1.

ABSTRACT

Firstly, the experiment is to demonstrate the filmwise and dropwise condensation. Secondly, to
determine the filmwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at constant pressure.And
thirdly is to determine the dropwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at constant
pressure. In this experiment, the value of the result of heat transfer for dropwise is higher that
the filmwise condensation.It means that the dropwise condensation having more heat transfer
compared to filmwise condensation. Next for the last experiment is to demonstate the effect of
air inside the chamber which is heat coefficient of condensation. The table of result is showed
the heat transfer coefficient reduses radically for both dropwise and filmwise condensation. It
will prove according the theory which is with the presence of air, the surface heat transfer
coefficient will decreased.
.

2.0

INTRODUCTION

Condensation of steam on the surface of a condenser causes heat to transfer from the steam
into the cooling medium flowing through the condenser. This type of heat transfer may occur at
very high fluxes depending on the conditions at the condenser surface. Steam may condense in
two different manners--filmwise or dropwise. For the same operating conditions, dropwise
condensation exhibits a much higher and efficient heat transfer compared to filmwise
condensation. Although dropwise condensation is always desirable, it seldom occurs in practice
for a continuous period of time. Filmwise Condensation is most heat transfer surfaces on a heat
exchanger are made of wettable materials. During condensation, a film of condensate spreads
over these surfaces. As more vapor condenses on the outside of the film, its thickness
increases and the film will start flowing downwards due to its weight. Heat transfer occurs
through this film of condensate to the surface material beneath, then to the cooling medium. The
liquid film is generally a poor conductor of heat, contributing much to the thermal resistance and
inefficiency of this mode of condensation. Dropwise condensation is the heat transfer surfaces
are treated to become non-wettable , the condensate that forms on the surface will be shaped
like spherical beads. These beads adheres together to become larger as condensation
proceeds. The bigger beads will then start to flow downwards due to their weight thus collecting
all other static beads along the way. As the beads increase in size, the velocity increases, finally
leaving a trail of bare surface free from liquid film. This bare surface offers very little resistance
to the transfer of heat. Therefore, very high heat fluxes are possible.

3.0

OBJECTIVES

Experiment 1: Demonstration of filmwise and dropwise condensation

Objective: To demonstrate the filmwise and dropwise condensation
Experiment 2: The filmwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient determination at
constant pressure
Objective: To determine the filmwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at
constant pressure
Experiment 3: The dropwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient determination at
constant pressure
Objective: To determine the dropwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at
constant pressure
Experiment 4: The effect of air inside chamber
Objective: To demonstrate the effect of air on heat transfer coefficient of condensation

4.0

THEORY

4.1

Mechanism of Condensation

Condensation of a vapor to a liquid and vaporization of a liquid to a vapor both involve a change
of phase of a fluid with large heat-transfer coefficients. Condensation occurs when a saturated
vapor such as steam comes in contact with a solid whose surface temperature is below the
saturation temperature, to form a liquid such as water.
Normally, when a vapor condenses on a surface such as a vertical or horizontal tube or other
surface, a film of condensate is formed on the surface and flows over the surface by the action
of gravity. It is this film of liquid between the surface and the vapor that forms the main
resistance to heat-transfer. This is called filmwise condensation.
Another type of condensation, dropwise condensation, can occur, where small drops are formed
on the surface. These drops grow and coalesce, and the liquid flows from the surface. During
this condensation, large areas of tube are devoid of any liquid and are exposed directly to the
vapor. Very high rates of heat-transfer occur on these bare areas. The average heat transfer
coefficient for dropwise condensation is five to 10 times larger than the filmwise coefficients.
Dropwise condensation can be promoted by making the surface non-wetting (via coating).
However, dropwise condensation is difficult to maintain in industrial applications due to
oxidation, fouling and degradation of coating, and eventually film condensation occurs.
Therefore, condenser designs are often based on the assumption of filmwise condensation.

4.2

Film-Condensation coefficients for vertical surfaces

Film-type condensation on a vertical wall or tube can be analyzed analytically by assuming

laminar flow of the condensate film down the wall. The film thickness is zero at the top of the
wall or tube and increases in thickness as it flows downward because of condensation. Nusselt
assumed that the heat-transfer from the condensing vapor at Tsat, through this liquid film, and to
the wall at Tw was by conduction. Equating this heat-transfer by conduction to that from
condensation of the vapor, a final expression can be obtained for the average heat-transfer
coefficient over the whole surfaces.
4

In Figure 1 (a), vapor at Tsat is condensing on a wall whose temperature is Tw. The condensate
is flowing downward in laminar flow. Assuming unit thickness, the mass of the element with
liquid density l in Figure 1 (b) is (-y) (dx1) l. The downward force on this element is the
gravitational force minus the buoyancy force, or (-y)(dx)(l-) g, where is the density of the
saturated vapor. This force is balanced by the viscous-shear force at the plane y of l (dv/dy)
(dx1). Equating these forces;

d
dx
dy

y dx l g l

(1.2-1)

Integrating and using the boundary condition that = 0 at y = 0;

g l
y y 2 / 2

(1.2-2)

Figure 1: Film condensation on a vertical plate: a) increase in film thickness with

position, b) balance on element of condensate.

The mass flow rate of film condensate at any point x for unit depth is;

m ldy l

g l
y y 2 / 2 dy
l

(1.2-3)

Integrating;

l g l 3
3 l
(1.2-4)

At the wall, for area (dx1) m2, the rate of heat transfer is as follows if a linear temperature
distribution is assumed in the liquid between the wall and the vapor;

q x k l dx 1

dT
dy

k l dx
y 0

Tsat Tw

(1.2-5)

In a dx distance, the rate of heat transfer is qx. Also, in this dx distance, the increase in mass
from condensation is dm. Using Eq. (1.2-4);

l g l 3
l g l 2d

3 l
l

dm d

(1.2-6)
Making a heat balance for dx distance, the mass flow rate dm times the latent heat hfg must
equal the qx from Eq. (1.2-5):

l g l 2d
T T
hfg
k l dx sat w
l

(1.2-7)
Integrating, with = 0 at s = 0 and = at x = x;

 4 l k l x Tsat Tw

gh fg l l

1/ 4

(1.2-8)

Using the local heat-transfer coefficient hx at x, a heat balance gives;

h x dx 1Tsat Tw k l dx 1

Tsat Tw

(1.2-9)

This gives

kl

hx

(1.2-10)

Combining Eqs. (1.2-8) and (1.2-10);

l l gh fg k l 3

hx

1/ 4

4 l x Tsat Tw

(1.8-17)

By integrating over the total length L, the average value of h is obtained as follows;

1 L
4
h x dx h x L

L 0
3
(1.2-11)

l l gh fg k l 3

h 0.943

l LTsat Tw

1/ 4

(1.2-12)

However, for laminar flow, experimental data are about 20% above Eq. (1.2-12). Hence, the final
recommended expression for vertical surfaces in laminar flow is shown as Eq. (1.2-13):

N Nu

l l ghfg L3
hL

1.13

kl

T
l l

1/ 4

(1.2-13)

where l is the density of liquid in kg/m3 and that of the vapor, g is 9.8066 m/s2, L is the
vertical height of the surface or tube in m, l is the viscosity of liquid in Pas, kl is the liquid
thermal conductivity in W/mK, T = Tsat-Tw in K, and hfg is the latent heat of condensation in J/kg
at Tsat. All physical properties of the liquid except hfg are evaluated at the film temperature Tf =
(Tsat + Tw)/2. For long vertical surfaces the flow at the bottom can be turbulent. The Reynolds
number is defined as;

N Re

N Re

4m
4

D l l
(vertical tube, diameter D)

(1.2-14)

(vertical plate, width W)

(1.2-15)

4m 4

W l
l

where m is the total kg mass/s of condensate at tube or plate bottom and = m/D or m/W. The
NRe should be below 1800 for Eq. (4.2-13) to hold. The reader should note that some references
define NRe as /. Then this NRe should be below 450.

For turbulent flow for NRe 1800;

g l L3
hL

0.0077
2
kl

N Nu

1/ 3

N Re 0.4
(1.2-16)

Solution of this equation is by trial and error, since a value of NRe must first be assumed in order
to calculate h.

5.0

APPARATUS

6
4

1. Indicator
2. Filmwise condenser
9

3.
4.
5.
6.

6.0

Power
Discharge valve
Dropwise condenser
Coiler heater

PROCEDURES

General Start-Up Procedures

1. The main switch was made sure to be turned off.
2. The power regulator knobs were fully turned anti-clockwise to set the power regulator to
minimum.
3. Then, valves V1 and V6 were checked to ensure it have fully closed.
4. The chamber was filled with distilled water until the water level stays between the heater
and baffles plate. The heater was always make sure to be fully immersed in the water
throughout the experiment. By opening valve V4, water could be filled into the chamber
through the drain.
5. Water flow rate to the condenser was adjusted by controlling the control valve according
to the experimental data.
6. After that, main switch and heater was turned on. The heater power was set by rotating
the power regulator clockwise to increase power heating.
7. The water temperature reading was observed and it should increase when the water
8.

starts to increase.
Water was heated up to boiling point untilled the pressure has reached 1.02 to 1.10 bar.
Valve V1 was open immediately and followed y valve V5 for 1 minute in order for

vacuum out air inside the condenser.

9. The system let to be stabilized. Then all the relevant measurements for experimental
purposes was recorded and adjusted if required.

10

Experiment 1: Demonstration of Filmwise and Dropwise Condensation

1. The basic procedure that has been written in Section 6.1 was followed. The equipment
was making sure to be connected to the service unit.

Experiment 2: The Filmwise Heat Flux and Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient Determination at
Constant Pressure
1. Cooling water was circulated through the filmwise condenser starting the experiment
with minimum value of 0.1LPM.
2. The heater power was adjusted in order to obtain desired pressure at 1.01 bar.
3. When the condition has been stabilized, the steam (T sat) and surface temperature (Tsurf),
Tin (T1) and Tout (T2) also flow rate was recorded.

Experiment 3: The Dropwise Heat Flux and Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient Determination At
Constant Constant Pressure
1. Cooling water was circulated through the dropwise condenser starting the experiment
with minimum value of 0.4LPM.
2. The heater power was adjusted in order to obtain desired pressure at 1.01 bar.
3. When the condition has been stabilized, the steam (T sat) and surface temperature (Tsurf),
Tin (T1) and Tout (T2) also flow rate was recorded.

Experiment 4: The Effect of Air inside Chamber

1. Cooling water was circulated through the filmwise condenser at the highest flow rate
until the pressure was reduced to below 1 bar.
2. The discharged valve was opened to let air to enter the chamber.
3. The water flow rate to the condenser was regulated starting with a minimum value of
0.4LPM.
4. The heater power was adjusted to obtain the desired pressure at 1.01 bar.

11

5. When the condition has been stabilized, the steam (T sat) and surface temperature (Tsurf),
Tin (T1) and Tout (T2) also flow rate was recorded.
6. Step 1-6 was repeated for dropwise condensation.

General Shutdown Procedures

1. The voltage control knob was turned to 0 volt position by turning it fully anti-clockwise.
Cooling water was allowed to flow for at least 5 minutes through the condensers to cool
them down.
2. The main switch and power supply was switched off and then the power supply cable
was unplugged.
3. The water supply was closed and cooling water connection tubes was disconnected if
necessary, if not the connection tubes were leaved connected for the next experiment.
By using the discharged valve, the water inside the chamber was discharged.

12

7.0

RESULTS

Experiment 1: Demonstration of filmwise and dropwise condensation

Table 1: Demonstration of filmwise and dropwise condensation
Pressure
(bar)

1.02

Tsat steam

Tsurf

Tsurf

Tin

Tout

Power

(C)

(Filmwise),

(Dropwise),

(T1) (C)

(T2) (C)

(w)

(C)

(C)

90.0

92.3

33.5

63.0

294

71.8

13

Figure 2:

The boiling

process

occur

Experiment

2:

The

heat flux and

surface

transfer

coefficient

filmwise
heat

determination

of

constant

pressure

Table 2: The

filmwise heat flux

and surface

heat

transfer

coefficient determination of constant pressure

Flowrate

Power

Tin

Tout

Tsat

Tsurf

Tsat - Tsurf

Tm

(LPM)

(w)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(W/m2)

(W/m2.K
)

0.1

124

33.6

56.0

71.5

33.4

38.1

25.05

38 717

1546

0.2

214

33.2

48.5

71.1

33.1

38.0

29.42

52893

1798

0.3

267

33.3

46.0

71.0

33.5

37.5

30.98

65857

2126

0.4

290

34.1

44.5

71.2

33.2

38.0

32.50

71907

2213

0.5

251

33.9

41.1

70.6

33.2

37.3

34.29

62227

1815

14

Heat Flux versus Temperature Difference

80000
70000
60000
50000
Heat flux
(W/m2)

40000
30000
20000
10000
0
37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 37.6 37.7 37.8 37.9

38

38.1 38.2

Temperature Difference, C

Graph 1: Heat flux versus temperature difference

Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient versus Temperature Difference

2500
2000
1500
Surface Heat transfer coefficient,
1000
W/m2.K
500
0
37.2 37.4 37.6 37.8

38

38.2

Temperature Difference, C

Graph 2: Surface heat transfer coefficient versus temperature difference

15

Experiment 3: The dropwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient determination at
constant pressure
Table 3: The dropwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient determination at constant
pressure
Flowrate

Power

Tin

Tout

Tsat

Tsurf

Tsat - Tsurf

Tm

(LPM)

(w)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(W/m2)

(W/m2.K
)

0.4

209

32.2

39.7

71.6

45.9

25.7

35.55

51856

1459

0.8

279

32.4

37.4

71.2

44.6

26.6

36.23

69141

1908

1.2

368

32.2

36.6

70.9

43.1

27.8

36.67

91266

2489

1.6

502

32.0

36.5

71.1

43.2

27.9

35.95

124 454

3461

2.0

544

32.3

36.2

71.3

43.3

28.0

37.02

134 825

3643

Heat Flux versus Temperature Differences

160000
140000
120000
100000
Heat flux,
W/m2

80000

Y-Values

60000
40000
20000
0
25.5

26

26.5

27

27.5

28

28.5

Temperature Difference, C

Graph 3: Heat flux versus temperature difference for dropwise condensation

16

Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient versus Temperature Difference

12
10
8
Surface heat transfer coefficient,
W/m2.K

6
4
2
0
25.5 26 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5
Temperature Difference, C

Graph 4: Surface heat transfer coefficient c=versus temperature difference for dropwise
condensation.

17

Heat Flux versus Temperature Difference for Filmwise and Dropwise condensation
160000
140000
120000
100000
filmwise

Heat flux, 80000

W/m2
60000

dropwise

40000
20000
0
25.5

26

26.5

27

27.5

28

28.5

Temperature Difference, C

Graph 5: Heat flux versus temperature difference for filwise and dropwise condensation

Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient versus Temperature Difference for Filmwise and Dropwise condensation
4000
3500
3000
2500
Surface heat transfer coefficient, 2000
W/m2.K
1500

filmwise
dropwise

1000
500
0
25.5 26 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5
Temperature Difference, C

Graph 6: Surface heat transfer coefficient versus temperature difference for filmwise and
dropwise condensation

18

Experiment 4: The effect of the air inside chamber

A) Filmwise condensation
Table 4: The effect of the air inside chamber for filmwise condensation
Flowrate

Power

Tin

Tout

Tsat

Tsurf

Tsat - Tsurf

Tm

(LPM)

(w)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(W/m2)

(W/m2.K
)

0.1

145

33.6

46.9

68.9

33.8

35.1

29.35

35918

1224

0.2

211

32.9

44.2

70.1

32.7

37.4

30.00

52266

1742

0.3

243

33.1

42.4

70.1

32.3

37.8

30.11

60193

2000

0.4

267

32.8

41.1

70.1

32.1

38.0

32.98

66138

2005

0.5

298

33.0

40.5

70.0

31.5

38.5

33.00

73817

2237

B) Dropwise condensation
Table 5: The effect of the air inside the chamber for dropwise condensation
Flowrate

Power

Tin

Tout

Tsat

Tsurf

Tsat - Tsurf

Tm

(LPM)

(w)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(W/m2)

(W/m2.K
)

0.4

210

33.8

36.3

68.0

41.0

27.0

32.93

52 018

1579

0.8

231

33.8

35.2

68.1

39.7

28.4

33.60

57 221

1703

1.2

250

33.8

35.0

68.1

39.1

29.0

33.70

61927

1838

1.6

282

34.0

34.9

68.0

37.5

30.5

33.55

69854

2082

2.0

298

34.0

34.6

68.0

37.1

30.9

33.70

73817

2190

19

Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient versus Temperature Difference of filmwise with and without air
2500
2000
1500

with air

Surface heat transfer coeffficient

W/m2.K
1000

without air

500
0
34 35 36 37 38 39
Temperature Difference, C

Graph 7: Surface heat transfer coefficient versus temperature difference of filmwise with and
without air

Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient versus Temparature Difference for dropwise with and without air
14000
12000
10000
8000
Surface heat transfer coefficient,
6000
W/m2.K

with air
without air

4000
2000
0
26

28

30

32

Temperature Difference, C

20

Graph 8: Surface heat transfer coefficient versus temperature difference for dropwise with and
without air
8.0

SAMPLE CALCULATION

Flowrate

Power

Tin

Tout

Tsat

Tsurf

Tsat - Tsurf

Tm

(LPM)

(w)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(W/m2)

(W/m2.K
)

0.1

145

33.6

46.9

68.9

33.8

35.1

29.35

35918

1224

Diameter of the condenser, d = 0.0127m

Length of the condenser, L = 0.098m
Specific heat capacity of water, C = 4.186kJ/kg.K
=3.142
Volumetric flow rate, Q
Q = 0.10 LPM

0.10 L 1000 g 1 min

min
1L
60 s

= 1.667 g/s
Power, qx
T
qx = mC

= 1.667g/s x 4.186kJ/kg.K x (56.0 + 273-33.6 + 273)C

21

= 156.3 W
Log mean temperature difference, T

Tm=

Tm=

t 1 t 2
t
ln 1
t2

( TsatTin )( Tsat Tout )

( TsatTin )
ln
( Tsat Tout )

( 71.533.6 ) (71.556.0 )
( 71.533.6 )
ln
(71.556.0 )

= 25.05 C
Heat flux,

qx
dL+

d
4

156.3
(3.142 0.0127 0.098)+

3.142 0.01272
4

= 38717 W/m2
22

Heat transfer coefficient, U

U=

Tm

38717
25.05

= 1546 W/m2.K

9.0

DISCUSSION

In this experiment, heat flux is increases with steam pressure and the temperature difference
between the steam and the condenser surface. The values for heat flux for each set value of
pressure is increase by using dropwise condensation compared using filmwise condensation.
The Heat Flux in dropwise condensation can be more than twenty times larger than in
filmwise at atmospheric pressure. This depends on how the condensation forms on the
condenser. The vapour drops in dropwise condensation are constantly formed. They are
reduces which continually exposed the surface of the condenser. The surface of the condenser
always being covered by the film created in filmwise condensation .It is because the film are
poor conductor of heat, and will reduce the value for Heat Flux for filmwise.
The graph shows that for a certain temperature difference, the Heat Flux for a condenser
using steam mixed with 5% of air is significantly smaller than pure steam. The magnitude of this
difference increases with temperature difference. In the case of Heat Transfer Coefficients, the
value for both steam and steam with air approaches zero, but when the steam is mixed with air
it is consistently low.

23

10.0

CONCLUSION

As conclusion, the dropwise condensation was more effective method of heat transfer
compared to filmwise condensation. This conclusion is proven by getting the result according to
the theory that is supported by Heat and mass transfer book. After that, it also showed the
effectiveness of the presence of air inside the chamber radically reduce surfaces heat transfer
coefficient. But the result is not accurate because of the some error that occurs during the
experiment.

11.0
1.
2.
3.
4.

RECOMMENDATION
Must follow the procedure correctly to avoid an error occur in the experiment.
Use pump so that water can be supplied to the system without failure.
The eyes need to be parallel to the reading when changing the pressure.
Make sure water was supplied clearly to the system during the experiment to prevent the

apparatus not break.

5. Make sure the flowrate adjusted in the condenser level must be accurate.

12.0

REFERENCES

1. Chemical Engineering Laboratory Manual. (CGE 536), Faculty of Chemical Engineering,

UiTM Shah Alam.
2. Dropwise

and

Fimwise

Condensation

Lab

Report.

(n.d.).

Retrieved

from

http://www.scribd.com/doc/22992765/Dropwise-and-Fimwise-Condensation-Lab-Report
3. Rose, J. (2011). DROPWISE CONDENSATION. Retrieved April 9, 2014, from
http://www.thermopedia.com/content/708/?tid=110&sn=8
4. http://www.scribd.com/doc/22992765/Dropwise-and-Fimwise-Condensation-Lab-Report
5. Welty, Wicks, Wilson, Rorrer. (2008). Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, and Mass
Transfer. Wiley Publication
6. Yunus, A Cengel & Afshin J. Ghafar (2007). Heat and mass Transfer: McGrrawHill

24

13.0

APPENDICES

25