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Excipients as stabilizers
Patrick J. Crowley
Excipients are better known as promoters of degradation than as stabilizers of drug substances. This is not surprising. Functional groups
or residues in excipients can have the propensity to interact with
labile active ingredients, with attendant loss of molecular integrity
or other changes in quality. Thus, the canon of work on excipients as
stabilizers is not extensive. Nevertheless, possibilities exist to capitalize on our knowledge of how a drug substance degrades, and of the
properties and composition of excipients, to convert unstable drugs
into viable products. This article discusses such approaches to product stabilization.

Patrick J. Crowley
SmithKline Beecham
Pharmaceuticals
New Frontiers Science Park
South
Third Avenue
Harlow
UK CM19 5AW
tel: 144 1279 643509
fax: 144 1279 643887
e-mail: patrick_j_crowley@
sbphrd.com

Drug substances can be fragile entities.

Environmental stresses, as well as those associated with turning a drug into a medicine, all have
the potential to cause changes that compromise
quality. Such stresses can cause molecular composition to change to some extent. This reduces
the amount of active ingredient in the medication and might generate novel molecular entities that could compromise safety. Physical
changes can lead to altered dissolution or other
delivery properties. Sedimentation in liquid
products, consequent to altered solubility, could
present safety as well as efficacy problems.
Preformulation studies should identify
propensity for change on the part of the drug
substance and clarify the strategy for development of the dosage form. Drugexcipient
compatibility studies might further constrain or
clarify the options for formulation. Packaging
suitable to protect the product offers additional
scope for providing a stable product. Such avoidance tactics might suffice for many dosage form
development programmes, but not in all cases.
Drug substances that are elaborated by semisynthetic means and those emanating from biotechnology-based programmes usually have properties that can render them intrinsically unstable.
Even heterocyclic compounds of low molecular

mass can possess functional groups that render

them susceptible, to some degree, to interactions
that lead to quality being compromised.
The long shelf-lives that are usually required
for medicinal products reinforce the need for
quality retention as a key consideration during
formulation. In contrast to foodstuffs, soft drinks
and many other commodities, it is usual to expect
the quality of medicines to be retained for as long
as 35 years. Such long use by periods are especially important for remote and climatically
hostile regions, because of the complexities of supply and distribution. As there is no such thing as a
totally impervious pack, it will be apparent that the
protection afforded by the pack will be limited in
an environmentally hostile environment.
It might be necessary, therefore, to consider
developing a formulation that compensates for
any basic deficiencies in stability of the drug substance. In such cases, excipients must play a key
role in turning an unstable drug into an acceptable product.
General considerations
The potential for excipients to prevent or retard
degradation will be determined by the factors
that cause the molecular transformation of drug
substances.These include:

environmental components, such as water

vapour and sunlight;
stresses during conversion to the dosage
form, such as size reduction, compaction or
sterilizing processes;
interactions between adjacent molecules of a
drug, or between functional groups on the
same molecule.

If excipients are to act as stabilizers they must

obviate or attenuate such effects.
Moisture-related degradation
Water can be associated with the drug or the
excipients. It can be incorporated during

1461-5347/99/$ see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science. All rights reserved. PII: S1461-5347(99)00158-3

237

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manufacture of the dosage form or acquired from the environment during processing, packaging or storage. Its ubiquitous
nature and capability to exist as a vapour means that water is
virtually impossible to avoid and difficult to control, particularly if the drug substance is hygroscopic. Its molecular mass is
low, so modest amounts can be significant in terms of molar
reactivity. It is also capable of diffusing, to a greater or lesser
extent, through packaging materials, pack seals, or through
compacted solid dosage forms.
Excipients with affinity for moisture might be expected to
mitigate moisture sensitivity. Thus, formulation with a substance having a greater affinity for water compared with the
drug could mean that moisture in the product is sequestrated
by the excipient.
Perrier and Kesselring used nitrogen sorption isotherms to
predict the effect of common excipients on the stability of nitrazepam1. They showed that stability in binary mixes was not
affected by the drug/excipient ratio or by the specific surface
area of the excipient. Instead, it correlated with the nitrogen
adsorption energy of the excipients, determined using the BET
equation. Materials with higher adsorption energies caused less
degradation (Fig. 1).
The primary aim of their study was to determine the inertness of excipients, rather than their utility as stabilizers. However, the approach is equally germane to ranking the desiccating capability of excipients. If the binding energy of water
vapour for the excipient exceeds the binding energy for the
drug, the excipient should sequestrate any available moisture
and act as a stabilizer. Competition between materials with
avidity for moisture should lead to its redistribution, based on
relative affinity, until equilibrium is reached: the material with
the greatest affinity takes the lions share of available water. If
the active ingredient in the dosage form can co-exist with its
equilibrium moisture content, it will be stabilized.
Perrier and Kesselring assumed that the binding energy for
water vapour was comparable to that for nitrogen, or was of
the same rank order. This assumption can be questioned. The
forces of attraction between water vapour and nitrogen for an
excipient substrate could be very different because of differences in dipole moment. Nevertheless, the rank order seen in
Fig. 1 is impressive and the approach merits further study. It
might be that dynamic vapour sorption instrumentation,
which, in recent years, has been greatly enhanced in terms of
sensitivity and precision, could be usefully employed to determine the binding energies of common excipients for water
vapour (or to confirm the rank order relationship in Fig. 1).
Such characterization would be a boon to the formulator dealing with moisture-labile materials.
Moisture is not the only residue with a significant vapour
pressure that can be present in dosage forms. Lower alcohols
238

PSTT Vol. 2, No. 6 June 1999

200
Saccharide
Normalized decomposition rate constant (104 Ko.s day-1)

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150

Mannitol

Corn starch
100
Cellulose

50

Lactose
Talcum

1.7

1.8

1.9

2.0

Nitrogen adsorption energy (Kcal Mol-1)

Figure 1. Normalized decomposition rate constants of nitrazepam

in relation to nitrogen adsorption energy of various materials.
Figure reproduced, with permission, from Ref. 1.

(methanol, ethanol, isopropanol) might be present from the

synthesis and isolation of the drug, or from the process used
for manufacturing the dosage form. Formaldehyde has the capability to participate in most of the known reactions of aldehydes and is present in many materials, including components
of packaging2,3. Parts per million levels might cause significant
degradation because of its low molecular weight.The capability
of formaldehyde to be adsorbed by and interact with a drug
substance can be determined during preformulation4. If it cannot be eliminated it might well be that it too, like moisture, can
be sequestrated by an excipient.
Materials such as amorphous silica and microcrystalline cellulose are powerful sorbents57 and might thus be capable of
functioning as scavengers of volatile residues. Care should be
taken, however, to ensure that desorption does not occur during subsequent handling or storage of product.Thus the factors
that affect desorption of the residue from the excipient substrate should be carefully studied.
Degradation by oxidation
Oxidation is probably second only to hydrolytic breakdown as
a cause of loss of quality.The reactions are usually complex and

Photodegradation
Exposure to light can precipitate a plethora of degradation reactions. These can include addition reactions in unsaturated
systems, substitution reactions, polymerization, isomerization
and photo-oxidation14. Suitable light-resistant packaging can,
in many cases, prevent or reduce degradation. However, degradation during product use is also a possibility and it might be
necessary to stabilize the formulation itself.
The concept of spectral overlay was pioneered by Thoma and
Klimek15,16.This approach involves formulating with a material
whose UV absorption spectrum overlaps (or substantially overlaps) that of the compound requiring stabilization. The impact
of damaging radiation will thus be attenuated as the excipient
competes with the active compound for the photons from the
radiation source. Thoma showed that the photolabile calcium
antagonist nifedipine can be effectively stabilized by the natural
food colorant curcumin, or by riboflavine15. Neither of these
additives provided complete spectral cover but stability enhancement was significant (Fig. 2).

(a)

0.8

0.6
0.4

0.2
1
400

300

500

l [nm]

(b)
8
7
6
5
Content (mg 50 ml-1)

precipitated by many factors that are difficult to separate and

clarify. The facile notion that stabilization is a matter of formulating with an antioxidant is rarely so simple in practice, especially with solid-state systems. The molecular association
required to attenuate a reaction might not be readily attainable
in solid-state dispersions.
However, formulation additives have been effective stabilizers in vitamin preparations. Tocopherol, butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene and propylgallate have all
been used to stabilize vitamins A and D3 (Refs 811). Ascorbic
acid solutions have been stabilized by a combination of chelating agent and antioxidant12. Ascorbic acid has also been stabilized by magnesium, calcium or aluminium stearate13. It is not
clear, however, whether these materials effected stabilization per
se or whether it was produced by antioxidants that are usually
present in stearates and other fatty acids.
Oxidation can be catalysed by exposure to air or light, the
presence of trace residues (for example, heavy metals), or by
other components in the formulation. It can also result from a
combination of all of these. Different mechanisms require different approaches to stabilization. It is only by acquiring a basic
understanding of the degradation process that a rational approach to stabilization can be developed.
It is also possible that an additive in the excipient (such as an
antioxidant) can be a surreptitious stabilizer. If this additive is
replaced or removed by the supplier (for perfectly valid reasons), the impact on product stability could be disastrous.
Knowledge of the basic mechanism of stabilization means that
effective change control arrangements can be negotiated with
the providers of excipients.

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PSTT Vol. 2, No. 6 June 1999

4
3

1
3

15

30

36

Time (h)
Figure 2. Spectral overlay for stabilization of photolabile drugs.
(a) UV absorption spectra of nifedipine (1) and the stabilizers
riboflavine 5-phosphate (2) and circumin (3). (b) Solution stability of
nifedipine (1) in the presence and absence of curcumin (2).
Figure reproduced, with permission, from Ref. 15.

Spilgies used the spectral overlay approach to stabilize solutions of a photolabile b-lactam using acceptable food colorants
having UV spectra that went some way to providing spectral
cover17 (Fig. 3).
A similar approach was used by Sanderson et al. to stabilize a
potential anti-psoriasis agent for application as an ointment18.
Although stable in the formulated, packaged product, the active
ingredient was photolabile. Isomerization and polymerization
reactions occurred when the ointment was exposed as a thin
film to simulated sunlight. In-use degradation was therefore a
possibility and stabilization needed to be considered.
Table 1 shows the effect of including benzophenones (agents
used in sunscreens) on photostability.The reduced degradation
can be ascribed to the partial spectral overlay provided by the
benzophenones (Fig. 4).
Sanderson et al. also noted that stability could be enhanced by
the addition of a blocker such as titanium dioxide and by
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PSTT Vol. 2, No. 6 June 1999

(a)
3

Absorbance (AU)

1.5

1
2

1.0

0.5
2

0
250

300

350

400

450

500

550

Wavelength (nm)

(b)

Remaining content of
BRL42715B (%)

100
80
60
40
20
0
0

20
40
Time of irradiation (Min)

60

Figure 3. Effect of food colorants on the stability of the b-lactam

BRL42715B. (a) UV absorption spectra. In an aqueous solution of 20 mg
ml21, quinoline yellow (1); yellow-orange S (2); and BRL42715B (3).
(b) Effect of additives on solution stability. Yellow-orange S 5.0 mg ml21
(black triangle), 0.5 mg ml21 (black circle), 0.05 mg ml21 (black square)
and water (control sample) (cross); quinoline yellow 5.0 mg ml21 (white
triangle), 0.05 mg ml21 (white circle), and 0.05 mg ml21 (white square).
Figure reproduced with permission from H. Spilgies (unpublished).

using a brand of soft paraffin with a UV spectrum that provided

partial spectral cover (Table 2 and Fig. 5). It can be seen from
Table 2 that the presence of the antioxidant a-tocopherol did
not augment the stabilizing effect of the grade of paraffin in
question. Thus the enhancement seen is more likely to be a
spectral overlay effect (Fig. 5). Some aromatic residue or other
additive in the paraffin might be responsible for the spectral
cover.These findings highlight the need to be aware of the basic
stabilization mechanism and the need for change control systems for excipients. Change of supplier of paraffin could lead to
a less-stable product in this case.
In a similar vein, the presence of the UV absorber oxybenzone
in the film coat was shown to stabilize sulphisomidine tablets18.
Successful application of the spectral overlay approach requires excipients with the appropriate absorption spectra. Obviously they must also be free from pharmacological activity and
be non-toxic. Hence, the list of potentially useful materials is
limited. Nevertheless, it is an elegant approach to stabilization if
the pack cannot be relied on to provide the requisite protection.
Other modes of degradation
Some degradation reactions do not involve species other than
the active ingredient. Isomerization, dimerization and polymerization and other forms of molecular rearrangement are not
uncommon, particularly for drugs of large molecular mass or
those of biological origin. No other species need be involved
in such reactions, although they might act as catalysts or initiators. Ostensibly, it might seem that molecules with an intrinsic
self-destruct capability would be the most difficult to stabilize. It is paradoxical, therefore, that some of the more successful attempts to stabilize labile drugs have concerned materials
that are derived either directly or indirectly from biological
sources.

2.0

Stabilizer

Level (% w/w)

Degradation %

1.6
Absorbance

Table 1. Effect of UC-absorbing agents on stability of an

anti-psoriatic compound in a paraffin-based ointment
(samples exposed for one hour in a Sol-2 light cabinet)

1.2

0.8
2
0.4

None
Oxybenzone
Oxybenzone
Oxybenzone

0.25
0.5
1

49
35
26
24

Dioxybenzone
Dioxybenzone
Dioxybenzone

0.25
0.5
1

20
9
9

240

3
0.0
250

350
Wavelength (nm)

Figure 4. UV spectra of anti-psoriasis drug and benzophenones.

Oxybenzone (1); Dioxybenzone (2); and Anti-psoriasis drug (3).
Figure reproduced, with permission, from Ref. 17.

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PSTT Vol. 2, No. 6 June 1999

Table 2. Effect of grade of paraffin and use of Blocker

on stability
Sample

Description

Degradation %

1
2
3
4

Control (normal grade paraffin)

Witco-N paraffin
As 2 plus 1% titaniun dioxide
As 2 plus 250 ppm alpha-tocopherol

47
26
11
27

Absorbance

Cyclodextrins are cyclic glucose polymers with the unique

capability to accommodate hydrophobic guest moieties
within the annulus. Non-covalent links anchor guest to host.
Cyclodextrins have been widely reported as enhancing the solubility and dissolution rate of poorly soluble drugs.Their use as
stability enhancers also capitalizes on their unique molecular
complexation capability.This can result in improved stability of
compounds with a tendency to sublime, such as clofibrate and
isosorbide19,20. Chemical stability can be enhanced when the
reactive groups are accommodated in the cyclodextrin cavity,
thereby preventing inter- or intramolecular reactions.The effect
of such molecular encapsulation is shown in Table 3 for a
prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) derivative21. There was apparently a
double benefit with the use of this compound in that the dissolution rate was also significantly enhanced.
Prostaglandins, being derivatives of arachidonic acid, have a
basic molecular structure that is characterized by a cyclopentane
nucleus with two hydrocarbon side-chains giving a hairpin configuration. Like many materials of natural origin, prostaglandins

readily degrade both in solution and as solids, and such behaviour

can limit their utility. However, it appears that cyclodextrins are
uniquely suited to the stabilization of these labile materials and
several successful attempts have been reported. Stable complexes
have been formed with PGE1 (prostacyclin) and PGF2 (Refs
22,23). It is interesting that, in the latter case, stabilization is effected by both the a- and the b-forms of cyclodextrin, although
the mode of molecular encapsulation is different for each type.
The a-form accommodates the cyclopentane portion of the molecule within the cavity, whereas, in the case of b-cyclodextrin,
one of the side-chains of the prostaglandin is inserted as shown in
Fig. 6 (Ref. 24). Either way it would appear that the reactive moieties are rendered less labile by spatial effects.
The molecular inclusion properties of cyclodextrins would
suggest that their suitability as stabilizers is limited to cases in
which degradation is the result of molecular rearrangement. It
is interesting, therefore, that cyclodextrin complexation inhibits
the oxidative degradation of vitamin D3 (Ref. 25). On reflection,
this is not surprising. Positioning of the labile moiety within the
cyclodextrin cavity might render it less vulnerable, in the steric
sense, to attack by many kinds of degrading species.
It should be stated that cyclodextrin complexation is no
guarantee that instability will be remedied. In some cases, the
effect might be opposite to that desired. It has been reported
that incorporation in b-cyclodextrin accelerates vitamin K decomposition in solution26, and there are other accounts of
complexation being of little benefit or of variable effects27.This
ought not to be surprising. Generally, the hydrophobic part of
the guest molecule will be accommodated within the cyclodextrin cavity, but the labile group(s) might reside in a different part and not be protected by encapsulation. Indeed, they
could be rendered more vulnerable. Here again, knowledge of
the basic modes of degradation should indicate the chances of
successful stabilization by molecular incorporation.

(a)

(b)

-OOC

COO-

OH

OH

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360

380

400

420

440

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 5. UV absorption spectra of anti-psoriasis drug and soft

paraffins. Anti-psoriasis drug (SB 201993) (hatched line); Oxybenzone
(dotted line); Dioxybenzone (hatched line). Figure reproduced, with
permission, from Ref. 17.

OH

OH

OH

OH

Figure 6. Modes of encapsulation of prostaglandin F2 and cyclodextrins.

(a) Shows a-cyclodextrins, and (b) shows b-cyclodextrins. Figure
reproduced, with permission, from Ref. 24.

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PSTT Vol. 2, No. 6 June 1999

Table 3. Effect of cyclodextrin complexation on stability of

dimethyl prostaglandin E1 (storage at 60C)
Time
(Days)

Degradation %
Cyclodextrin
complex

Drug
as is

1
3
8
14

2.2
8.8
30.2
54

0.1
0.5
2.5
4

Table reproduced, with permission, from Ref. 21.

The molecular size of cyclodextrins, relative to most drug

substances, means that their use is limited to highly potent,
low-dose drugs. Otherwise, the large cyclodextrin/drug ratio
in an equimolar complex means that a dosage form is likely to
be too large to be practical. The process for preparation of the
complex can also be a drawback. The most effective mode of
complex formation appears to involve dissolution of the drug
and cyclodextrin in a suitable solvent, standing to allow the
complex to form, and then drying. If the drug is very unstable,
there could be problems with maintaining molecular integrity
during the solution phase, particularly if heating is required
and the time for complex formation is prolonged. Dry encapsulation (micro grinding) also appears to be feasible, but the
consistency of such a preparative technique might be open to
question.
Like all novel excipients, cyclodextrins cannot be used without due consideration of the safety implications. Both a- and
b-cyclodextrins are present in a number of commercial products, although approval seems to vary from country to country.
Their use in oral preparations seems to be gaining general acceptance. Inclusion in parenteral products is more problematical, particularly if inclusion levels are high. Renal toxicity has
been reported for both forms, possibly as a result of depressed
solubility in the environment of the proximal tubule. The

hydroxypropyl derivative appears to be a safer option for parenteral administration (see the recent excellent review on cyclodextrins by Stella and Rajewski for a more comprehensive
treatise on many facets of cyclodextrin properties28).
Cyclodextrins will not be a panacea for all stability problems,
but clearly they have a niche and are being increasingly used in
commercial pharmaceutical products.
The experiences with cyclodextrins illustrate the potential of
steric stabilization. If a drug can be fixed to an excipient, by
adsorption or other non-covalent means, the possibility exists
that, on occasion, labile groups will be made less available to
incoming moieties with which it might react. The possibility
that dissolved drugs can be structured by using appropriate
solvent systems or soluble additives is an attractive concept for
stabilization. In this context, prostacyclin is stabilized by various albumins29. Human serum albumin also inhibits the aggregation and oxidation of solutions of iron protoporphyrin. Materials as diverse as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), caffeine, niacin
and antioxidants also enhanced protoporphyrin stability in solution and in lyophilized solid30. The beneficial effects of albumins on prostacyclin stability suggest that Mother Nature
might have evolved ways of stabilizing natural mediators. This
could be fertile ground that merits exploration for strategies for
stability enhancement.
Mupirocin (pseudomonic acid A) is an antibacterial for topical infections. It is of natural origin, being derived from fermentation of Pseudomonas fluorescens. It readily degrades in solution
and in the solid state31. Degradation in the solid state is initiated
by rupture of the epoxide ring followed by rearrangement to
two bicyclic compounds (Fig. 7). No other molecular species
appears to be involved and it was therefore difficult to conceptualize strategies for stabilization. However, the finding that rearrangement was reduced when the compound was dissolved
in polyethylene glycol was capitalized on to develop a viable
commercial ointment formulation32. What was surprising was
that the drug dissolved in this vehicle was more stable than as a
solid, reversing the normal trend for materials to be more stable
in the solid state than in solution (Table 4). Although the basic
means of stabilization has not been elucidated, it is difficult to

OH
HO

Intact drug

11

OH
H
11 10

OH OH

O
9

7
8

10

OR
7
8

Table 4. Effect of formulation on stability of mupirocin

OH
OR
O

11

OH
HO

7
8

10

Rearrangement products

OH

Time
(months)

Condition
(C)

Degradation %
Drug substance
Drug in solution
(solid)
(2% in PEG 400)

2
8

37
20
30
20

100 (melted)
22
100 (melted)
42

OR
O

Figure 7. Modes of degradation of mupirocin.

12

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5
9
6

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PSTT Vol. 2, No. 6 June 1999

avoid the conclusion that some steric hindrance effect prevents

degradation by rearrangement.
Overview
Many products contain excipients that can be categorized as stabilizers in a general sense. Using suspending agents to prevent
sedimentation, adding a preservative to prevent microbial
spoilage or a buffer to adjust pH for optimum stability are all
examples of excipients being added to enhance product stability. However, such approaches are part of the stock-in-trade of
the formulator and are expounded in many articles and textbooks. Hence, they have not been discussed here. Instead, this
review has attempted to focus on cases in which fundamentally
unstable drugs can be transformed into viable medicinal products by formulating with appropriate excipients that have some
direct effect on the molecular integrity of the active ingredient.
The question can be posed whether a strategy for stabilization
is appropriate. In the era of combinatorial chemistry and
genomics-based research, the view of the pundits seems to be
that unstable entities should be selected out early in the discovery and development process. After all, poorly stable therapeutic
agents are likely to progress slowly (or not at all) to the marketplace. In the environment promised by genomics, it is postulated that there will be an embarrassment of riches in terms of
compounds to select for clinical evaluation, thus attempts to stabilize a poorly stable material might not seem warranted.
However, there are other reasons why the capability to stabilize labile materials should remain an option for the formulator
of medicinal products. The activity, specificity and freedom
from toxicity might be directly related to molecular fragility.
Materials derived from biotechnological or other natural
sources are a case in point. Stabilization using appropriate
excipients might be the only way in which many of these
materials can be converted into viable products.
Furthermore, in the context of environmental impact, the
use of excipients to stabilize an unstable active ingredient is an
attractive concept. A product could be developed that retains its
quality while the drug and other formulation components are
in close association. Rapid breakdown would follow disposal
(or ingestion) with the attendant separation of drug and stabilizer. Stable residues of potent materials would not be an issue.
It should also be noted that turning an unstable entity into a
stable product offers possibilities for intellectual property

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claims, as evidenced by the number of patent claims referenced

in this article. Thus there are potential commercial advantages
for organizations with the will to make the effort and the skills
to provide inventive approaches to stabilization.
References
1

Perrier, P.R. and Kesselring, U.W. (1983) J. Pharm. Sci. 72, 10721074

Desai, D.S. et al. (1994) Int. J. Pharm. 110, 257265

Digenis, G.A. (1993) Capsugel 66, 9

Stephenson, S.A. et al. (1998) J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 50 (Suppl.), 122

Nimry, S.S. et al. (1997) Int. J. Pharm. 149, 115121

Daniels, R. et al. (1986) Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 12, 21272156

Tobyn, M.J. et al. (1998) Int. J. Pharm. 169, 183194

Elder, J.A. (1955) Canadian Patent 511 033

Cannalonga, J. and Magid, P. (1956) US Patent 2,756,177

10

Lehman, R.W. (1959) US Patent 2,895,878

11

Embree, S. and Kascher, R. (1954) US Patent 2,686,751

12

Kirkova, J. et al. (1977) Tr. Nauchno-Issled. Khim.-Farm. Zh. 11, 100

13

Reyes, Z. (1965) US Patent 3,178,451

14

Thurro, N.J. (1978) Modern Molecular Photochemistry, pp. 121130, Benjamin

Cummings Menlo Park, CA, USA

15

Thoma, K. and Klimek, R. (1981) Pharm. Ind. 53(2), 504507

16

Thoma, K. and Klimek, R. (1980) Dtsch.Apoth. Ztg. 120, 19671972

17

Sanderson, F.D. et al. (1996) The Photostability of Drugs and Drug Formulations
(Thonnessen, H.H., ed.), pp. 141154,Taylor & Francis

18

Matsuda,Y. et al. (1979) Proceedings of the 3rd Symposium on Stabilisation and

Evaluation Methodology of Pharmaceutical Preparations, 2021 November,
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19

Eukama, K. et al. (1983) Pharm.Acta Helv. 58, 338

20

Eukama, K. et al. (1985) Int. J. Pharm. 25, 339

21

Eukama, K. et al. (1979) J. Pharm. Sci. 68, 10591060

22

Eukama, K. et al. (1981) Chem. Pharm. Bull. 29, 213219

23

Eukama, K. et al. (1984) J. Pharm. Sci. 73, 382384

24

Hirayama, F. et al. (1980) Chem. Pharm. Bull. 28, 19751980

25

Shima, A. et al. (1977) Japanese Patent 77,130

26

Szejt et al. (1982) Pharmazie 37, 725

27

Duchene, D. et al. (1986) Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 12, 21932215

28

Stella,V.J. and Rajewski, R.A. (1997) Pharm. Res. 14, 556567

29

Wynalda, M.A. and Fitzpatrick, F.A. (1980) Prostaglandins 20,

853861

30

Cannon, J.B. et al. (1995) PDA J. Pharm. Sci.Technol. 49, 7782

31

Clayton, P.J. et al. (1979) J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1, 838846

32

Oduro Yeboah, J. (1983) European Patent 0095897

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Today. Potential authors should contact the Editorial Office in the first instance with a brief outline of the scope of the proposed contribution. Article proposals should be directed to: The Editor, Pharmaceutical Science & Technology Today, Elsevier Trends Division,
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