
2-4.]
Umbrian
when, also spelt
ape,
api,
599
be the same
may
appei,
The Umbro-Oscan equivalents of Lat.

Osc. nep, neip, nip, Umbr. neip, nep, have -p for I.-Eur.
Et is the L-Eur. Adverb *eti (O. Ind. ati, over,' Gk. I,
formation as Lat. atque.

neque,
'
*-q*e.
as in Gothic (ij?,
further), used in Latin,
It may be that it gradually encroached
'
and
'),
for the copula.
on the sphere of the

that
noticeable
is
for
it
older -que,
only -que, not et, is found in
on
the
Columna
Rostrata (C.I. L. i.
the (restored) inscription
The Umbrian copula is also

195).
a word related to Lat. enim (see below).
In et-iam,
et
associated
is
but in Oscan infm,
et,
with the Adverb jam, now, the
by the Latin phonetic law in the middle

becoming
of a word, as in medius (I.-Eur. "^medhyos, O. Ind. mddhyas,
vocalic
/ (y)
Gk. M eV(o-)os,
3. Atque,
used before an
&c.) (ch. iv.
67).
On Republican
ac.
Inscriptions the rule
initial vowel, ac before
an
is
initial consonant,
that atque be
so in the
and
MSS. of Terence. But in the MSS. of Plautus atque is sometimes used before
a consonant, where the metre requires the pronunciation ac (e. g. Ep-icl. 522),
and in the MSS. of Cato atque is the prevailing spelling (whatever Cato's
pronunciation may have been) before initial consonants and vowels alike.
The classical authors, as well as Plautus, seem to avoid ac not only before
vowels, but also before
Skutsch, Forsch.
q- (see Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. v.
Atque is the spelling in Republican inscriptions
adque occurs in the Res Gestae of Augustus (once), and is in later inscriptions
3
very frequent, as well as in good MSS. (see Neue, ii 953). Atque atque seems
52
i.
B. P.
W.
xiii.
c-, g-,
312).
to
mean
'
nearer and nearer
'
in Ennius, Ann. 519 M.
atque atque accedit muroa

4.
('2)
Disjunctive.
*-w6, (O. Ind. va,
e.
g.
Ve, aut,
Romana
iuuentus.
vel, sive, seu.
naktam va diva
'
va,
by
-Fe
I.-Eur.
is
night or
by
day.'
probably a curtailment of an I.-Eur. Adverb

*awe (O. Ind. ava, 'away'). The I.-Eur. particle had also the
1
'
sense of ' as,' like, seen in Lat. ce-it, O. Ind. i-va, as/ e-va.
Horn. Gk.
??-(/)e'),
'
thus/ later e-vam.
Aut
of I.-Eur. *au [Gk. av, again, Goth, au-k,

Engl.
(quasi *av-ye),
eke], another curtailment of the same
Adverb (cf. au-fugio, auf-ero, ch. ix. 1 2), and the particle -ti ( ] ).
'
is
compounded
'
also
Similar are Umbr. ote, Osc. avti and avt, though the
form has generally the sense of Latin autem.
Vel
is
the old 2 Sg. Pres. Imperative of volo (ch.
latter
viii.
Oscan
58),
lit.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
600
1
'
choose/ as Germ, wohl
Homems
vel
summus
g.
(e.
poeta
[Chap. X.
Homer, wohl der grosste Dichter,

was originally Imper. of wollen.
')
veil for *veZs, an old 2 Sg.

Injunctive,' for it is so
thoroughly a short syllable in Plautus as to be capable of acting as a Brevis
Brevians (ch. iii. 42), e. g. Poen. 827 uel in lautumiis, uel in pistrino, although
Umbr. heris
heris, e. g. heris vinu heri puni vel vino vel posca,' is 2 Sg.
'
Vel can hardly represent
<
'
Ind. of heri-, to wish (whence Herentas, the Oscan Venus).

Other instances of Imperatives used as Particles arepwfcJ, for example, Hor.
and age em, the Interjection, probably represents erne, 2 Sg. Imper. of emo,
I take ( 19).
'
Sive is
compounded
of
older
si,
form of
curtailed or syncopated
sei,
and
Before
-ve.
the
-u,
-ve (as -c of -que, -n of Interro-
gative -ue, &c.), the ^/-diphthong was by the Latin phonetic law
(ch. iv.
66) reduced to e (as in deus from deiu(u)s, ch. iv.
33).
Lat.
si
was
Umbrian
in
equivalent of Lat. give

5.
is
siquo/
At, ast, sed, autem, atqui, tamen,

is the I.-Eur. Adverb
*at(i) (O. Ir.
At
ceterum, verum, vero.

'
back,' Lith. at-, O. SI. otii,
Gothic
'
but
(a];-J?an,
'),
and the Umbrian
svai),
'
sve-po
Adversative.
(3)
aith-,
sve (Osc.
from
used in Latin, as in
On its confusion in
'),
as a Conjunction.
spelling with the Preposition ad, see ch. ii.

76.
Ast is a Conjunction found in old laws in various senses (Charis.
ast
229. 30 K.
apud antiques variam vim contulit vocibus,
'
'
pro atque, pro ac, pro ergo, pro sed, pro tamen, pro turn, pro
cum, ut in glossis antiquitatum legimus scrip turn), especially (i)
if further,'
and if moreover/ e. g. Lex Serv. lull. si parentem
'
'
puer uerberet, ast olle plorassit, puer diuis

'
(2)
if/
e.
g.
XII Tab.
use of gold in dentistry)

dentes iuncti escunt, ast im
;
and occasionally
if further,'
si
esto),
neue aurum addito, at cui auro

illo sepeliet uretue, se fraude
further
'
e.
g.
with the sense of
ego hie peribo, ast
with the sense of
cum
in the early writers,
Plaut. Capt. 683
'
parentum sacer esto

law referring to the
10. 8 (in the curious
or
ille
ut dixit non redit,
'
but,' Accius, Trag.
260 R.
idem splendet saepe, ast idem nimbis interdum nigret.
It
may
be a formation from
acl,
and stand for *ad-s-ti as post
for
6oi
CONJUNCTIONS.
5.]
40), so that its original signification
*po-s-ti (ch. ix.

'
would be
further/ moreover,' though, owing to the custom of using it in

the added clause of the protasis in conditional sentences, it came
to acquire the notion of if further,' and even of if.'
It is one
of the archaisms used by Cicero in drawing up his code of laws
'
ii.
(Legg.
(3)
who
8. 19,
&c.),
'
'if
(so
'
gives
it
the senses of (i)
'
if further,'
on the law relating to the Ludi Saeculares of Augustus'
f
reign, ast quid est siquid est '), (3)
lation of Aratus's Prognostica, 1.
'
further
'
(so in Cicero's trans-
The Augustan poets

160).
revived the use of the word, as a substitute for at, where the
metre required a long syllable, and in the second cent. A.D. it
passed into prose.
on the Dvenos inscription (usually

ast, it is a byform with the particle
If asted
explained as adstet) be really

-d(e) \\kQpostid (ch. ix.
Sed, if
we may
40).
believe the statement of
some grammarians
(Charis. 112. 5 K. ; Mar. Victorin. 10. 13 K.; Ter. Scaur. 12.

8 K.
Isid. Orig. i. 26. 24), who argue against the spelling set
ii.
The word can
(ch.
76), was at some early period sedum.
;
hardly be separated from the Preposition (Adverb) se (sed),

apart (ch. ix. 51), and may be a compound of *"se, a byform of
'
se,
with the Conjunctive particle dum
(see below).
Autem adds the particle -tern (cf. %-tem) to the I.-Eur. Adverb
*au [Gk. av, again, Goth, au-k, also (quasi *av-ye), Engl. eke],
which is probably identical with the Preposition an- of Lat. au'
fero, au-fugio
junction *w
is
(ch. ix.
(see
avt, apparently a
The
12),
under Lat.
'
and cognate with the I.-Eur. ConThe Oscan equivalent of autem

-ve).
doublet
older usage of autem
is
'
of avti, the equivalent of aut ( 4).

seen in passages like Plaut. Merc.
118:
et
(cf.
currendum
et
sed autem, ~Rud.
pugnandum
472;
et
et
autem iurigandumst in
uia,
autem, Poen. 841).
Atqul adds to the Conjunction at the particle qui, which is

much used by the early Dramatists as a mere particle of emphasis
Plaut. Hercle qui (Pseud. 473). utinam qui, ut qui (Trin.
[e. g.
637)1 an d which
is either the Abl., Loc. or Instr. Sg. of the

Relative (ch. vii.
Atquin (on this spelling, see Georges,
25).
Lex. Wortf. s. v.) has the particle -n(e) appended ( i , above).
Tamen however, none the less,' is clearly related to tarn (ch. ix.
*
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
602
[Chap. X.
10. 8), so, equally much,' which was often used in the sense of
'
'
tamen in O. Lat. (Fest. 548. 3 Th. antiqui tarn etiam pro tamen
usi sunt, with examples from Naevius, Ennius, and Titinius ; for
4
examples in Plautus, see Seyffert, Stud. Plant,
and
tam-etsl
tamen-etsi}.
class.
p. 14) (c
see in tarn-en a relic of the
Some
Umbro-Oscan, of putting the Preposithe word it governs, e. g. Umbr. arvam-
earlier usage, retained in
tion in (older en) after

'
en
in
arvum/
(ch. ix.
&c.,
'
'
Pel.
quote Plaut. Mil. 628, where the
MSS.
as a proof that interrogative -ne
appended to
same form
tamne
the other hand tanne
aranearum
which
tarn
produced this
diu uideor uitain uiuere.
tibi
mentioned by Festus 542. 26 Th.

with interrogative -ne, and exempliis
form of tarn
by Afranius, Com. 410 R.
as the O. Lat.
fied
reading points to famine,
tarn capularis?
On
'
quasi praeterum-in
pritrom-e praeter
that the particle -ne (of quando-ne,
others
;
suppose
30)
to tarn, produced tam-i-ne or tamen(e\ and
i), appended
tanne arcula Tua plena est

Festus also quotes tame, as an old form of tarn, on
see ch. ix.
10. 8.
the adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of the stem ceteroin such a line as Virg. A. ix. 656
PI.
ceteri), as cetera
(Nom.
cetera parce puer bello, 'for the rest
you are a boy deal
Ceterum
is
Ceterum of
sparingly with war,' is an adverbial Ace. PI. Neut.
Plautus' True. 847, &c. is exactly parallel to unum of Plautus,
Mil. Glor. 24 nisi unum epityra ei estur insanum bene, but
'
one thing,
The root
word
the I.-Eur. pronominal

*ke, which shows the short vowel in the Latin enclitic -ce of
/iujus-ce, &c. (ch. vii.
15), the long vowel in Lat. ce-teri, &c.
i
(see
&c.,
and
Verum
&c.'
of the
is
on the variation of quantity in pronominal *we, *ne,

cf. ch. iv.
33).
similarly an adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of the Adj.stem vero-, true, and vero an adverbial Abl. (Instr. ?) Sg. Neut.
of the same stem.
is
Limitative and Corrective. Quidem, immo. The

qmdem has not yet been satisfactorily explained.
The qui- may be the bare stem of the Pronoun (see
2 on quo6.
(4)
formation of
CONJUNCTIONS.
6, 7.]
603
or if idem represents *%d-dem, quidem may be the Neuter

;
Pronoun with the suffix -dem ( 2) *quid-dem (but see ch. vii.
21 on Mem).
Equidem might be similarly explained as et-quidem
[cf.
Plaut.
Pers. 187 et quidem (A), eq. (P)], but is better referred to the
pronominal prefix e- of e-nos, Umbro-Osc. e-tanto-, &c., aug-
mented by the particle -ce in ec-qiiis, and in ecce (see

association with the first Personal Pronoun in Cicero
good writers
(see
Neue,
ii
3
.
p.
963) shows that to a
Its
19).
and other
Roman
the
suggested a reference rather to ego than to et (cf.

Prise, ii. 103. 5 H. ; ecce in Plautus very often refers to the person speaking, A.L.L. v. 18).
The exact truth regarding its use
first syllable
in Plautus
it
is
not easy to ascertain, for the
for et quidem
(e. g. Pers. 187),
MSS.
frequently write
and editors often substitute
for
it
quidem after tu, me, &c. to avoid the scansion tu quidem, me quidem (like siquidem, ch. iii. 51), or the division of a dactyl between
two words
Immo
and trochaic metres, e. g. atque quidem.

according to Brambach, Hulfsbuchlein, s.
v.)
MSS.
in
in iambic
(not imo
1
,
has the scansion of a pyrrhic (w ^) according to the

passages like Terence, Phorm. 936
immo uero uxorem tu cedo.
:
In
ius ambula,
a scansion which has not yet been accounted for. Nor is the
derivation of the word at all clear.
One theory makes it Adver'
bial Abl. Sg. Neut. of imus, another analyzes it into in-mo, in
*mo to be an I.-Eur. Comparative 'more,'

comes
whence
Gaul, -ma-rus of Virdo-marus, O. Ir. mar, mor,
magis,' supposing
c
great,' &c.
7. (5)
nexmit.
Explanatory.
Enim, nam, namque, quippe, nempe,
an asseverative particle merely

a usage imitated by Virgil, e.g. A. viii. 84
quam plus Aeneas tibi enim, tibi, maxima Juno,
Enim,
in O. Lat.
class, enim-vero),
(cf.
mactat sacra ferens,
most naturally referred to I.-Eur. *eno- (*ene-) (cf. O. Ind. ana,

indeed/ 'for'), another form of I.-Eur. *no- (*ne-) ( i), (cf. illim
from ilk, istim from isfe, ch. ix.
i o.
The weak point of this
5).
etymology is that it prevents us from connecting the word
is
1
Imo occurs in the Aes Italicense of 176-180 A.D.
(C. I. L. ii.
6278,
1.
20).
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
604
directly with einom 'igitur/
Dvenos
the
of
[Chap. X.
inscription,
Pel.
inom (?), et/ Osc. inim, 'et' Umbr. enom (enum-ek, inum-ek,
with the particle -ce of Lat. hujus-ce, &c.), also enem turn/
which all show the Pronominal root i- of Lat. is (ch. ix.
19)
c
'
prefixed to a
form (-nim, -nom) of the root no-
Lat. enim
(ne-).
(from *e-no-) will stand to O. Lat. einom of the Dvenos inscr.

(from *ei-no- cf. O. Ind. ena-, he/ ena, so, here '), as O. Ind.
'
'
'
'
'
this (from *ei-so-).

(from *e-so-) to O. Ind. esaNam, often used in O. Lat. in questions, e. g. quid cerussa
'
'
'
opus riam ?
why, what is the use of paint ? Plaut. (cf guis'
asa-u,
this
nam\ without that definite sense of
'
'
for,'
because
'
to
which the
word is restricted in classical literature (but cf. uti-nam), is the

same case-form of the Pronominal-stem *no- ( i) as quam of
tarn of *to- (Ace.
10. 8).
Sg. Fern. ?, ch. ix.
It
adds
to
nam
the
enclitic
2).
-que (
Namgue
before an initial vowel in Plautus and Terence.
*qo-,
Quippe appends the particle -pe
i)
to
is
used only
some case of the
Relative or Interrogative or Indefinite Pronoun, either the Ace.
Sg. Neut. quippe for *quid-pe

or
quippini equivalent to quidni),
(cf.
can represent -ip- in Latin
(if -ipp-
cf. ipsippe
'
neque
ipsi
Paul. Test. 74. 37 Th., and see p. 116 n.\ the Loc. Instr.
Sg., quippe for *qul-pe, or else the Abl. Sg. quippe for *qffid-pe.
alii''
Nempe appends the same
particle to a
form *nem (the same
case-form of the Pronominal-stem *no-. as
-tern
of autem
is
of
the stem *to-).

This form *nem appears also in O. Lat. nemut
'
nisi etiam vel nempe'
Paul. Fest. 161. 13 Th.).
(Fest. 160. 28
;
On
ch.
the
iii.
pronunciation
nemp(e) before
initial
consonants, see
35.
8. (6) Conclusive.
Ergo, itaque, igitur. Ergo has already
been explained, in connexion with its use as a Preposition,
e.g.
funeris ergo (ch. ix.
28), as possibly standing for e *rogo (cf.
'
from the direction/ and has been compared with

regime),
German wegen, M. H. G. vonwegen.
Itaque,
compounded
of ita (ch. ix.
10. 9),
and -que
2),
seems,
have a even in the earliest poetry. We should

scan the Saturnian line of the
epitaph of Naevius (ap. Gell. i. 24. 2):
like ita, never to
itaque postquam est Orcho traditus thesauro ^see
p.
128
n.).
CONJUNCTIONS.
8-10.]
605
The grammarians of the Empire distinguish itdque, therefore, from itdque,

and so, 'et ita,' (e. g. Serv. in Don. 427. 13 K. tune corripitur media cum una
pars fuerit orationis, tune vero producitur cum duae), but short a is invariably shown in the Dramatists in both senses of the word. The grammarians'
rule about itaque resembles their rule for the penultimate accentuation of
Nom.
plerdque, utrdque,
Sg. Fern.
(cf.
ch.
93 on Late Lat aqua, acqua).
ii
had in O. Lat. the sense of turn (Paul. Fest. 74. 29 Th.

nunc
quidem pro conpletionis significatione valet, quae
igitur
Sed apud antiques ponebatur pro inde et postea et
est ergo.
Igitur
'
'
turn),
as in Plant. Mil.
quando habebo,
or in the first
772
igitur rationem.
law of the XII Tab.
stamino. igitur em capito.

the most puzzling in Latin,
9. (7)
ut
Optative.
mearum fabricarum
:
si
in ins uocat, ni
The etymology
is
dabo,
ante-
it,
of the word, one of
discussed in ch.
ix.
8.
Ut, utinam.
Ut, in wishes, e.g. Juppiter
is
the
pereat,
Conjunction ut, that (older
Danaum omne genus
ut%, ch.
iii.
36), with suppression of the idea
thou grant/
In utinam the
'
indeed
I wish
and nam has
final # of
is retained,
utty)
sense of a strengthening particle,
'
'
or
its
'
do
older
'
7).
We, nonne, num, utrum, an,

(8) Interrogative.
anne, cur, quare, quianam. In class. Latin -ne is the general
interrogative particle, while nonne is limited to questions which
10.
expect an affirmative, num to those which expect a negative,

This distinction is unknown to Plautus, who uses nonne
answer.
hardly at all (e. g. Trin. 789), (-ne being used instead, e.g. Trin.
178, Men. 284, or nbn, e.g. Stick. 606), and num, numquis without
a negative sense occasionally, e.g. Most. 999. (A list of examples
of the Interrogative Particles in Plautus and Terence is given in
Amer. Journ. Phil.
It
vol. xi. 1890.)
is
easy to see
how
these
meanings came to be attached to non-ne, is ... not/ and num,

'now' [Gk. wv cf. nunc for num-c(e), ch. ix.
10], e.g. nonne
'
haec ita sunt ?, is not this the case ?
num Jiaec ita sunt ?, now
3
is this the case?
(with emphasis on the word is').
;
'
'
-Ne
is
gatives,
probably I.-Eur. *ne (Zend -na, appended to Interro'

(
cf. O. H. G. na weist tu na,
g. kas-na, who then ?
e.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
606
'
nescisne
'),
Horn.
TI
ê
nu^ * n
v\) juot
might also represent I.-Eur. *nu (ch. iii.

f
P nrase: katha nu, how then?'; cf.
On its reduction by Syncope
yevrjrai ;).
it
though
37) (O- I nc^
/uTJKtora
audm,
to -n, e.g. vulen,
[Chap. X.
see ch.
iii.
36.
the adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of ut&r, like Gk. irorepov.

An (Goth, an cf. Gk. av, in that case) belongs to the I.-Eur.
'
pronominal root seen in Lith. arts, that/ O. SI. onu, &c.
Utrum
is
'
I.-Eur. *q"6r [Lith. kur, where/ for

O.
H. G. hwar, < where ? ', from I.-Eur,
*kur (/. F. ii. 420)
'
*qer, and O. Ind. kar-hi, when ? ', from I.-Eur. *q*or], with
Cur (O. Lat. qiwr]

;
is
cf.
1
a change of o to u in a monosyllable before final -r (ch. iv.
6)
It may also
that has a parallel in fur from *for (Gk. (â>p).
represent I.-Eur. *q"ou- (Gk. TTOV, where ?) with the suffix -r. (On
class, u for the I.-Eur. diphthong ou, see ch. iv.

<?,
41.)
Qndre} which must not be connected with cur^ since the
length of the final vowel makes the idea of Syncope impossible
O. Lat.
(calcare becomes calcar, but avare could not become *avar) 9 is the
Ablative of Cause, just as cui rel Plaut. True. 394 (quoi rei te
adsimulare retulit?) is the Dative of Purpose, of the word-group
cpiae res ? (cf .
rei,
quamobrem
Plautus uses cur or quamobrem, quoi
?}.
but perhaps not quare. (Epid. 597 quare filiam Credidisti

is bracketed
by Goetz.)
nostram?
'
'
in O. Lat. poetry (Fest. 340. 25 Th.
Servius ad
Virg. A. x. 6) (not in Comedy, so not colloquial Langen, Beitr.
p. 326), and adopted as an archaism occasionally by Virgil
(A. v. 13 and x. 6), is the adverbial (I-stem) Ace. PL Neut. of
Qmanam,
quis-nam (ch. vii.

28), as quid-nam is the adverbial Ace. Sg. in
such a phrase of Plautus as quid tu, malum, nam me retrahis ?,
:
'
plague on you,
11.
(9)
which the
why
do you pull
me back ?
'
Comparative. Ut, uti, quasi, ceu, quam.

Ut, of
vowel is preserved in uH-nawt^ ne-utt-quam,
final short
[pronounced n(e)uliquam with first, as well as second, syllable

one of those Relative Particles that appear in
short], uti-que, is
Latin with
initial p-,
initial
which
is
guttural (see ch.

cussed in ch. ix.
?/,
but in the Umbro-Oscan dialects with an
their usual equivalent for
iv.
135).
10. 9.
an I.-Eur. labiovelar
The Umbro-Oscan forms
are dis-
CONJUNCTIONS.
11.]
Ufa
in O. Lat. utei (e.g. on the S. C. Bacch. of
is
C.LL.
607
186
B.C.,
i.
196).
It is difficult to derive quasi
Quas%.
from quam
si,
though
the two expressions were undoubtedly equivalents

e. g. in the
Republican Laws quasei is the usual form, as in the Bantine
:
tablet of
darum
in the
have
L.
i.
197.
198.
1.
41
B. o., C. 7.
133-118
of
B. c.,
133-122
i.
1.
(cf.
Lex Repetunbut quansei occurs

and in Plautus we
12, in the
1.
73),
Lex Agraria of i n B. c., 200. 1. 27

quam si in the sense of the usual
i.
quas% in Poen. 241

in
the
sense
of
than
if/ (quam si) in
quasi
(2)
Mil. 482, &c. (see Brix's note on Trin. 265).
For the first
of
was
so
short
that
it
acted as a
syllable
quasi
thoroughly
item
'
(i)
quam
si,
Brevis Brevians
vowel of
'
and made the normal quantity of the
final
short as early as the time of Plautus, whereas the

combination ns (ms) properly lengthens a preceding vowel in Latin
(ch.
ii.
-si
144).
We are thus driven to suppose that quam (adverbial
and qua (adverbial Ace. PL Neut.) were two

equivalent Conjunctions which were joined with si to denote
(i) as, (2) than if, and that the classical usage made a differentiaAce.
Sg. Fern.)
'
'
tion of them, assigning the sense of

as
to the combination
qua -si and the sense of than if to the combination quam-si.
Ceu, which is restricted to the Epic and Lyric Poets and a few
'
Silver Age prose writers (the elder Pliny, &c.), is compounded of

the Pronominal-stem *ko- (ke-), 'this' (ch. vii.
15) and the
It has been supposed that as sen
(
4).
a syncopated 'form of sive [*sei-w(e),
4], ceu must come from
a fuller form *kei-w(e), the Locative Case of the Pronoun with
particle *we, 'as, like''
is
the particle *we.

it is
But
of this fuller
better explained as *ce-ve
Quam
is
the Ace.
Demonstrative
tovti\cas
The two words
10).
quam. Its Oscan equivalent
is
amnud pan pieisum
is
no
trace, so
iv.
33).
of the Relative, as tarn of the
(cf. ce-teri) (ch.
Sg. Fern,
(ch. ix.
form there
pan (Zvet.
brateis
are combined in tan-
LLL
magis
rei
6 mais egm[as
publicae causa quam
23
231. 16 pruter pam medicatinom

'
didest priusquam judicationem dabit '). In O. Lat. we have a form
augmented by -de, quamde, e. g. Liv. Andr. ap. Fest. 532. 8 Th.
cujuspiam gratiae
')
OT pam
(id.
namque nullum peius macerat humanum

quamde mare saeuom uis et cui stmt magnae,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
608
[Chap. X.
Horn. Of/, viii. 1 39). This quamde, quande

would
probably become *quan (Osc.pan ?), as delude
pane)
(Umbr.
10. 6), and would be merged in quam.
became dein (ch. ix.
of
(a translation
Quum, quando, dum, donee, ut, ubi.

most
simply explained as an Adverbial
Quum, O. Lat. quom,
Ace. Sg. Neut. of the Relative, an I.-Eur. *q"om. Terentius
Scaurus (28. 9 K.) mentions an old form of the word (MSS.
cuine, for which editors read quomne or cume), and quotes a couplet
Temporal.
12. (10)
is
from the Carmen Saliare ; but unfortunately the passage in the
MSS.
is so corrupt that little certain has hitherto been made of

The Umbrian word ponne, pone and
the lines (see ch. viii.
73).
the Oscan pun, pon seem to be compounded of I.-Eur. *q~om
particle -de [cf. O. Lat. quamde for

ii ; and see below on quan-do\.
Osc.pan)
and a
quam (Umbr. pane,
Quando seems to be the Ace. Sg. Fern, of the Relative with

the I.-Eur. Preposition *do,
to,' or with some form of the
than
-de
of
O.
Lat.
quamde,
particle
(
n). The Faliscan form
*
cuando
(cu- or cv-) (Zvet.
1. 1. 1.
70 cuando datu) affords presump-
word did not end originally in -d, so that -do would

not be an Abl. The Preposition' -do, to (ch. ix.
27) would
'
give a suitable sense, to what (sc. time), for in Plautus the Contion that the
'
'
'
junction
is
mainly temporal, though in Terence
causal, as
is
it
is
mainly
at all periods of the literature (see
quandoquulem
Studemund's Studien, ii. pp. 85 sqq.).
Varro mentions its use
for quum, when/ as a feature of the dialects of Formiae and
{
Fundi
in. 23
In quandone (C.I.L.vi. 25048

;
nequa
25905 con qua relimeas
we
the suffix further
have
quias
quandone poni volo)
the
augmented by
particle -ne (cf. do-m-cum and see ch. ix.
'
10 ; O. SI. ku-da-no quando/ beside ku-da f quando shows
another form of the N-suffix), and in quando-que, whenever, by the
(ap. Charis.
ei loci
K.).
controversia quandone fieret
'
'
Quandoc, quoted from the XII Tab.

(
2).
by Festus 346. 3 Th. (cf. Paul. Fest. 345. 4, 7 Th.) seems to be
a syncopated form of quandoque as nee of neque. The scansion
'
particle -que,
ever
quandoquidem, found as early as Plaut. (Trin. 991 saluos quandoquidem aduenis ; some would scan quandoc'dem) seems to be like
(see ch.
iii.
51).
CONJUNCTIONS.
12.]
Dum, which
is
609
e. g. age dum
of all, is an Ace.
often a mere asseverative particle,
quidum, how so? pnmumdum,
first
(Gk. aye ofy,

Sg. Neut. from the Pronominal-stem *do-, as turn from "*to-, quum
from *qô- (Gk. 8?j is another case- form of the same stem). The
phonetic laws of Latin hardly allow us to connect
but the
dies, which come from the root dyew-, diw-
it
with diu,
first
part of
du-dum, often referred to dm and dies, may come from a stem

*du-, a byform of *do-, whence Gk. briv for *bFdv, O. SI. dave,
*
olim
'
(/.
F.
ii.
250).
Similar parallel stems were *no- and *nu-
and as Latin num may stand for *no-m from the first or *nu-m
from the second, so Lat. dum may stand for *do-m or *du-m.
The temporal
clearly seen in the particle -clmn in non-dum,

On late plebeian inscriptions we find
&c.
etiam-dum, inter-dum,
a form dune, while, e. g. C. I. L. vi. 25063
sense
is
ad tu ne propera simili qui sorte teneris,

dune annos titulo nomina ut ipse legas
;
apparently an extension of
dum by
the particle
type of mine, tune (ch.
10. 7).
The connexion
ix.
meanings 'while' and 'until'

Macbeth, iii. I. 143 while then,
Donee must be considered
ddnwum and donlque. Donicum
by Charisius
(197. 15 K.),
ibi
me
who
and Cato.
on the
two
Engl., e.g.
you.
connexion with the byforms

mentioned as an O. Lat. form,
in
is
quotes Livius Andronicus
It
is
naturally resolved into *do-ne
affix -ne,
and cum
i),
'
when
Umbr.
when/
ar-ni-po
(cf
Latin equivalent quo-ad.
Some explain donee as a form
(the Preposition *do, ch. ix.
the temporal Adverb,

its
God be with
of the
maneiis sedeto donicum uidebis

carpento uehente mecim domum uenisse,
as well as Plautus
and
seen in archaic
is
-c(e)
'
27,
and the
to
till
of donicum with the last syllable dropped, but the loss of final
-urn. in Latin is confined within strict limits
[on nihil(um) 3
iii.
52], and would hardly be allowed in donemore naturally explained as the syncopated form
nee and neque,
1
and doni-que as *done aug8),
no(e}n-(um) } see ch.
cum.
Donee
is
of doni-que (cf
mented by the particle -que, ever 3 (cf. quando, when, quandoque,

whenever also de-nique] but the weak point in this account
is that donique is not found till Lucretius, and so is later than
donee.
Perhaps the true explanation is that donicum was appre'
E,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
6 io
[Chap. X.
bended as donee cum, and so with omission of cum became donee,

while Lucretius coined a donique on the analogy of nee and neque.
Whether Fr. done and the cognate Romance words come from
doubtful [see Korting, Lat.-rom. Worterb. s. v. ; donee in
Petronius 40 (see Friedl. ad loc.) and 55 need not be translated
donee
is
'then/]
Ut (see
Uli (see ch.
9).
13. (it) Causal.

ix.
(see ch.
Quum
10.
ix.
i).
Quum, quoniam, quod,
quippe.
quia,
30. 7).
Quoniam is a compound of quum (quom) and jam, the j (y)

becoming vocalic by the law of Latin phonetics in the middle of
a word (so I.-Eur. *medhyos, O. Incl. madhyas, Gk. /x,eo-(o-)os, &c.
?
became medius
'
when now (with Pres
'
the jam),
e.
Its oldest sense is
in Latin, ch. iv.
temporal
63).
Ind., the Pres. tense being required
g. Plaut. Trin. 1
by
quoniam hinc iturust ipsus in Seleueiam,

mihi conmendauit uirginem
;
gradual development from a tempossible to trace

poral to a causal sense in the course of Latin Literature (see
and
its
it is
Luebbert, Gramm. Stud.
ii.).
'
I.-Eur. *qôd (Lith. kad, that/ after verba declarandi,
'
if
is the Ace. Sg. Neut. of the
&c. also used in the sense of
')
Relative O-stem, used like Homeric o in such a line as Od.
Quod.
}
i.
382:
1r]\âxov Oavftaôv
In Plautus
it
is
OapaaXeas ayopcve.
always, or almost always, subject or object of
a relative sentence,
f ilium
e.
g. Capt.
tuum quod redimere
from the second
586
se ait,
cent. A.D. it
id ne
utiquam mihi placet;
used with verba declarandi, &c.
is
g. Apul. Met. x. 7 asserere incipit quod se vocasset.

Qum is an Ace. Plur. Neut. of the Relative I-stem (Slov.
'
'
ci,
if/ Bulg. ci, that, because '), and has the same double meane.
ing as quod, (i) that,
(2) because.
With appended -nam
it
had
? quidnam ?
i
interrogative meaning why ? (see
o) like quid
Quippe (see
7).
(On quatenus see ch. ix. 4.)
'
'
14. (12) Conditional.
dummodo.
Si.,
O. Lat.
sei, is
Si,
nisi, ni, sin,
sive, seu,
modo,
a Loc. Sg. of the Pronoun *so-, seen
CONJUNCTIONS.
13,14.]
6il
in Lat. ip-se, ip-sa (ch. vii.

20), as Lith. jei, if/ of the Pronoun
seen in Lat. is, ea (eh. vii. 19). Greek et has been connected by some
'
with the Latin, by others with the Lith. conjunction.

the same word with the enclitic -c(e) appended (ch. vii.
Sic, so, is
Osc.
15).
come from a stem *swo- (whence Goth sva, so '),

svai,
of which O. Lat. suad sic/ quoted from an augural prayer by
Festus (526. 15 Th. suad ted sic te') is an Abl. Sg. Fern., as
but Yolscian se
the Umbro-Oscan forms are Loc. Sg. Fern.
shows the same stem as Latin. The stems *so-, *swo- were no
doubt originally connected like the two stems of the second Sg.
Personal Pronoun *twe- and *te- (ch, vii.
(On sw- see
3).
Umbr.
'
sve
ch. iv.
Nul
It
is
68.)
is
a compound of the negative ne
probably this
word which
is
1.8)
quoted in the
'
with
si,
form
not
if.'
nesi (ch. ix.
51) in a defective passage of Festus, who explains it as sine

(166. 26 Th.) ; it is spelt nisei on the S. C. Bacch. and the Lex
Repetundarum, and
on the Lex Rubria.
due
nise (with e for the
^-diphthong, ch.
iv.
34)
in the first syllable is

The change
e to
to the unaccented use of the word (as sine for se-ne, mihi for
mehei) (ch.
iii.
of
18).
The Umbro-Oscan forms have *swai
instead of *sei (Lat. si),

as their second component, the Negative being represented in
Oscan by the Loc. Sg. form *nei (Osc. nei svae), in Umbrian by
a form no (Umbr. nosve). In that very old Latin inscription,

known as the Dvenos inscription, we find the Negative in another
Loc. form noi
(is
this a
'
is
mere graphic variety of
unless.'
rightly interpreted
may compare Osc. ne pon
With
the
first
nei ?), if noisi
part of nisi
we
'
nisi
quum
(Zvet.
/. 7. 7.
231. 14 izic
comono ni hipid ne pon, &c. ' is comitia ne habuerit nisi quum/ &c.).
Nl t I -Eur. *nei, perhaps *ne with the deictic particle -I of Gk.
OVTOO--L, &c. (ch. vii.
23), had originally the sense of non or ne, as
(
in quid-ni, quippi-ni [Lith. nei, not at all ; Osc. svae pis cenf
stomen nei cebnust si quis in censum non venerit/ nei-p mais
'
pomtis com preivatud actud neve magis (quam) quinquies cum

'
'
si nee
and
'],
private agito/ nei svae nisi/ svai nei-p si non
(
'
still
some passages of O. Lat., e. g. Cato

ni teneant
materiem
doles, and in Virgil's line
quam
It came however to acquire the sense of nisi from its
retains this sense in
caueto ni
cursus.
11
r 2
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
6 12
use in such phrases as
in ius uocat, ni
si
[Chap. X.
it,
XII
'
Tab.,
if
he
summons him
(and) he does not go/ id ni fit, pignus dato Plaut.,

a wager in the event of that not happening,' lit. ' that
lay me
does not happen, lay
'
<
desCond.
me a wager.'
(See O. Brugmann, Gebrauch
Ni; 1887.)
'
usually said to represent sl-ne, if not/ with the same

the negative particle as in qum, lest ( 16), or as of the
of
syncope
interrogative particle in auclin for audis-ne, &c. ( 10); and this
Sin
is
explanation exactly suits its use in sentences like Cic. 13pp. Famm.
di omen averxii. 6. 2 qui si consecutus erit, vicimus ; sin
, quod
tant,
omnis omnium cursus

'
of sin,
if
Plautus.
est ad vos.
But this negative sense
hardly attached to the word in the time of
The Plautine use of sin has been explained by the
not/
is
O. Lat. habit of attaching interrogative -ne to the first word of

the relative clause, instead of to the first word of the main clause
[e.g. Ter. Phorm. 923 quodne ego discripsi? instead of: quod
discripsi, illudne
ego
rescribam
?],
uiuit,
uiuit.
so that,
e.
g. Plaut. Trin.
309
sin ipse animum pepulit,

pepulit, actumst
more
be
sin
written
might
properly
ipse animum pepulit?
It is however unnecessary to regard the n of sin as either
animus hominem
si
the Interrogative or the Negative Particle -ne; for it may be

merely that Demonstrative suffix -ne seen in alioguin, &c. ( 16)
[Qnin (see
16) represents
with Interrogative -ne, (3)
(i)
qm
qui with Negative
(2) qui
-ne,
with Demonstrative
-ne].
older spelling sein occurs, for example, on an epitaph,

affected by the Romans 1 (Not. Scav. 1887, p.
180)
The
much
mortua heic ego sum,
et
sein est terra dea, ego
Sive
and
Modo
is
sen (see ch. iv.
sum
sum
cinis, is cinis terrast
dea,
mortua non sum.
33).
the adverbial Abl. (Instr. ?) Sg. of modus, measure,

Hor. quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus ?), only ;
'
limit (cf.
'
while only/
common sense of the word is the
temporal sense, 'only a little while ago' (cf. Caper 96. 15 K.
dum-modo,
'
modo
'
'
praeteriti est temporis, et ideo
This is a translation of Epicharmus' epigram (ap. Schol. Horn. II. x.

1
144)
ft/it
vtfcpos
8e
Koirpos, yrj
8'
-fj
'
modo
scripsi/
Koirpos kariv.
ei
5e re 717 ve/tpos
dXAd 0os.
i//fpos,
dicendum
I<TT',
ou i/expos,
CONJUNCTIONS.
15, 16.]
'
modo
'
feci
non
'
modo
'
scribo,'
modo
facio
613
'
quamvis quidam
veteres et praesentis putaverint), emphasized in the Praenestine

dialect by the addition of tarn (tarn modo, inquit Praenestinus,
Plaut. Trin. 609).
The shortening
of the final -o
is
due to the
influence of the preceding short syllable (see ch. iii.

42 on the
Law of Breves Breviantes), like dato (originally *datod) Plaut.,
have, bene, male, &c.
Etsi, quamquam, quamvis, licet.

(13) Concessive.
'
even if,'
of all these words is evident
el-si,
15.
The formation
quam-quam (reduplicated), quam-vu, how you wish' (like quantum-vis, however much you wish or qnam-ffidet, how you please ),
f
'
'
'
licet,
it is
16.
'
'
allowed/
granted.'
Final.
Ut, quo, quominus, quin, ne, neve,

Ut (see
n).
the Abl. (Instr. ?) Sg. Neut. of the Relative, used with
(14)
neu, nedum.
Quo
is
Quommus adds to quo

Comparatives, quo facilius like eofacilins.
the Comparative minus, ' less,' used in a negative sense (cf.
by no means
is
Quin
composed of
'
miwime,
'
parum
'
sciens,
how
ignorant ').
Loc. ? Instr.
and the
(Abl.
?),
and
is
with
-ne
found
(
(or perhaps ne,
18),
efficite qui
unsyncopated form in Ter. Andr. 334
mihi
in
a fragment
id
ne
and
;
detur,
qui
agam
Ego
qui,
negative particle no
'
lest
')
in
detur tibi
from some comedy (Com.

baud
facile est
In some instances
e.
g.
nemo
f uit
quin
inc.
47 R.)
defensu qui ne comburantur proxumae.
it
(Nom. Sg. Masc.) with

and a construction
nesciret)
represents qui
sciret (qui
-ne,
like
nulla mulier fuit quin sciret, nil tarn difficile est quin exquiri
possit, is best explained as a universalizing of qui Masc., as of
potis Masc. mpotis est (ch. ix. 2), though some regard the qui of
this
TTOV
usage as the Adv., and compare it to that Mod. Gk. use of

TOV for ov mentioned in ch. vii.
23 (7. F. iv. 226).
is used also in other

ways than as a Final Conjunction
manifold
uses
of
quin were a favourite theme of Latin
(the
It
see Gell. xvii.
13).
hercle quin recte dicis, Plaut.,
may
grammarians;
Quin in affirmations, e.g.

be merely the Adverb qui of
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
614
[Chap. X.
with the Demonstrative suffix -ne (so atquin and

and ceteroqui see on these
alioquin and alioqui, ceteroquin
hercle qui, &c.
atqui,
forms Georges, Lex. Wortf. s. vv.) quin in commands, originally

with Ind. (and so usually in Plautus), e. g. quin dicis ?, then by
'
constructio ad sensum' with Imper. (so usually in Ter.), e. g. quin
;
the Adverb qni with the Interrogative particle -ne,

why not ? ; quin in a sentence like Plaut. Trin. 360
die, is
not
'
'
how
'
quin
quod non fuit ? (i. e. eumne dicis qui, &c.), is

the same particle (cf. Mil. 13 quemne ego
with
qui Nom. Sg.
(
seruaui ? you mean the man whose life I saved ? (see above,
comedit quod
fuit,
'
14 on
Ne
sin).
I -Eur. *ne,
'
Osc. nei) was

i
'
not' ( O. Ind. na, O. Ir. m), a variety of

In O. Lat. ni (I.-Eur. *nei,
18).
(Lat. ne-,
used in the sense of ne ( ] 4). In Umbro-Oscan
I.-Eur. *ne,
is
not
'
corresponds to I.-Eur. e (Lat.
habuerit/ ni fuid
'
ne
fuerit,'
e) }
so that Osc. ni in ni hipid

(
Marruc. ni in nita\g\a
exactly correspond to Lat. ne.

Neve adds to ne the enclitic -ve, or, which in neu
syncope (cf. sive and seu
14).
is
'
ne
ne tangat
'
reduced by
For neclum
by Livy, also by Cicero, but rarely

the
other authors) ne alone is occasionally found (Journ. Phil.
by
xx. 177).
An early instance of the word, which is not employed
by Plautus, is Ter. Heaut. 454
(especially used
satrapa
amator,
numquam
nediim tu
'
sufferre eius
si
siet
sumptus queat
possis,
(
satrapam non posse,' satrapa
non potest, nondum tu potes/ with which we may compare Plaut.
lit.
ne(dum) tu
Amph. 330
te posse credas dico
uix incedo inanis, ne ire posse
Nedum
is
related to ne, as vixdum to
cum
vise,
onere existumes.
nondum to non ;
cf.
Liv.
puerum vixdum libertatem, nedum dominationem modice

laturum.
On the construction and use of the word, see Harv.
xxiv. 4.
Stud.
pp. 103 sqq.
ii.
17 (15) Asseverative Particles.

Ne (nae), -ne. Ne is the
indicated
the
references
to
the word in the Roman
spelling
by
grammarians, for they speak of
it
as the
same
in
form with pro-
CONJUNCTIONS.
17, 18.J
615
hibitive ue (Charis. 189. 2 K. ; Diom. 394. 21

K.), and is also
the spelling of the best MSS. (Georges, Lex. Wortf. s.v.), though
there is no reason why there should not have been in Latin two
separate affirmative particles ne and nae, as there were in Greek
and
vi]
vat
by and Sat), representing an original *ne and *nai,

Osc. svai, 'if,'
The form *ne cor(cf.
14).
*ne of the affirmative suffix -ne found in the
(cf.
Form
a Loc. Sg.
to
responds
Personal and
with
Dramatists
O. Scand. J?er-na
'
tibimet'
Demonstrative Pronouns
g. Plaut. Mil. 565
(e.
egone
si
post
cf.
hunc diem
muttiuero, etiam quod egomet certo sciam,

dato excruciandum me
;
for other examples, seeAmer.Journ.P/til.

*de to *de, &c. ( i).
ii.
51), as
*we to^we,
'or/
NeIn-, ne-, nee, non, baud, ve-.

(16) Negatives.
is
not
to
O.
Ind.
e.
Verbs,
na, &c.)
prefixed,
only
g.
(I.-Eur. *ne,
ne-scio, O. Lat. ne-vis, ne-parcunt, &c. (cf. O. Engl. nille, nolde ;
18.
nesmi, &c.), but also to other parts of speech, e. g. ne-fas,

u(e)-utiquam, neuter (ne-* I.-Eur. *ne, O. Ind. na, &c., appears in
O.
SI.
nequlquam., &c.) ; in- (I.-Eur. *n, O. Ind. an-, a-, Gk. av-, a-, &c.)
ve- (I.-Eur. *we, O. Ind. va-; cf. O. SI. u-bogu, 'poor'),
a curtailment of I.-Eur. *awe-, O. Ind. ava-, ch. ix.
12) only to
and
Adjectives, &c. (but see Langen, Beitr. p. 181 on improbare,

8 1),
infUeri, iynoscere^ &c.). I.-Eur, *n- (Lat. in-, older en-, ch. iv.
the
weak
or unaccented grade of I.-Eur. *ne (ch.
presented in
Umbro-Oscan by
Osc. amprnfid
Non
is
an-,
e.
g.
iv.
Umbr. antakres
51),
is
re-
'
integris,'
improbe.'
generally supposed to represent *noen(um), the
'
doublet
'
of noenum (usually explained as *ne-oinom, not one ') before an

vowel, as nihil, ml was the similar doublet of nihilum
'
initial
(ch.
iii.
52) ; though the absence of a satisfactory parallel for the

oe to 5 (instead of the usual ti) has led many to see in
change of
the
(cf.
first
part of the
no-sve
word some other form
Umbr.
nisi/
14),
of the Negative stem

n to be
leaving the final
explained as the particle (negative or demonstrative,

i) *-ne
iii.
*-nu
and
ch.
Ind.
see
cf.
O.
Horn,
ov
vv,
;
na-mi,
37).
(or
Noenw
(e.
g. Lucr.
iii.
199 noenu potest) should be written
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
6l6
[Chap. X.
*noenus, and represents *ne-unus2& noennm,*ne-nnm}i(Q,.flemmaxidi

(femum, ch. ix.
2) with suppression of -s in pronunciation (ch. ii.
The other theory makes

appending *nu instead of num ( i o).
126).
Hand, which
is
it
differ
from uoemim
in
confined within narrower limits than non in
O. Lat., being used especially with Adjectives and Adverbs,

usually immediately before the negated word, and never in
questions, has been referred (along with Gk. ov) to I.-Eur. *awe-,
'away' (see above on ve-), so that it would properly be spelt *aucL
The Roman grammarians preferred the spelling hand

d littera terminatur.
1.12. 8 K. haud
e.g. Charis.
Graeca vox d
littera terminari
apud antiques
coepit),
to haitt,
enim
and were
ov
probably right in doing so; for the byform hau seems to be

the 'doublet' (ch. ii.
136) before an initial consonant [Mar.
Viet. 15. 25 K. cum (sequens) verbum a consonanti incipit,
perdit, ut
'
hau dudum
refer'], e.g. C.I.L.
i.
'
et
1007
'
hau multum
'
'
et
heic est sepulcrum
hau placitura
hau pulcrum
(On the spellings hand, hant, /ian, see Georges,

The initial k- must have been used as a dismark
to
differentiate the word from aut (cf. Prob.
tinguishing
pulcrai feminae.
Lex. Wort/, s. v.)
145. 9 K.
'aut' si sine aspiratione scribatur et in

'
conjunctio ; si vero haud cum aspiratione
scribatur et in d litteram exeat, erit
adverbium).
Nee in O. Lat. has the sense (Anon 1 [Festus 162. i4Th. quotes
Inst.
Art.
'
t litteram exeat, erit
XII Tab.
(Most. 240) nee recte

dadit ( si nee dedat '),
subra screhto est
(j
and Plautus
ast ei custos nee escit,
'
si
si
illi
dixeris], like
Umbr. neip
'
in
Phasmate
Osc. neip (svai neip
(sve neip portust issoc pusel
nee portarit ita uti supra scriptum est
of neg-otium, neg-lego (often spelt
'
w?c%oinMSS.
').
The
see Georges,
Lex. Wortf. s. v.), &c. is variously explained as a phonetic change

of the -c
(*qê) of nee (see ch. ii. 73), or as the particle *ge (Gk.
of
ye)
*ne-g(e) (cf. Lith. ne-gi, ne-gu). a different formation
from *ne-q*(e).
19. INTERJECTIONS.
Interjections, being for the most
part onomatopoetic words, do not come under the phonetic laws
1
Catullus (Ixiv. 83) uses the phrase funera nee funera to express the Greek
a
ra.(f>oi
INTERJECTIONS.
19.]
617
their analysis and etymology offer little difficulty.

;
Oh !
interjections need not therefore detain us long.
are more or less the same sounds that we ourselves use
of a language
The Latin
ah
st !
to express astonishment
and
they require no discussion.
surprise,
Many
and to enforce silence and

from the Greek,
;
are borrowed
especially the exclamations used at musical or other entertain-
ments, e. g. eiige [in the Dramatists euye (eugae) with a lengthen'

1
ing of the final syllable like our bravo/ hallo '], sophos,palm, as
'
come from the Italian or French, e.g. bravo, da capo, encore.

But some are peculiarly Latin and offer points of interest. Mm
ours
(not to be confused with fern, an Interjection of terror, grief,

&c.), which is used by the Republican Comedians, where en (Gk.
rjv)
is
used by the classical writers (in the Comedians en
only in rhetorical questions, e. g. enunquam

925), seems to be the Imperative of emo,
which
for
hoc
suits well in phrases like

'
you
em
'
tibi,
used
take/ a sense
take that
'there's
lit.
'
giving a blow), e.g. Plaut. Asin. 431 em ergo

Others make it Adverbial Ace. of is, O. Lat. em,
(in
tibi.
'turn' (Paul. Test. 53. 37 Th.), which

spelt im
is
Plaut. Men. 142,
?,
Joined with
is also,
ille
perhaps properly,
(in the Ace.
Case) it
is still heard in the
ellum
produces
Abruzzi],
[ello (with open e)
So ecce (O. SI. ese and se) from the Pronominal stem
ellos, &c.
*eke- (*eko-) (ch. vii. 15) either with appended -ce ; [cf Osc. eko-,
(ch.
vii.
19).
f
this/ usually with appended -k (Lat. -ce), ekak hac/ ekkum
'item'], or else with doubling of consonant (as in att-at) produces
eccillum, eccillos, &c., whence the Romance forms, Fr. celui, Ital.
'
Eccum has been explained as ecce

quello, &c. (see ch. vii.
15).
*hum (the enclitic -ce not being appended to the Pronoun because
exists already in the Interjection, just as *ecceillunc, &c. is
never found) ; and this analysis is preferred to ecce eum, because
the word is used by the Dramatists only when the person referred
it
on the stage, whereas is is the Pronoun used of

Still *ecce eum might
persons who have been recently mentioned.
be explained as a parenthesis, e. g. Amphitruo eccum exit foras^
to is present
'
A.
see
him
has come
out.'
1
Heia, the usual scansion, as in
this refrain of a Late Lat. boating-
song
(Poet. Lat.
Min.
iii.
p. 167 B.)
Eccum
is
the original of the Italian
heia, viri,
nostrum reboans echo
sonet heia
appears as heia in Plaut. Merc. 998.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
618
interjection ecco,
and
Mil. 25 ubi tu es
Pro (not
in Plautus often
Eccum,
proJt, see
Neue,
comes very near
ecce, e. g.
Poen. 279 assum apud te eccum.

ii
3
.
p.
lit.
985) seems to be merely the

'
(
away with it
Preposition (Adverb) prd, forth,

Vae, I.-Eur. *wai (Goth, vai, Lett, wai), borrowed in late
'
Greek, oval, is the same word as our Noun woe.'
!
an Imperative used interjectionally, in Plautus

and Terence often with the enclitic dum appended, agedum (like
Age
is,
Gk. aye
like em,
8?j,
The
).
interjectional
'
use of
is
Imperatives
'
languages ; our lo is the Imperative of to

look/ and we have in modern Italian vie (for veni), tie or te (for
tene), guar (for guard a).
a feature of
The names
Fest. 90.
1 1
all
of deities occur in kercle, me-liercules
Th.), me-liercle, me-castor,
good faith/
(so.
me-diusfidius
with dim for deus because the
juvet, Paul.
('
first
the god of
syllable
is
unaccented
curtailment of Pollux), ecastor (better

?), pol (a
for
the
first
eccastor,
syllable is long, but not long by nature,
since it is shortened by the Law of Breves Breviantes in the
The last might represent et Castor,

Dramatists; see ch. iii. 34).
but ecUpol can hardly represent et deus Pollux, although the
irregular forms assumed by many of the English interjections,
'
zounds/
'
sblood/
'
'
marry
'
(for
Mary
the ordinary methods.

or ecce
re.
'
lo
indeed/
Eccere
is
'),
show us the
difficulty
kind back to their origin by

either an invocation of Ceres
of tracing curtailed phrases of the
INDEX
(The numbers refer to the pages
and j, u and
A, pronunciation, 13 sqq. phonetic

changes, 219 sqq. in weak grade
of 0-root, 258 sq. of E-root, 258 sq.
of E-root, 261; varying with 6, 259;
with a, 259 sq. Lat. a for I.-Eur.
fore, 222 for aw in
(9), 221 sqq.
;
in Id, rd,
Agustus, &c., 38, 41 sq.
ma, via, 222 ; for o, 234 sq. Lat. a
;
for d lengthened, 220
in
Id,
nd,
rd,
ened to
e,
199
for
o,
220
not weak219 sq.

aa written for d,
;
10.
shortening of, 210 sq. in Nom.

of qua, Adv.,
Sg., 210 sq., 373
-d,
ab, abs,
a,
fused with
o&-,
db- con-
574.
abante, 573, 595.

abest,
ribicio,
abstulas, 464.
abusque, 595.
abyssus, the scansion, 156.
ac (see atque).
Acca Larentia,
the scansion, 214 sq.

45.
18 w.
accedo, 194.
Accentuation, 148 sqq. studied at

Early Law, 157
Kome, 151 sq.
;
sqq,
I.-Eur., 157 sqq., 165 sqq.
of fadlms, &c., 158; of Sentence,
165
161
sqq.
of (see Cases).
Ablaut (see Gradation).

abnuo and abnueo, 476.
abolevi and abolui, 500.
abscisio and absctssio, 112.
abscondi and abscondidi, 502.
163 ; of adduc, &c., audit, &c.,

of Hide. &c., 163 of tanton, &c.,
163 ; with -qu(e), &c., 163; of Gen.,
of
Voc. Sg. of 10-stems, 163 sq.
-as,
164; Vulg. Lat., 164 sq.;

with Mute
of -lerem, -wlum, 164
and Liquid, 164 of Comp. "Vb.,
and Ictus
164 of Numeral, 165
of sum, 167
in Plaut., 166 sqq.
Interj.,
of Pron., 167 sq.

of Prep., 167
of Conj.,
of Adv., 168 sq.
sqq.
;
169
accentus,
of Auxiliary, 169.
meaning
accepsti (?}
of, 152, 154.
508.
acceptor for accipiter, 115.

accerso, 487.
absinthium, 79.
Accheruns, Plaut., 58.

Acchilles, Plaut., 58.
absque, 576.
501.
absida, 79.
(,?),
abiegnus, pronunc. of, 138.

Ablative (see Declension), Adv. use
abstinei
158 sqq.,
Secondary,
Paenultima Law, 160 sqq.

of Word-Groups, 161 sqq., 169 sq.
163
are treated as identical. )
Abstufung, 367.
of
_&c., 551.
A -Subjunctive,
512 sqq.
Prep., 575 sqq.
accipiter,
259.
If a word is not found in this Index, the ending or suffix of the word
should be looked for. Thus the reference for furibimdus, fremebundus, &c., will
be found under -bundus, the reference for commenticius, &c., under -ticius.
1
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
62O
Accius, doubling of vow., 8 sqq.

ei for I, 9 sq.
for ng, 10 sq.
gg
acclinis,
Loc. forms, 559 sqq. ; in -tus, 561

in -tim, 548
in -e, 548
word-
of
groups, 562 sqq. ; -mente, 552
doubtful origin, 565 sqq
Num.
275.
accubuo, 323.
accuratus, 541
Accusative
Numerals)
(see
-n.
Adv.
Declension),
(see
use of (see Cases).

-m, M., 371.
260, F. 371
deer,
aduncus, 259.
acertas for acritas, 365.
adusque, 595.
pronunc. of, 37 sqq. and e, 42,

242 for au, 42 for Gk. 77, 42 sq.
for a, 242 (see also AI).
acetum, 335.
-rtcews (see Suffix -JCO-).
ae,
acredula, 353.
aedes, 241, 346.
340
acrufolius, spelling, 364.
aedilis,
pronunc. of, 134 of actum, 139.

Active, endings (see Verb).
aeditumus
acto'to,
aidiles,
(-tuus~),
aemidus, 258.
260
Aenea, Nom., 373.
aequanimus
-acws (see Suffix -JTO-).
aequipero, 192.
Acute Accent, 153

Prep., 576
sqq.
aequus,
spelling
of,
76 sq.
288, 99.
pronunc. of, 42.

Gen. Sg., 381 sq.
157.
aes,
515
(See arduuitur. )
accent, of, 166.
adeo, Adv., 568
addues, 5 r 5
-aes in
Prep., 576 sq.
of,
adessint (?), 466.
affatim, 563.
adgredimur, the scansion, 475.
afluo
adgretus, 285.
age, 600, 618.
Gender
of
dist.
Adjectives,
(see
Gender) Decl. of (see Declension)

Compar. of (see Comparison) form
;
Numeral (see
Pronom. (see Pro-
Suffixes)
(see
Numerals)
used as Part., 540, 543
nouns)
from Part., 540 sqq.
;
508.
576.
affluo,
332.
Agma,
10
sq., 60, 65.
agmen, 292.
agnomen, 294.
agnus, 235
221
agoea
F., 370.
egi,
actum, pronunc.,
497
618 axim, 465 sq.
;
age, 600,
(?),
the scansion, 373
n.
agricola, 317.
the scansion, 475.
Agrigentum, 197.
462.
agulum, 334.
Agustus for -4M^-, 38, 41 sq.
adquo, 568.
adsum, pronounced
ass-,
Ahala and Ala,
313.
advenat, 464.
548
54.
Ahenobarbus, 364.
ahenus, 265 ; spelling
adventicius, 337.
Adverbs,
agilis,
139
adolesco, 481.
adpetissis,
and
ager, 221.
ago,
adjuro (-jue-), Fut. Pft., 507.

adniiit, Perf.,
spelling, 198.
aevum, 241, 251, 348.
287.
f?eps, alipes,
aetas, 173.
-ft,
123, 364.
(-itas),
Aesculapius, 242
adagio, 291.
adoritur,
Sg. 376.
484.
for -ai-, 242.
acupedium, 259.
of
Nom.
405.
aegrotits,
-aei-
Noun, 344.
actutum, 565.
ar,
Aecetiai, 188.
347.
ac/es, acisculus,
Achivi, 196.
ad,
sq.
adversus (-m), Prep., 595.
acerbus, 180.
acuo,
Pronom., 567 sqq.
Compound, 360
adulescens, spelling of, 197.
actus,
sqq.
Nom.
forms,
553 sqq. in -ter, 553 sqq. Gen.

forms, 555 Ace. forms, 555 sqq.
Compar. of. 557 sq. Abl., Instr.,
;
of, 55, 57.
AI, phon. changes of, 241 sq. AI,

ai on inscrr., 242.
251 sq.
-ai of Gen. Sg., 381 sq.
Dat., 386.
;
aio,
546, 265
pronunc., 53
spelling
INDEX.
8;
aiio,
Imper., 546
ai, aie,
aiebam, 491
pronunc. of
-al- from I.-Eur.
], 279.
;
CM'-,
aibam,
43.
amasius, 305.
ambages, 345 sq., 221.
ambegna
aZa, 293.
(-igna), 229.
am&i-, Prep., 577.
pronunc.
alacer,
621
of,
18
-ris,
M., 371
18, 198.
ambio, 505
466.
-j'sszY,
albeus for alv-, 51.
aw&o, 451.
ambulo, 547.
aZfaco 488.
amendo (-ando), 200.
-ecer,
albogdlerus, 361, 364.
am^'o, 505, 578.
Albsi for Albensi, 177.

aZ&MS, 223.
amicus, 337.
amitto (amm-*), 109, 114.
aZe&ns, 334.
Aleria. 197.
ammentum, spelling
amnego for a&w-, 80.
amnis, 282.
351.
aZes,
Alexander,
amnuo
Alixentrom, Ace., 73.
-ter,
for a&w-, 80.
^Z/?ws, dial, for Alb-, 80.
amo, 274
Adv., 569.
alias, Adv., 557.
amoenus, 246.
aZ?'a,
and
aZi&i
aZt'ca
-ento,
ampendices, 578.
amplector 578
(hal-\ 56.
amplio, 485.
alienus, 449.
amsegetes, 578.
-ocf-,
467.
amtermini, 578.
Adv., 568.
aMogw
3 PI., 519.
amplant, 483.
aliubi, 567.
alicunde, 570.
afo'o,
(-w), 568,
amurca, 33, 75.
614.
aliorsum, 549.
amitssim, 563.
aliquamdiu, 571.
aliquando, 571.
amygdala, -iddida, 198.

aw, Conj., 606.
aliquantisper, 562.
an-,
aliquis, 447.
Anaptyxis
aliquo,
Suffix -LI-).
a?#er,
554
O?#MS
and
Cdium,
cf.
all-,
115
ancilia, 287.
335.
;
-eum, 22.
(SeeaZiww).
aliunde, 570.
a/ms, 449
-c^-, 59.
333.
-c?7Za,
ancumdentae, 196.
ancus, 259.
505.
angina, 326.
223.
Alphabet,
334
ancidus, a servant, 178
375.
-is-,
aZrms, 309.
aZo,
anclabris,
ancora, 155, 1.90
aliuta, 571.
aZ7e.ri,
(see Parasitic Vowel).
anceps, older, -c^pes, 178.
553.
aZ^ws,
Prep., 578.
anas, 274.
ancaesus (-ISMS), 198.
Adv., 568.
-aZis (see
114.
of,
angro,
i
sqq.,5; Gk.letters,4,
1 1
sq.
271: -ustus, 223, 356.
anguila (-illa\ 115.
Claudius' reforms (see CLiudius).

449, 452
-tus, Gen., 450.
oZferas, Adv., 557.
*dtternas (?), Norn. PL, 398.
alternls, Adv., 551.
alteruter, 450
-r/ra, 450.
spelling of, 117.
alucinor, 488
alum, 333.
(See dZmm.)
anguis, 338.
alumnus, 327.
-am of quam, tarn, &c., 549.
awtoe, 274.
alter,
aw-, Prep., 578.

amarus, 259.
578
aw/eZo, 199,
aZm-, 98
-S-,
112.
animadverto, 362.
animus, -ma, 223.

annus, 117, 314.
anquina, 247.
anquiro, 578.
awser, 272.
awfe,
578
579
ant(e)positus,
579, 569
antehac,
antidhac, 579.
569
anfea,
ond-, 579
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
622
490
antennae, 578.
are-(facio),
antes, 578.
arena (see harena).

argentum, 296.
orgre?- for agrgr-, 288.
antestamino, 519. 578.

antiae, 562.
or/"-,
184.
anticus, 337.
Argiletum, accent of, 161 sq.
antideo, 575, 579.
argumentum, 336.
antigerio, 560.
argutus, 484.
ones, 261
-Jefe, 144.
-r/s (see Suffix -RI-).
562
antioper,
antiquus, 337.
arispex, 29.
350.
antistes,
-arms (see Suffix -IO-)
antruo, -dr, 289.
Gen., 384.
omtz's,
-mts
ousted
(see Suffix -NO-).
armus, 279.
rmMS, 333.
aro, 223.
Aorist (see Tense-Stems).
arquites, 300.
oper, 222.
ars, 341.
operio, 475.
artena, 172.
Apex, over long vow., 4, 129, 134,161

apinae, 58.
Indef., 410
Article, Def.,452
Articulation, Basis of, 30.
op/o, Vb., 480.
orfa'o,
apiscor, 480.
orbits,
sq.
aplustrum. 96.
485.
343.
Aruncus for Aur- 42, 40.

arvum, 323 -?ms, 323.
-os (see Suffix -TI-)
accent of, 163.
Gen. Sg., 381.
-os, Nom. PI., 398
7
Apocope, 203 sqq. accent

;
in, 153, 161.
appello, 472; -aminoj 519

Appenninus (Ape-}, 117.
Appius (see Claudius
oser, blood, 261.
apprime, 565.
asinus, 305.
apricus, 178.
asomfero, 539.
Aprilis, 178.
osp- for absp-, 310.
aprugnus, -unus, 294.

-or, -wr, 288.
opô", 579
osper, ospr-, 185.
aspergo (-argo), 200.
aqua, 223
87;
(?
87
-,
oc#-,
the scansion, 210.
Aquilonia, 286.
-or- from I.-Eur.
assidue
arbor, 290 -os, 356

-osem, Ace., 305.
arboretum (-bustum\ 306, 335.
;
(-itwri), 197.
223.
arcesso,
(-0),
550.
Assimilation, of Cons., 311 sqq.; of

of unacc. vow.,
Prep., 312 sq.
201 of final cons, (see Sandhi).
-osso, Vb. -forms in, 462 sqq.
;
-ifi,
506
accerso, 487.
300
600 sq.
Dven. Inscr.. 514.
ast,
astedj
decl. of,
344
F., 344.
-aster,
-ast(r)inus
Suffix
ardea, 279.
Conj., 600
at,
ardus, 184.
Atella, 312.
(?), xii
Tab., 288, 515.
ater,
81.
(see Suffix
-TERO-,
-DA
ordeo, 486.
arduuitur
(see
assulatim, 556.
487
arcubiij 176.
arcws,
Tenues
Asseverative Particles, 614.

Assibilation (see Palatalization).
aratrum, 330.
arbiter, 288.
arbutum
asporto, 210.
assentior (-0), 521.
305.
*aramen for aeramen, 201.
arceo,
sq.
Tenu^s Asp.).
279.
ra, oso,
99
72,
sqq.,
r,
or for ad, Prep., 288, 99.
aranea, 292.
aspernor, 470, 486.
Aspirates, phon. changes of,279 sqq.

Gk. in Lat. orth., 4,
sq., 54, 57
Gen., 382.
-ol,
aquilii,
trisyll.
by
-n's, 321.
spelling, 76 sq.
INDEX.
Athematie, Conjug.
Part. Act, 541.
(see
Verb)
Pres.
598
(ac),
599
spelling,
-ax, e. g. aureax, 355.
60 1, 614.
485
axim, 465 sq.
atntus,
ax^s. 305, 338.

s (-tiosi), 352.
atrox, 259, 354.
617
attigas,
464.
attulas,
464.
accent
of, 164.
;
242 sq.
pronunc., 37 sqq. weak grade of
-au- for dve, 243
OU-root, 261
phon.
changes
of,
AU,
3o8.
303,
sq.
Bahuvrihi, Compd., 360
252.
au, Interj., 38.
balbutio, 488.
aububulcus, 235.
auceps, 180.
audacter (-Her), 554.
ballaena, 48,
486
465
n6
&aca, spelling of,
balbus, 282, 358.
-sim,
-si,
522
*baliolus (?), 287.
-sus sum,
522
aussus, 112.
sq.
58 spelling, 117.
balneum, balin-, 173.
-bam of Impft., 489 sqq.
;
barba, 283.
audio, 307.
ave (see have).
barbactum for
Avernus, 197.
a cerruncassis ,462.
barca, 184.
averta, 197.
Basis of Articulation, 30.
rerv-, 52.
barbar(us), 374.
115
basilica, lass-,
Aufidus, 250.
batillum 'see rat-}.
augeo, 482, 243.
battuo,
augur,
-ger,
198
235.
awZa (oKa\ 41
-ra,
Accius, 48.
spelling
of, 113.
beatitudo (-tas), 341.

(?), 48.
bellum, 0. Lat. duellum, 268.
aw#a, 112.
bellus.
Aidius, 267.
26 r.
6me,
326.
-e,
540
aurichalcum, 41.
auriga, 261.
551
-/?cws for
184
ben(e),
352
-vdens,
1-6715-,
pronunc.
benlgnus,
Aurora, 243, 356.

aurugo (-i<7o\ 37.
Benuentod, 184.
*berbix for rerre.r, 52.
aurum, 243.
in
bessi-,
osculor, &c., 41, 262.
auspex,
243
of,
540
138.
409.
BH,
phon. changes of, 282

bha-, to speak/ 457.
bheu-,
aussus, 112.
-ris,
Adj
sq.
bher-, 'to carry,' 457.
asc-, 41.
1 80.
austerus,
-Zs,
'
aws for arws, 52.

ausculto,
-merens,
and
51.
arm's, 243.
atts- (os-)
115
&as/s, &ass-,
Befena
avillus,
aureae,
au-, Prep., 576.
audeo,
B, pronunc., 78 sqq. for Gk. <,

for r', 47, 49 sqq.
phoii. changes
for dw-, 265, 268
for bh.
of, 282
282 sq. for dh, 289 sq.
br for sr.
;
-atus, e.g. dentatus, P.P. P., 483.
ATJ,
sq.
-ax (see Suffix in Gutt., -JTO-.
atqui (-w),
attat,
accent.. 169.
Avyayibhava, Compd., 360

122
sq.,
atque atque, 599.
Auxiliary Vbs., 511

auxitta, 333.
-atim of Adv., 556.

atque
623
'
to be, 458.
-bi ofibi,-&c.,
bi-
338.
austium, 262.
6160,
Vb., 468
-i,
503
Perf.,
Inf., 537-
awf, 599.
autem, 60 1, 571.
awfor for -c-, 89, 119.
bicorpor. 376.
bigae, 196.
-bi7ts
autumo, 180, 235.

avuncuhis, aunc-, 49, 172
551, 567.
of bidens, &c., 411.
anc-, 172.
(see Suffix
bimus, 144, 294.
-DHLO-
-er(e),
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
624
352.
caelum, the spelling
411.
bini,
bipinnis for -pen-, 23.
caementum, 285
411.
bis,
blasfemus, the scansion, 156.
calamitas,
-bo of Fut.,
bonus,
bos,
326
253
-&r- for
calandae for
Compar., 406.
-DHRO-).
117.
of,
553.
N., 356.
calvus, 323.
(Britt-}, 115.
cate,
358.
cafa;,
Bruges for Phryg-, 36, 58.
-Zs,
107.
Camena, 308.
camera (-mar-\ 197.
Camerina (-mar-}, 197.
Brultii (-ri-}, 29.
pronunc.
heel, 355.
lime, 95
Calypsonem, 155.
camellus for -eZws, 115.
-brum (see Suffix -DHRO-).

bruma, 407.
-&-,
*calmus for -lam-, 198.

calumnia, calvor, 327.
Broken Reduplication,
-frs-,
Cato, 481.
callescer-unt,
caZ^'m (?), 580.
caZor,
227, 292
breviter,
of, 79.
bucetum, 335.
Camillus, 308.
bucina, spelling of, 117.

bulba for vulva, 50.
cammarus (ga-\ 74.

Campans for -WMS, 182.
-bMZtwi (see Suffix
-DHLO-).
campester, 330.
-bundus, e. g. ermbundus, 545.

Burrus for Pyrrh-, 36, 75.
cancer, 96.
burrus, 75.
canicula, 347.
-&ws,
173. 184.
caZ/-,
caZô, 355.
201 sq.
Britanni
490
cale-(facio],
Breathing, Gk. in Panhormus, &c., 57.

Breath- Stops (see Tenues).
Breves Breviantes, 210, 126, 129 sq.,
brevis,
caZe-, 23.
calicare, 95.
spelling
&w?-, 286.
203.
caldus for -foVZ-, 173.
braca, spelling of, 116.
bracckium, 58
calcar,
mr, 269 sqq.
-bra (see Suffix
286
calamitosusj 353.
491 sqq.
bobus, bu-, 250.
44.
F., 400.
caeruleus, 275.
314.
blatta,
coe-,
-to,
Dat. PL, scansion
404.
of,
Nom.
canes,
223
cawo,
bustar (&o-), 205, 250.

bustar (cf bustum), 250.
5i>
Sg.,
-nfe,
346
-wes,
Carm.
Sal.,
PL, 399.
459
Perf.,
509-
Canopus, 75.
bulirum, the scansion, 156.

116.
,
307.
355.
33.
caper, 276.
75.
caperro, spelling of, 117.

capesso, 462.
C, the letter,
76
pronunc..
84 sqq. palatalization of, 87 sq.
for qu, 299 sqq., 315
cl for
tl,
283 sq.
2,
sq.,
cadaver, 541.
capiclum for -tulum. 83.

,
298 cepz',
bowl, 83.
;
capistrum, 331.
CapzYo, 349.
caduceus, 288.
Caralis, -lar-,
caducus, 337.
carTm for cecMi, 509.
Carâ
Caecilius, Cec-,
42
93
Cardinal Numerals (see Numerals),

canfats for -fZwws, 174.
Caeic-, 242.
carictum (?) for
caedes, 346.
carm#(?;, 515.
cec?o,
242
cecldi,
496
-rar-, 93.
(-rfea\ 317.
caecus, 242.
caelebs, 48.
Perf., 502.
cec?re,
184.
-rec-,
carmen, 271 sqq.
459
w.
23.
C. Saliare,
5,
245,
INDEX.
625
Carna, 317.
cenix (Sg., Plur.), 355.
cdro, 278, 273, 349.
carpatinae, 75.
Cerus, 329.
cesaries for caes-, 43.
carpo, 279.
cetero-,
cartilago,
244
Adv., 602
279.
Carvilius Buga, letter G,

cascus, 307.
-c/i-
(Gk. x),
Chi
and
-ft-,
cicindela,
10 sq.
493
n.
',
344.
Praen. conea, 22.

quant, of i, 485.
484.
ice-,
cavaedium, 362.
cauculus for -calc-, 96.
cincinnus, 315.
ciw#o,
accent, 169
481
1 1 6.
c'ttus,
pronunc.,
-?m,
-nctus,
-cinor (-cinium), 488.

circes,
Caurus, 258.
circo-,-um, Prep.,
Causative Vbs., 477, 481
cis (citra),
sq.
aYs, 541
in.
-cZ-
ceZo,
488
cewa,
n.,
P. P. P.,
542
520,
clamde, 580.
ceresium, cherry, 18.

;
crevi,
550.
Claudius (App.), reforms alph., 6,

105 (Emp.), reforms alph., 3 sqq.,
;
claudo,
cerfo (-e),
for --, 81.
36, 47 sq., 79 (see also
273 -enfo, Pass., 519.

centum, 418 sq.
-p?ez, 418 sq.
409 -centum for -ft, 418 sq.
mus,-tensu-, 418 sq.
cerebrum, 296
-&er, 370.
censeo,
472
Adv., 551.
clarare (-ere), 484.

-atus,
-cendi, Perf., 501.
cerno,
-to,
clango, 471.
44, 277.
-oe-,
clandestinus, 580.
227.
229.
277
335
cZam (clanculum), 580
354.
celsus,
c?-,
clamo, 279.
486.
ceZoz,
clades, 219.
-rissimus, 407.
432.
-ter,
337.
civicus,
cedrus, 289.
351
cifrm, 289.
cedo,
-ceZZo,
580, 432
333.
cifera for -thar-, 190.
Particle, 432 sq.
432, 518 ; cette, 284.

cedo, Perf. cessi, pronunc.,
cedre for caedere, 184.
cistella,
cavus (co0-), 234 sq.
ceZer,
352.
579 -a, 579 -tfer, 580.

Circumflex Accent, 153 sqq., 161.
sq.
causis (cave sis), 49.
-ce,
pronunc., 140.
cims, 357.
49 cam, 499.
Cauneas (cave ne eas), 169.
no
335, 541.
cinctutus, 335.
cauda, 41.
-ss-,
132.
333.
cteo (c/o),
causa,
of,
ciconia,
-ae for -am, 61,
cave,
n.
82 sqq.
catus, 258, 541.
(see
(see Aspirates).
cibus, decl. of,
empty, 565.
Casiorem, 155.
Cato (Elder),
Plaut., 58.
Chius (Adj.), scansion

-ci-
casus, -ss-,
-cc/i-,
Change of unaccented vowel

Chersonensus, the spelling, 136
of Gen., 555
of Ace.,
of Abl., Instr., Loc., 559
553 sqq.
555 sqq.
sqq. (See Declension.)
cassis, -ida, 354
casiki, 286.
235
-ra,
Weakening).
caveo,
607.
cew,
Cases, 366 sqq.

Strong and Weak,
suffix ousted by Prep., 573
367
Adv. use of, 548 sqq.
of Norn.,
catulio,
602
-cetum, 335.
earns, 491.
cassus,
Conj.,
-roqui (-w), 568, 614.
284.
cette,
7.
-rum,
500.
-tussi-,
;
-tesi-
cZaw's,
1 80,
252
cZw-,
347.
clavus, 298.
cZepo,
298
cZ'/ens (cZw-),
-psi,
29.
clipeus (cZw-), 29.
cZiws, 275, 323.

cloaca (clu-~), 37.
505.
CZo-).
40, 196.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
626
Clodius.
41
cowmmrfo (-man-), 200.
Cla-, 42.
246.
Close Syll., quant, of vowel, 133 sqq.
250
Cloelius,
Cloul[i~],
commentus, 335.
clueo (-wo), 473, 295.
comminus, 554 -m-, 115.

commircium, the spelling, 229.
-clum (-culum, q. v.) (see Suffix -LO-).
commwm's, 247.
clunis, 250.
como, -mpsi, 505.
the scansion, 202.
Clutemestra,
compages, 346.
(from
coeo),
318.
Compensation, length by,
545 -pi, 502

-plus sum, 522.
scansion
coero, coi-,
for euro, 248.
coeftts,
142, 39.
cogito,
143.
of,
143
Perf.,
of,
143.
59-
Prepositions).
coQi)um, 235.
pronunc.
concapit, xii Tab.,
of, 53.
the spelling, 236.
Collective,
Compd., 360
sq.,
365
399.
318
-gius for -m, 370.
conditio, 341 ; -do, 88.

conea, Praen., 22.
conesto for cohon-, 143.
confestim, 556.
coUis, 271.
confeta (SMS), 318.
collum, gender of, 369.

collum for -Z-, 112.
confuto, 309.
379
concino, -ui, 509.
coinquo, 311.
spelling
of,
conger (go-), 74
congius, 280.
300.
gu-, 33.
cololer for -fatb-, 37.
congruens (~uus), 540.
coloephia for -Zy-, 36.
conitor,
colonia, 321.
coniveo,
columen (culm-}, 185.

columna, pronunc., 69 -tow-, 37, 69
C. Eostrata, 7
-meZZa, 69.
;
columns, 97.
/-,
50
of, 114.
302 -nixi, 499.

Conjugations (see Verb).
Conjunctions, 596 sqq. accent, 169
variety of meaning, 596 of stem,
Conof vow.-quant., 596
596
Disjunctive, 599
junctive, 598 sq.
Adversative, 600 sqq. Limisq.
Explanatory, 603
tative, 602 sq.
;
300.
com- (cttm)
spelling
coZws,
scansion
227
cohors, 183.
colo,
294
Adj.), 358
161 sqq.
of,
cogo, 143-
Noun,
accent
A-stems,
I-stems,
0-stems, 364
363 sq.
364 U-stems, 364 N-stems, 364
R-stems, 365 Dent., Gutt. Stems,
365 S-stems, 365 in Pacuv., 360
in Lucr., 360; in Plaut, 362;
accent of, 164;
(Verbs), 362 sq.
influence on Simple Vb., 468
(Adv.) (see Adverbs) (Prep.) (see
sqq.
cognomen, 294.
collega,
compitum, 194.
complcre, in Romance, 489.
cognosco, con-,
314.
Compounds (Noun and
cognatus, spelling of, 114.
(?),
compesco, 192.
coepio.
co?ma
sqq.
Superl., 405,
of Adv., 550.
comperendinare, 486.
coemptionalis senex, 143.

coewa for ce-, 44, 277.
cojicio,
compellare, 472.
cocuhim, 300.
coelum for cael-, 44.
cohibeo,
404
Adj.,
Compar., 404, 406

407 irreg., 407 sq.
481.
coalesce,
of
Comparison,
for quo-, 300.

-co of albico, &c., 479.
ro-
coa
(co-?),
sq.,
Prep., 580; bef.
66, 99 sqq.
v-,
bef. n-, gn-,
comburo, 578, 144.
Conclusive, 604 sq
Optative,
sq.
605 Interrog., 605 sq. Compar.,
606 sqq. Temp., 608 sqq. Causal,
610 Condit., 610 sqq. Concessive,
comes, 350.
613
com is, 307.
Neg., 615 sq.
114
cum
bef. s-, /-,
bef. n-, 121
combretum, 227.
136 sqq.
;
c.
eo
c.
quom, 581
quiqui, 448.
Final, 613 sq.
Assev., 614 sq.
INDEX.
627
conjux (-nx\ 69, 358.
corruptus, cor-, 114;
conquaeisivei, 242.
Corus, 258.
conquiniscor, 470.
consacro for -sec-, 200.
cosentiont,
cos,
considero, 488.
consilmm, 286
259.
Scipio Epit., 529.
Dvenos
cosmis,
479, 487.
conscribillo,
-std-,
286.
cotonea, 75.
560
cottidie,
Consiva, 199.
coventio, S. C.
Consonant, lost in group, 309 sqq.

Stems and I-stems, 338, 341 (see
298.
coo;a,
for
cto^n',
Crasis, 142 sqq.

Crassus, story of, 169.
contages, 346.
in Romance, 489.
crastinus, 325.
219, 279.
conticinium, 194.
crates,
continue, 557.
crebesco for
-net-,
pronunc., 141
couewtf-,
250
310.
;
329.
of,
193.
itur,
conubium, spelling
conucella, 273.
479
cresco,
538.
of, 114.
-ei/e,
500.
ce#-,
96.
creterra, 118.
crimen, 336.
crinis,
339.
conviva, 318.
cn'sto,
339.
crocio,
476.
convollo (-veil-}, 228.

co^'s,
Adj., 144.
crudelis,
340.
crudus, 298.
copula, 143.
coquino, 470.
cruentus, 352.
cogw, 467
crwor, 298.
cor,
-w*(?), 515.
coquus, 291
-i&s, P. P. P.
cribrum, 330.
convicium, 225.
542.
cretariae for
contudit, 496.
144
506
crepo, -m', -an', 499,
crepuscidum, 273.
contubernium, spelling
copza,
95.
-duam, -im, 514.
crepus, 98.
controversia, 581.
contumeliafactum
-frr-,
crepa for capra, 98.
forms (see Verb).
479
credo,
creo,
581 -a, 557.

Contraction, e. g. era for cera, 177
e. g. mgformagnus, 125
Contr. Vb.-
contra,
97.
crapula, 197.
sq.
contamino, 292, 294.
Bacch., 250.
courauerunt, 246.
cracfa'
consternare, 470, 192.

consul, pronunc. of, 136
67
spelling, 227 sq.
crabro, 220.
Suffixes).
cowfe'o.
inscr., 307.
cothurnus, 33.
consiptus, 195.
conterere,
-?
spelling of, 299.

279; scansion, 122, 215.
;
crustum, pronunc.
141
of,
corallium (curali-), 34.
Crustuminus
coram, 581.
corbus for -VMS, 51.
-d- for Gutt.
(Cl-~),
93.
with
291, 293.
-ctum, e.g. virectum, 335.
86
cordatus, 483.
-CM- for gww,
corigia for corr-, 114.
-CM&, 446.
Cornelis, 372.
cubiculum, scansion of, 175.
sq.,
300.
cornicen, 192.
CM&O, -m' (-avi), 506, 4^9.
Comiscas, 404.
cuculus,
cornea;,
347.
CMC?O,
290 -ullus,
486 -<&', 502.
;
cornu, 279.
cwi (see gt', gwis)
cuicuimodij 445, 564.
333,
corona,
59
CMJMS, Poss., 443,
spelling
of,
59.
cujuscemodi, 444.
2 S S
115.
cornus, cornel, 279.

coroZto,
-frww, 96
-tlum, clustr-, 97.
CMZ rei
447
?,
606.
cujds, 447.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
628
dautia, 286.
culfus (KO\ITOS), 59.
-de of inde, &c., 570.
Perf., 501.
culi,
culmen, 235
(colum-\ 185.
f?e,
Dim.
culo-,
(see Suffix -LO-)
debit for
-culum, scansion of, 146, 175 sqq. (see
cum
scansion
rfebeo,
culpa, col-, 236.
-clum)
Prep., 581
confused with
di->
574.
deabus, 403.
culmus, 328.
debilito,
176.
416;
Secern,
of, 143.
376.
-fo's,
19, 21
-cim,
-cimus, 416,
Decius, 416.
(see com-).
cumbo, 471.
decimanus, 326.
cumprimis, 565.
Declension (Noun, Adj.), 366 sqq.
Nom. Sg., 371
cunae, 258.
cunchin for co, 33.
Dat., 385 sqq.
247
coi-, coe-,
curbus for
248
cow-,
246.
decreiuit, 22.
-n'-, 51.
decussi-j 409.
curiosus, 353.
dedro,
curricula, 556.
defendo, 486.
239
503
cecurri,
Komance,
Adj., 450 sqq.

(Verb) (see Verb).
declino, 470.
decor, M., -us, N., 356; decorus Adj., 356.
curia, 180.
cim-o,
Perf.
in
509.
531
-ot,
531.
defrudo, the spelling, 196, 40.

defrfdum, 261
-fri-, 197.
;
cursim, 556.
curtina for co-, 34.
defuctuSj 471.
curtus, 239.
Degrees of Compar.
custos,
degener, 356.
308.
Dehnstufe
CM&S, 260.
deinceps, 553.
cygnus, 292
(see Gradation).
570; dein, 122.

delenio (-Zw-), 199, 225.
;
287.
286.
delicatus,
delico,
delirus (-?er-), 199, 22.
sqq.
D -particle
(see Particles).
Abl., 391 sq.

(-De-), 17.
-dam of quidam, &c., 552.

Dama, spelling of, 117.
damma, spelling of, 117.
damnas esto, 183.
damnum, 328.
delubrum, 331.
-dem of idem, &c., 441
of tandem, &c.,
552.
demo,
-psi,
505.
Demonstratives (see Pronouns).

demum, 549 -s, 553.
;
Denominative
(see Derivative).
dens, 540.
Danubius for -MV, 51.
Dentals, phon. changes
danunt, 531.
dentio, 485.
dapsilis,
340.
das* (?;, O.
Lat
of,
283 sqq.
denuo, 564.
Inf., 537.
datatim, 556.
Dative
Comparison).
deinde,
ci-, 36.
D, pronunc., 80 sqq. and -Un a#, art,

&c., 76 sq.
Dalmatia
(see
degunere, 472.
-cutio (quatio), 196.
-d,
475.
-Is,
CMr, 606.
cwra,
>
-cunque, 598.
cuntellum for cwW-, 97.
cupa (-PP-), 116.
;
cwniZa(?), 155.
476
-cundus, 544 sq.
CM/MO,
388 sqq.
Abl., 390 sqq.
Instr.,
392 sqq. Loc., 395 sqq. Nom. PI.,
397 s q<l'
Gren., 401 sq.
Dat., Abl.,
Loc., Instr., 402 sqq. Ace., 404
(Pron.) Pers., 421 sqq. Demonstr.,
Pron.
431 sqq.
Eel., 443 sqq.
541 n.
cunctus,
Gen., 379 sqq.

Ace., 387 sq.
Voc.,
sqq.
(see Declension).
Past Part, of
sqq.
Act. Vb., 520, 542 ; Perf. of Neut.
Vb., 522 ; bef. Pass. Inf., 522 ; Act.
Deponent, 519
INDEX.
Act.
520 Pres. Part., 520
by-form, 521 sq. Pass, use of, 522,
542 -an like Gk. -fvciv, 521.
Perf.,
deprensa, 336.
629
dilexi, Perf.,
diloris,
505.
412.
dimico, 194
-am
(-wi),
dimidius, 409, 159
499.
de-, 30.
derbiosus, 268.
Diminutives, 333, 336
Derivative Verbs, 478, 483 sqq.
dimminuo, the spelling, 314.

dingua, O. Lat. for lingua, 286.
descendidi, 502.
desciso,
pronunc.
dinummium, 412.
479,
of,
dinus for divin-, 52.
358.
deses,
sq.
Desideratives, 478, 482, 484.
Diovem, 263 sq.
desidero, 488.
Diphthongs, phon. changes
of, 239
pronunc., 37 sqq. shortened
bef. cons., 251 sq.
when final, 213
Gk. in Lat. orth., 43 sq. Gk. ft, 244.
desilui
(-m), 499.
desitus sum, with Pass. Inf., 522.
sqq.
472.
destino, 470,
Determinative Comp., 360
dirimo, 582.
sq.
detestatus, Pass., 542.
dirrumpo, the spelling, 314.
detondi
dis-,
504.
(-tot-},
Prep., 582.
devas Corniscas, 404.
discerniculum, 333.
deunx, 409.
disciplina,
Fut. Perf., 507.
devoro,
deus
rWsco,
244 dei, di({), Nom. PL,

deum, -orum, Gen., 402
(cf. div-},
399,
21
deis,
diis,
21
Dat.,
diibus,
404
disertim, 556.
dispennite for -nd-, 64.
Dissimilation of
285 -timus, 405 -tera, Adv., 550.

phon. changes of, 289 sq.
DH-particle (see Particles).
cli-
(see
412
put,' 457.
dis-) for de-,
difor
574
for M-,
304
spelling
Dite,
408; Compar., 408.
Division of
243 -ces (?), 2 Sg., 526 -c (-cej,

Imper., 518
495, 497, 504
-xi,
-zo,
463
-z't'm,
-xero, 212
465
dicturum, O. Lat.,
dicebo, 492, 494
;
of, 193.
-tinus, 325.
dit-m, Perf., 498.

Syll., 124 sqq.
the spelling, no sq.

dius, Adv., 555.
divus (cf. dews), 244
devas, 404.
dixeram illis, pronunc. of, 123.
divissio,
-do of cupido, &c. (see Suffix -N-).
537-didi, Perf.. 496, 502.
dienoine,
Dvenos
-do,
inscr., 560.
inscr., 416.
-Her
Lat. F.,
of condo,
da, Imper.,
of, 457
518; dedi, 495 sq. dedro (-<), 53 *>
124 datus, 222 (see dwo).
-eunto, 3 PL, 519.
doceo, 259, 482
;
dodrans, 409.
553.
for v, 8.
(-Zifer),
2,
485.
doZws, 318.
domnus for
-min-, 185.
domo, Vb., 474, 481 -m, 506 w.

domws, 258; decl., 344; -mos, Gen.,
;
-ct-,
do, I give, decl.
dolllus,
Digentia, 287.
76
dignus, 293
Dolabella, 331.
Diespiter, decl. of, 364.
Digamma,
N., 205
Vbs. in, 486; Perf., 502
&c., 457.
397 pronunc., 212.

252 pronunc., 24, 30, 133 gend.,
369 n. Nom. Sg., 377 Gen., 382
in
in word-group, 169
dii, 382
Comp. Adv. 560 dienoine, Dvenos
diequinti,
digitus,
lost
Voc., 389.
X 555
Gen., 358.
difficul,
syll.
dicaz, 355.
dies,
275
471 spelling of, 301 sq.

Distributives (see Numerals).
distinguo,
di
105.
z,
dissipo,
du-es, dis,
dlco,
/,
distennite for -wrf-, 64.
dicae for -am, 492.
diets,
Z,
by, 176.
DH,
Ho
501.
dispalesco, 586.
dextans, 409.
dhe-,
97.
-plic-,
didici,
-dms(?), 618.
dexter,
176;
477;
185.
pronunc., 138 sq.
380, 384.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
630
donee, 609 -icum, 609
donum, 232.
;
dorsiialis.
not weakened to I, 199

of -e, 211 sq. O. Lat.
Gk. (see Eta),
sq.
609.
-ique,
340.
-rs-,
96.
Double Cons., pronunc.

for Single, 113 sqq.
W,
Vow.,
Doublets, 120 sqq
of,
108 sqq.
3, 8
written,
3,
204.
drua for
289.
Drusus, 289.
Dual, traces
of,
sq.,
-ebam of legebam, &c., 490.

-ebo, Fut, 3 Conj., 493.
-ebris offunebris, &c., 196.
366, 400.
Dvandva, Comp., 360
e&rms, 592.
365.
dubito, 482.
ecastor (ecc-), 618.
dubius, 411.
ecce,
419
466
diicenti,
0. Lat., 418 sq.
-turn,
618
-cere,
duettum, 268.
Ecthlipsis, 309 sqq.
Dvenos
ecus for equus, 86.
Inscr., 2.
duicensus, 411.
edepol,
duidens, 411.
erfice,
Dvigu, Comp., 360 sqq.
wZo,
609, 570.
Gen.
simus, 417
sq.
412 -a, Neut. PL,

416 -c&nti, 419 -w'ce;
-deviginti,
Duodecim Tabb.
421 sqq.
scansion, 422
mz7wT scansion, 422.
egregius, Voc. of, 389.
(see Twelve Tables).
i,
353
sq.
265 sqq.
of,
togo,' 456.
ejero,
199.
for -i, &c., 205 sq. ;

;
for -et/e-,
lengthened, 224
224 in grade of e-root, 260
230, 232
Dvenos
Nom.
-eis,
-She-,
243 sqq. for atonic ai, oi, 243

EI, 252 O.Lat. e for ei, 244 sq.
einom,
E, pronunc., 18 sqq. for oe, 44 for

ae, 42 sq. ; for i in hiatus, 19,
22 in atonic syll., 25, 30 e for z,
25, 29 sq.
sqq. ; for short vow. in atonic syll.,
191 sq., 194 ; for a after.?', 17 for 1
e
244 sq. for z, 9 for

e, 22
phon. changes
;
for
ei-,
ejulo,
i,
'
dw-, phon. change
for
sq.
Dusmius, 237.
inscrr.,
245, 22
of,
(-on-), 197.
-rfws, e. g. pallidus,
after
0. Lat.. 285.
egretus,
EI, on
416.
duonus, 268.
duplex (-MS), 411.
dupundius
decl.,
eô,
scansion, 411
PI.,
-decim,
326.
egestas,
-M, 515.
Num., 410
;
512
edulis, 340.
edus for haedus, 42.
dumtaxat, 565.
412
Vb., decl.
dumus, 237.
-um,
6 1 8.
Imper., 518.
-im,
*dumpa, 286.
duo.
of, 456
edi, 497
-am,
Imper., 518 essus, the
-tus, 309.
spelling, 112
-edo, -MwZa (see Suffix -D-).
duis, 0. Lat. for bis, 411.
"MWC, 609.
duo for do, 515
435
ecgms, 447.
rfwwi,
-urn, 617,
the spelling. 115.
eclesia,
617
-ilium, -istum, 432.
-xi,
due, Imper., 518
pronunc., 498 ductus, pronunc., 542.
duco,
eapse (-a?), 441.
(see Loss).
tr-,
sq.
drachuma, 145.
Dropping
shortening
for ei, 244
<Dat.' in, 387

204 sq.
with -I in Abl. Sg., 390 sqq.
-e of Adv., 548.
ec-, 583.
e, ex, Prep., 583
E-grade of Boot (see Gradation).
E- Subjunctive, 512 sqq.
eadem, Adv., 561.
loss of,
-e,
II, 7 sq.
dos, 341.
dossum for
inscr., 604.
PI.,
pronunc.
-ems, Prop.
0-stem, 398.
of, 53.
Names
in, 320.
ejuscemodi, 437.
-el-,
phon. change
-ela (see
of,
228 sq.
Suffix -LO-).
Perf., 505.
(see Suffix -LI-).
Elision, 144 sq. ; of -m, 61 sq.,
elicui,
-elis
123; -i of
Hiatus).
-s,
-at, -ei,
144
381, 383 (see
INDEX.
631
eremus, the scansion, 156.
293.
-eUa (-us), -el-, 112 sqq., 115.
eô, 583-
ellum, 617.
ergo, Prep., 583,
elixus,
Suffix -LO-).
-em- for I.-Eur. m, 273 sq.
-em, -im, Ace. Sg., 388 ; for -am, Fut.,
166;
-ellus (see
erro,
em, Interj., 617.
298.
erumna for
aer-, 43.
-fount, -ere,
531
PI.,
sq.
'
438
eum,' 438.
emem, 'eundem,' 438.
ervum, 196.
eminus, 554.
emitor for im-, 30.
es, est
em,
turn,'
emo, 505
-es (see Suffix -T-)
70
of,
(see edo, decl. of),

(see swm, decl. of).
es, es#
505
emeru, 531
emi, 502
spelling
-psi,
404
-ptus,
-psim,
466.
-es,
Nom. PL, 399
esca,
310.
esco,
479.
-endus, -undus, Ger., 544.
-esimus, -ensumus, 418.
emungo, 471.
-emus of supremus, &c., 407.
-en- for I.-Eur. n, 273 sq.
essere for esse,

essi's (?),
(e)st, (e)s,
en, Interj., 617.
-ester
Enclitics, 165 sqq.
et,
endo,
wdM, 582
sq.
and
in-,
583
en-
spelling
eneco,
enim, 603
of.
-v&ro,
603.
double
cons.,
ems, Carm. Arv., 425.

-ens (see Suffix -NT-).
Gk.
rja (?),
-enfta,
(-nib-~),
Adv., 568 sq.

of, 456
e. g.
ex/wfo',
;
eunt-, Part.,
541
252.
309.
exolesco,
expergitus, 542.
equidem, 603.
expers, 192.
exmrie, 570.
361.
481.
explenunt, 531.
equio, 484.
explodo, 196.
;
spelling,
300
pronunc.
explorato (-e), 550.
exsugebo, 494.
42.
for n, 231 sq. ; for -or- infaeneris,

&c., 34 (see also E).
-er-
from
EU,
me*(?), Fut., 493.
eques, 336.
-er,
examussim, 563.
exaurio, the spelling, 475.
exemplum, 271.
epulonus, 348.
e-,
39 sqq.
of,
617 accent, 164.

-eum (see Suffix -IO-).
eximius, 319.
of
-ens-),
-num, 570
-ros, 374
M., -ris
pronunc. of, 479.
;
arboretum, 335.
-ilt, Perf., 214.

Epirus, accent of, 155.
226
42 (see
examen (-agm-), 292.
191.
Vb., decl.
egwws,
ae,
-dum, 609
exadversus (-m), Prep., 595.
-enus (see Suffix -NO-).
equifer,
-TERO-\
-ex of remex, &c., 358.
enunquam, 617.
eo,
-etum,
-eus,
Compar., 407.
enubro-
eo,
599
euge (-ae),
136 n.
-iwm (see Suffix -NT-).
-entior,
of, 121.
evenat, 464.
274.
ensis,
(see Suffix
changes, 245 sq.
197.
-ens- for
PI.,
462 sqq.
in,
Procope
EU, pronunc.
3,8.
enocilis,
Ace.
-nunc (-mi-), 62, 69, 121.

etei, 613.
194.
introduced
Ennius,
-is,
0-stems, 398.
536.
Conj., 599.
Eta (Gk.), Lat.
ctiam,
doque plorato, 573.
466.
Vb. -forms
-esso,
Prep, (see w).
en,
accent,
308.
erw</o, -cto,
493 n.
Conj., 604
212.
-o,
F., 371.
exto, 311.
extemplo, 565.
extinguo, spelling of, 301 sq.

extispica, 358.
plion.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
63 2
fecundus, 545.
extra, 584.
fefaked, Praen.
exuo, 475.
F, the
291
letter, 2, 5,
sqq.
Gk.
for
bh-, 282 sq.
<t>,
pronunc., 98
/eZes,
from I.-Eur.
yeZias,
354.
/eZZo,
225.
289 sq.
ghS, 302;
-bh-, 283; dh-,
-dh-, 289; ghw,

for h, 294 sq., 56
297;
6, 78,
346.
femina, 225, 327.
Feminine
80.
504.
fib.,
295-
(see Gender).
fabula, 334.
femur, decl. of, 349 sq.

-di, Perf., 501.
-/endo, Vb., 486
facesso, 462.
ferejferme, 561, 185.
Fabaris, 95.
feriae, 307.
335.
facetus,
faciae for -am, 492.
fades, 345
S. C.
N. (Adv.), 553
-ciliter, -cutter, 553
5
~ cile
Adv
->
-cilumed,
458 coZ e)/., &c.,

183 sq., 488 -is, -it, 475 /', 497,
502 fac(e), 518 faxo (-m). 465
-xet (?), 508; fefaked, Praen. fib.,
decl. of,
504
/e/ced,
Dvenos
494 503
494, 497.
trtuli,
ferox, 354.
fertum, a cake, 310.
Bacch., 559.
457
facto,
/ero, decl. of,
facilis, -ciil,
554
545 ferinunt, 531.

457 /er, 517 Mi, 545,
/en'o, percussi,
347-
-is,
inscr., 528.
/erreo
476
(-i'o),
~bui, 51.
/ens, 297.
fescemnoe
(?),
398.
Vb., 472;
festino,
faenus (fen-}, 42.
344.
/a0ws, 221.
229.
(/e&-),
/aZZa, 355-
467.
/ate, 486.
ficedula (-ceZZa?), 353.
fama, 328.
^deZe,
/awes, 345.
fidelia,
Adv., 559.
290.
Fidenae, the scansion, 127 w.
famex, 355.
193; -a
Gen., 381.
familia,
(?),
famul for -Zus, 374.

fanum, 307.
/", 357/arao, 476 decl., 458
;
Nom., 211
-as,
345
/fZes,
-e, Gen., 383.
fididna, 358.
y?c?o,
243
in Komance, 488.
flducia, 337.
356 fiduslus,_ 356.

Fifth Decl. (see Suffix -YE-, -E-).
yzdws for/oed-,
;
-rsus, 542.
figlina, 184.
farnus, 279, 294.
./tyo,
farreus, 277.
figura, 291.
fastidium, 176.
./K-tMs,
fastigium, 277.
fastus, decl. of, 344.
/a%o, 563.
467
-xf,
225, 22
filiabus,
>Hix
499
;
swftgarus, 534.
-xus,
Voc., 389 sq.
-i,
-ie,
403.
229.
(/e-),
Final, Cons., pronunc. of, 1 19 sqq. -d,

122 -m, 67 sq., 123 -nt, 124 -r, 97
double cons.,
-t, 123
-s, 108, 123
119, 122 ; Vowel, short, 203 sqq.
;
563.
;
-MS, 370.
Fatuus, 324.
235.
/auor, 357.
355-
febricula, 333.
fatuus, 324.
/*,
^geZ for -ulus, 375.
-fariam, 552.
/anna, 357.
favilla,
-afo
for fat-, 18.
faenisicia (fen-}, 42.
/atom, 542
festus, 307.
facundus, 545.
/aw,
Adj., 556
-us,
Adv., 550.
(-iw),
long, 207 sqq.

findo,
Jingo,
469
297
in -m, 216 sq.
SOL
fidi,
495,
-nxi,
pronunc., 140
471.
fini (-e),
syll.
Adv., 552.
-nctus.
INDEX.
finitimus, 405.
/races, 270.
fi, 545, S 22 ; fii 522

fieri,
0. Lat. -re, 522 ; yftw, 522.
;
pronunc.
firmus,
of,
132
141.
First, Pers. Sg., ending, 524 sq. ; PI.,

529 ; Syll., accent, of, 157 sqq.
fivo, 0. Lat. forfigo, 467.
fixulae, 467.
222
Jlagro,
confused with/ragrro, 92.
221.
486
(-rfeo),
486
/rMfifi,
407
frundes for
484*1.
the
30,
119;
sq.
185;
-grrf-,
-mint-,
-owrZ-,
/mor, 484 n. -imino, 519.

- M
-> 4; -or,Vb.,5s8.
(-),557
;
yhisfra,
frustmm
488.
for -fwm, 96.
fodio, -odi, Perf., 502.
/Mflra,
239.
foedifragus (-en/-), 365.
/igro,
476
356 jfaZ-, 356.

/ons, pronunc. of, 136.
/or, decl. of, 457
/an', 221.
/m
ybras, 550, 557.
/wZ'ca, (-Zc-), 236.
foedus, N.,
/z^', 502.
(see /wo).
/wêo
(-gfo),
476
forceps, 178.
fulmentum, 310.
forcilia, the spelling, 239.

forctus, O. Lat., 182 sq., 541.
fulvus, 235.
/ons, 551
funambulus, 364.
Fundanius, Gk. mispronunc. of, 58, 99.
fundatid, Luceria inscr., 519.
of, 141.
formidolosus, spelling
formonsus for -os-, 69.
of, 197.
funditus, 561.
formus, 302.
fundo, fudi, 502
fornax, 239.
funera necfunera, 616

funerus (?), 356.
278
Adv., 560
forsitan, -m,
560
560
fuat an, 516
forsan, -m,
/.
560.
Fortes and Lenes, 71 sqq.

;
-ret-,
342.
/wr,
233
forum, 289.
furnus, 239
Foslius, 307.
/wro, 297.
/osea, 295.
furvus, 306.
/owo, 289, 302.

Fourth Decl., blends with Second,
fuscus, 306.
269 sqq.
w.
/M,
518
/m,
Perf.,
scansion, 215.
furca, 239.
fr- for mr-,
exfutus, 309.
scansion, 132, 508 sq.
fortuito (-M), 550.
sq.
/wrcgror, 471.
funtes for -ow<-, 33.
/MO, -am, 515
fortasse (-is), 560.
541
505
'
in Vb. Comp., 575.
-Zsz,
fuma, terra, 295.

fumus, 237.
n.
forma, pronunc.
fulgorio, 485.
/orem, 545
23.
31, 33.
fruniscor, 470, 237.
-a, 499.
foculum, 289.
343
fressus,
Compar., 408.
the spelling,
fmmentum,
fluentum, 352.
fortis,
fviguttio, 488.
356.
in Komance, 489.
/orfe,
n.
306.
/nflrus,
#os, 258.
/ors,
fractus, pro-
-aria, 172.
476.
/oeftco,
139.
Frequentatives, 478, 482
Jlexuntes (?), 352.
./Zwo,
frater,
/regri,
of,
frigidus. frid(d}-,
476.
.FZora,
502
nunc.
fragl-, 92.
frequens, 559.
486.
florere,
spelling, 115.
jlemlna, 258.
jzo,
Numerals).
(see
fragum, 306.
frango, 222
frendo,
flavus, 279.
/feo,
Fractions
fragro &ndflagr-, 92
fraxinus, 279.
'Jlamen, a blast, -mm-, 118.
JZecfo,
633
/or-, 239.
Fusio-j 305.
fussus, the spelling, 113.
futtilis,
309
spelling
of, 117.
545
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
6 34
Future
(do.)
(see Tense-stems)
Fut. Perf
Fut. Imper., 516 sqq.
gluma
-gm-j
G,
2 sq., 6 sq. ; pronunc., 84

from I.-Eur. Gutt. Asp., 291,
letter,
sqq.
296
sq.,
sqq.
c-,
298, 302
301
9*,
72, 74 sqq.
296
G, 298
yaesum, 305
Gams, 252
spelling
Gutt. Ten., 292
for gu, 301 sq.

&, phon. changes of,
ty, 301 sq.
sq.
of,
of, us.
(glubo), 282.
spelling
glosa,
112.
pronunc., 53.
pronunc.
-itur,
gnatus
485
gorytus
;
-us
sum,
541.
36.
</?/-,
74.
grabattus, 118.
(co-),
Gradation
Gaulish, mispronunc. 27.
Weak
gelu, 296, 261.
gemma, 273.
Gender, 368 sqq. of N-stems, 349
in Adj., 370 sq. ; Fern. 0-stems,
369; Masc. and Neut. 0-stems
;
mixed, 369
sq.
A-stems
Fern.
and Neut. O-stems, 400
disuse
of Neut., 369 sq.

yener, 271.
genetrix, 191 ; -nit-, 200.
Genitive
(see Declension)
163 sq.
accent,
256
255
258
259
260
of Vowels,
grade, 255 sqq.
E-grade, 255 sq.
I0-stem,
Gerund, of Pur-
e-6,
0-grade,
261 sq.
grando, 297.
granum, 219 sq.

grates,
341.
gratis (-its), 403, 551.
gens, 341.
gratus, 279.
296;
the scansion, 144
-nva,
gravastellus, 330.
genuinus, 326.
Grave Accent, 153
genus, 225.
gravedo (-Mo), 23, 353.
Gerund,
&c.,
gesticulor,
488.
gravis,
543 sqq.
written for
ng, 10 sq.
GH,
phon. changes of, 296 sq.

298
HU, 302.
ghe- (gho-), Dem. Pron., 430.
gigno, 468
geno, 459, 465.
gingrina, 483
-no, Vb., 483.
-gintd, the scansion, 418.
;
GH,
for
vow., 70 sq.
accent, 155 sq.
nuances of feeling, 182 for excla;
mations, 617 Mispronunc. of Lat.,

2 7, 45> 58, 114 sq- Orthography, influence on Lat., 12, 576 Phonetics,
Traninfl. on Lat., 28, 32, 152 sq.
;
scription of Lat., ch. ii. passim, 135

Lat. of Gk. (see under Gk. name
of letter, e. g. Eta, also Aspirates,
290
glades, 261.
glans, 302.
glarea, 288.
*glerem for.
sqq.
301 -id, 210 *grevis, 18.

Greek, Aspirates (see Asp.) DiphLetters (see
thongs (see Diph.)
Alphabet)
Loanwords, parasitic
germen, 271 sqq.
Diphthongs, Breathing, Tenues).

-lir-,
glolus, -mus, 80.
296.
258
1-6, 258
o-a,
sq.
e-a, 258 sq.
a-6, 259
a-a,
sq.
e-e, 260
6-0,
i-I, 260
u-u, 260 sq.
e-a, 261
5u-au,
sq.
285.
yramae, -mmosus, 118.
pose, 383
geno for gigno, 459, 465.
glos,
grallae,
n.
glaber,
253 sqq.
of ye, we,
gradior, 476.
gradus, 222.
genista, 195.
-yg-
(Vb.)
488.
Gracchus, Varro's deriv., 93.
522.
genu,
541
-igavit,
goerus for
522
Gnosus, spelling of, 117.

-gnus (see Suffix -NO-).
for -guo, 301 sq.
-go (see Suffix -N-)
garrio, 277.
gavisi,
-uris,
485
-ivisse,
(nat-),
yattina, 370.
-gn-, 64, 70.
gnoritur, 485.
gobius, 74.
479
89
gnar- (Adj.), -us, 220
yallicinium, 194.
gaudeo,
of,
Gnaeus, 294.
30.
Grimm's Law,
groma, 96.
grus, 298.
31.
INDEX.
86 sqq., 301
-yu- for guu,
sq.
pro-
nunc., 84 sqq.
635
Heteroclite, Nouns, 367 locus, -ca,

400
Vbs., 545 (see Comparison,
;
guberno, 74.
irreg.).
gulfus (see ad-).
heu, Interj., 39.
Hiatus, 144 sq. (see Prosodical H.)

269 sq.
hie, Pron., decl. of,
430 sqq.
pronunc., 433 huic, pronunc., 44.
gummi, 74.
-guo (-go) in Vbs., 301 sq.
hibernus,
gurges, 301, 358.
gurgulio, 275.
Vb., 482 -MS, Noun, 296.

Gutturals, letters, 2 sq., 6 sq., 10 sq.
phon. changes of, 290 sqq. three
series, 290 sqq.
Proper (or Velar),
297 sq.
hie,
gutus (-#-)> IJ 6.
Hihiria for
the spelling, 29, 36.

gyrus (groe-), 36 sq.
hinnuleus,
</wsfo,
gyla,
Adv., 567, 433.
Hidden Quantity
hiems, 358, 297
(see Close Syllable)
-mps, 70.
338 sq. ; -rus, 182.

hilaritudo (-fas), 341.
hilaris,
hio,
Illyr-, 36,
pronunc.
115.
118.
of,
476.
hiquidem, 433.
H, pronunc.
53 sqq.
of,
to
denote
vowel-length, 54 hiatus, 265 for/,

56, 294 sq.
dropped bet. vow., 54,
294 fromgh, 296 sq. fromgh, 298.
scansion of Comp., 143
habeo, 280
;
'
to dwell,' 483.
hircus, spelling of, 56.

hirrio, go.
hirsutus, hirtus, 229.

hiulcus, 337.
hoc (Adv.), O. Lat., 568.

hocedie, 433.
561
habito, 482.
hodie,
hacetenus, 433.
holus (hel-\
haedus, 242
feted-,
242
-sst,
haereo,
56 ed-, 42.
the spelling, 112
homo, 349
-ullus,
hum-, 33, 236

-undo, 337; -uncidus, 337.
hem-, 367
333
hordeum, 298.
127.
halica (al-), 56.
horitur,
halo, 220.
horreo, 277.
hanser (see anser).

harena, spelling
homicida, 364.
-surus, 542.
Half-long Vowel,
pronunc., 84.
228 sq. -atrum, 362.
Enn., 482.
Jiorsum, 568.
hortor, 482.
56.
of,
hariolus, spelling of,
56
far-
(?), 56.
hortus, 296.
haruspex, arisp-, 29.
hospes, 178, 298.
hasta, 308.
hosticapas, 187, 371, 373.
haud,6i6
hau, 120, 122 ; -quaquam, 569.
pronunc. of, 49, 56, 127 n.

haurio, 475; -ssi, the spelling, 112;
have,
-surus, 542.
hosticus, 337.
ftosfts,
7mc,
298, 341.
Adv., 568.
*hucare, 486.
351.
ftec, O. Lat., 433.
Hecoba, 0. Lat., 197.
Am', Interj., 39.
hedera, haed-, 43.
humerus (see MW-).
Hedonei, Gen., 381.
humilis, 338.
hebes,
7ez'a,
617
hujuscemodi, accent, of, 162.
humane
w.
617
pronunc.
of,
61.
Hercules, spelling of, 197.
I,
Herentas, 482.
^m,
the
7 sq.
264, 396
(-e), 25
pronunc. of, 135.
;
554.
humus, 236 ; decl., 344.

Hydruntum, 289.
helvus, 276, 229.

ftem, Interj.,
(-iter),
sq.
heries (heriem Junonis), 345.
-sternus,
letter, 3, 7 sq. ;
tall form, 4,
;
written for II,

8 sqq., 47, 133
doubled in aiio, &c., 8,

137 w47>53; symbols of long, 9; pronunc.,
23 sqq. phon. changes, 230 sqq.
s(l-5
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
636
Lat.
for atonic vow., 193 sqq.
bef. ng, gn, &c.,
hiatus,
21
19,
206
&c.,
225
sq.
189, 23 sqq.
sqq.
i-
for e
in
229
sq.
in
tuncine,
u in
for
sq.,
optimus, &c.,
prefixed to
102, 105 sqq. ; -i dropped,

i for g in filius, &c.,
Lat.
&c.,
st-,
204
224
sq.
sq.
for atonic ai, oi, 243 sq. ; for ei,

243 sqq. ; for t lengthened, 230 ;
varying with
i,
260
-I
shortened,
J, the letter, 7
pronunc., 44 sqq.
I -Eur. Y, phon. changes of, 262
;
sqq.
Lat. j for ghy, 263 sqq.
dy-, 263 sq.
bef.
dropped
for
accented
vow., 144.
I-stems, mixed with Cons.-stems,

338, 401 (see Suffix -I-).
I-Subjunct. (Opt.\ 513 sqq.

-?- in Fut. Perf., 510
Perf. Subj.,
500 3 Conj. Vbs. in -io, 475.
;
i-u, u-i,
in stupila, &c., 37.
pronounced je-,
jacio, jaceo,
joe-, 41.
19, 21.
J
Gen., 541.
tens, euntis,
j/enfo (ja-),
-ter,
17
jejent-, 17.
Inf. Pass., 536 sq.
-wrem, accent of, 164.

igitur, 565, 605
accent., 169.
;
473
502.
jeci,
ignosco, 363, 615.

-z'gro
earn,' Ace. Sg., 437.
janfo, 17.
jen-, 17.
Januarius, pronunc.
of,
Janus, decl.
of,
344
15
-is,
Jen-, 17.
Carm.
Sal.,
339-
ilicet,
t'Zt'co,
564.
564.
ilignus, 293, 229.
(see Suffix -LI-)
-dem, 571, 567.

-160, Fut., 493.
-Ic of illic,
&c., 551.
;
-im of sensim, &c., 548 ; of 7Zm, &c.,

551
(-em) Ace. Sg., 388.
'
eum,' 438.
i'm,
;
imitor, 521.
imeum
-A'O-).
accent, in Plaut., 165 sqq.
-?cws (see Suffix

-OK"-)
580
;
ice-,
314.
'
(?),
eundem,' 438.
immanis, 339.
immo, 603.
impendio. 560.
decl. of, 441 sq.
identidem, 571.
ideo,
id, Perf., 502.

-ferns (see Suffix
idem, 431
of Pass.
293.
imago, 521.
imbilicus for wm&-, 29.
idcirco,
-ilis,
Adv., 567, 432.

pronunc. of, 498, 139.
iUim, Adv., 570.
illimodi, 43 T.
-illo of Dim. Vbs., 479, 487 sq.
illuc, Adv., 568.
-Him (see Suffix -LO-) (-tZws), 115.
-icanus, e. g. Afr-, 327.
and
(-i\
ittustris,
-ibam, -iebam, Impft., 491.
Ictus,
&c.,
illicio, -exi,
janitrices, 274.
567
audlit,
132.
illic
for -md-, 66, 121,
of navigo, &c., 479.
-ô (see Suffix in Gutt.).

-iit of a&n, &c., 528
of
jam, 570.
janua, 264
229.
jajunus, 17.
jandudum
ignis,
ignoro, 485.
Adj. (do.).
iliac, Adv., 569.
ilk,
430, 436 sq.
pronunc., 122
accent., 167
-ui, Dat. Sg., 452.
illex and illex, 135 n.
tilex, the spelling, 112.
jajentaculum, 17.
ibi,
jejunus O'aj-)? i?
pvonunc., 53.
-ie(n)s of Numeral Adv., 408.
-^^^s
15, 17.
jaculum. 332.
mm,
349
old spelling of -m, Dat. Abl. PL,
-m's,
Ignatius for Egn-, 229.
213.
ja-
jecwr, decl. of,
(see Moods) as Particle,

600 accent of adduc, &c., 163.
Imperfect (see Tense-stems).
Imperative
568.
idolatria, 176.
impero, 192.
idolum, the scansion, 150.
Impersonal Pass., 520
-tdus, e. g. pallidus,
impetrio, 485.
353
sq.
;'e-forja-, e. g. jecto for jacto, 15, 17.
tmpteo, 473.
sq.
INDEX.
637
impliciscor, 480.
inger,
implicitus, P. P. P., 542.
ingratis (-Us), 551.
Imporcitor, 279.
inibi,
impraesentiarum, 562.
inipite (?J 198.
Imper., 526.
567.
Initial Syll. (see First Syll.).

the scansion, 475.
imprimis, 565.
improbo, 615.
inliclte,
impudenter, 554.
inpeirator, 22.
impune, 559.
-wmts of Superl. (see Comparison).
inquies, -etus, 182.
inquam, 524; Conj.
Prep., 584 z'm, im-, 50 sq., 66,

bef. s-, /-, is6sqq.
69, 99sqq. 121
with Vb., 615, 363.
in-, Neg., 615
insane, -um, 550.
-ma
inserinuntur, Liv.
(en),
insequo,
(see Suffix -N-).
Inceptives, 476 sq.,479 sqq.;
-esco,
insperatas,
134.
239
spelling
334.
Pompon., 398.
508.
t'n*(?) f
3 PI., 456.
intellexi, Perf.,
505.
intemperies, Sg., -ae, PI., 347.
585.
incurmcervicus, Accius, 360.
inter,
indaudio, 583.
interatim, 556.
inter diu (-s), 555.
-didem,
570
pronunc., 122
570 sq.
Indefinite Pron. (see Pronouns).
;
Indeterminate Vow.,
257.
interduatim, 556.
inter dum,
interduo,
indigena, 583.
609.
515
interealoci,
Vb., 583
-MS
(-ens'),
Adj., 540.
Indo-European, languages, 218 pro;
totype of word, 218
alph., 218 sqq.
-MM, 515.
of, 162.
accent,
inter ibi, 567.
Interjections, 616 sqq.; from Gk.,

617;
Imper., 618 ; accent, of,
164.
indoles, 345, 583.
indu (see enV).
interim, 570.
indugredior, 583.
Interrogative, Particles,
Pron. (see Pronouns).
wcZwo, 475.
605
induperator, 583.
intervias, 563.
industrius, 189.
inebrae aves, 191.
intolerans for -andus, Laev., 543.
infans for infandus, 182
intrare, 474.
intra, Prep.,
inferebis, 494.
m/erws,
-/er,
intus,
374
-/ra,
Prep.,
585
/era, 181 ; inflmus, imus, 407.

as Imper., 517
Infinitive, 535 sqq.
Pres. Act., 535, 537 Pass., 536 sq.
;
Fut. Act., 536 sq.
injjt,
546.
infiteor,
615.
ingens, 274, 541.
585
Adv., 561
-tro,
Adv. 561.
Prep., 585.
inventio, 274.
invito,
Pass., 536, 538

Perf Act., 536 Pass., 536 Hist.,524.
.
insuper, 593.
the spelling, 192.
incoram, 581.
incubus (-bo}, 348.
indigeo,
PI.,
Instrumental, 548 (see Declension)

Adv. use of, 559 sqq.
of, 197.
incoho, spelling of, 57.
ma*e,
Andr., 531.
of, 136.
Nom.
institui, Perf.,
470.
incolomis,
decl., 545.
284, 471.
instigo,
incitega, 197-
(-lit-},
instar, 205.
incipisso, 462.
incogitabilis,
566
-co,
pronunc.
insons,
incassum, 564.
indutus
sq.
insciens, -us, 540.
inclino,
545
inquilinus, 227.
imus, inflmus, 407.
of,
Vb., -MS, Adj., 299.
-inum for -enum,

mww#, 3 PI., 531.
23.
involucrum, 329.
-frms (see Suffix -NO-).
JOCMS, 264.
-wlum, accent,
-ior (see
of,
164.
Comparison).
sq.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
638
lotacismus,
loues
Inscr.), 264.
(Dvenos
ipse (-us],
jus,
27.
430, 440 sq.

ipsippe
-issumus,
79
isse,
(-pse,
'
ipsima,
-pte),
441
broth,' 237
law,' 264.
Compar., scansion of, 406
;
-ms,
Justus, 356.
juvenalis,
eapse (-a), 441.
spelling of, 245.

in Fut. Inf. Pass., 538.
juvencus, 264.
iri
juvenis,
of
-is
Pron., 430
is,
-/sco
for
-esco,
j'ww,
decl. of,
pronunc.
ejus,
437 sqq.
476
juerint, 508.
jwxto, 585.
-KB offelix, &c. (see Suffix -JTO-,
53.
of,
239; Compar., 408.

334 w. -fas (-ftis), 341.
juventa,
375.
Cornells, &c.,
340.
-ilis,
ira,
Irregular Verbs, 545 sqq.
n.
jusjurandum, 358.
Gutt.)
of comix, &c. (see Suffix -I-)
Incept., 480.
Issa, 79.
6 sq
pronunc., 84
phon. changes of I.-Eur. K,
295 sq. of K, 297 sq.
K, the
-issimm, Superl. (see Compar.).

-isso, Vb., 488.
istac,
iste,
Adv., 569.
430; decl., 435
sqq.
pronunc., 122;
Adv., 567.
istuc, Adv., 568
-it, 3 Sg. Perf., 527 sq.
ita, 571; -idem, 571.
Italia, the scansion, 127
sq.,
571
L, pronunc. of, 89 sqq. bef cons.,

I.-Eur. L, phon. changes
96 sq.
L, 278 sq. Lat. I for d,
of, 275 sq.
for r, 92 sq.
for
80, 82, 285 sqq.
for II, 109 sqq.
n, 96
I- for
tl-, 283 sq.
-L vow. shortened bef., 213; decl. of
;
n.
scansion, 604.
item, 571.
-Her,
482.
itare,
in Lat., 72.
Karmadharaya, Comp., 360 sq.

ke- (to-), Dem. Pron., 429 sqq.
e.g. Abder-, 327.
604
kadamitas, 286.
Kappa
accent., 167.
itaque,
istic (-?'),
-itcinus,
letter, 2,
Adv., 549, 553-
Nouns
Her, decl. of, 349.
Iteratives, 478, 482 sq.
in, 376.
Labials, phon. changes
of,
281 sqq.
Labiovelar Gutt., phon. changes
-itia
550.
(-urn) (see Suffix -IO-).
itur,
Impers., 520.
labes,
iterum,
ju-
330
pronounced ji-,
481
jubeo,
jussi,
299 sqq. (see Qs, p,

345.
labium, 261.
15.
pronunc.
of,
nosq.
0. Lat. joussei, 498.
303.
Idbrum, 180.
Idbo,
jucundus, 545.
lac,
judex, 182.
spelling
of,
122
Jugatinus, 325.
307.
lacer for -ratus, 540.
Jugis, 338.
lacesso,
jugmentum, -gum-, 336, 292.

juger-, 245 mgrra for-era, Lex Agr., 184.
jugum, 237 264.
lacio,
lacus, 301.
Julius, 250.
lacusta for
lad
(-te),
462.
191.
lacrima,
223
spelling, 57 sq.
loc-,
201.
'
eum,' Luceria inscr., 437.

jumentum, 336.
jungus (?), 471.
junior, 408.
;
ji-,
35.
345.
377
lambero, 479.
lambo, 471
-bi (?), Perf.,

lab-,
lammina, -mn-
Jov-,
389; spelling, 116;

263 sq.
jurigo, 0. Lat., 173.
65.
(-nn-}, 184.
Zawa, 279.
Jupiter (-PP-), 246,

decl.,
laevus, 242.
lambrusca for
juniperus (-pir-), 374, 192

juntoc,
lacca,
mm,
HS\
lancino, 470.
langueo, 306.
lanius (-10), 348.
501.
378.
of,
INDEX.
lanterna {-mpt-}, 70.
mud,
353-
lapis,
328.
471.
larignus, 293.
lingua, 229, 286.
Larinum, 288.
lingula, 272.
larix,
286.
Zmt'o,
Zarw
(-rwa), 46.
Zmo, 470.
483.
lassus, 258.
linquo,
tote, 355.
linter (Zzm-), 29.
laticlaws, 361.
liguare, -ere, 484.
Latona, 349.
liquor,
219
Zaw, 235
Ztra,
sq., 541.
Zaftts,
-vi,
in
499
Compounds,
lautus,
lo-,
250
-Zwo
196.
spelling
spelling
117
of,
l.caiiina. 90.
117.
of,
Locative
(see
PI
nl,
271
307, 564
legitimus, 405.
lectum, pronunc.,
Declension)
Adv. use
loedus, 0. Lat., 248.
orth. of,
Long, Cons.,
139-
Lenes and Fortes, 71 sqq.

Length (see Long Cons., Vow.)
Lengthening, by Position (see Pos.)
by Compensation, 314; bef. nf, ns,
s q- ( see
3 sq-> 9
3,
109
Vow.,
Quantity).
longus, spelling of, 236.

loquella,
the spelling, 112 sqq.
loquor, 284.
136 sqq.
gn, gm, 138 sq.
x,
ct,
139 sq. net, nx, 140; r with cons.,
140 sq. s with cons., 141.
-ibunt, 493.
lenibat, 491
Losna, 292.
Loss, of Cons, in Group, 309 sqq.
of final syll. in -m, 216 sq.
lenocinor, 488.
lubricus, 306.
-lens (-lentus} (see Suffix
-NT-).
252.
lepesta, 286.
lentus,
Carm.
Sal., 245.
mille,
27
and
</
ae,
for gg,
1 1
97;
420; I'ZZi, 437.
Lucretius, use of Compounds, 360.

pronunc. of, 135.
luctus,
Ferf-> 5<>5syncopated after cons.,
-teri (-Zegri)
lucus, 250.
17:.
Indus,
287
fties,
libet (lub-},
lumbus, 290.
29.
289.
613.
lupus, 291
lien,
349.
Zwrco, 179.
291, 482.
limitrophus, 176.
248.
Zwwa, 292.
Ztcef,
272.
loed-,
345.
libertabus, 403.
ligula,
9,
e
Lucipor, 183.
260.
ligurrio,
ei,
42 r, 90
numeri, Gen., 383 n.
pellicio,
200, 242.
libra,
and
for a, 10, 14
Urns, 292.
-K-,
396.
Lucilius,
Zm's, 244.
lex,
12, 177.
481.
luci claro,
Levana, 326.
Leucesie,
Marso-Lat.,
lubs,
lucerna, 237.
Letters (see Alphabet).
levir,
250.
lotus,
luceo,
for wep-, 96
leptis
400 0. Lat. stlocus, 303,

in wordgroup, 170.
Loebasius, 248.
locus, -ca,
legatus, 541.
285
dl,
s qq-
559
of,
legirupa (-ger-\ 373, 192.
%/, 502
277.
rl,
littera,
pronunc. of, 139.

lectum (-s), 542 pronunc., 139.
Legato Pronunciation, 131.
260
268.
Mxa, 293 -ivus, 323.

-ZZ- for Id,
In, Is, 275
286.
Zecfor,
Zegro,
502.
Z/gu/,
199.
ZzYws,
laurus, 286.
lautia,
469
F., 370.
*lur(i]dus for
licri-,
lustra, lustra, 141.

lustro,
293.
37.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
640
Mr a,
Marpor, 185.
289.
276 (see Imi).

lympha, 286 spelling,
marsuppium
lux,
M, the
letter, 7
121
123
sq.,
60 sqq.
;
assimi-
I.-Eur.
M, phon.
268 sqq. M, 273 sq.
Lat. m for w, 269 bef. r-, /-, 50 sq.,
for p, 281
for b, 282 sq.
66, 99 sqq.
final
-m, vow. shortened bef., 213
syll. dropped, e.g. nihil(um\ 216
lated,
changes
of,
sq.
of
(-p-}. 117.
Marsus, 84.
wasceZ, 375.
36.
pronunc
dropped, 68
final
11
Masculine
(see Gender).
Maspiter, 278.
massa, 104.
mateola, 19.
mater, 219.
matertera, 405.
matruelis, 340.
*mattinus for
184.
-<w<-,
mattiobarbidus, 197.
Sg., 524.
macer, 223.
mattus, 185, 309.
macero, 488.
maturrime, 407.
tnadeo, 223, 473.
mavolo, 547.
maereo, maestus, 306, 542.
magnanimus, 364.
maximus, 407 pronunc., 139.

Media Prosodia, 161.
Mediae, pronunc. of, 71 sqq.; M.,
Tenues and Asp., phon. changes of,
279 sqq.
magnopere, 362.
mediastinus
magnus, 261.
Maia, -n'-, 8
medioximus, 407.
medipontus (-Z-), 287.
mag-is (-e), 558.

magister, 232.
magistrates, 343.
105.
-di-,
408
330.
(-<n'-),
pronunc., 53.
male, 551
mal(e)-, 184; -./Jews, 51.
malignus, pronunc. of, 138.
mala, 547; -?Z-, in sqq.
malim, 515.
malogranaium, 364.
meditor, 521, 287.
mdlus, 307.
Mamers, 95.
mefte, 0. Lat., 422.

mehercle (-cules\ 618.
mamitta, 113.
we^'o,
major, 292,
mamma, n8w., 363.

mamor for marm-, 95.
mamphur i^?), 197.
wwwe, 396.
maneo, 476
mcdius fidiuSj 618.

medidlitus, 561.
me?,
466.
scansion
122.
Melica for Med-, 287.

melior, 406.
Perf. of, 501.
weZtow
505.
-n.si,
warn'- (-no-), 183
Jfarces,
339.
406.
(?),
melum for
;
of,
wetes, 346.
mandare, 485.
mandere, 472
Meditrina, 347.
medius, 226.
maZ-, 18.
membrum, 270.
memini, 270; -mento, 517.
manico-, a handle, 337.
memor, 541.
manifestus (-nuf-\ 193.
mendicus, spelling
maniplus, pronunc.
mendum, N.
mansues
of, 94.
(-tus}, 182.
(-dfa,
mews, 274
manualis, 340.
marcerat for -cidat, 288.
mensa, pronunc.
-cfoYZws,
245.
menetris, for meretrix, 96.
mantele (-Hum), 117.
ware, 338.
maredus for
of,
F.), 400.
288.
maritimus, 405.
MariuSj 320.
marmor, 18 ; pronunc., 95.
117.
-menfe,
Adv., 549, 552.
of,
67.
the scansion, 212.

-mentum (see Suffix -TO-).
mentio,
mercedimerae, 540.
mercennarius (-w-), pronunc.
merda, 306.
-eww^ 3 PI., 519;
the scansion, 202.
mereo,
of, 118.
merebatur,
INDEX.
meretrix,
347
modus in word-groups, 169, 564.

woe-, 0. Lat. for mu- in moerus, &e., 248.
menetris, 96.
641
merga, 351.
345
merges, 351.
moles,
mergo, 285.
mottibit (?}, 493.
monednla
288; med-, 288.
men-idles,
mmYo, 559.
mers for
moneris, -intformonu~, 506.

(-ia) (see Suffix -IO-).
;
-monium
Monosyllables, shortening
482.
-so,
288.
(-er-),
moneo, 477
-ra, 107.
merfo for
sq.
merula, 288.
monstrum, 331.
messis, 340.
-meZ ofegomet, &c., 421, 423 sq., 429.
monumentum,
-worn-,
Metathesis of
Moods, 511
sqq.
r,
Z,
Months, Gender
91, 97 sq.
metior, mensus, 471.

wetfo,
486
324
scansion,
215;
119,
-ex,
419
sq.
milia, spelling of, 112
sq.
milvus (-uos), 46.
mina
(/wci),
64
in word-group, 169
multimodis, 362.
505
-?si,
287
-mungo, Vb., 471.
munus, 247.
-mino, Pass., 517, 519.
-mitr, i PI. Pass., 534.
*murca for
Praen.
mt'fto,
479; mixtus,
-stus,
306 my-, 29.

pronunc. of, 117
mws, i PI. Act., 529

mus, 237.
107.
musimo,
;
mm,
scansion, 529.
musca, 239.
muscipula, 365.
0. Lat.
meissei, 499, 112.
mitulus, myti-, 37.
71.
Mutation of Vowels (see Gradation).

Mute and Liquid, vow. lengthened
bef.,
ml, phon. change of, 270 sq.

-mn~, pronunc. of, 64, 69 sq.
wo- for meo-, Poss., 426.
mocZeror,
107.
murmur, 315.
inscr., 229.
misellus, -serulus, 333.

mt'ser.
7>i-,
muriola, spelling of, 117.
mis, Gen., 421 sq.

misceo,
279.
Mummius,
minister, 232.
173, 202.
-Ictus,
-terem, accent, of, 164.
miniscitur, 200.
minor, 407.
509.
Compar., 408.
dedicatory inscrr., n.
midtus,
-me (-mum}, Adv., 550.
Romance,
505.
-Isi,
mingo, 455
-mini, 2 PI., Ind., 534; Imper., 517.
Mircurios,
-tuus,
mr, phon. change of, 270 sq.

-ms-, phon. change of, 270.
mucus (-cc-), 116.
mulier,
-rasrf-,
mox, 555.
mulgeo, 296
mi(n)sterium for
minuo, 471.
475
52.
-fcws,
minerrimus, 407.
Minerva, 306, 190.
-iri,
mostellum, 331.
mulceo,
sq.
minimus, 407
-wnur,
moveo, Perf, in
108.
mz'We,
94
muto, 247
accent, of penult with, 164.

for -tor, 522.
muttus, 58.
mutuus, 324.
r mis-, 29.
356.
modestus, 356.
mocfo,
612
-o,
551
moror, 483.
migro, 302.
287;
370.
-tus, 174.
mors, 278.
morvus for
306.
ww7es,
473
morior,
Mezentius, Med-, 104.

mz'ca,
-tfws,
Subj., 511 sqq.
morigeror, 485.
mi, Voc., 427.
metuculosus, 333.
metots, F. (0. Lat.), 343, sq.
mews, 426 sqq.
201
499.
-ssui,
369.
of,
Imper., 516 sqq.

Perf. of, 505 momordeo, 303, 482
mordi, 497 mem-, 503.
Opt,, 511 sqq.
Metettus, 486.
215 sq.
of,
Comps.
of,
N, pronunc.
559.
of,
60 sqq.
I.-Eur. N.,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
642
phon. changes of, 271 sqq. N, 273

Lat. n for I, 96 for m, 270
sq.
;
for gn-, 292, 294.

N-particle (see Particles).
nequalia, 571.
nequam, 571.
nequaquam, 569.
wegwe (nee), 122.
547
nequeo,
Naepor, 183.
T
2V ero,
Nahartis, Nart-, 54.
nescio, 547.
nam, 604, 571.
nesciocube, 446.
of birds, &c., changed by

Proper, form of Italic,
Anal., 201
319 sq. in -o, 348 sq. in -is, 375.
Names,
weue (new), 614, 122.
Neuter
349
480
261,
-do,
480
-CMS
-quitur, 522.
271.
nest, 592.
namque, 604.
nanciscor,
531
-quinont,
Naevius, 294.
in
-r,
decl. of,
-es,
450
neuter,
Gender)
355 sq.
(see
in
pronunc., 143.
neutiquam, pronunc. of, 143.

-n/-, lengthening of vow. bef., 136 sqq.
(-nctus], 471.
nan's, 272.
6 1 1.
483; pronunc., 118; -r-, n8sq.

Nasal, pronunc. of, 60 sqq. Gutt.,
10 sq., 60, 65 Vb., 469 sqq. 3 PL,
e. g. danunt, 530 sq.
nassiterna, the spelling, 112.
ni,
nasus, 259; -ssiim, 112.

ndtrix, 355.
nimis (-ium}, 558.

-se, 25.
nisi, 611
natus (gn-}, 541, 219 sq., 294.
nitedula (-ella), 333, 353.
naufragus, 180
mtor, Vb., 521

-tito, 519; -xus, 294.
wzY^'o for -d-, 89.
warro,
-nd-,
-ium, 252.
pronunc.
pronunc.
sq., 144, 57.
-nm-, phon. change
Interrog., 605 sq.
nobilis,
noceo,
ne-,
Neg., 615.
noctu, 555.
Affirm., 614 sq.

accent, of, 166.
Neg., 614
nebula, 226.
271 sqq.
334.
481
-WMS. Adj., 323
noenum
(-w), 615.
noâ (from noZo), 318.
-11-,
ndo, decl. of, 547
in
509.
women, 294
Nominative
use
-clator,
nonaginta, 417.
we/as, 615.
nonne, 605.
nonus, 416.
*noptia for nuptiae, 37.
negro, 486.
negotium, 616.
nos, decl. of,
nemo, 449.
nostrds, &c., accent, of, 163.
nempe, 604; scansion, 63; pronunc., 122.

neo, 476, 225 ; newntf, 519.
notus, (gn-\ 233.
nosco.
Adv.
nongenti (noning-'), 419.
Negatives, 615 sq.

neglego, 616
-oci, 505.
553 sqq.
non, 615, 216 sq.
nondum, 570, 609.
272
-Km,
of,
necumquem, 570.
nedum, 614.
351
364.
(see Declension)
necubi, 446.
neptis,
sqq.
SIS-
nee (see neque).

necerim, 'nee eum,' 440.
-avi (-ui), 499.
neco, 481
necto, -xui,
of,
non,' 616.
nepos, 351,
accent
no, 476.
Affirm. ,615.
Vb., Pacuv., 455.
nivit,
nix, 272.
-ne,
nee,
Agma, 65
-ne,
ne, nae,
216
nihil (nit),
of, 64, 70.
of Gerund, 543 sq.
ne,
55
h,
of Valeri, 163, 390.
of, 64, 70.
-nde of uncle, &c., 551.

-ndo-,
Nigidius, on
navis, 221, 252.

-net-,
293.
nicto,
-us, 32.
Zepf-,
96.
479
*no#o for
424 sq.
294
grn-,
7ta-,
-ss,
112.
-w, 500.
15, 17.
novem, 415 sq.

416.
-decim,
416
-venus.
INDEX.
Novensiles (-d-), 286.
ob vos sacro, 573.
novicius, 338.
obinunt, 531.
341.
novitas,
563.
obiter,
novus, 226.
oblitterus for -atus,
234 sq. Adv., 555.

for s
-ns-, pronunc. of, 63 sq., 69
after long vow., 69 from -nss-, 112
vow. long bef., 136 sqq.
obliviscor,
-us of triens, sextans, &c., 409.
obsequium, 321.
wox,
-nt,
529
PI.,
-wtor,
535
Obscure Vowel, 185
obstetrix, 191.
nudipes, 361.
nudius
obstino,
260, 377.
tertius,
449
pronunc., 113.
nww, 605.
obtineo,
spelling
obviam
(-us,
occldamus
305.
fib.,
Number, 366; Dual (see Dual).

Numerals, 408 sqq. Fractions, 409
;
accent, of, 165.
Numerius, 560
numerus, 270
of,
78 sq.
Adj.), 563.
487.
occwZo,
227
199.
-cerf-,
oquoltod, S. C. Bacch... 227.
occupo, 470, 486.
-ri,
Gen., 383
n.
numero, Adv., 560.

Gen. PI., 402.
;
oc'tor,
259. 406.
ocris,
259.
415 -decim, 416 -ginta, 417 sq.

-tagr-, 418
-tuag-, 418
-tingenti, 419
octo,
-tavus, 220.
nundinae (nond-, nound-\ 251, 180.
oculus, 234.
nunquam, 570.
odium, 259.
-nunt, 3 PL, e. g. danunt,
180
for
(?)
occillo,
nunc, 570.
nuncubi, 446.
nuntius,
obstinatus, 310.
487.
occanui, Perf., 509, 198.
Numasioi, Praen.
nummum,
472
obstringillo,
nudUS, 260, 235, 179.

nuttus,
sqq., 257.
obsono, 488.
nubs, 182.
346
Pass., 543.
481.
obsolesco,
-wter, 534.
MM&es,
-litus,
obrussa, 198.
531
-nto,
oboedio, 196, 246.
543.
52
-Use-,
novent-,
530
nont-,
odor, 235.
sq.
250
sq.
OE, pronunc.
pronunc., 141.
nuper, Adv., -rus, Adj., 180, 553.
nurus, 239 -ra, 343 no-, 37.
omws, 248, 410.
-ntts, e. g.
offendices, 272.
246.
/acinus, 356.
39 sqq.
spelling,
113.
o/eZta,
of,
(See 01.)
nusciosus (-citiosus}, 96.
offendo,
nutrio, 249.
officina,
486;
-sa,
Noun,
542.
174, 349.
OI, phon. changes of, 246 sqq.

OI,
252 sq.
01, OE on inscrr., 247 sq.
;
O, pronunc. of, 30 sqq.

phon.
changes of, 232 sqq. 6 in e-roots,
258 6 in e-roots, 258
6-6, 260
6-a, 259; Lat. 6 for lengthened o, 233
Lat. o for a, 17 sq.
for e with
w, 1, 225 sqq. for atonic vow. bef.
;
omos, 410.
Oinumama,
-oZ-
after qu-, 300 Lat.

Lab., 192 sqq.
o for au, 40 sq.
for ou, 248 sqq.
oleo,
-YO-, &c.)
ob (o&s-),
1,
278
oliorum,
436
sq.
sq.
430.
570
o.
olitanus,
436.
oliva,
228
-wm
(oleum), 196.
oWa (aula), 41.

oZê (-MS),
ening
228
287.
olim,
Sg., 524; of Rufo, &c., 348 sq.

of quo, Adv., &c., 551 ; of vero, Adv.,
for -e in Adv., 559 ; short&c., 550
-6, i
el,
Dem. Pron.,
okntica, 337.
not weakened to u, 199.

O-stems, blend with U-stems, 343
sq. (see Suffix -0-,
from
ol-,
193.
oinuorsei, 178.
Interj., 39.
o/e*',
212 sq.
Prep., 585; ousted by ab-, 574.
436
oZoes,
olorom, 436.
Olympus, accent, of, 155.

Omega, Lat. transcr. of
of,
o>,
44.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
644
O micron,
Lat. transcr.
of,
253
33.
113 sq., 202.
omitto,
ommento, 80.
omnimodis, 362.
omnis, 450; omnino, 325.
Onomatopoetic Verbs,
3
348
-o,
written for
on
246 for
u,
w, 246.
361.
ovifer,
483, 476.
235.
*dvum for
ovis,
PI., O. Lat., 529.
-onus, 0. Lat. for
246
-ov- for -uv-, 33.
-onssus (-osus), 353.

-ont,
Lat. ou for eu, 245 sq.
inscrr.,
-ore
sq.
oi)-, 34.
(see Suffix in Gutt.).
oxime, 407.
onustus, 306.
P,
opera, 400.
Adv., 560.
475 for ap-,
-opere,
operio,
18.
70.
operor, 485.
P-particle (see Particles).

pacunt or pag-, xii Tabb., 465
opificina, 174.
(up-\ 34.
opilio
phon.
pronunc. of, 78 sqq.
changes of, 281 sq. dial, from qS,
299 sq. not final, 77 bet.m-w, &c.,
paciscor,
opiparus, 192.
465 -peciscor, 200.

Pacuvius, use of Compds., 360.
OptYer, 1 80.
paedora for
opitulor, 485.
Paelignus,
opituma, 174.
paene, 558 n.
oppido, 566.
paeninsula, 360.
opportunus, opor-, 114.
paenula, 197.
opinor, 472.
356.
-res,
pronunc.
of,
138.
Optative (see Moods).
Paenultima Accent. -Law, 160
optimus, 406.
pagina, 326.
optfo,
369.
opulens (-lentus}, 352.

opws, 485.
oquoltod, S. C.
-or-
Bacch., 227.
r, 278 sq.
Sg. Pass., 533; Nom. Sg., e.g.
from I.-Eur.
-or, i
color (see Suffix -S-).

Grata, as a nickname, 40.
orbis,
239;
prima for primord-, 362.

Ordinal Numerals (see Num.).
pronunc.
of,
pdlus, -us,
Panda, 318
141.
261.
-dnaporta, 318.
pandiculor, 488.
pando, 472
40 sq.
omo, 33, 310; pronunc., 141.
-orum (-um), Gen. PI., 402.
Nom.
the scansion, 214.
palus, 293.
orichalcum, 202.
on'cZa for auricula,
-os,
91, 98.
palumbes, 346.
ordia
orecie,
r,
palpebra (-tra), 331.
239.
ordo,
palma, 279, 328.

palor, 586.
or&ws, 258.
orca,
palam, 586.
Palatal Gutt., phon. changes of, 295
sqq. (see K, G, GH).
Palatalization of Cons. bef. y, 263
of /, 81 sqq. of c, 87 sq.
I, 91, 98
palea, 279.
182.
orbs,
sqq.
mouth, 358.
os,
bone, 405.
os- (aus-), e.g.
Perf., 502.
panxi, 504
339.
Sg., e. g. 0. Lat. co?os, 356.
os,
-cW,
259 Perf. of, 504

497 pepigi, 495.
pannucia, 337.
panus, pannus, 117.
papae, accent, of, 164.
papaver, 541.
osculor, 41.
Oscus, 310.
Papirius Crassus, his use of
ostendo, 310.
with I,
Parasitic Vowel, 145 sqq.
in Gk. loanwords, 70
r, 93 sqq.
ostium, 262
ws<-, 34.
-OSMS (-ossws, -owssws), ii2, 353.
;
OU, phon. changes of, 248
r for
;
sqq.
sq.
;
OU,
parcarpus
bef.
(?)
I,
193
sq.,
197 sq.
for pane-, 273.
s, 6.
INDEX.
parcepromus, 360.
parco, Perf. of, 505
pelegrinus for per-, 93.

pellex for pad-, 115.
505.
-rsi,
parcus, 318.
pefto,
Luceria
parentatid,
paricidas, 371, 373, 117 sq.

-we,
475
-ibis,
penetro, 586, 594.
492
sq.
penitus,
paro, to equalize, 485.
Pass.,
Fut., 540
540
Perf., 541
Perf., 541 sq.
Act.,
Pres.
-tus (-sus),
542 truncated, 543 used as Adj.,

540 sq.
Particles (see Conjunctions)
T-,
597 D-, 597 DH-, 597 P-, 597
relation to
N-, 597
-ce, 432 sq.
to Pers.-suff.,
Case-suffix, 597 sq.
597 Irnper. used as, 600.
;
',
parum, 562 parumper, 562.

parvusj 562
Compar., 406
;
sq.
-er,
penus, 586.
-per, e.g.paulisper,
562.
586 sqq.
pronunc. of, 94.
486 -culsus, 542.
per, Prep.,
peragrro,
percello,
percussi, Perf., 545.

peregre, 396.
perevnne, 191.
peremo, 587.
Perfect
201.
passim, 556.
Passive, 519 sqq. Impers., use, 520

s(lv 5 2 3
with Ace., 521 Personendings (see Verb) Inf. (see Inf.)
;
Part, (see Participles).
(see
Tense-stems)
587.
periculum, scansion
pergro,
of,
175 sq.
Patricoles, 197.
perwoa;, 361, 555.
perperam, 557.
patronus, 349.
perplovere, 466.
patruelis, 340.
perquam, 571.
Personal Pron. (see Pronouns).

Person- endings (see Verb).
paucus, 243.
paveo, pavio, 473.
-lisper,
in
of,
562
sq.
perstroma, 172.
pertineo,
pervenat, 464.
Particle, 597.
pecten, 349.
pervious,
pectino, 488.
pes, 286.
pecfo,
479
pecu, 281
476.
pertisus, 195.
pax, 259.
-pe,
505
-xi,
-zm, 509.
peswa
317
(?),
sq.
313.
pesswm, 539.
pecws, 354.
pedepressim, -temptim, 556.
petesso, -isso, 462.
peditaster, 330.
petiolus (?}, 76.
perfo,
307
pejero, 48,
pejor,
pepecfy 501.
199
sq.
patrocinor, 488.
556
quant.
patrisso, 488.
spelling
of penult of S-perf., 134 sq. ; accent.

of -?#, &c., 163
scansion -i#, 214.
perfidus, 587.
Periphrastic Tenses, 510

pema, 251.
pernix, 354 perw-, 141.
p.familias, 381.
paulatim,
perjero (see pej-).
339.
pateo, 476, 222.
pastillus,
Adv.,
perfacul, 198.
pasco, pastum, 310.
222
-fe,
penuria, 558 n.
perendino (see comperendino}

peres forpe^-, 81.
pater,
perendie, 560, 588, 192.
partim, 556.
passar for
sq.
pewwa, 313.
540
Adv., Adj., 561
562.
278 partem, Adv., 555.

Participles, 539 sqq. ; Pres.
pars,
pepuli, 504.
pendeo, pendo, 473.

penes, Prep., 586.
paret (-rr-), 117.
279
472
pelluviae, 285.
inscr., 519.
parentes, 465.
pario,
645
pronunc.
perj-,
313, 587.
of, 53.
peto,
468
-m, 506.
petorritum, 300.
300.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
6 46
575-
petulcus, 337.
PoMa, 41.
phalerae, 190.
for
-II-
phasellus,
pollen, polenta, 367.
115.
-?-,
Phi
piaculum, 333
of,
182
Pollux, 179,
112
-o,
pomerium, 588.
pidato (jpedatu), 19, 21.
Pompeius, 300.
pigmentum, pronunc.
*pilla for pua, 115.
pondo, 258.
of, 139.
pondus, 356.
pilleus (-Z-), 117.
powe, Prep., 588.
pilumnoe poploe, Carm. Sal., 398.

pinaria for pen-, 200.
powo, 178 ; poswi (posivf),

Pontius, 300.
pinguis, 292.
popina, 300.
499
JttVi, 374piscis, 232.
piscosus, 353.
por-, Prep., 590.
Pitch- Accent, 148 sqq.
porca, 279.
pronunc. of, 52.

265; scansion, 131.
pituita,
porceo, 588.
piws,
porcus, 277.
placenta, 190.
porricio, 485.
plaga, 318.
porrigo, porgo, 545, 178.
Plancus, 179.
porro (0. Lat. porod), 568.
pZangro, 471.
porrum, 279.
pkiudo, plodo, 41.
Porsenna, spelling of, 23.
plaustrum, plostrum, 41.

Plautus, use of Compds., 362
posco,
Plotus, 242.
376.
pZecfo,
486.
to
dial.
fill,
536
458, 473, 223.
pleoris (?),
Carm. Arv.,
pkrumque,
plerus, Adj., 559.
408.
569
559-
(?),
Carm.
Sal., 408.
Komance,
569
postibi,
posterior,
588 sq.
437 posthac,
postmodum (-0),
poste, postid,
po-,
postea,
Plinius, 225.
546
Inf. in
potestur, 522.
post, pos,
pKCG, 200, 468.
plisima
posteac,
567
N., 378.
posticus, 337.
ptodo, 41.
*plopus for populus, 98.
postmeridianus, spelling of, 589.
plostrum, 41.
postridie, 560.
pZtto (plow"),
Post-tonic, Syncope (see Syncope)
466.
Pluperfect (see Tense-stems).

plurimus, 408.
pZws, 408,
558
Vow.-change
(see
Weakening).
postulo, 179.
;
-m
(-ria),
401.
postumus (-remus), 407.
lo., Prep., 575, 588.
*poteca for apoth-, 107.
podex, 307.
poeKa for pw-, 37.
Poftno, 349.
pofo'or (-to),
poewa, 246 sq.
pos,
Poenws, 246.
potis (pote} sum, 546.
373.
618.
115.
477 poposci, 501 pep-, 503.

Position, length by, 129 sqq. bef.
Mute and Liq., 94, 129 sqq.
Possessive, Compd., 360 sq. Pron.
(see Pron.).
possum, decl. of,
plenus, 324.
-pZeo,
-ss-,
O. Lat,, 387.
populus, in Komance, 98.
-por for pwer, 183, 185.
470.
-/o,
pfebes,
populus, scansion of, 146; -loiRomanoi,
pinna, 229.
pmso, 471
212.
O. Lat., 245.
-Zwces,
polubrum, 575, 331.
O. Lat. -colom, 193.
spelling
PolliOj
(see Aspirates).
Philippus, accent, of, 155.
Pi, Lat. transcr. of, 75.
484, 546.
233.
poto, 232.
poiws, 520, 542.
INDEX.
-pp- for p, 116.
prae,
589
prae
647
Carm.
privicloes,
let
tremonti,
Carm.
Sal.,
590
pro, Prep.,
530.
pro, Interj., 618.
praeco, 180, 187.
probus,
praecox ^-coquus), 358.
procapis, 182.
Sal., 189,
472
590
-bourn, 246.
Procope, 107
procits, 258.
590
prod-, Prep.,
prodius, 590.
prodinunt, 531.
praesagio, 259, 486.
profestus, 199.
praesens, 589.
proficio,
praesertim, 556.
proficiscor,
praestigiae, 95.
profitemino, 519.
praestino, 472.
profl-igare,
praesto (-tu\ 178.
progenies,
590.
480.
470, 486.
345 sqq. progenie (Scip. Ep.),

;
48, 506.
praestolor (-tul-\ 34.

-ea,
prodigiuin, 291.
produit, 515.
180, 187.
(e)s, 121.
590.
proct/Z,
-we, 396.
praefiscini, 192
praemium, 143.
Praenestine, conea, 22, 106, 177 tarn
modo, 613 Sync., 177 fibula, 188.
589
569
progredimino, 519.
-/me, 569.
scansion of, 143 -bessis, 462.

Luceria inscr., 519.
praeterpropter, 521.
prohibeo,
praetor, 350.
proiecitad,
prandeo, ~di, Perf. 502

pratus for -w, 370.
,
-sits,
520, 542.
proinde,
2>roZes,
precor, 296.
570
proin, 122.
345.
prolixus, 293.
precula for per#-, 76, 97.
prologus, 590.
prehendo, 471, 42, 132 ; -eft, 501 ;prendo,

Perf. in Eomance, 509.
57, 143
promenervat,
prelum, 307.
prompsi, Perf., 505.
prewo, 307
-ss-t,
312 sq. accent., 167 sqq.

Present (see Tense-stems).
;
Pretonic,
Syncope (see Syncope)

Vowel-change (see Weakening)
e, 6 changed to a (?), 159, 222.
Prep., 589.
primilegium for priv-, 52.

primordia, 362.
;
Sal., 194.
primumdum, 609.
of,
197.
pronis for -nws, 339.
Pronominal, Adverbs, 567
sqq.
in
567
-a,
-6, 568 sq.
-iw, 570
570
-wm,
569
-nde,
D570; -am, 570; T-suffix, 571
suff., 571
Adjectives, 449 sqq.
Pronouns, 421 sqq. Pers., Refl., 421
Poss., 426 sqq.
sqq.
Dem., 429
Rel., Iiidef., Interrog., 443
sqq.
Decl. of (see Declension)
sqq.
-&',
567
-I,
accent,
pridie, 560.
primus, 410
Carm.
promiscam, 557.
promuniurium, spelling
499-
Prepositions, 572 sqq. written with

oust Case-suff.,
Noun, 168, 572
573 Compound, 573 with many
assim. in Comp, Vb..
Cases, 574
pri,
138.
procestria, 191.
Carm.
praefamino, 517.
praeter,
of,
probunto, 519.
praeda, 143.
j?raes,
pronunc.
590.
-5,
praebeo, scansion of, 143.

praecipes (-ceps), 182.
praedopiont,
Sal., 403.
priviynus, 181, 325;
of,
167
sq.
Hide,
163.
Pronunciation, 13 sqq.
promts, 326 -nis, 339.
;
princeps, 178; pronunc., 141.
propages, 346.
principle (-ium), Adv., 560.

prior, N., 378.
propagmen, 292.
prope, 591 ; -modum
prisons, 337.
Proper Names,
pristmus, 325.
pristris for pristis, 96.
properus, 374.
propino, 590, 488.
(-0),
Italic,
559.
319
sq.
&c. ,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
648
84 sqq.
length by Position, 87 ;"
I.-Eur. Qs, phon. changes of, 299
propinquus, 358.
propitius, 194.
propius for -pri-, 95.
sqq.
qSo, qi-, qu-, Pron. stems, 443
propritim, 556.
179
propter, 591,
sqq.
569-
qoi
proptervus, 590.
prorsws (-m), 553
cf.
549.
prosa, 553-
98; Prosepnai,
Proserpina,
(Dvenos inscr.), 445.

Adv. (quaad), 569 sq.
qua,
(not
-aw)
quadra, 413.
quadraginta, 417
sq.
165
accent.,
quarr-, 418.
382, 184.
Prosodical Hiatus, 132, 144
sq.,
209
quadrans, 409.
quadrigae, 196.
sq.
quadrigenti (-ing-}, 419.
prosperus, 257.
prostemere, in
Prosthetic
Romance,
quadruplex
489.
448 n.
-sm, 506.
-umus (-imus), 487
quaeso, 462, 487
487
quaero,
prosum, Vb., 590.

protervus, 590.
;
-am,
112.
-ss-
451.
557 -*s, 554protulum for prothyr-, 190.

proximus, 591.
;
the spelling, 112.

607 of unquam, &c., 552
quamde, 570, 607
-W&e, 613 -ris.
613; -obrem, 606; quamquam, 613.
quallus,
(jwaw, 570,
prurio, 487.
(?),
501.
213
-o,
608
571,
quandone, 608.
-quidem,
346.
quando, 608, 571
Particles, 440.
356.
Perf.
554, 556, 200
protinus (-tenus),
e, -pfe,
(-plus], 414.
quaequalis,
102, 105 sqq.
i,
-gwe,
quandoc,
571
608
Publicola (Popli-\ 76.
quansei, 607.
publicus, 287.
Quantity, 126 sqq. overmastered by

accent,
129
(see
Shortening,
Lengthening, Scansion)
changed
;
Publius, 287.
iwwr,
Voc., Fern, in 0. Lat., 374
-re,
->or in
puertia
Compd.,
(-rit-},
in close
174.
pugil, 376.
syll.,
quantus, 451
puker, spelling
of, 12,
59 sq.
quasi,
501
pufous. 278.
607
-se,
25.
quasillus, 305.
pulto (-so), 482.
quatenus, 557.
#wafer,
413
quatio,
u in Comp.,
for pilm-j 37.

pumilio (pom-}, 34.
pumex
471
pepwgri,
pronunc., 140.
;
pupa (-pp-\
1 1 6.
purus, 542
purime, 407.
503
punctus,
puto,
482
putrefacio,
queistores,
quercus,
pMêo, 260.
-S, an, 600.
scansion
letter,
querella,
3,
242.
291 -m/s, 294.

the spelling, 112 sqq.
;
queror, 227.
212.
of,
querquera, 315.
quetus for ^m'e-, 142 sq.
-#m- for Gk. y, 36.
542.
Q, the
196.
413 sq. spelling, 414, 113;

-#or, 414
-decim, 416.
enclitic, 166 sq.
<?we, 598 sq.
?w(e),
598.
pusillus, 305.
260
-WMS, 414.
quattuor,
pwrc#o,
pwfer,
vow
-mvis, 613.
pwZvts, 235.
of
quartus, 413.
jmfez, 355.
fec.,
133 sqq.
quare, 606.
pulenta for poZ-, 33.
ofimpuli,
133 sqq.
quapropter, 569.
puleium (-egi-\ 48, 292.
-IMiZ-t
bef. cons.-group,
183, 185.
qu
pronunc.,
gt, Pron., 443 sqq.
pronunc., 39,
INDEX.
44
446
44,
pronunc., 39,
cui,
649
Adv., 446, 568

dum, 609.
-nam, 606.
quiet, 610
qui,
-qui (-w),
613
-libet, -vis,
447.
quidem, 602
ratio,
-dam,
340.
ratiocinor, 488.
&c., 216.
siq-, tuq-,
rafts,
pronunc.
quie-,
134
of,
quetus for
142 sq.
#w'w, 613.
pronunc., 414
-ndecim, 416 -n(c)tus, 70 pronunc.,
-ncentum,
-ngenti, 419
140, 414
0. Lat.,
-nquaginta, 417
419
ncunx, 300; -rms, 414.
quippe, 604
pronunc., 122.
229
414,
quinque,
quirquir, 288.
pronunc., 85
-gwe,
for
Adv., 568
568 -circa, 580
gwo,
613
Conj.,
-modo,
-o,
-art,
212.
re-, red-,
Prep., 591.
reccidi, Perf.,
recens t
reciprocus, 337.
Adv., 550.
114; reddibo, 493.
redinunt, 531.
quominus, 569, 613.

-quomque (-cunque), 598.
redivia, 286.
quondam, 571.
Reduction
redivivus, 591.
quoniam, 610.
(see
Weakening, Shorten-
ing).
reduncus, 259.
quoque, 598.
568.
Quorta, 413.
-annis,
560
-z'rtze
(see
coft-).
quotumus, 561.
Reduplicated, Present, 468

496 sq., 501 sqq.; form
assim. of red.
502 sq.
loss of,
stem- vow., 503
Perfect,
of red.,
vow. to
503
sq.
Noun, 358, 363.

Reflexive Pron. (see Pronouns).
451.
608, 570.
Re-
(see
red(d)uco, 114; rcdux, 591.

rederguo for -argr-, 198.
quoiquoimodi, 445.
gwom for cwm, Prep., 581.
sq.
recorder, 483.
reddo, 468,
Dat., 445.
451
504.
Adv., 554.
recupero, 488.
quoiatis (cuja,s), 447.
^wof,
Act, 535
sqq.
recta,
Conj., 610.
quorsus (-m}
185.
-w'rf-,
raudus, 248 sq.

-re, 2 Sg. Pass., 533; Inf.
formation).
quisquiliae, 315.
quoiei,
1 80.
Raudus
Recompositioii, 199
-piam, -quam, -quis, 448.
g-wod,
ravasteUus, 330.
mucus,
recidivus, 322.
443 sqq.
gw's,
307.
ra^s, 259.
quies, 182.
quiesco,
ra^MO, 476.
rapo, a robber, 475.
quicumque, 448
Eat -, 252.
Js!ams for
ramentum, 312.
spelling, 87.
refrivafaba, 178.
K, pronunc. of, 89 sqq. I.-Eur. E,

phon. changes of, 276 sqq. R, 278
;
Lat. r for
303 sqq., 101,

105 for d, 285, 288, 80 sqq. for I,
92 sq. for w, 96 dropped inpraebef. cons., 97.
st(r}igiae, Sec., 91, 95
-r, long vow. shortened bef., 213 sq.
sq.
s,
of Passive, 523, 533.

rabies,
347
-es,
Gen., 383.
regina, 370.
regnum, pronunc. of, 138.

296; rexi, 505; pronunc.
of,
rego,
139,
498.
regula, 318.
Relative Pron. (see Pronouns)

pronunc. of, 323
reliquus,
0. Lat., 46.
reluvium, 286.
ra&o for arrabo, 177.
remex, 358.
rabula, 177.
remulcum, pronunc.
racemus, 306.
220.
ren. 264.
rear, ratus,
259.
of, 142.
-CMOS,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
650
Pacuv., 360.
268; Adv., 554 -nte, 551.
repandirostro-,
ripens,
rudentes, 467.
rwfts, 249, 338.
307.
repo, 307.
rSrfo,
repperi, Perf., 504.
rudus, 248 sq.
reppidi, Perf., 504.
rwes, 345.
repulsa, 542.
rufus, 248.
Buga
requies, decl. of, 346.

res,
252, 225
in word-group, 169.
'
358.
reses,
respondeo, Perf. in
Romance,
509.
Res(tf)tutus, 176.
retro (r} sum,
rettuli,
549.
Perf.,
r^ws for
reverti,
retitiis,
Perf.
503
sq.
rwpes,
543.
of, -for,
transcr. of, 12, 59.
264.
r/gror,
Bustic Latin, K for

19, 25, 30;
e for 1, 24 sq., 29 sq.;
ve/ia, 22
o for aw,
frundes, 31, 33
tundo, 33
40 sq. e for ae, 42 sq.
,
syncop. after cons., 171, 179 sq.

-rier, 536 sq.
-n, Inf. Pass., 535 sqq.
-TI-,
rien,
396.
rwrsws (-m), (rus-), 549? 553-rus, 2 Sg. Pass., 534.
rex, 260, 276.
Bho, Lat.
^KP-, 118.
346;
-un' (-e),
520.
244.
reits,
(see Carvilius).
rumen, 307.
rumentum, abruptio,' 314.
Ruminaficus, Rumon, 307.
rumpia, 33.
rumpo, 471 ; rrtpt, 502
-mptus (see
306.
rusticus, 337.
nwsror, 471.
2 Sg. Pass., 533
-ris,
and
-er
in Adj.
M., P., 371rite,
of,
560.
rivalis,
Kivers, gender
of,
368.
rivus, 52.
Y>6/0o,
ro&wr
(-or),
rub-, 34.
356, 379
-us, 379.
ro&us, Adj., 248.
rodus,
248
258.
rotundus,
305 ; dial, s, 305.

S-Perf., Vb.-forms (see Tense stem s)
s- fromps-, fcs-, 303.
0. Lat., e.g. colos, 356; 2 Sg.,
-s,
sabulum, 304.
sacena (scena), 261, 184.
sacerdos, 179 sq.
saepes (se-), 42.

Saeturni, 242.
544 sq.
Saguntum, 104.
Bough Breathing
(Gk.) (see Breath-
ing).
-rr- for rs, 277
sq.
-rs-,
saepe, 559.
76.
Rostrata Columna (see Col. Rostr.).

rota,
pro-
sacri-, sacro-, 183.

sactus for sanct-, 70.
sq.
Roma, 307.
rep-jo,
525-
lambero, 479.
348
pronunc. of, 97.

-rm- for nm, 271 sqq.
-rZ-,
-TO, e. g.
r,
phon. changes
244.
rms for
then
;
303 sqq. Lat. for ss, 305 sq.,

109 sqq. for ws, 136 sq. for th in
Not. Tir., 58; 0. Lat. s, class, r,
560.
ritus,
S, voiced written s,
iiunc. of, 101 sqq.
pronunc.
of,
91, 96.
sagus,
serf,
259
Saliare
Carmen
saMo, 223.
rubicundus, 545.
rubigo for ro&-, 34.
saito,
rwcfo (see eructo).
(see
Carmen
salignus, 293.
rubeo, 476.
ruber. 239.
rwZws, 307.
rubustus for ro&-, 34.
sq.
223.
scto, 278, 223.
285, 479.
saltern,
556.
*salvaticus for
sambucus
sz'fo-,
(sa&-), 65.
Sanates, 183.
201.
Sal.).
65 I
INDEX.
470;
sancio,
140;
pronunc.,
sanctus,
scrofa, 80.
scrupulus (scrip-}, 29.
sact-, sant-, 70.
Sandhi, 120 sqq.
sculna, 184.
sanguis (-en), 377.
sculpo, 279.
'
to
sow/
saplutus, 104.
se-,
sarcina, 326.
se,
sarmentum, 310.
558; satin, 558 w.
secespita,
se
satis (sat},
safttr,
558
seco,
Saturnian Metre, 128
n.,
23.
Sg. ending, 525 sq.
Secondary Accent, 158
543.
-afots,
savium, 268.
*sawna for sagma, 89.
saxum, 261.
sca&o, 223, 281,

(see-},
259
566.
131
/sc-
(?), 566.
secundum, Prep., 591.

secundus, 411.
-fa',
securus, 592.
Perf., 502.
42.
(see-},
552
Adj., 591
scalprum, 333.
Conj., 60 1.
sedda for -II- 287.
scamnum, 283.
sedecim (sexd-}, 416.
scando, -di, Perf., 502.
serfeo,
Scansion, traditional, 12771.; errors
sedes,
sed,
late
literature,
128
sq.
(see
285
345
sq.,
473
soZuto,
-MS,
scafeo (-to), 476.
sedutraque, 450.
sefires,
scelerus (?), 356.
229.
seliquastra, 287.
scewa,
a priest's knife, 184, 261.
seZZa,
semi-, 409. 225.
471
scicidi,
seise. (?),
495,
501
503; scidi, 495, 501.

Scipio Afr. (Min.), ve- for w-, 228.
307, 83.
scloppus, 307.
-sco,
410, 229.
semermis, 364.
564.
sells (stl-},
287.
setnel,
42.
scheda, sc(h}i~, 23.
280,
Adj., 563.
351.
sceZws,
scindo,
Incept., 477.
se(mi}modii(s, 176.
semissi-, 409, 586.
semper, -iternus, 562.

semptem for sep^-, 66.
senatus, decl. of,
384
-fwos,
343
scoUs, 259, 338.
smeca, 337
senecta,
scoriscus for corusc-, 29.
senex, 271,
318.
scribo, 282.
Sentence-Accent, 148
scrobis,
306.
334
Gen., 380,
senecio, 337.
w.
354
sententia, 352.
sewws, 415.
-W,
Gen., 384.
scopulus, 197.
scriba,
497, 502.
segmentum, 293.
selmum, the scansion, 156.
41.
scena, (aitrjvif), scae
sedi,
592.
seditio,
scaturio, 482.
sco-,
sq.
563
sedum, 60 1.
Shortening).
Scaptensula, the spelling, I36?^.
scilicet,
Adv.,
'
361, 363, 365.
scalpo, 279.
scauria for
Prep., 591.
-secws, 552, 554.
himself,' 424.
sed, O. Lat.,
42.
Law,
Noun, 552
secws,
242.
Scaliger's
*qq., 161.
secratum for sacr-, 18.
(see Prosthetic i).

scabellum (-mitt-}, 283.
in
secordis, 592.
lengthens final vow.,
.s'caews,
si-,
PL, 529.
saucius for
scaeptrum
298
Second Pers.,
132%., 159.
satus, 222.
scaena
sefraude, 592.
261.
secius (see sef-).
w.
satura (-ira), 197.
sc-
224.
Pron., 424.
(serf), Prep., 592
decl. of, 367.

n.,
165 sqq.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
652
-tuaginta,
416
417 sq. -tingenti, 419; -timus, 415;
-tuennis, 415 sempt-, 66.
-tenus, 415
415
septem,
Neut. Pl.,Laev.,4oi, 352.
silenta for -tia,
seorsum, 592.
-decim,
silicernium, 287.
-sim, Subj., 465.

simila, 286.
septentriones, 269.
similis,
338.
Septidonium for Septiz-, 104.
simitu
(-tur),
Septimus decimus, accent of, 163.
simplex (-plus), 410.

simpludiarea funera, 410.
sepulcrum, 334
spelling
of, 57.
59 sq.
565.
sequius, 566.
simul, Adv., 553
sequor, 520.
simulter, 553.
SMX
Serena for
smws
30.
sin,
Adj., 267.
serius,
Prep., 592.
for sumus, 29.
612.
serpillum, 197.
sinatus for sew-, 200.
serpo, 277.
sincinia, 410.
serra for sera, 115.
sinciput, 141.
468 sew, 500 saûs, 222.

sesamum, spelling of, 198 sq.
sero,
sme, 592
singnifer for sign-, 66.
419.
sescenti,
singuli, 410.
sescentoplagus, 364.
300
sescuncia,
swo, 471.
sms, Carra. Arv., 518 n.
-owe-, 236.
sesqui-, 409.
sesse for sese, 112.
sesferfms,4O9
-mm, Gen. PL, 402 418.

;
104.
226
415
sextons, 409.
(-st-~),
Sheva,
257.
415.
Shortening,
;
bef.
bef.
(see Quantity...
of vow. bef. vow.,
n with cons.,
sobrius, 592.
131
141 sq.
with
cons., 142 ; bef. -I, -m,

-r, -, 213 sq. ; of final vow., 207
sqq. of final syll. long by position,
I
215 sq. of monosyll., 215 sq. after

short syll. (see Breves Breviantes)
;
of long diphth. bef. cons., 251 sq.

si,
610.
sibi,
-e,
25.
of,
sicine,
-erws, 374.
sociennus, 545.
sociofraudus
socius,
364.
(-%/"-),
262.
socors, 592.
socrws,
344
-a,
343.
sodes, 265, 486.
scansion of, 150.

the scansion, 215.
soldus for
433.
'
mark
-lid-,
287.
solemnis for
solerare,
of double cons.,
446.
468
185.
4, 8.
-U-, 1 1 1
solidare,' 288.
solinunt, 531.
solitaurilia, 8.
sidi (sedi), 503.
sidus, 267.
*sifilo
227
solea,
447.
Sicilicus,
siem,
302 sqq.
sido,
432.
ita,'
socer, 192,
sol,
Sibilants, phon. changes

78 -/-, 80
SM-, 30.
sic, 567
pronunc., 121 sq.
stfetZo,
sicubi,
'
soc (?),
Sofia,
424
siccus,
503.
of,
600.
sobrinus, 303.
Short Vowel
sqq.
Perf.
-so, Vb. -forms in, 462 sqq.

so- (se-), 'this,' 430.
so- for suo-, Poss., 426 sqq.
so-, 0. Lat. Demonstr., 430, 432.
sq.
Sextius
468
sive (seu), 122,
sexaginta, 417.
sisto,
sew, sire, 122.

set-ems,
siquidem, the scansion, 216.

sis for si ^7^'s, 52
sultis, Plur., 181.
siremps(e), 566.
566.
sex,
592.
set-,
Single Cons, for Double, 113 sqq.
sum, Perf. Dep., 522.
solium, 287.
sollemnis (-nw-),7o
514 sq.
for sib-, 30, 78, 80.
signum, pronunc.
solitus
of,
138 sq.
sollicitus,
361.
sollistumus, 407.
-mpn-, 70
soê-
m.
INDEX.
sternuo, 471.
sollo-, 8, 16.
sterquilinium, the spelling, 301.

stetim for stat-, 15.
soUox, 354.
solum, 287.
592
-lui for -Zn',
653
48
-lutus, 260.
2 Sg. Perf., 525.

spelling of, 112.
-sti,
stilicidium,
449.
somnium, 319.
stilla,
somnokntus, spelling
of, 192.
sownws, 227.
Sonant L, M, N,
(see L,
487.
-stinguo, 471.
stipendium, 116.
stircus for -ere-, 20, 229.
M, N, R).
Stlaborius,Stlaccius, stlembus,
sonivius, 323.
sonui, 506.
sowo, 488 w.
s^-,0. Lat.,
sopor, 227.
stlaltarius, 219.
283
sor&eo,
-psi for
-bw, 509
stlis (scl-},
-billo,
487.
sto,
83, 307.
decl. of, 457
Romance, 509
sordere, -ere, 476.

sordes, 345.
stolidus,
soror, 227.
storax, 37.
P. P. P., 54 2
sortws,
(see Prosthetic
spam,
472
235.
556.
strictim,
346.
sfricZi,
Perf., 502.
stringo,
sperno, 472.
spes, 257,
229
stritanis,
345
spe-
in Romance, 489.
spwo, 264.
studeo, 476.
struppus
for x,
for tt, 304, 309
to s, 1 10 sqq.
;
102
re-
duced
of,
in,
462 sqq.
Perf.
suadeo, 482,
swan's,
SM&,
Statina, 349.
ste
for
(see Parasitic),
pronunc., 53.
sws-,
Prep.,
435, 167.
*st^7o for
Subjunctive
pronunc.
Stem, Noun and
316 sqq.
suffix (see Suffixes)
interchange of
U-. and 0- stems, 343 sq.
Adj.,
;
sterno,
117.
of, 112.
sterilus,
221
593;
w6 ros
subaediani, spelling of, 195.

sulaxet (?), 508.
as P. P. P. of sum, 542.
stella,
pronunc., 53.
572.
(Dven. inscr.), 519.

iste,
suavisaviatio, 361.
stelio (-11-},
259
Svarabhaktic Vowel
Staccato pronunciation, 131.

stagnum, pronunc. of, 138.
sfe-, 15.
statim, 556
sic,'
suadela, spelling of, 115.
506.
to stand,' 457.
221
6n.
'
swacZ,
;
'
status,
235.
stupila for stipula, 37.
465.
Vb. -forms
statod
stultus,
58.
(-02J>p-),
sittpa (-pp-), 1 1 6.
-(s)sim, Subj., 465.
sta-,
Root-grade (see
strufertarii, 361.
sfrwo,
-(s)so,
strues, 345.
496
(sposp- ?), 503.

spongia (-ea), 22.
-ssere, Inf.,
Zn7-, 196.
Gradation).
Spiritus (see Breathing).

spopondi,
482
-ss-
542.
strictus,
0. Lat. for
Strong, Cases, 367
w.
spica, spe-, 25.
spondeo,
Perf. in
323; -9W-, 113.

Stress-Accent, 148 sqq.
spi-, 23.
221, 542.
strenuus,
i).
spatiarus, 534.
specio,
steti,
status,
isp-
Perf., 505.
species, decl. of,
501
stratus, 219.
stramen, 279
strenna for -w-, 116.
lengthens final vow., 131
sp-
stloppus, 307.
stlis, stlocus,
338.
470, 219; stratus, 219, 306.
si&-,
sublimen, 559
suboles, 345.
30.
(see Moods).
;
-us,
338.
Subordinate "Words, 165

sw&nsro, 545.
subrimii haedi, 193.

subsicivus, 323.
sqq.
p?aeo,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
654
Superlative Degree (see Comparison) i for u in, 189.
subtel, 199, 213.

subtemen (-egm-), 292, 70.
Prep., 593-tus, 561
suiter, 593
superne, 593.
subverbustus, 306.
superus (-per}, 374.
subula, 334.
Supines, 538 sq.

supparum (sip-} 29.
Suppression of Syll.,
succidaneae porcae, 195.

sucerdae, 260.
116.
sudus, 307.
176 sq.
supra, 593
suesco, 481.
suremit, 505,
76; spelling
swcws,
of,
surgo, 178
267.
suffio,
Suffixes (Noun, Adj.), 3 l6 sqq. -0J

-A-, 316 sqq. -IO-, 3 8 sqq. -UO-,
505
sursum
sus-,
sus,
sqq.
-DHLO-, 332
-KO-, 336 sqq.
-NI-, 339
sqq.
;
-TO-,
338
-I-,
-MI-, 339
-LI-, 339
-TI-, 340 sqq.
sq.
-TION-, 340 sqq.; -TA1\I)-, 341
-TUT(I)-, 341
-U-, 342 sqq.
sq.
-TU-, 343 sq. -YE-, -I-, -E-, 344
-EN-, 348 sq.
-YEN-, 348
sqq.
-WEN-, 348 sq. -MEN-, 348
sq.
-ER-, -TER-,
sq.
-R-, 349 sq.
-T-, 350 sqq.
-NT-, 352
350
-D-, 353 sq.
-WENT-, 352 sq.
-ES-,
Gutt., 354 sq.
-S-, 355 sqq.
355 sqq. -YES-, 357 -issa, 365
;
-*, 3 6 5
Suffixless
*sufilo
for
-*Wo-j
susque deque, 593.
545.
;
Syllable, Close (see Close Syll.);

First (see First
Division, 124 sqq.
Syll.); Suppression of (see Sup;
pression
Syncope) Syllabic Writ;
ing, 12, 177.
the spelling, n, 29.

sqq., 150 sqq.; Praenestine, 177 by old Accent-Law,
sylva,
Syncope, 170
178 sqq. final syll., 181 sq. pretonic, 183 sq.

post-tonic, 184 sq.
;
365-
Stems (Noun. Adj.). 357
sib-,
Prep, (see sub)

sow, 260.
Sylla, 29.
suregit,
426 sqq. monosyll., 426 sqq.

0. Lat. so-, 426 sqq.
swe-, phon. change of, 227.
505
549, 553.
(-s),
sustuli, Perf.,
593.
542.
suus,
-RI-,
-psit,
susplcio, 225.
332 sqq.
334 sqq.
-*us (-tus}, P. P. P., 542-
593
surrexi, 545,
surpui, Perf., 178; surptus, 178.
322 sqq. -NO-, 324 sqq. -MENO-,

327 sq. -MO-, 328 -TEMO-, 328
-RO-, 328 sqq. -TERO-, 329 sq.
-(TO-, 329; -TRO-, 329 sqq. -DHRO-,
-TLO-,
-LO-, 331 sqq.
329 sqq.
;
-pera, 181, 593.
sartus,
e. g. ar(ci)cubii,
final
sq.
vow.
final syll.,
30.
Apocope)
(see
vow. in
203 sqq.
Synizesis, 142 sqq.
sugo, 76.
Sulla, Sy-, 29, 36.
sidtis,
for
181.
si vultis,
decl. of,
Procope, 121.
summosses, Hor., 507.
summus, 407 -opere, 362.
sumo, -psi, 505; suremit,
T, pronunc. of, 80 sqq. and d, final,

76 sq. phon. changes of, 283 sq.
for d bef. r, 285, 289.
;
455 sqq. enclitic,

167; Perf., 545; es, Imper., 518;
simus for sumus, 29 ero,
sim, 514
492 eram, 490 forem, 227, 545 w.
sum, 237
T-particle (see Particles).

3 Sg., 526 sqq. vow. shortened
-t,
bef., 214.
(e}st,
-ta
of
tabes,
505,
593;
taceo,
suovitaurilia, 361.
talis,
super, Prep.,
supercilium, 195.
&c., 552.
476.
289.
taeter,
367 -erl-, 97 -pp-, 1 18.

593 Adj. (-rus), 374.
superbus, 590.
ita,
346.
Tables, Twelve (see Twelve).
surempsit, 593.
suo, 264, 484 n.
supellex,decl. of,
451.
talus,
293,
tarn,
570; -me, Carm.
602
tanne, 602, 69.
tamen, 60 r
-etsi,
602.
Sal.,
570;
-etsi,
INDEX.
471
tango,
464;
tago,

Ten. Asp., 280, 308.
tennis, 274; pronunc., 46, 174 -via, 144
tenus, Prep., 593
hactenus, &c., 569.
495.
tetigi,
(I.-Eur.)
tanquam, 570.
451
tantus,
sqq.
571
-tidem,
-tummodo, 564.
Tarentum, accent
562
-tisper,
155, 197.
of,
'ter,
n8w., 363.
Tatpurusha, Comp., 360
ter,
302.
tergus,
-terior (see
139 -him, 542.

Tecumessa, 64, 71, 145 sq.
of,
tela,
505
text,
pronunc.
139.
of,
terrimotium, 362.
terruncius, 412.
293.
tertius,
/fee.,
-th-
Thematic, Conj.
temperint (?), 515.
O. Lat., 342.
453thensaurus for
templum, 565.
Theta
Third
Tempsa, Temese, 181.

fewdo,
486
-SMS, 542.
PI..
tenebrae, 270.
476
feweo,
542
-tots,
-ti-
501.
feto'm,
355.
tenor, tenus,
Aor. and
S-,
459 sqq. Pres., (i) Them. E -grade,

466 sqq.; (2) Kedupl., 468; (3)
Nasal, 469 sqq.
(4) YO-, 472 sqq.
(5) Inceptives, 476 sq., 479 sqq.:
;
Causatives, 477, 481 sq.

Desideratives, 478, 482. 484
(6)
Iteratives, 478, 482 sq.
(7)
(8)
DeriStem-suf(9)
483 sqq.
fixes, 478 sq., 486 sqq. Impft. (Ind.
Subj.), 489 sqq.; Fut., 491 sqq.;
Perf. (Ind. Subj.), 494 sqq.
(i)
Kedupl., 496 sq., 501 sqq.
(2) Unredupl., 497, 501 sqq.
(3) S-, 497
sqq., 505, 5o8;
V-, 499 sq.,
(4)
505 sqq.; (5) irreg., 509; Plupft.
(Ind. Subj.), 509 sq. Tenses with
Auxil., 510 sq.
478,
tento
for -mpt-. 70.
Tenues,
(Gk.)
(Lat.)
Lat.
pronunc.
transcr.
of,
71 sqq.
74
sq.
thes-,
Verb); Vowel,
69, 136 n.
Pers., Sg. ending, 526 sqq.
529 sqq.
~ci-
confused, 82 sqq.
of, 423 (see tot).
spelling
tibicen,
364.
-ticus (see Suffix
-KO-}.
225.
tilia,
Adv., 548.
225 tinctus, pronunc., 140.
tinnio, pronunc. of, 118; tintinnio (-no),
-tim,
tingo,
483-tinus,
Adj. (see Suffix -NO-)
(see tenus).
2 PL, 529
-Us,
Gen., 423.
-Hvus (see Suffix -UO-).
Us,
Tmesis,
-to.
187, 573.
Fut. Imper., 516.

l
to-,
430
this,'
toga, 255.
Toitesiai,
tolero,
tollo,
of,
(see
(see Aspirates).
and
tib'i,
Tense-Stems, 459 sqq.
vatives,
Perf., 494, 497.
for
s, 58.
TheUs, for Thetis, 286.
temper ies, 344.
-fets,
Adv. 559.
Mini, Perf., 501.
552.
temperi, spelling of, 192, 356.
(-Mm),
tesera for -ss-, 115.
tetuli,
342
-o
testamentum, 277.
temere, 560.
tempestas,
412
tesca (-qua), 337.
287.
Tefts for Thetis, 75.
fe?wm, 293; -M-, 112.
of #ew,
509.
481.
h 3*8.
Teles ia,
-tern
terui for trim,
tero,
terreo,
303
Comparison).
269 termo, 327.
terminus,
423.
),
ternus, 412.
351.
teres,
2 PI. Imper., 529.
ted,
Adv., 549, 553.

412 scansion, 119;
terebra, 331.
sq.
*taxitare, 482.
pronunc.
Noun, 355.
tenus,
fata,
tector,
tarpessita, 104.
-fe,
655
Dvenos
inscr., 305.
488.
sustuli, 545.
tolutim, 556.
tondeo,
486
totondi,
496.
Adv.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
65 6
Tone- Accent, 148 sqq.
tu, decl. of,
tongere, 259.
-tu,
tongiliatim, 556.
tuber, 270.
sq.
tuburcinor, 488.
topper, 562.
Imper. Pass., 533
-tor,
423
2 Sup., 538 sq.
tudes, 351.
sq.
300.
-tdrium (see Suffix -IO-).
-*wdo (see Suffix -TUT(I)-, -D-).

tueor (-uor), 476.
tormentum, 310.
-tuiri,
torcuJus,
torpeo,
482
torn,
310
forfos,
3 IQ
451 totidem, 451, 571.

Put. Imper., 517.
116.
-tt-,
-for,
o,
the scansion, 399.
turdus, 308.
'
tra-,
-wsd-, 594.
Desider., 478.
turnus for to-. 31, 33.
-fo.ro-, Put. Inf., 537
for -ha, 318.
turtur, 363.
in Romance, 489.
-tus,
(-fcs),
-ftm'o,
376.
P. P. P.,
-sus,
transmarinus, 362.
Tuscus, 278.
transtineo, 476.
foê,
of funditus,
Pron., 423 sq.

spelling
fofeZa,
Tars-, 97.
Trees, gender of, 368.

tremo, 499 tremebit, 494
tremonti, 530.
tfre-, fri-, 412
tfres, 412 sq.
tredecim,
416; trecenti (-urn), 418 sq. triginta,
417 sq.; accent., 165; trientafor trigi-,
418 tricenus (-#-), 418 tfn'ct'es (-</-),
418; trinus, 412; triplex (-us}, 412.
;
<n'cae, 58,
542
tus, 58.
trans, tra-, Prep., 594.
205.
tribunal(e~),
Part., 540.
&c., 548.
tramitto, -nsm-, 594.
Trasumennus for
of,
115.
426 sqq. monosyll., 426 sqq.

Twelve Tables, 7, 565.
tuus,
tympanum (typ-), 272.

Tyrannic, taught Accent.,
U, V, the
letter, 3, 7 sq.
151, 154.
V and VV,
267 sq., 52 uu for u, 10 Gk. (see

Upsilon) "U, pronunc., 34 sqq. V,
44 sqq. ii-sound, 25 sqq. I.-Eur.
;
116
tric(K)ilinium for
tun-
tundo for tondeo, 33.
3 Sg. Pass., 534.
turbines,
Adv., 569.
to go through/ 458.
trabes
famsi (?), 471
for&a, 239.
451.
fcr dr, 81, 289.
-ft--
496
471
sus, tusus,
/ofos.
-<ra,
570.
tfwwc,
tundo, tutudi,
450
Sup., 538 sq.
570
tumba, 36.
-fote.
totus,
-turn, i
turn,
477.
fom's, 339.
ftrf,
464.
/wM (see/ero).
476.
torqueo,
torreo,
Put. Inf. Pass., 538.
-tulas, attulas,
23
torpedo (-Mo~),
<rims, 409.
U, phon. changes of, 237 sqq., 260

V W), 265 sqq. Lat. u for o,
sq.
triginta dies, accent, of, 169,
2 35
tripodare, 256.
in weak-grade of root with

for atonic vow. bef.
labiovel., 239
tricl-,
94.
196
*<nKpa, 119.
tristus for -z's, 368.
tritavus
(strit-*),
for atonic
ve-,
196.
of,
59.
of,
53.
for fowo, 95.
338.
486.
(see Suffix
-ft-
S(iq-
192 sqq. for 6, 33 sq. Lat. u

for u lengthened, 237
for o, 233
for ou, 248 sqq.
for eu, 245 sq.
for 6, 47,
Lat. v from g|S, 301 sq.
49 sqq. dropped bet. vowels, 52
dropped after cons., 52 sq., 144.
-u, shortening of, 213; of cornu, &c.,
scansion, 377 sq.
-fro,
31
sq<l-)
lab.,
triumphus, spelling
Adv., 568.
jTrq?'a, pronunc.
-TRO-)
with
e,
ford, 86, 89; by Sync., 284.
191.
u-i
and
i-u, e. g. stupila, 37.
V-perfect (see Tense-stems).
TNDEX.
blend with 0-stems, 343
TJ-stems,
657
venum, 539
sq. (see Suffix -U-).
vddo, 467.
vepres, 346.
vadum, 467.
Verb, 453 sqq.
vae, 6 1 8.
Valeri (Voc., Gen.), accent, of, 164.
Variation of Vowels
(see Gradation).
468 in -o, -eo, 476 -urrio, 482 -uo,

484 n. Onomat., 483 Compound,
485 in -uttio, 488 -cinor, 488 -isso,
488; i Conj. predominant, 488;
Noun-stem in -e-, 490; Irreg.,
Contracted Perf. -forms,
545 sqq.
varix, 279, 355.
and
on
ei,
deriv. of Gracchus,
a vessel; vassa, PL, 112.

346 sq., 221 0. Lat. vatius, 375.
ros,
spelling
vat-ilium,
vas,
votes,
vei-berit (?),
uber, 290, 250.
verbum, 290
verecundus for
567
25.
-e,
-ubris, e. g. lugubris, 196.
-re,
ve- for vo-,

ve-,
verm-is,
599
enclitic, 166 sq.
228.
-t-ul-,
-e-,
202.
verebamini
157.
vernus, 324.
vero (-e). 550.
83
verres, 277.
468
228
reel's,
341.
rerro,
regreo,
482, 296.
verruca, 277, 337.
ro-,
-ri,
vegetus, 296, 335.
Verrugo, 337.
veha for ria, 22.
-versus (-m), Adv., 549.

versus (-m), Prep., 595.
vehemens,
226
veho,
54, 57;
vc-,
-ai,
-fer,
Adv., 554.
599 sq.
Velar Gutt. (see
G-utt.
Proper, Labio-
velar).
266
velox,
354.
-m,
Conj., 602
-o,
-o (-e),
vesperi, 396.
(,?),
228
-/*,
502
vulsi,
509.
324
vesperna,
refo,
305, 341.
288 ro-, 228.
-M-, 112.
488;
-r7i^ts,in
veni,
-venal,
vetranus, for
Velto,
Romance, 542.
vetus,
500 Perf. in Romance,

464 -ventio, 274.
;
-fer-,
184.
the scansion, 212.

356; Compar., 407
-tustus,
venenum, 326.
wweo, 488, 539; -m, 522.
vespa, 266.
reneficus, bene-, 51.
509
266
resets,
333
473
Perf., 502.
-^',
Adv., 550.
veltrahus for -rtrag-. 93.
vew'i'o,
301.
rents.
vellico,
vellus,
228
ro-,
Vertumnus, 327.
rertt,
velim (see volo).

vella for ri-, 29
266;
rerto,
velatura, 308.
reZZo,
Perf., 502.
Verticordia. 361.
499.
vel,
488.
older ro-
202.
(?),
of, 23.
339.
Verner's Law,
Prefix, 615.
vedus for
S-perf., 508.
vermina, 310.
1 80.
Conj
515.
spelling
Vergilius,
Suffix -XO-).
-iicws (see
mf.9,
473
vereor,
Adv., 551.
-we,
V-perf., 506 sqq.
of, 51.
ubba for o66a, 33.

w&i,
147 n.
divus, 244.
a surety, 290.
;
vapulo, 522.
Conjugations, 454 Athem. Conj.,

453 sqq- Them. Conj., 453 sqq.
Contracted forms, 463 sq. Personendings, 522 sqq. 3 Conj. Vbs. in
atonic form of Simple Vb.,
-io, 475
174.
-lid-,
vapor, 299.
Varro,
Moods,
(see Tenses,
Pass., Dep., Inf., Part., Sup., Ger.)
561
valde,
472.
-rto,
Venus, 356.
veter,
356;
407.
Ufentina, 250.
-i7#o
(see Suffix in Gutt.).
-m' (-aw), Perf., 506.
UI, pronunc.
29.
ventus, 251.
U U
of, 39,
44
vi-,
pronunc.,
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
658
Syncope
-in-,
of, 171 sq.,
180 sq.
355.
vibix,
Adv., 550.
vicem,
555
-ul-
for K, 232
uligo,
viciniae, Loc.,
-fiZis
riclus for
586
-satim, 556.
83.
ullus,
vicus, 295.
videlicet,
Mdeo,
564.
266, 232;
pronunc., 163
vissus,
497
sq.
pronunc., 142
Gen. PI
(-oruni),
umbilicus, 283
the scansion, 213.

accent., 165 vinti, 418
viginti, 417 sq.
vile, Adv., 559.
mlicus, the spelling, 112 sq.
ve-, 29.
w'Ka, pronunc. of. 112 sq.
;
im&-
402.
29.
umbo, 283.
umerus, 236 spelling, 56
?ma, Adv., 561.
vigilando,
Unaccented Vow., weakened (see

Weakening) Syncope of (see Syn;
cope).
mllum, 333, 179.
unco, 476.
m'Kws, 229.
uncus, 259.
vinarius, 321.
unde, 570 pronunc., 122.

undecim, 416; pronunc., 141.
;
470.
vmco, 471, 298;
w'ci,
502.
undeviginti, 416.
undique, 570, 206.
vindemia, 178.
v index, 362.
-undus (-endus], Ger., 543.
i/mea (-w), 22.
unguis, 293.
Vinnius, pronunc.
of,
118.
unguo, 301
vinolentus, spelling of, 192.

violens (-tus^, 352.
t'/r,
260
-nctus,
universus, 178
402.
Unomammia,
-sim,
554
364
oinuorsei,i^8.
;
Oinumama
193
wwose, 554.
rirectum, 335.
unquam, 570.
tmws, 409 sq.
260.
viritim, 556.
fo-,
virus, 267.
-i-o-
vis,
Plant.,
virdis, &c., for -rid-, 171, 185.
I'ireo,
pronunc., 140.
unicus, 337.
pronunc., 29; -um, Gen. PL.
Noun, 230
ns, Plur.,
399 345,
n.
-MO,
-quisque, 449.
O. Lat. for
ve-,
228.
atonic changed to vu, 267.

Vbs. in, 484 n.
Vocative
(see Declension)
stems, accent., 163 sq.
2 Sg. (see t>ofo, decl. of).

viso, 462
-si, 502
visso, 112.
m's,
*vocitus,
n'ss# for vixit, 107.
n'<is,
301 vivebo, Nov., 492

riari, 499
107 vivitur vitam, 521.
;
vivus, 230.
of 10-
18.
voco for va-, 15, 18.
Volaterrae, 228.
-wtto (?) (ve-}, 228.
viveradix, 192, 361.
-ss-,
Voices (see Passive, Deponent).

Voice-Stops (see Mediae).
230.
266, 341.
wYus, 344.
m't'o,
empty,
wcivus, 18
voco, 228.
wYa, 179; vitam vivitur, 521.

vitex,
ol-
Ulysses (Ulixes), 286, 200.
-wm
229.
vincio,
M^?O, 474.
376.
vigil,
594
ulula, 363.
spell-
266.
w'greo,
449; pronunc., 113.
timus, 236.
ing, 112.
viduus, 268.
vieo,
sq.
287.
w?s, M//ra,
502,
-di,
473,
vidtn,
278
1,
310.
ulmus, 279.
ulna, 260, 179.
N., 371.
uicfriz,
from
;see Suffix -LI-J.

-ullus (-ulus), 115.
397.
-till-,
ulciscor, ultus,
w'cenws(-6f-\ 418; -ccsimus,4iT, -ties, 418.
vicissim, 556,
-dww, 614.
vix,
rolo,
I wish, decl. of,
456 sq.
accent.,
169; velim, 515; volam, 516; volimus,

456 n. Inf. in Romance, 536.
;
INDEX.
volturus, 374.
6 59
-utus, P. P. P.
Volumnus, 327
voluntas, 541.
-nius, 228.
-MM-
542.
written for
-u(v)i. Perf.,
volup, 553.
vulgo,
voluptas, 342.
minus, spelling
267, 506 w, 228.
wrro
wrfo
ros, decl. of,
vulpinor, 472.
425
-MMS (see Suffix -UO-).

written voxor in MSS.,
uxor,
sq.
Grades
Vowel,
for
r.V-
G-radatiou)
(&;ee
e. g. r//r,
r-i-,
vox, 358.
"W, Lat. expression
of, 7 sq.
n,
4,
of,
36,
248.
upupa, 315, 363.

urbanus, 325.
239
spelling, 78 sq.
short
bef.
syll., 194 sq.
of
Lab., 192 sqq.
195 sq. of Diph. in Hiatus,
of je, ve, 196 o, u, i, 196 sq.
191 sq.
r,
192
Diph
bef.
196
wrêo, 239, 482.
Gk. loanwords, 197
urna, 310.
-urnus (see Suffix -NO-).
long vow.
unweakened, 199; short, 198 sq.
re-formation, 199 sq.
weakening
in pretonic syll., 200
by Assimiin final syll., 203 sqq.
lation, 201
sq.
Msst, 497; pronunc.,

pronunc., 255.
in
in, 482.
wel-,
'
to wish,'
456
sq.
159, 222.
Wharton's Law,
ursus, 239.
e. g. Venerus,
of
decl.
384
Gen,,
Neuts. in, 355 sq. (see -rus, 2 Sg.
-us,
Vbs.
185
long by Position,
urceus, 239.
-urrio,
Root
of Atonic Vowel,
Weakening,
sqq., 148 sqq.; syll.
466
I.-Eur.
(see Gradation).
Upsilon, Lat. transcr.
ustusj
W, phon. changes of, 265 sqq.

Weak, Cases, 367 Grade of
;
upilio (op-}, 34.
wro,
5.
29.
Quantity (see Quant., Shortening,

Lengthening)
urbs,
236.
of,
346.
vultur, volturus, 374.
468, 228.
4^7, 228.
(ve-),
(re-)>
sq.
560.
vulpes,
, 426.
two, 301, 228.
10.
ft,
508
Winds, gender
Word-Groups,
of
names, 369.
361
sq.,
365; accent.,
161 sqq., 169 sq.
Pass.).
usque, 571, 595.
ustium for
ost-,
X, the
34.
606, 605
accent., 166
wfer,
Noun,
uter,
Pron., 450
uti,
607.
2,
xs, ex,
101 sqq.; -ssfor Gutt. with .s, 291,
-que, 450.
Y, the
utinam, 605.
letter,
4,
n;
Gk. (see Upsi-
Lat. expression of ?/-sound,

7 sq.
pronunc of Lat. y, 34 sqq.
I.-Eur. Y. phon. changes of, 262
lon)
Utica, 37.
247;
102 107
for,
written
of,
-x (see Suffixes in Gutt.).
289.
uterus (-wm). 369.
wfor,
letter,
&C..5; pronunc.
usurpo, 173.
utarus,
534;
utunio, 519.
MSSMS,
112;
sqq.
Lat. y for
u.
29 (see U).
utrasque, Adv., 557.
utrimque, Adv., 570.
Adv.. 570.
wfr-o, Adv., 568.
utrubi, Adv., 567.
utrinde,
utrum, Conj., 606.

-wt(f)io,
Vbs.
in, 488.
Gk. (see Zeta);

Z, the letter, 4, 5 sq
I.-Eur. Z,
pronunc. of, 101 sqq
phon. changes of, 303 sqq, Lat. z
;
for
j,
49.
Zabulus, for diabolits, 105.

Zeta, Lat. transcr. of, 4,
THE END.
u,
101, 104.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA
p. vii.
Prof. Stolz has
now
published a Lautlehre der lateinischen Sprache (Leipz.

laws of Latin, (cf. chap, iv of this book)
1894), giving the phonetic
along with a general introduction to the study of the language.

95.
p. 344,
p.
The new number
of the American Journal of Philology (vol. xv.
194) has a paper by Mr. L. Horton-Smith, in
the origin of the Gerundive -ndo-
is
which
this
arguments.
p. 153,
1.
12
198,
1.
p. 235,
1.
p. 238,
1.
p. 242,
p.
for
.,
ab im.
read
illlc
Ann.
Epigr.
,,
illic.
Ann. Epigr.
on-
on-.
9 ab im.
orbs
orbis,
1.
14
deveri
deveri.
p. 276.
1.
ccdare
291,
1.
ii
P- 356,
1.
p.
ab im.
late Lat. orbs.
caldre.
l
*qenq Ae
*modes-
*modes-
p. 415, 1.6
semis
senus.
p. 420.
*ego
*ego.
1.
1.4
p. 528,
1.
22
P- 55i'
I-
'9
view of
supported by a strong array of
(whence
*egom
*egom.
fefaced
fefaked.
U- stems
Vow. -stems.
moderor).
Clarenbon press,
rforb.
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5

THE LATIN LANGUAGE

AMEN CORNER, E.C

LATIN SOUNDS, STEMS, AND FLEXIONS

FELLOW OF JESUS COLLEGE, OXFORD

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

PROFESSOR ROBINSON ELLIS

there has been

by Comparative Philological methods of the Latin Language,

declensions, its conjugations, its formation of the various

and the changes

except the short summary (last edition,

the additions to our knowledge of the subject since Corssen's

time have been very great.

by the help of men

Johannes Schmidt, OsthofF, and Brugmann 1 set on a sounder

the Early Latin authors, especially Plautus, of the Umbrian,

the ten chapters of this volume.

cussion of the relation of Latin to the other languages of

had already exceeded the generous

I take this opportunity

allowed by the Delegates of the Press, and it seemed to me

some of the money which

raised every year for excavations should be devoted to this

of peoples like the Samnites.

for the rule of Italy,

whose religion and manners so greatly influenced the ruling

organized search for the remains of Oscan, Umbrian, Pelignian,

acknowledge with gratitude the kind

country and abroad, as well as from my Oxford

the proof-sheets of my chapter on Latin Pronunciation, and

giving me access to the advance-sheets of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.

good enough to go over the whole

one of the most

language, the formation of the Perfect Tense.

Influence of Greek Orthography

Letters for Greek

Description of the A-sound by Latin phoneticians

Descriptions of the E-sound by Latin phoneticians, &c.

Descriptions of the I-sound by Latin phoneticians

21. Descriptions of the O-sound by Latin phoneticians

Other changes of 6 and 6

U-sound by Latin phoneticians

27. Descriptions of the

Phonetic descriptions of normal m, n

Tenues and mediae

vowel in Greek loanwords

Greek tenues in loanwords

90. Assibilation of ty,

g before narrow vowels

... ..... ...

The grammarians on the pronunciation

diphthong or long vowel

Double consonants in Italian

150. Vowel-contraction in compounds in the early dramatists

Other examples of vowel-contraction

vowel before another vowel

149. Crasis of vowels, Synizesis,