MennIntellectual Setting

2
THE INTELLECTUAL SETTING

STEPHEN MENN
The seventeenth century saw the emergence of the corpuscularian, or 'mechanical', philosophy, which succeeded far beyond any previous science or philosophy
in explaining particular phenomena of nature, and which, as a general framework
for thought about the physical world, has continued to guide philosophical and
scientific investigation down to the present day. Modern scholars have often
sought to understand the emergence of this new philosophy by placing it within
the context of some previous tradition of thought. In the words of J. H. Randall:
We are confronted by many scholars, each of whom has been exploring some one of these
traditions, and each of whom has not unnaturally come to be a vigorous partisan of the
basic importance of the particular body of ideas he has investigated. It is well to have each
of these intellectual currents carefully explored by men vitally interested in it. For if one
thing at least has now grown clear, it is that 'the emergence of modern science' was a very
complicated affair, and involved a great variety of factors. The central problem, however, is
that of the judicious appraisal of the relative importance of a number of 'necessary conditions'; and for such a wise balancing and weighing we seem hardly ready yet. Each of us
may have his own suspicions, but they have certainly not as yet produced agreement.1
Two generations later, there is still no agreement. In what follows I will not
attempt to assess the relative importance of the different intellectual traditions
leading up to the seventeenth century (in any case, the relative importance of
these different traditions as background will vary widely, depending on which
seventeenth-century figure we wish to study), but I will try to indicate the broad
range of intellectual traditions in terms of which the various seventeenth-century
figures defined their attempts to establish a new philosophy. I will also suggest a
partial explanation for the actual successes of the science which emerged, not by
I have received helpful comments on various drafts and sections of this essay from Heather Blair, Alan
Gabbey, Dan Garber, Lynn Joy, Alison Laywine, Christia Mercer, Ann Moyer, Richard Popkin, and
two anonymous commentators. Gabbey and Garber encouraged me to write the piece, and they and
Mercer discussed the original outline with me and suggested improvements. Blair shared with me her
work on Renaissance and early modern theories of the soul, on which her dissertation, Blair 1995, is
an important reference. Gabbey and Moyer gave particularly helpful overall comments. I am grateful
to all of these and to any others I have failed to mention by name.
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Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008
34
Context of seventeenth-century philosophy
pointing to some one earlier tradition which could be expected to yield progressive results but by indicating the conditions which led to an explosion of many
new varieties of philosophy, any of which might have brought the promised
wisdom. Some of these succeeded, through luck or merit, in establishing themselves as strands within 'the new philosophy', whereas many others perished in the
end.
Traditions deriving from three earlier periods are relevant for understanding
seventeenth-century philosophy: the contending schools (Platonist, Peripatetic,
Stoic, Epicurean, and sceptic) of antiquity, the scholastic Aristotelianism of the
mediaeval universities, and the 'new philosophies' of the Renaissance (which may
be put for philosophical purposes at 14501600). Seventeenth-century scholasticism is, of course, directly continuous with mediaeval scholasticism; but the main
concern in this chapter is to understand the emergence of new philosophies,
whose exponents were conscious of themselves as innovators. This is a phenomenon which begins in the Renaissance and extends throughout the seventeenth
century. These philosophies, even when they claimed to be continuing ancient
traditions, defined themselves as 'new' in contrast to the 'old' Aristotelian philosophy of the schools:2 the new philosophies initially developed outside the universities, or at least outside the philosophy faculties,3 and if they won a place in
the curriculum it was through protracted struggle. People produced such new
philosophies because there was a demand for a new philosophy, that is, a current
expectation of what a philosophy should do, and a sentiment that the old philosophy was not doing it properly. Indeed, one may say that the chief philosophical
legacy which the sixteenth century bequeathed to the seventeenth was not any
particular new philosophy but just this expectation of a new philosophy.
The philosophers of the Renaissance turned their attention to texts from
previously neglected ancient schools, and they laboured to extract from their
favoured sources a discipline comprehensive enough to compete with the old
philosophy; in this way they produced a whole range of'new philosophies'. The
philosophers of the seventeenth century took over their predecessors' criticisms of
scholasticism, and they happily made use of the ancient materials which Renaissance scholarship had published and translated and digested; but they were not
satisfied that any of the proposed 'new philosophies' had filled the intellectual
vacuum, and they looked in other directions for the new philosophy their predecessors had taught them to expect. Thus in setting seventeenth-century philosophy
in the context of the Renaissance critique of scholasticism and the Renaissance
revivals of ancient philosophies, our primary concern is to trace the phenomenon
The intellectual setting
35
of the expectation of a new philosophy from its beginnings in mere distrust of

Aristotle to its end, when the 'new philosophy' became a synonym for 'the
mechanical philosophy'.
I. RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND:
THE CHURCH REFORM MOVEMENT
We can best understand what a new philosophy was supposed to do by seeing
how scholastic Aristotelianism failed to do it. Although the new philosophies of
the seventeenth century were most innovative in their physics, and although they
ensured their survival chiefly by explaining phenomena of nature, the search for a
new philosophy was originally motivated by Christian complaints about the moral
and religious effects of scholasticism. Since the view persists that the Middle Ages
were the great age of faith and that scholasticism was a happy marriage of
Aristotelian philosophy to Christian theology, it will help to recall some ecclesiastical history in order to explain the divorce.
Aristotelian philosophy owed its prestige, and its place in the universities, to its
service in supporting the higher disciplines, especially Christian theology. Some
Aristotelian philosophy professors in the thirteenth century, following Averroes,
had interpreted Aristotle as denying God's creation of the world, God's knowledge
and guidance of sublunar events, and the immortality of the individual human
soul; these philosophers had thus come into conflict with the teaching of the
theology faculty and with church authority. But when Averroism was condemned
by bishops and universities, the works of Aristotle, as reinterpreted by Thomas
Aquinas and other theologians, were saved from condemnation. The Dominicans
(who chose Thomas as the official doctor of their order) and the Franciscans (who
followed John Duns Scotus) wished to use Aristotelian concepts and arguments in
developing the doctrines of scripture and the Church Fathers into a systematic
theology. Thus, Thomas asserts in the Summa contra gentiles that natural human
reason, as interpreted by Aristotelian philosophy, can demonstrate some Christian
doctrines, including the existence of God and the immortality of the soul, and
show at least the possibility of the other Christian teachings, which must be
affirmed by faith. While the scholastic theology of the Dominicans and Franciscans retained its prestige in the church, Aristotelian scholastic philosophy was also
preserved, and an attack on this philosophy might be taken as an attack on the
foundations of theology. But when the established structures of the church,
including the teaching orders and their theology, no longer satisfy moral and
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religious aspirations, then quite naturally the philosophy on which their theology
is based also comes under challenge.
Reform movements seeking a return to the purity of the early church are as
old as the church itself; the Dominican and Franciscan orders are themselves the
product of an earlier reform movement, and the Franciscans continued to be torn
between compromisers and more radical reformers. But by the late fourteenth
century, many regarded the whole structure of the church, the teaching orders
included, as radically corrupt. This growing discontent may be ascribed as much
to an increase in expectations as to a worsening of conditions. But certainly one
did not have to look very hard, at the end of the fourteenth century, to find
something gravely wrong with the condition of the church. Communion between
Rome and Constantinople had been broken, and the Latin occupation of Constantinople (1204-61) had destroyed all trust between East and West. Though
several Byzantine emperors had tried to reunite the churches in order to gain
Western military support against the Turkish threat, their work had been destroyed
by the hostility of the Byzantine church and people, which preferred Muslim to
Catholic rule. In part because of this Christian disunity, the Ottoman Turks were
steadily swallowing up the Byzantine empire, and a vast territory of formerly
Christian Europe was passing to Muslim rule. In the West, the church had become
entangled in a web of conflicts and alliances, first with the German empire and
then with the French and other national monarchies, leading first to the 'Babylonian captivity' of the papacy at Avignon (130977) under the patronage of the
French monarchy, and then to the Great Western Schism (1378-1417), in which
the French church remained loyal to a pope at Avignon, whereas the German
empire and most other nations supported a rival pope at Rome. Even after the
healing of the schism, the papacy continued to be involved with the other
European powers in a shifting pattern of political and military alliances. Offices
within the church were commonly treated as 'benefices', as sources of income and
power, with a consequent degradation in service to the Christian community;
simony, the sale of ecclesiastical offices, was widespread and became the most
frequently denounced sin of the age. Multiple benefices, and thus clerical absenteeism, were common. And even if a cleric resided in his parish, it did not follow
that he performed his duties properly: illiteracy among the lower clergy, and
sexual offenses at all levels, were frequent complaints.
Aristotelian philosophy was not responsible for these corruptions; but it had
done little to stop them, and it was largely by-passed by the reforming movement.
The reforming movement took many forms in a long and complex history which
is not yet fully understood;4 only the most general lines which the reforming
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movement took are indicated here, inasmuch as they served to encourage or

discourage different varieties of philosophical activity.
It was broadly agreed that the age required a 'reformation of the church in
head and members'; it was not agreed how this reformation would come about,
or what changes it would make. Some expected a reformation from above, in
which a good pope would restore Christian discipline to the whole church; others
sought a general council which would correct the abuses of the papal court, as
well as reunite the Latins with the Greeks and the quarrelling Latins with each
other. Some reformers desired merely that the existing theology should be more
widely taught and the existing discipline more strictly enforced; these reformers
had no effect on the scholastic synthesis except to institutionalise it further.
But more radical reformers saw roots of the abuses in the scholastic theology
and therefore demanded a new theology. It was easy enough to find objections
against 'the more recent Christian theologians, who write in the Parisian style by
little questions':5 in place of the scriptures they studied merely human traditions,
Aristotle and Peter Lombard and their commentators, and they used these men's
authority to dispute questions not touched on in scripture. It was common to
contrast the simplicity of the apostles with the subtlety of the Scotists, and to
ridicule scholastic questions 'whether God could have taken on the nature of a
woman, of the devil, of an ass, of a cucumber, of a piece of flint; and then how
the cucumber would have preached, performed miracles, and been nailed to the
cross'.6 Needless disputation on such issues distracted one from the essentials of
the faith and from the life which they command; and it could only weaken the
Christian virtues of humility and charity.
Beyond this, some reformers saw in the scholastic theology substantive errors
of doctrine which excused the corruptions of the church and hindered the
work of reformation. Erasmus thought that the mistake was to justify external
'ceremonies' as means of grace, leading the faithful to seek salvation through
the magical powers of the priests and not through pure and blameless lives. Luther,
too, rejected the doctrine of the means of grace, while simultaneously rejecting
Erasmus's programme for a moral reformation: both Erasmus and the scholastics
seemed to place salvation in some type of good works and not in faith in God's
forgiveness of sin. But for all their disagreements, reformers of Erasmian, Lutheran, and many other persuasions agreed in rejecting the theology of the
mediaeval church along with its institutions; and they called instead for a theology
after the model of the scriptures and the Fathers of the Church. The goal might
be a simple non-doctrinal faith, or a correct doctrine of grace free from pagan
corruptions; it might be a rule of practical morality, or a discipline of spiritual
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contemplation. All of these could be found in the Fathers of the Church: Augustine especially supplied models for many different strands of the reform movement, which regularly appealed to him over the heads of the scholastics.
One wing of the reforming movement produced the Protestant Reformation
and thus divided Western Christendom into two opposing camps; but the reform
agitation also continued in countries which remained Catholic, and the hierarchy
gave it institutional form at the Council of Trent, as it had to if Catholicism was
to compete effectively with Protestantism for the loyalties of Europe. Both Protestant and Catholic Reformations attempted to fulfil the demands of earlier reforming movements, rebuilding the structures of the church to make them more
effective means of Christianising a society only superficially converted in the past.
Both were concerned to broaden and deepen the extent of religious education
among clergy and laity, and both were ready to discard any philosophy or theology
which failed to advance this religious education.
Philosophy was at best an incidental concern of the reform movement. Some
strands of the movement supported the old Aristotelian philosophy, especially in
those Catholic countries where the reforms were in the hands of the teaching
orders, but in some Protestant countries as well.7 Many reformers attacked all
philosophy. But it was the church reform movement, and its dissatisfaction with
the mediaeval order, which encouraged scholars to discover Aristotle's faults, and
which provided a receptive audience, first for the criticisms of Aristotle, and later
for the proposed alternatives to his philosophy.
We must now examine the varieties of anti-Aristotelianism and the alternative
new philosophies. As we shall see, it was not the case that Aristotle worked well
at supporting Christianity, and that the new philosophies disrupted this alliance.
On the contrary, it was widely recognised that Aristotle worked badly, and he was
retained only because there was no clear alternative. A Christian impulse opened
the door to philosophical criticisms and philosophical replacements of Aristotle; it
does not follow that everything that walked in the door and made itself at home
did so from Christian motivations.
II. VARIETIES OF ANTI-ARISTOTELIANISM
'The long history of anti-Aristotelianism has yet to be written.'8 The Middle
Platonists of the second century A.D. were already compiling arsenals of objections
against Aristotle, and the arguments which they and their successors discovered
were used and re-used by anti-Aristotelian polemicists of widely varying place,
time, and ideology: identical criticisms of technical points of Aristotelian logic can
39
be found in the French Epicurean Gassendi and in the Persian illuminationist

mystic Suhrawardi. For the purposes of this discussion it is not necessary to
catalogue all the inherited criticisms of Aristotle but merely to indicate the forms
which anti-Aristotelianism took in the Renaissance, in so far as they helped to
shape the expectation of a new philosophy.
1. Platonist and Christian anti-Aristotelianisms
AH the religious objections to the introduction of Aristotelian philosophy in the

thirteenth century continued to be put forward up through the seventeenth
century. They can be distinguished into two types by their origin: they derive
either from the Platonist tradition of philosophical religion or from the Jewish,
Christian, and Muslim tradition of revealed religion.
The Platonists generally object to what they see as the Peripatetics' superficiality and dependence on the senses; and they couch some of their objections in
religious terms, as protests against impiety. The Peripatetics are accused of denying
the immortality of the human soul and of holding such insufficient opinions of
God's causality as that he is only a final and not an efficient cause, that he causes
only motion and not existence, and that he governs only the celestial and not the
sublunar realm. Sometimes the Platonists accuse Aristotle of holding these opinions himself; but at least equally often they try to 'defend' Aristotle against
Peripatetics like Alexander of Aphrodisias, who had interpreted Aristotle (correctly) as holding those opinions. Where Aristotle criticises Plato for metaphorical
language and mythological conceptions, the Platonist may reply by explaining
Plato's true philosophical insight which Aristotle could not perceive behind its
metaphoric expression. But, equally well, a Platonist may say that Aristotle knows
and agrees with Plato's true opinion, and that he is really criticising only the
vulgar Platonists who took Plato's metaphors as literal descriptions of truth: he
can then defend both Plato and Aristotle against vulgar Platonist anti-Aristotelians
(like Plutarch and later John Philoponus) and against extreme Aristotelians like
Alexander, who take Aristotle to be criticising Plato. By debating this whole
spectrum of solutions, the pagan Platonists passed on to their Muslim and Jewish
and Christian successors a version of anti-Aristotelianism, and a version of Aristotelianism as well.
Philosophy as it was passed on first to the Muslim and then to the Christian
world was fundamentally Aristotelian philosophy; but because of its religious
context it often took on a Platonist coloring. The Christian and Muslim religions,
which give a special value to a religious knowledge going beyond mere faith, are
naturally open to philosophies which promise an understanding of God, man, and
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the world and which may serve in interpreting and systematising the teachings of
the scriptures. But they are also highly suspicious of philosophies of pagan origin
which may undermine the scriptures, perhaps even in claiming to reveal the
scriptures' true meaning. Thus when Aristotelianism appeared in Islam and Christendom, a theological anti-Aristotelianism appeared alongside it.9 The most serious charges against the philosophers are that they subvert God's creation by
teaching the eternity of the world, that they deny God's knowledge and providence over sublunar individuals, and that they deny the immortality of the soul
and the eventual resurrection of the dead; and, more generally, that they deny
God's ability to affect created things by an act of his will. The philosophers
attempted to meet these charges, both because other members of their society had
these religious concerns and because they themselves did. The charges were
similar to the Platonist accusations against Aristotelianism, and the philosophers
often used the Platonist defense of Aristotelianism in reply: they say that whereas
some interpreters have taken Aristotle in an irreligious sense, Aristotle himself
believed in creation and providence and immortality and intended to criticise only
low, mythological conceptions of these doctrines. It was impossible to maintain
that Aristotle had believed in miraculous temporal acts of God's will, such as
creation in time or the resurrection of the dead; here the Muslim philosophers
assert that the Aristotelian doctrines are the true inner meaning of the scriptural
expressions, whereas Christian thinkers like Thomas and Scotus say that Aristotle
leaves open the possibility of extraordinary divine acts beyond what natural reason
can know. For the Christian scholastics, reconciling Aristotle with scripture meant
reconciling him with Augustine, the most authoritative patristic interpreter of
scripture; and Augustine already had used Platonic philosophy to elucidate the
scriptural doctrines of God and the soul. The scholastics are thus able to present
Aristotelian philosophy (in Avicenna's Platonising interpretation) as human reason's partial discovery of the truths which only the scriptures (in Augustine's
Platonising interpretation) would fully reveal.
The Thomist and Scotist compromise, which Platonised Aristotle's philosophy
to some extent, and to some extent admitted the possibility of divine action
outside the Aristotelian framework, was not stable. Bishop Tempier's condemnation of the Averroists in 1277 had already stressed the contradictions between
Aristotelian philosophy and the possibility of miraculous divine action; and the via
moderna of the fourteenth century pushed this assertion of divine omnipotence to
its logical conclusions in undermining the Aristotelian philosophy of nature.10
Typical of this new approach is the Livre du del et du monde which Nicole
Oresme composed in French in 1377 at the request of the King of France, who,
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Oresme tells us, had made him bishop of Lisieux.11 The treatise is, in form, a
translation and commentary on Aristotle's De caelo; but the commentary is often
curiously hostile. Oresme has no systematic alternative to Aristotelian physics, and
he remains within the terms of the scholastic Aristotelian synthesis in criticising
particular Aristotelian propositions. But within this framework he exercises remarkable ingenuity in envisaging possible ways in which Aristotle's doctrines
might fail to hold. Sometimes Oresme explicitly bases these 'ymaginacions' or
thought-experiments on God's absolute power to create things outside the natural
order, as when he discusses the possibility that there are other worlds outside our
own.12 But even where this is not explicit, Oresme's imagination has clearly
been freed by a habitual consideration of divine omnipotence; and although his
refutations of Aristotle are sometimes just ingeniously playful (like the proof that
an infinite heavy body can have a finite weight),13 often they are motivated by a
defense of Christian doctrine. Oresme uses Ptolemaic eccentrics and epicycles to
'explain by philosophy and astronomy a truth consonant with our faith and
contrary to the opinion of Aristotle and Averroes', that no intelligences other than
God are absolutely unmoved;14 and he explains how God might have tampered
with the Aristotelian world order to stop the sun in the time ofJoshua, or to flood
the earth in the time of Noah. Aristotle was an excellent philosopher, but his
attacks on Plato are unreasonable; on the authority of Augustine, Oresme reminds
us that Plato's philosophy (of which he knows little or nothing) is more suited to
the Catholic faith than Aristotle's.15
2. Humanist anti-Aristotelianism
The origins of the humanist movement in the fourteenth century are continuous
with this current of Christian and Augustinian anti-Aristotelianism. Francesco
Petrarca (130474), whom the humanists saw as their forerunner or founder,
shares with the scholastic Augustinians the same Christian suspicions of pagan
Aristotelian philosophy.16 Petrarca takes offence at the modern theologians and
philosophers of the teaching orders, who follow Aristotle and Averroes in their
theology, scorning the authority of Augustine and of the apostles, and implicitly
of Christ himself. He objects in particular to their doctrine of the eternity of the
world; and he angrily rejects their pretence to believe as Christians that the world
was created in time, while their reason tells them the contrary.
Petrarca is no doubt exaggerating in his portrayal of these modern theologians:
it is unlikely that a member of a religious order in the fourteenth century would
defend Averroes against Augustine, let alone against St. Paul, as Petrarca claims.17
For Petrarca, as for a great many thinkers from the thirteenth through the
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seventeenth century, anti-Averroism is both a motivation and an excuse for a

broader anti-Aristotelianism. Petrarca, like some Franciscan scholastics, had a
personal religious devotion to St. Augustine, and he promotes Augustine as a
model in opposition to Aristotle: Augustine is a true philosopher, and Aristotle
and Plato are not.18 But Petrarca is not content merely to secure a specifically
Christian and Augustinian modification of the Aristotelian philosophical framework: he wishes to reassess what philosophy is supposed to do for Christianity,
and to find someone who will do it better than Aristotle. Petrarca's judgement on
Aristotle stems from his concern with the moral reform of Christianity; in this he
contrasts with Oresme, who accepted a bishopric through royal patronage just in
time to take the French side in the Great Schism.
Petrarca condemns the arrogance of the philosophers in their claims of knowledge: their doctrines are largely false, being derived not from reason but from the
dubious authority of Aristotle, and they express themselves so obscurely that they
themselves cannot understand what they mean; but 'even if [their doctrines] were
true, they would not contribute anything whatsoever to the blessed life.'19 Petrarca
complains, as if equivalently, that they prefer this useless learning to scripture, or
that they prefer it to virtue. What the pagan philosophers might genuinely
contribute is an incitement to virtue, the path which leads to true happiness in
God, even though they themselves were unable to follow up this path. But
Aristotle does not do this: if we attend a university lecture on Aristotle's Ethics, we
may emerge more learned but not morally better, more able to define virtue but
not more inclined to love it.20
Petrarca and later humanists therefore reject Aristotelian philosophy as a suitable
ally for Christianity and replace it with Ciceronian rhetoric. It is Cicero and
Seneca, and the better poets, but not Aristotle, who possess in their eloquence
those 'goads and firebrands of words, by which the mind is spurred and inflamed
toward love of virtue and hatred of vice'.21 In turning towards Cicero, Petrarca is
following his admired Augustine and many other Latin Fathers who had been
Ciceronians before they became Christians. Though troubled by Cicero's paganism, they could not help trying to correlate their Christian faith with Ciceronian rhetoric. When Petrarca speaks of Cicero's ability to inflame the mind with
a love of virtue which only Christianity can satisfy, he recalls Augustine's description of his reading of Cicero's (lost) Hortensius, which had turned Augustine from
a mere orator into a true philosopher, a lover of wisdom, and thus set him on the
path to Christianity: 'suddenly every vain hope seemed worthless to me, and I
desired the immortality of wisdom with an incredible burning in my heart, and I
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began to rise up to return to [God].'22 The mature Augustine takes Cicero's ideal
of the perfect philosopher-orator for granted; he is concerned to defend Christianity, not Ciceronianism. The humanists, however, finding a Christianity universally professed but scarcely felt, are moved to revive Ciceronianism as a means to
reawakening Christianity.
Ciceronian humanism, like Aristotelian philosophy, rapidly took on a life of its
own. Many humanists in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were chiefly in love
with the force of Cicero's eloquence, the breadth of his learning, and the purity
of his Latinity, whereas others viewed him as a mere auxiliary to Christianity. It is
perfectly possible to be concerned with rhetoric but not morality, with morality
but not religion, or with religion but not Christianity, and the Renaissance saw all
these intellectual possibilities actualised. Our interest here, however, is not with
these varieties of Ciceronianism as such but with Ciceronianism as a standpoint
for criticism of Aristotle, yielding criticisms compatible with, but distinct from,
the Platonist and Christian criticisms discussed above.
Cicero offers few direct criticisms of Aristotle, towards whom he is generally
well disposed; what he offers are criticisms, from an oratorical standpoint, of
dogmatic philosophy. Cicero's philosophical ambition was to 'imitate' Greek philosophy into Latin, as the Latin poets had imitated Greek poetry, and so to make
philosophical materials available to the Roman orator. The orator who has acquired the ability to argue philosophically will indeed be the perfect philosopher,
able 'to join practical wisdom [prudentia] with eloquence', and 'to speak about the
greatest questions with fullness and adornment'.23 To attain this goal, Cicero
practises the method of the sceptical New Academy, which he traces back to
Socrates and Plato, 'this method in philosophy of arguing against everything and
passing clear judgment on nothing', by reciting the arguments which the different
dogmatic schools have produced on both sides of every question. From the orator's
point of view, this is the best kind of philosophy, since having both sides of a
question is twice as good as having only one: 'If it is a great thing to know the
disciplines one at a time, how much greater will it be to know them all at once?
But this is what they must do who propose, for the sake of discovering the truth,
to speak both against all the philosophers and also for them all.'24 But Cicero's
scepticism is restrained by his concern, as a political orator, with the maintenance
of virtue: he rejects as irresponsible Carneades' willingness to extend his scepticism
to moral questions, and to speak against justice as well as for it. Cicero attempts to
adapt the Stoic moral ideal to the situation of a Roman statesman: although he is
troubled by the Stoic paradoxes that external goods are nothing to the sage and
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tempted to moderate the Stoic harshness, the pure ideal still appears in his oratory,
and it seems to exercise a personal attraction for him, as it certainly did for such
readers as Augustine and Petrarca.
Cicero provides much material for attacking the dogmatic schools, of which
the humanists made use both in incidental swipes and in sustained polemics against
the Aristotelians.25 In the first place, the dogmatic philosophers seem to despise
eloquence. Cicero speaks of Aristotle's 'golden stream of eloquence',26 but as this
is not evident in Latin translations of Aristotle, still less in disputations conducted
in the barbarous 'Parisian' language, the scholastics may be accused of falling short
of their master; the scholastic logic is particularly attacked and contrasted with the
true art of discourse which the orators possess. Related to their neglect of
eloquence is the scholastics' lack of concern for virtue, and for the welfare of the
public: they prefer instead to cultivate esoteric speculations and disputes about
words. These charges become much stronger if the Aristotelian speculations are
not just useless but false or uncertain; and there is again Ciceronian material to
buttress these charges against dogmatic philosophy. There is no question which
the different philosophers do not argue on opposite sides; there is no position so
absurd that some philosopher has not maintained it.27 Cicero and Seneca opened
the door for the humanists to the non-Aristotelian dogmatists, the Stoics and
Epicureans, and to the sceptical philosophers (including Plato on Cicero's account)
who used the arguments of the different dogmatists against each other. Whether
these other philosophers were ultimately any better than Aristotle or not, they
provided new perspectives from which Aristotle could be attacked.
Perhaps the best humanist attack on Aristotelianism, and on dogmatic philosophy in general, is Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola's Examen vanitatis doctrinae
gentium et veritatis christianae disciplinae.28 Unlike many such attacks, it engages the
philosophers on a wide range of issues and does not simply reject the philosophical
mode of discourse. But Pico's goals and methods are essentially no more philosophical than those of Vives or Nizolio. Pico's goal in each of his six books is to
contrast Christianity with philosophy, revealing the errors and confusions of the
philosophers and showing that Christianity alone is sound and true. And his
methods in criticising the philosophers are typically humanist: he uncovers ancient
sources who disagree with Aristotle and with each other, and he takes over their
arguments almost without change. Pico sets out a general 'history of variations' of
the pagan philosophers, showing that they disagreed on even the most fundamental bases of their teaching. He recalls the sceptical criticisms of the criteria of
truth, and of each specific art and science: here Sextus Empiricus serves Pico both
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as an example of a philosopher who disagreed with the other philosophers and as

a witness to the disagreements of earlier philosophers among themselves.
After this general refutation of the philosophers, Pico devotes a final three
books to a special criticism of Aristotle, since it is he who has the most defenders
in modern times. Pico begins by citing the many philosophers who have criticised
Aristotle, and by giving a series of humanist criticisms (mostly ill-founded) of the
integrity and intelligibility of the Aristotelian corpus. But Pico goes on to a more
interesting kind of criticism of Aristotle, drawn from the dogmatic Platonist
sources which had become available. The Platonists had criticised Aristotelian
philosophy as relying on the senses and remaining contented with the superficial
appearances of things; and Pico, without adopting the Platonists' alternative of an
intellectual vision of the incorporeals, is happy to take up their criticisms of
Aristotle. In Book Six, Pico extracts, from John Philoponus and from the Jewish
philosopher Hasdai Crescas, particular criticisms of Aristotle's doctrines of place,
time, void, the quintessence and the eternity of the world; but of more fundamental importance is the sustained argument of Book Five 'against the art of knowing
and of demonstrating transmitted in the Posterior Analytics'.
Pico gives a great many criticisms of the uncertainty of sensation and of
definition, sources of knowledge according to Aristotle: but his basic criticism is
that if we begin where Aristotle says we must begin, with the accidental properties
of things that fall under our senses, we will never be able to reach the intuitions of
universal essences, which are for Aristotle the necessary foundations of the sciences. Aristotle holds that the mind can begin with sensible phenomena and trace
them up by a process of analysis to the intelligible first principles from which they
arise; once we have grasped these principles by an intellectual intuition, we can
reverse the analysis, working downwards until we have deduced the sensible
phenomena with which we began. Pico charges that if we begin by assuming
sensible phenomena, our postulations of principles will remain contingent on
these phenomena, and the deduction of the phenomena will be a circle. Although
this criticism often comes from Platonist quarters, it can equally be taken up by an
extreme nominalist like Nizolio, who (unlike scholastic nominalists) rejects all
universal affirmations. Pico himself revives the old Augustinian illuminationism to
mediate between the Platonist and extreme nominalist positions: he agrees that
we can know something beyond sensible particulars, but only through the divine
grace of illumination, which no philosophical method can procure.
Through Pico's critique of Aristotelian science, the humanist complaints about
logomachies and barbarous terminology acquire a more serious philosophical
46
content: it is charged that when the scholastics invoke essences, qualities, and
other non-evident entities, they are using abstract nouns as labels for causes of
which they have no real conception. A favourite example is the abstract noun
'gravitas', heaviness: as Hobbes, Descartes, and many others note, to say that heavy
bodies fall because of heaviness does not indicate a true cause, but 'is as much as
to say, that bodies descend . . . because they do'. 29 Ockham had already accused
his scholastic brethren of misconstruing abstract nouns as names for abstract
entities: but a more radical nominalism charges that this is not merely a grammatical mistake but a disguise for scientific ignorance. The scholastics base their claim
to scientific knowledge on their claim to discern the universal essences from
which the activities of natural things arise; but, it is said, their discoveries are
merely verbal and do not reveal any such essences. Perhaps, as the extreme
nominalists say, there are no such essences to be known; and this view can be
supported by the Christian charge that such essences as the scholastics posit would
be eternal and independent of God. On the other hand, perhaps there are such
essences (dependent somehow on God), and perhaps a true philosopher who
exercises intellectual intuition or is favoured with divine illumination could come
to grasp them.
Pico's attack on the Aristotelian claims to knowledge was not necessarily
unanswerable, and such scholastics as Jacopo Zabarella devoted themselves to
restating the Aristotelian method of analysis and defending it from the charge of
circularity.30 But for many opponents of Aristotle, this kind of criticism seemed to
get at the heart of what made Aristotelian science useless as a means to wisdom.
Perhaps all science is tautologous, and wisdom must be sought elsewhere; but
perhaps a new and more substantive science could lead us on to practical wisdom.
If the Aristotelian method does not lead to the sources of true knowledge, then
perhaps a new method will discover everything we really are capable of knowing,
collecting the true sources of knowledge sensations, or pure rational intuitions,
or scriptural revelation, or all three together and systematising them into a new
pansophia?x From the cumulative Platonist, Christian, and humanist criticisms of
Aristotle there arose, side by side, both a general hostility to philosophy and an
expectation of a new philosophy. In the end, 'the new philosophy' came to
mean an actually existing movement, the mechanical philosophy, which could be
contrasted with the old philosophy; and when the old philosophy vanished, and
the mechanical philosophy developed its own internal divisions and crises, the
phrase 'new philosophy' gradually vanished too. But it is important to recollect,
beneath the neutral historical use of the phrase 'new philosophy', the original
rather apocalyptic expectation of a new disciphne which would reunite theoretical
47
science and practical morality, Christian faith and natural reason, ancient wisdom
and modern discoveries, and so on. No doubt much of the excitement was
premature. Comenius in Labyrint sveta a raj srdce (The labyrinth of the world and the
paradise of the heart) describes the 'new philosophy' of the Rosicrucians, which
promised to extend human life for several centuries and to restore human wisdom
to the perfection it possessed in the Garden of Eden, as a collection of boxes,
painted with exotic titles, but proving to be empty when opened; and the
Rosicrucians' 'new philosophy' was not so different from many other varieties.32
Aristotelianism had not been nearly as bad as its opponents represented it, and
their expectations of what they could accomplish through philosophical tyrannicide were unreasonably high. But though their first steps towards a new philosophy were stumbling and may be compared unfavourably with the accomplishments
of late scholasticism, we may see with hindsight that their bold experiments
prepared the way for the emergence of mechanical philosophy and science.
III. A MAP OF RENAISSANCE PHILOSOPHY
What alternatives did Renaissance thinkers find to replace Aristotelian philosophy?
It is impossible to survey here all the philosophies which were proclaimed in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. But we may try to isolate some of the basic
intellectual strategies which philosophers of different persuasions adopted to meet
the criticisms of the old philosophy: for it is the range of strategies for replacing
Aristotle, and not the details of the new philosophical systems, which were fruitful
for the philosophers of the seventeenth century.
Three main regions may be distinguished on the intellectual map of Renaissance philosophy. First, there is the Aristotelian scholasticism whose different
schools, characterised above all by the great conflict between Thomism and
Averroism, remained the official philosophy of the universities. Second, there are
the revived Hellenistic philosophies, with a moral emphasis, which arose out of
the humanist movement: scepticism, Stoicism, and (more marginally at first)
Epicureanism. Third, there is the revived Platonic school, mediated through the
late ancient and Byzantine traditions. After sketching these varieties of philosophy,
I will also discuss the category of 'naturalism' which has been applied to Renaissance philosophy and suggest some cautions which should attach to this concept.
1. Scholasticism: The Averroist controversy and its outcome
Aristotelian scholasticism was not annihilated by its Renaissance critics; at least in

the Catholic countries, the traditional schools were intellectually vigorous
48
throughout the sixteenth century, recovering and developing in new directions

after the grim period of European decline and of the Great Schism. The new
developments of the traditional schools and the controversies between them are
mentioned here only as they relate to the Renaissance criticisms of Aristotle and
the search for a new philosophy.
The two countries in which sixteenth-century scholasticism was strongest, Italy
and Spain (together with Portugal), present two very different pictures. Spanish
scholasticism, although of great intrinsic merit, was little influenced by, and in
turn influenced little, the search for a new philosophy. The stimulus for Spanish
philosophy came externally from Spain's emergence as a world power after the
discovery of America, and internally from the Spanish Counter-Reformation.
Both the old teaching orders and the new Society of Jesus were responsible for
the theological education not only of the clergy at home but of missionaries
everywhere from Mexico to Japan; so they taught theology according to the
doctors of their orders, and they taught the philosophy on which this theology
was based. The old battles of via antiqua against via moderna, and within the via
antiqua of Thomism against Scotism, were pursued with vigour, both on theological and on philosophical questions. Within the Thomist camp, the strict Thomism
of the Dominicans clashed on a number of questions with the more eclectic and
innovative theology and philosophy of the Jesuits. All parties to these controversies
remain within the broadly Thomist consensus (shared also by Scotus and others)
reconciling Aristotelianism with Christianity; they are not trying to establish a
new philosophy. But they too share the general wish to do philosophy more
piously than Aristotle. The Jesuit Francisco Suarez writes his Disputationes metaphyskae for the utilitarian reason that one must 'lay firm foundations in metaphysics' before proceeding to theology; he therefore 'philosophizes in this work, but
always so as to have before my eyes that our philosophy ought to be Christian,
and the servant of divine Theology'. Thus, instead of writing the usual commentary on Aristotle, Suarez rearranges the topics of Aristotle's Metaphysics in a
rationalised order which the student of theology will find easier to learn and
remember and apply; and on each question he 'selects the opinions which seem
to serve better piety and revealed doctrine', saving Aristotle for these opinions if
possible but abandoning him if necessary.33 The Dominicans are suspicious of the
Jesuits' tendency to find neat new labour-saving solutions to old difficulties; they
adhere firmly to Thomas and so remain more Aristotelian than the Jesuits. But
the Dominicans, too, hope to make their philosophy Christian; and at least in
Italy, some Dominicans try to follow Thomas against Aristotle.
Outside the scholastic world the effects of the Spanish Golden Age were
49
limited. The continuing commitments to Aristotelian principles in physics and

other disciplines make Spanish scholasticism, however Christian, unsalvageable for
the anti-Aristotelians; although the Spanish scholastics certainly helped to define a
vocabulary for later philosophers, their main influence came on topics Aristotle
had not treated: the theological doctrines of God's predestination and foreknowledge of human actions, and the political doctrines of natural law developed in
defense of the Catholic order.34
Italian scholasticism presents a very different appearance. The reason is not, as
might be thought, that Italian humanist scholarship had corrected mediaeval
misunderstandings of Aristotle. Humanist editions and translations were available
in Spain as in Italy, and they made no essential difference to the content of
scholastic philosophy: only uncritical acceptance of humanist propaganda could
make us think that scholasticism was what it was because of incompetence or
ignorance, so that it would be forced to radical change by the mere availability of
new Greek texts or new translations of Aristotle. The mediaeval translations of
Aristotle, and of later Aristotelians such as Averroes, were certainly imperfect, and
they presented only a part of the fruits of Greek and Arabic philosophy; but they
are accurate enough, and copious enough, to afford a sound knowledge of
Aristotelian philosophy.35 Given this basis, the scholastics could and did learn to
quote Aristotle in new translations, or to cite the views of Plato and Plotinus on
disputed questions, without altering their traditional commitments. Humanist
scholarship helped open the door for those who wished to abandon these commitments, but it did not expel those who wished to remain with them.
Unlike Spain and Portugal, the states of northern Italy afforded wide freedom
both for Christian (and not-so-Christian) anti-Aristotelianisms, and for varieties
of Aristotelianism outside the broadly Thomist consensus. The Averroists, who
would have been killed in Spain, had chairs in the Italian universities alongside the
Thomists and Scotists; and the Averroists were in constant and public conflict with
the other schools over philosophical questions and over the interpretation of
Aristotle. By reopening the question whether Aristotelianism was really compatible with Christianity, these controversies played a major role in shaping both
scholasticism and the anti-Aristotelian philosophies in Italy.
Whereas in the fourteenth century Oresme and the other followers of the via
moderna had used a wide conception of divine omnipotence to attack Aristotle's
natural philosophy, in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, amidst the general
wave of moral and religious criticism of scholasticism, the chief concern was with
more directly religious issues, creation and providence and especially immortality.
Thomas and his contemporaries had interpreted Aristotle as holding these doc-
50
trines, or at worst as leaving the questions open; but the Averroists denied that this
could be Aristotle's view, and they convinced many of their hearers. Already
Petrarca had said that Aristotle was ignorant of immortality, and this remained part
of the stereotype of the 'Peripatetic' throughout the Renaissance and into the
seventeenth century: thus, when Cornelius Agrippa describes the revenge which
the different sects and professions will take for his De incertitudine et vanitate omnium
scientiarum et artium (1526), he fears that 'the wicked Peripatetickes will make my
soule mortall and exclude it out of Paradise.'36 But if, as Petrarca and later
humanists thought, a philosopher's proper contribution to his Christian readers is
to inflame them toward a life of virtue leading to immortality in God, then a
philosopher who denies or omits the doctrine of immortality will be of little use;
and Aristotle seemed to many scholastics as well as to humanists to be such a
philosopher.
The questions of creation, providence, and immortality are all linked by the
interpreters of Aristotle. Creation is the production of something out of nothing;
but Aristotle does not seem to admit any production besides the generation of
sublunar substances from preexisting matter, governed by the cyclical motion of
the heavens. But if there is only such generation and not also creation, then
sublunar things are governed not by providence but by the heavenly bodies, which
care only about their Movers and produce sublunar things as unintended byproducts. Again, if the human soul is not created by God at birth, but is educed
from the potency of matter (like other sublunar forms) as part of this natural cycle,
then it will be resolved back into matter when its body is destroyed, having no
independent subsistence. Thomas had saved immortality by invoking creation.
The human soul is immortal because it subsists independently of the body: it is
not a 'material form' educed from matter but an immaterial substance specially
created by God, which for a limited time takes on the role of a form informing
matter. Thomas effectively established this doctrine as orthodoxy, and by the
fourteenth century all Christian scholastics accepted the doctrine as true; but the
Franciscans and other non-Thomists doubted whether it was known to Aristotle
or to natural reason, and the revival of Averroism intensified these doubts.37 It was
common to deny that Aristotle could conceive of creation, or of a form informing
matter that was not a material form. Further, although Aristotle asserts the
immortality at least of the 'agent intellect' and perhaps of the rational soul, it
seems that several Aristotelian principles will be violated if individual human souls
produced at birth continue to exist after death: most painfully, a plurality (and, if
the world has existed from eternity, an infinite plurality) of separate souls will now
exist, somehow maintaining their non-identity without being distinguished either
51
by species or by individuating matter. These difficulties lead the Averroists to

conclude that the intellect is not the form of the body but a single separate
substance doing the thinking of the whole human race, a doctrine which all
its opponents describe as 'monstrous', but which an Aristotelian cannot easily
avoid.38
Unlike the Spaniards, the Italian Thomists generally become convinced, as a
result of their controversy with the Averroists, that Aristotle did not hold the
Thomist doctrine of the special creation and consequent separability of the human
soul; at the same time, they refuse to believe that he could have held the Averroist
doctrine. This is a difficult position for a Thomist to be in: the Thomists reacted
in several ways, which can be illustrated with some representative figures.
The Dominican Girolamo Savonarola (1452-98) thinks that Aristotle was
forced by the light of reason to assert both that the human soul is the form of its
body and that it is an immaterial substance; but Aristotle was unable to reconcile
these two doctrines. Savonarola uses this antinomy to show that the 'wisdom' of
the philosophers is defective and cannot lead to salvation. Almost all the philosophers, says Savonarola, were forced to deny one or the other of these principles
about the soul, thus falling short of the demands of natural reason itself. Only
Aristotle, 'a man of the most acute intellect', avoided both these errors; and he
could do so only because 'considering that the light of human reason is too dim
for a perfect knowledge of the intellective soul, therefore, in order not to be
refuted, he treated it cautiously and obscurely',39 so obscurely as to leave room for
the 'monstrous' Averroist doctrine. Savonarola thinks that only Thomism, modifying Aristotle's philosophy by the Christian doctrine of creation, is able to solve
the antinomy. Savonarola thus makes common cause with the humanists to
discover a Thomist anti-Aristotelianism. Savonarola's humanist admirer Gianfrancesco Pico will claim in his Examen vanitatis doctrinae gentium et veritatis christianae
disciplinae that he is continuing the example of the Summa contra gentiles: whereas
Thomas had refuted only those doctrines of the philosophers which contradicted
Christianity, politely accepting their other doctrines for the purposes of the
argument, Pico will refute all their doctrines, whether contrary to Christianity or
not.40
Pietro Pomponazzi (14621525) also began his career as a Thomist, and he
retains his respect for Thomas throughout; but, having been worsted in debate by
the Averroists, he feels constrained by their criticisms to admit that Thomism
cannot stand as an interpretation of Aristotle.41 In his mature works, Pomponazzi
takes an Averroist position on most questions, though he professes, unconvincingly, to accept the Thomist position on faith even while his reason agrees
52
with Aristotle and Averroes.42 On the crucial question of immortality, however,

Pomponazzi believes that the Thomists and the Averroists have rationaUy refuted
each other's positions without establishing their own. Pomponazzi begins his
treatise Tractatus de immortalitate animaen by noting the same apparent antinomy
Savonarola had used to refute the philosophers: the human soul must be both
somehow mortal, a material form like the souls of beasts, and somehow immortal,
an immaterial form like the intelligences governing the heavenly bodies. Pomponazzi then reviews the different solutions which the philosophers had proposed.
Pomponazzi, like Savonarola, thinks that Thomas has decisively refuted, on purely
rational grounds, the monstrous Averroist view that the immortal intellect is one
thing and the mortal soul informing the body is another. But Pomponazzi finds
Thomas's own positive position, that the same human soul is essentially an immortal intellect but temporarily acts as a mortal soul informing the body, to be
impossible for Aristotle and unintelligible to natural reason: we cannot understand
how a separate substance could inform a body, or whence it could be created at
birth.
Pomponazzi offers his own alternative, which he thinks is genuinely Aristotelian, and which he hopes will reconcile the insights that the human soul is
somehow mortal and that it is somehow immortal. But in effect Pomponazzi
denies that the human soul is immortal. It is immortal only in the sense that it
exercises the act of intellection, an incorporeal act performed by the soul alone
and not by the composite; thus, it shares in the intellectual nature, intrinsically
immaterial and immortal, which is manifested in the intelligences of the spheres.
But the individual human intellect which participates in this intellectual nature is
not itself immortal: it is the form of a material sublunar body, and like all such
forms it perishes with its body.
Many Renaissance philosophers reacted in horror to Pomponazzi's denial, on
Aristotelian grounds, of human immortality. To understand what they were reacting against, one must recognise Pomponazzi for what he was. Pomponazzi has
been described as a humanist influenced by a rediscovery of the original unChristianised Aristotle; as a naturalist uninterested in separate substances; and as a
'humanist' in the twentieth-century sense, a believer in the dignity of man.
Pomponazzi was none of these things. He was not a humanist but a conservative
scholastic, who preserved the Averroist line wherever it did not seem 'monstrous';
his gestures of respect towards the rediscovered Alexander of Aphrodisias are
merely gestures, and he supports Averroes against Alexander on every disputed
question except the separation of the human intellect.44 And he is far, indeed,
from rejecting separate substances or proclaiming the dignity of man; he rejects
53
the Thomist doctrine of immortality precisely because it would elevate humanity

to the dignity of the heavenly spheres, which are the absolute rulers of men and
all other sublunar things, the only mediators of God's action, the only possessors
of separate intelligences. Man's dignity consists only in the fact that 'the philosophers, who alone are terrestrial gods, and as different from [all] others . . . as real
men are from painted ones', can by exercising their intellect acquire some of the
properties of the heavenly spheres; as for the prophanum vulgus, 'whoever does not
participate in philosophy is a beast.'45
Thomists who decided that Aristotle did not agree with Thomas on creation,
providence and immortality, might react like Savonarola and Gianfrancesco Pico,
by making Thomas an anti-philosophical theologian; or they might, like Pomponazzi, prefer the philosophers to the theologians. But they might also, like the
Dominican Cardinal Cajetan, declare that Thomas too was a philosopher, and a
better philosopher than Aristotle: creation and immortality are not revealed doctrines which the philosophers did not understand but philosophical doctrines
which 'this Greek' did not understand.46 As Savonarola points out, reason perceives both that the human soul is separable and that it informs the body, doctrines
which cannot be reconciled without the doctrine of creation; thus, natural reason,
in the person of Thomas, can put these two doctrines together and derive on its
own terms the doctrine of creation ex nihilo. In this way, Italian Thomism joins
the consensus against the impious Peripatetics and attempts to make itself pass as a
new philosophy.
2. Philosophies emerging from humanism: Scepticism, Stoicism, Epicureanism
The Renaissance expectation of a new philosophy, and many of the new philosophies themselves, first arose out of the Christian humanist critique of Aristotle.
Yet the humanist attitude towards philosophy was ambivalent at best. The humanists believed, with varying emphases, in the supremacy of eloquence, of morality,
and of Christianity; in attacking Aristotle, they were at the same time attacking
philosophy itself. Philosophia is a Greek word, borrowed into Latin to signify a
Greek institution; and it continued to bear the primary meaning, not of 'philosophy' according to some abstract definition, but of the particular disciplines taught
by the followers of the Greek philosophical schools. This is what the humanists
were criticising: Aristotle was merely the nearest target, most dangerous not
because his doctrines were the worst but because they were the most widely
taught.47
But when Aristotelian philosophy is described as an evil which is corroding
Christianity, this may be explained either by saying that philosophy is an evil, or
54
that Aristotehanism is just bad philosophy. The thinkers of the Renaissance slipped
easily from the first to the second. In the first place, they had uncovered alternate
ancient philosophies in searching Cicero and other classical authors for moral
lessons, anticipations of Christianity, and refutations of Aristotle; and certainly
Cicero had given high praise to philosophy in the service of eloquence. But
beyond this, it is difficult to find anything to say against the love of wisdom as
such; so it is natural to charge instead that those who are commonly called
philosophers are not lovers of wisdom and thus not philosophers, that what is
commonly called philosophy is 'not philosophy but Aristotehty'.48 Those who
speak thus will claim that what they are doing is the true philosophy (whether it
is a revival of some Greek school or not), and they will reinterpret the commonplaces against philosophy as being against bad philosophy; so Augustine had
explained the New Testament condemnation of'the philosophers of this world' as
applying only to the materialists and not to the Platonists, philosophers of another
world.49
This new philosophy may be Christianity: thus, Erasmus speaks of'the philosophy of Christ', and Gianfranceso Pico contrasts human with divine philosophy.
The new philosophy may be Ciceronian rhetoric: thus, Mario Nizolio contrasts
his 'truly philosophical and oratorical' teaching with the 'barbarous and pseudophilosophical' Aristotehanism.50 But the new philosophy might also be scepticism,
Stoicism, or even Epicureanism, as parts of a broader humanistic program; or it
might be Platonism, or something altogether new.
Scepticism was the first of these philosophies to emerge from the humanist
movement; Petrarca already had declared himself a 'proselyte of the Academy',51
meaning the sceptical Academy Cicero had praised. The humanists used sceptical
materials from Cicero and Sextus Empiricus in criticising Aristotle; and they easily
moved from using scepticism as a witness against the philosophers to adopting
scepticism as their own philosophy. The modern sceptics, like their forebears, used
the conflicts between the ancient schools to cast doubt on the dogmatists' claims
to knowledge, and to induce suspension of judgement. But whereas ancient
scepticism was the natural result of previous conflicts among the dogmatic schools,
the Renaissance order is the reverse: the humanists begin with their Christian,
moral, or rhetorical hostilities towards Aristotehanism and are therefore motivated
to exhume the old philosophical controversies. And their scepticism remains
subordinated to their original Christian, moral, or rhetorical motives. One might
suppose that sceptical attacks on the sciences would devote themselves primarily
to refuting claims of knowledge, either by general critiques of the sources of
knowledge, or by raising controversies about the particular sciences under attack;
55
but in fact these theoretical criticisms are often eclipsed by more practical concerns. 52
Typical is Cornelius Agrippa's De incertitudine et vanitate omnium scientiarum et
artium: finding the sciences too much praised, Agrippa will argue the other side,
that 'there can chaunce to the life and saluation of our Soules, nothing more
hurtfull and pestilente, than these Artes and Sciences.' Agrippa does this in detail,
adducing all the considerations he can think of against each science in turn: and
although he certainly does point out, inter alia, that 'al Sciences are nothinge els,
but the ordinaunces and opinions of men', and therefore 'doubtful and full of
errour and contention', his main point is that none of the arts and sciences, from
arithmetic and metaphysics to gambling and 'the whoorish Artes', can make us
happier or morally better. Agrippa recommends instead the divine wisdom of the
scriptures, to be received in faith and not subjected to dialectical disputations.53
Many other writers, although they avoid Agrippa's rhetorical excesses, yet share
his suspicion of the sciences and take up scepticism in the service of faith or
morals. Pierre Charron's frontispiece to his De la sagesse contains an allegorical
depiction of Wisdom, her device reading je ne s^ay; but the book is primarily
devoted to teaching practical wisdom, first through self-knowledge and then
through the rules of conduct which follow from it. Charron's scepticism appears
in his low assessment of the capacities of human nature, and then in his treatment
of education: parents wrong their children by teaching them the sciences, mere
compilations of lore which exercise only the memory, when they should teach
them to develop the practice ofjudgement, in which alone true wisdom consists.54
The sceptical thesis of Charron and of his friend Michel de Montaigne is not
really that nothing can be known (although they sometimes say or suggest this)
but that nothing practically or morally important can be known, that the claim of
science to produce wisdom is a fraud.
Humanist scepticism coexisted easily with humanist Stoicism. Both had their
sources in Cicero, and both could be developed from rhetorical commonplaces
into more seriously elaborated philosophies. The same writer might (like Charron) develop both sides of Ciceronian philosophy; but different varieties of antiAristotelianism might motivate the development of sceptical or Stoic alternatives.
Petrarca had said equally that a true philosophy should lead us to virtue, or that it
should lead us to Christianity; but these are not necessarily the same criterion. If
our chief concern is to protect a simple Christianity from divisive and corrupting
philosophical elaborations, scepticism will be the best philosophy: this was Gianfrancesco Pico's inclination in 1520, and subsequent sectarian conflicts made it all
the more plausible. But if we want a philosophy to lead ourselves and others to
56
the virtuous life, then Stoicism might well be superior. And for humanists beset by
the tumults of a divided Europe and discontented with professional controversies,
struggles for patronage, and the striving for pure Ciceronian Latin, Stoicism was
an attractive source of consolation and edification.
The principal reviver of Stoicism as a systematic philosophy was Justus Lipsius
(15471606). Lipsius s training was humanistic, and he was a professor of history
when he wrote his chief philosophical works; but though he never rejects rhetoric
or the other humanistic disciplines, he wishes to subordinate them to philosophy,
and he protests against the Ciceronian subversion of this order. As counter-models
to Cicero, Lipsius proposes Epictetus and above all Seneca, philosophers who leave
their reader 'aroused and inflamed with love of virtue'.55 In his Manuductio ad
Stoicam philosophiam and his Physiologia Stoicomm, written 'to illuminate Seneca
and other writers', Lipsius undertakes to defend and systematically present the
Stoic philosophy. Against Christian criticisms, Lipsius replies that only bad philosophy is dangerous, or a philosophy which dominates over Christianity: a Christian
may appropriate what is true in Stoic philosophy, while rejecting what contradicts
Christian doctrine; the scholastics had exercised the same liberty with Aristode.
Against Cicero, 'an Academic and therefore an ex professo enemy of the Stoics',
Lipsius defends the technical discipline of Stoic philosophy.56 A philosopher must
make subtle distinctions and pose paradoxes to his readers; he may not simply
accept common opinions, as an orator does before a crowd. Cicero says that the
Stoics do not move the souls of their hearers, even when they compel assent;
Lipsius replies that true philosophical eloquence, which moves the soul of a
solitary and meditative reader, disdains to appeal to the emotions of the crowd.
Both Academics and Christians accuse the Stoics of imposing impossible demands
on human nature and making arrogant claims for their sage; Lipsius admits that
the Stoic sage cannot exist, but he defends the ideal of the sage as a means to
awaken us from our moral complacency.
The ideal sage must be omniscient: we will therefore study not only ethics, but
also physics.57 Here Lipsius, in pursuit of philosophical seriousness, goes far
beyond the earlier humanist Stoicism, which found value only in the moral
philosophy. The Stoics tell us to follow nature, by which (says Lipsius) they mean
God; but to know how to do this we must understand God and nature, and this is
the domain of physics. Where the Manuductio had led us to Stoic philosophy, only
the Physiologia will take us inside it, to begin the work of philosophy proper.
Physics first treats the two principles, God and matter, then the elements of the
world proceeding from the principles; Lipsius, true to his moral purpose, concentrates on God and His providence, and on man as the microcosm and image of
57
God. But he also lays out the whole Stoic cosmology, and he is eager to show that
its emphasis on providence and the omnipresence of God make it a more pious
alternative to Aristotle's. Unfortunately, the Stoics call God a fiery body and
sometimes identify Him with the world. Although Lipsius cannot entirely defend
this, he shows that they use 'body' loosely to mean any existent thing, and that
when they speak 'more cautiously and closer to the truth', they make God a spirit
or soul or reason present within the world, and not a literal fiery body. Lipsius
cites precedents for a Christian corporealism, and he offers a mixture of criticism
and reinterpretation not unlike the scholastic treatment of Aristotle.
Pierre Gassendi belongs in the body of this volume, not in its introduction; but
we may note some parallels between him and Lipsius.58 Epicureanism had a
reputation as immoral and irreligious, and it had been little known; but when the
humanists discovered Lucretius's De rerum natura and Diogenes Laertius's Life of
Epicurus, they found not a gross hedonism but a practical moral ideal with some
similarities to Stoicism. Thus, in such writers as Lorenzo Valla we find a humanist
Epicureanism, like a shadow-image of humanist Stoicism. So, in Gassendi's early
humanist work, the Exercitationes paradoxicae adversus Aristoteleos, he had set out to
establish not only the Pyrrhonist doctrine 'that nothing is known' but also 'the
opinion of Epicurus about pleasure, showing how the supreme good consists in
pleasure, and in what way the praise of the virtues and of human actions depends
upon this principle'.59 But the mature Gassendi, like the mature Lipsius, rejects
this cavalier treatment of philosophy and applies his humanist scholarship to
presenting and defending a complete Epicurean philosophy. Epicurean physics,
like Stoic physics, is corporealist, and unlike Stoic physics it denies divine providence. But Gassendi argues, sincerely and forcefully, that Epicurus is no worse
than Aristotle; and he presents a Christian modification of corporealism that
closely parallels Thomas's modification of hylemorphism. Epicurus's corporeal
gods have no care for the world and contemplate only themselves, but so do
Aristotle's incorporeal intelligences: Thomas adds a creator God on top of the
system, and so does Gassendi. Epicurus makes the soul a body, and so mortal, but
Aristotle makes it the form of a body, and so mortal: Thomas makes the rational
soul a special case, an incorporeal substance united to a body, and Gassendi does
the same.60
Humanist moral philosophy transcends itself in such writers as Lipsius and
Gassendi, who worked to recover from the ancient sources a full philosophical
system of logic and physics and ethics. To compete effectively with scholasticism,
such a philosophy had to be at least as coherent and comprehensive as Aristotle's,
and it also had to be at least as compatible with scripture. Thus, although we may
58
say the 'Mosaic philosophy' which attempted to draw a systematic physics from
the book of Genesis was itself one of the humanistic new philosophies, we may
also say that all new philosophers were necessarily Mosaic philosophers, that
'Mosaic philosophy' was a condition presupposed by all of the new philosophies:
thus, Lipsius cites 'Mosaic philosophy' as presenting God under the guise of
fire, and Cudworth will prove that atomism was the 'Mosaical philosophy'.61 A
Renaissance thinker could pass easily and continuously from arguing defensively
that his chosen philosophy was compatible with scripture, to arguing offensively
that his philosophy was more compatible with scripture than others were, to
proving that his chosen philosophy was implicitly contained in scripture, to constructing a whole new philosophy out of hints in the sacred books.
3. The revival of dogmatic Platonism
Christian and humanist critics of Aristotle, following Augustine and Cicero,

praised Plato above all other pagan philosophers. But they had little direct knowledge of Plato's writings and no acquaintance with Platonism as a living philosophical tradition. Augustine cites Platonist sources in explicating Christian doctrines
of God and the soul, but he does not pass on a systematic philosophy; Cicero, and
the humanists who follow him, contrast Plato the sceptic with the later dogmatic
schools. But Platonism had been a living tradition in Byzantium since the eleventh
century; and when the political and religious upheavals of the fifteenth century
brought Byzantine Platonism into contact with the West, the West was for the
first time exposed to a systematic philosophy as serious as Aristotelianism in its
scientific aspirations but sharing the religious concerns of the Christian critics of
Aristotle.62
Here it is important to recall the distinction indicated above between the
general religious criticisms of Aristotle, initiated by the Platonists, and the specific
criticisms arising from Jewish, Christian, and Muslim revealed religion. The first
man who brought the texts, and the living tradition, of Plato to the West was in
fact the one certifiable pagan of the fifteenth century, George Gemistus Plethon
(1355?1452); but Plethon s criticisms of Aristotle in his essay on the differences
of Aristotle and Plato, De differentiis, come from strong and basic religious beliefs
which were shared equally by Christians and by pagan Platonists.63 Plethon had
come to Italy as philosophical adviser to the Greek Orthodox delegation at the
reunion Council of Florence (1439-40) and had become a local celebrity through
his knowledge of Greek literature and Platonic philosophy: the De differentiis and
other writings emerge from his lectures to the Florentine humanists. Plethon was
used to a philosophy which claimed its origin in Plato, accommodating Aristotle
59
only in so far as he could be harmonised with his master; but in the West, Plethon
discovered, the philosophers followed Averroes in preferring Aristotle to Plato.
Plethon endeavours to correct this judgement by a short summary of all the usual
Platonist criticisms of Aristotle, emphasising the ways in which Aristotle imperils
the dignity of God and of the human soul. Plethon wobbles between accusing
Aristode of holding impious doctrines, or merely of speaking in such a way as to
give Alexander and Averroes grounds for their impious interpretations.
The philosophy which Plethon and other Byzantine Platonists had introduced
to Italy occupied an ambiguous position both in relation to Aristotelianism and in
relation to Christianity. As was already noted, Platonism had the capacity to slide
between Aristotelianism and anti-Aristotelianism, and the Platonists of the Italian
Renaissance exercised this capacity to the full, taking up the whole range of
possible positions. It was also possible to slide, within the spectrum of religious
philosophy, from an active Christian apologetics to indifference or even outright
hostility to Christianity. Platonism was not, of course, the first philosophy to
have such an ambiguous relation to Christianity: even for Thomas, Aristotelian
philosophy could estabhsh only natural and not revealed rehgious truths, and other
Aristotelians had inclined both to narrow the scope of natural theology and to
ignore or deny the claims of revealed doctrine. But Platonism differed from
Aristotelianism, not merely by giving a richer content to natural religion, but also
by undermining the distinction between natural and revealed religion. The pagan
Platonists, far from denying revelation, claimed that many ancient prophets and
wonder-workers had received revelations which clothed Platonic doctrines in a
mystical language; and they discovered, or wrote themselves, documents ascribed
to Orpheus, Zoroaster, Pythagoras, Hermes Trismegistus, and other prisci theologi.
Platonism in a Christian context had to decide the relation of Moses and Jesus
Christ to these other bearers of revelation. Were the prisci theologi pagan pseudoprophets, were they pagan anticipators of Christ, did they learn their teachings
from Moses; or were they rather Moses' teachers, were they equals of Moses,
perhaps even of Christ; or were they the real prophets, and Jesus the impostor? All
of these positions were taken, so that the Platonists filled a spectrum, not only from
Aristotelianism to anti-Aristotelianism, but also from Christianity to universalprophetic religion.
Italian Platonism began with Plethon's De differentiis, and it remained for a long
time a controversy among Byzantine expatriates. The West assimilated it slowly.
When Cosimo de' Medici found scholars for his 'Platonic Academy' who could
translate the new Greek texts and take up the philosophical tradition which they
transmitted, these men did not take from Platonism anything radically contradict-
60
ing the previously reigning philosophy or theology. The Florentine Platonists

wished to refute both 'the perverse minds of many, who yield unwillingly only to
the authority of the divine law' and the Christian opponents of philosophy 'who
very impiously wish to separate the study of philosophy from holy religion . . . as
if someone would remove the love of wisdom from the honor due to wisdom
itself, or true understanding from a right will'64 by showing that sound, Platonic
philosophy leads to knowledge of soul and God and confirms the Christian faith.
In this they were natural allies of the Thomists and Scotists against their enemies
from both Averroist and humanist quarters. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola makes
this alliance explicit in a famous letter to the humanist Ermolao Barbaro, who had
ridiculed the barbarisms of the scholastics: Pico defends the 'Parisians' in pleading
the cause of philosophy against rhetoric, and he concludes by comparing Lucretius
with Duns Scotus, a common butt of humanist ridicule. If Scotus were to write a
poem on the nature of things, he would break all the rules of the grammarians
and the poets; but Scotus would obey the more important laws of God and nature
if he made God a separate mind who knows and provides for his creatures, where
Lucretius had made him a body and unaware of our concerns.65
Pico had proposed, in the spirit of late ancient Platonism, to write a philosophical encyclopaedia harmonising Plato and Aristotle on all questions; but as this was
broken off after a promising beginning, the major systematic statement of Florentine Platonism remains the Theologia platonica completed in 1474 by Marsilio
Ficino, the translator of Plato, Plotinus, and 'Hermes Trismegistus'.66
Ficino borrows his title from Proclus, and his whole argument takes place
within the scholastic framework which Proclus had constructed to systematise the
Platonist doctrines of the different levels of reality. Ficino wishes to turn his
readers away from sensible bodies to recognise their own incorporeal nature as
rational souls; and since the soul is itself 'divine' and bears the image of God, we
will be able to ascend further from knowing ourselves to knowing God. Ficino
subtitles his work 'On the immortality of souls', and he devotes many chapters to
proofs that every rational soul (and only rational souls are souls in the strict sense)
is immortal: the real issue is not so much immortality as the soul's ontological
status as a substance existing independently of matter. Following Platonist method,
Ficino leads us up the chain of realities, from moved bodies through moving
powers (immanent in bodies) to self-moved movers and to unmoved movers,
from divisible bodies through forms divided in bodies to undivided forms, from
multiplicities to simple unities. Once he has traced a given object, such as the
human soul, back to its proper place in the hierarchy, he will then be able to
derive its particular attributes from its ontological status.
TTie intellectual setting
61
Ficino generally operates with a five-fold classification of realities into body,

quality, soul, angel, and God. We may present this as a guide to Platonist ontology,
but the particular enumeration should not be taken too seriously: all schoolPlatonists agree on the fundamental divisions of being, but they rename them
freely or subdivide more or less finely to get the desired number of levels on a
given occasion.
Since Ficino does not count matter as a separate level, he puts body in the
lowest rank: bodies are merely extended matter, infinitely divisible by their very
essence, and purely passive. Above bodies are 'qualities', powers, natures, or
material forms: these are not divided in their essence, but as they cannot exist
apart from the matter in which they operate, they are accidentally divided in
matter; unlike bodies, they can transmit motion when they are moved, but they
cannot initiate it of themselves. Above qualities are souls, defined as self-moved
movers, self-subsisting forms which do not become divided when they give life to
bodies: following Proclus, Ficino insists that the only true self-motion is the
mind's thinking of itself, and that the only true souls are the rational souls of
human beings, of the heavenly bodies, and of the world as a whole. The rational
soul, for all Platonists, is the middle link in the chain of realities, eternal in its
substance but changeable in its activity, superior to purely temporal things which
are moved from without, but inferior to purely eternal things which are unmoved
movers. Since Ficino has distinguished two levels below the soul, he also distinguishes two above it, where other writers may find one or three. Immediately
above the rational soul is the Reason in which souls participate, the nous of the
Greek Platonists; Latin writers use different terms for this entity, and Ficino
chooses 'angel' instead of the more common '(agent) intellect'. Even though souls
are self-moved, they cannot be the highest causes, since the souls' essence by itself
is not sufficient to guarantee that their thinking will be perfectly rational, or that
they will move themselves with the perfect motion, the uniform and rational
rotation of the souls of the heavens. Instead, the souls must be guided by some
higher being which remains eternally constant and contains within its essence the
Ideas, the standards of rational thought; souls will think rationally and will govern
the physical world according to rational laws only to the extent, greater or lesser,
to which they participate in this divine Reason. Some Christian writers identify
this being with their God, but Ficino and many other Platonists argue that since
this being contains a plurality of intelligible exemplars, it is 'angelic' and inferior
to the highest God, who is pure unity and above the intelligibles.67 God may even
be said to be above being, since it is the intelligibles which are most properly
beings, but this manner of talking is hazardous both on Christian and on ordinary
62
rational grounds; Giovanni Pico solves the problem by saying that God is above
the beings (entia) but identical with Being (esse), but later writers like Patrizi are
less hesitant in exalting God above being.68
Ficino and his associates were experimenting at introducing the Byzantine
Platonic theology to solve the Western controversies. And they had grounds for
hope that they could break the deadlock between an un-Christian Aristotelianism
and an anti-philosophical theology, if they could explain and justify creation,
providence, and immortality from a purely philosophical standpoint. Especially in
accounting for the special status of the human soul Platonism seemed more
promising than Aristotelianism: indeed, Avicenna and Thomas had preserved
immortality for Aristotle only by importing the Platonist intellect not very harmoniously into the world of material forms. But Ficino had not yet fully established
a Platonic philosophy in the West: he had written only a Platonic theology, with
a heavy concentration on the soul, and not a complete Platonic philosophy
treating both corporeal and incorporeal things. Later Platonists, following out
Ficino's program, construct a distinctively Platonist physics, so as to present a
systematic alternative to Aristotelianism. These phOosophers are developing traditional Platonist religious concerns, and like other philosophers of the sixteenth
century they present their work as a contribution to the reformation of the
church. But also, as they develop their religious thought, the possibility increases
for tension between universally religious and specifically Christian concerns.
An exemplary figure of sixteenth-century Platonism is Francesco Patrizi.69
Patrizi was a participant in humanist controversies and very fond of contention;
and he takes up with enthusiasm the old Platonist polemics against Aristotle.
Besides its other faults, Aristotelianism is impious in its denial of providence;
Patrizi therefore urges, in letters to cardinals and popes, that Aristotle's works
should be banned and Aristotelian professors replaced by Platonists in the universities. Patrizi succeeded to a surprising degree and was named professor of Platonic
philosophy, alongside Aristotelian colleagues, first at Ferrara (1578), and then
under papal patronage at Rome (1592). Patrizi won the pope's favour by a work
entitled Nova de universis philosophia, a new philosophy of everything (1591): Patrizi
assures the pope in his letter of dedication that if his new philosophy replaces
Aristotle, it will do more to win back the Protestants than either military force or
moral example.
Everywhere Patrizi is concerned to exhibit the full glory of the Platonist
system, and to do better than Aristotle. It is not enough to hypothesise God as a
source of motion: Patrizi begins with light {lumen), which is the most evident
thing of all, and ascends to a vision of God as an incorporeal light (lux). Patrizi
63
then discusses the system of principles, and instead of Ficino's five, he distinguishes
nine levels of being, plus a God who is beyond being and a matter which is
beneath being. Then, after discussing the nature of soul in a manner similar
to Ficino's, he goes on to produce a full anti-Aristotelian natural philosophy,
supplementing the Platonists from the Chaldean Oracles and similar texts. The first
principle of bodies is the space in which God may create the physical world; then
God, who is an intellectual light (lux) and an intellectual fire, pours forth light
(lumen) and heat into the space of the world. God also produces in space a fluid
principle (fluor), in which and on which the heat exercises its activity: this fluid,
in rarer or denser forms, is the substrate of bodies and is the source of their
passivity and resistance. Each of these principles exists in a causal and exemplary
form at each level of being, so that a purely incorporeal fire produces a supercelestial fire, which produces the fire of the stars, which produces ordinary sublunar
fire. Thus, Patrizi finally constructs the elements of the sensible universe, and he
shows how their action is governed by the incorporeal principles.
Patrizi failed to establish his version of Platonism as the philosophy of the
Catholic Reformation. Patrizi's professorship at Rome, and the personal protection of the pope, could not keep the Nova philosophia from suffering the fate its
author had wished on the works of Aristotle, of being placed on the index of
forbidden books. Although the exact reason for the condemnation is not clear,
the result is hardly surprising. But because the failure of Platonism to become 'the
new philosophy' was of such great importance, and because this failure is often
described in a potentially misleading way, it will help to have a short separate
discussion of this topic.
4. Hie question of 'naturalism'
Patrizi and the other Platonists of the Renaissance, as well as such non-Platonic
philosophers as Pomponazzi, are commonly described as 'naturalists' or 'philosophers of nature', where the latter phrase suggests not merely that they studied
nature but that they took nature as the governing principle of their whole
philosophy. But there is in reality no philosophical movement, and probably no
single philosopher, whom these terms would accurately describe. This does not
mean that the category of 'naturalism' has been applied purely arbitrarily: there is
a real phenomenon which it has been used to designate. But one must be careful
to delineate the phenomenon precisely, and 'naturalism' and its synonyms have
tended instead to blur it.
Modern scholars most often describe as 'naturalists' philosophers whom their
own contemporaries described, with hostile intent, as 'atheists'. To be sure, this
64
term had an extremely broad polemical use, and there were probably no philosophers in the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries who were atheists in the modern
sense, that is, who subscribed to the proposition 'there is no God.' But although
some philosophers were accused of atheism for no objective reason at all, it seems
that there was a real tendency of thought which understood God's nature and
relation to the world in a way incompatible with orthodox Christianity. Instead of
calling this tendency 'atheism', we call it 'naturalism'; but this remains a blank
symbol waiting to be given a meaning.
The most obvious meaning of 'naturalist' is a philosopher who denies that
there are incorporeal substances but admits only bodies and immanent principles
inseparable from bodies. Such a philosopher, like Spinoza in the seventeenth
century, could believe in God, but not in a God separate from the world. But no
Renaissance Platonist or Aristotelian, perhaps no Renaissance philosopher of any
school, was a naturalist in this sense. The two philosophers who come closest to
such a 'naturalism' are Justus Lipsius and Bernardino Telesio (1509-88). Lipsius, as
was explained earlier, finds corporealism an embarrassing feature of pagan Stoicism
and attempts to remove it in the process of Christianisation. Telesio constructs a
new physics of vaguely Stoic and pre-Socratic inspiration, which resembles the
lowest two layers of the Platonist system, body and 'nature' or 'quality', and so he
seems led to the conclusion that nothing can exist in separation from body; but
Telesio, like Lipsius, Gassendi, and St. Thomas, makes exceptions for God and for
rational souls.70 While Lipsius or Telesio or some of their followers may have been
insincere, there is no clear reason to suppose that they were.
The Platonists, especially, are very far from 'naturalism' in the indicated sense.
The Platonists, like the Stoics, are concerned to maintain divine providence in
their physics; unlike the Stoics, they are equally concerned to maintain God's
independence and separation from the world. They reconcile the two concerns by
positing a series of intermediary beings through whose movements God maintains
order in the world, while remaining himself unmoved: thus, the eternal divine
pattern governs the movements of the world-soul, which in turn direct the natural
powers operating within bodies. The Platonists satisfy their general religious
concerns with this theory, but they do not necessarily satisfy Christian concerns,
and therefore the possibility of conflict arises. There is nothing to prevent an
orthodox Christian from believing in a world-soul; but the theory of the worldsoul justifies a universal providence, and if presented by itself it tends to undermine
the special status of the biblical chosen people and of biblical miracles.71
This subversion of biblical miracle is the real phenomenon which has been
labeled 'naturalism'. It was, apparently, unusual in the sixteenth century to deny
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that the biblical miracles had occurred: more common was to explain them in
such a way as to deny that they were strictly miraculous. Two types of explanation
were particularly favoured: if the miracles of (say) Moses did not result from a
special divine intervention, then either they were predetermined by rare astrological configurations or else Moses himself produced them through the magical arts
which he had learned from the wise men of Egypt. The Aristotelians tend
naturally towards the astrological explanation, the Platonists towards the magical.
Pomponazzi in his De naturalium effectuum causis siue de incantationibus sets out
the Aristotelian explanation of miracles, which he takes over from Averroes and
passes on to Cardano and Vanini. Revealed religion is genuine: the successive
religions or 'laws' are all founded by inspired prophets, who demonstrate their
claims with genuine miracles; but this is a natural phenomenon, governed by great
periods of the heavenly configurations. The spirits which inspire the prophets are
the intelligences: they work by continuing the constant motion of their spheres,
which through physical causality govern all sublunar things and which in particular
produce the appropriate images in the prophets' imaginations; these celestial
influences also produce, through natural means, the marvelous signs which are
necessary, once in a great period, to induce people to leave the old decaying law
and submit to the new. The Christian religion, like its predecessors, is 'true' in
that it is a divinely sanctioned mode of conduct (and of belief for the nonphilosophical masses); but it, too, is now decaying, and it cannot escape what the
stars decree. Faith is weak, there are no true miracles now, only frauds; the end of
our religion is near, and we cannot yet tell what new religion will replace it.72
The Platonists reject the Aristotelian astrological explanation of religion, of
miracles, and of sublunar things generally: astral influences are real, and the
heavenly bodies are certainly among the intermediaries God uses in governing the
world, but cosmic soul and the human soul itself are also incorporeal powers in
direct contact with divine principles. Platonists, like Christians, reject astrological
determinism as reducing divine providence to a mechanical fatality, and denying
human reason its power over bodily conditions. Thus, such Platonists as Giovanni
Pico della Mirandola take the lead in the polemic against divinatory astrology.73
But the alternate accounts of providence which Platonism offers can be equally
subversive of the Christian doctrine of miracles: Platonism allows all too many
ways in which, through different intermediary agents, divine principles can produce effects on visible things. This danger becomes especially clear where the
prisci theologi are invoked: such sages as Hermes and Zoroaster are supposed to
possess a divine wisdom enabling them to perform marvellous works, and some of
the writings ascribed to them seem to provide a foundation for magical practices.
66
The Platonists are very careful to distinguish the magic of these ancient sages,
which is 'the practical part of natural science', a legitimate and indeed the most
noble part of physics, from 'all that magic which is in use among the moderns,
and which the Church rightly exterminates'.74 The actual magical practices are
not always so different, but the Platonists' magic is supported by a cosmology
which is supposed to make it both scientifically and religiously sound.
This cosmology is found in the Chaldean Oracles (perhaps the most popular
source of ancient revelation among the Platonists, ascribed to Zoroaster by the
arbitrary whim of Plethon), and in the Corpus Hermeticutn.75 These texts speak of
three worlds: the supercelestial world of the divine intellect, the celestial world of
the stars and the seven planets, and the sublunar or material world of generable
and corruptible bodies. The supercelestial world governs the celestial world; since
the supercelestial world is reason itself, the celestial world is rationally ordered.
The heavenly bodies in turn govern the sublunar world, and subject it to an
irrational fatality. But the human intellect, unlike anything else beneath the moon,
can by-pass the heavens to participate immediately in the supercelestial intellect,
and so escape the dominion of fate.
This cosmology is innocent enough, and simply expresses in more colorful
terms conceptions common to all Platonists. But the mind may be tempted to
escape the dominion of fate, not by mere philosophical contemplation, but by
magical practices; and the traditions ascribing marvellous powers to the prisci
theologi made it impossible for Platonism to shake off this temptation. Systems of
correspondences are worked out to connect the three worlds, and the mind uses
its freedom to manipulate sublunar things so as to bring out their hidden powers
and draw down the appropriate celestial and supercelestial influences. Thus,
despite the best efforts of such Platonists as Pico, there was always continuity
between Platonist magic and popular European superstition.76
The Platonism of the Renaissance failed to establish itself in large part because
of this recurring temptation towards magic, and especially because of the temptation to use magic to explain the manifestations of divine power described in the
Bible. Giovanni Pico made perhaps the most serious attempt to keep magic in its
proper place, both by subordinating magic to kabbalah and by denying that either
magic or kabbalah could accomplish the works of Christ.77 Kabbalah, as Pico
presents it, is not so very different from the prisca theologia of Hermes and Zoroaster
and Orpheus. But it is derived from the Hebrew learning of which Pico was so
proud, and it thus has several religious advantages over the prisca theologia. Kabbalah
claims to be the work not of some dubious old pagan but of Moses himself, and
the key to the inner meaning of the Mosaic law: thus, not only is kabbalah itself
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religiously unimpeachable, but it allows Pico to legitimate other philosophical

traditions as reflections, more or less distorted, of the original Mosaic wisdom.
Further, since Christianity is the inner meaning of the Mosaic law, sound kabbalah
should be able to discover this; and indeed Pico finds he can prove the divinity of
Christ by this most Jewish of means, and so perhaps accomplish the last and
highest task of Christian piety, the conversion of the Jews.78
For all Pico's ingenuity and religious sincerity, his solution did not stick. His
proposed disputation on nine hundred theses drawn from all the sources of
wisdom was banned by church authority, and he spent much of the rest of his
short life in defending himself; and his successors fared no better. Magic and
kabbalah were too bizarre and too dangerous, and there was no way of keeping
them under control: if kabbalah proved the divinity of Christ today, it could be
proving something quite else tomorrow. Platonism was the best candidate the
Renaissance had for the new philosophy, but it was not good enough. The
expectation of a new philosophy remained, but it could be satisfied only by
something more Christian, more scientific, and altogether more sober and reliable.
IV. THE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY REACTION
The new philosophers of the seventeenth century, including those who proposed
some version of the 'mechanical philosophy', both continued the work of their
Renaissance predecessors and at the same time reacted against it. Aristotelian
philosophy had been the target, both of religious and moral objections, and of
challenges to its scientific and practical value. While Renaissance philosophers had
not succeeded in constructing a new philosophy immune to these objections, the
philosophers of the seventeenth century continued to repeat the same criticisms
of Aristotle and continued to be moved by the same religious and scientific
concerns in working out their 'new philosophies'. In addition, the mere fact of
the existence and failure of so many 'new philosophies' led the philosophers of
the seventeenth century to seek in different directions for their new philosophy.
In order to understand the 'new philosophies' of the seventeenth century, it will
help both to sketch the religious and the scientific conditions of the seventeenthcentury reaction to Renaissance philosophy, and also to discuss two transitional
figures, Francis Bacon and Marin Mersenne not because they created new
philosophies, but because they captured the philosophical concerns of their time,
and helped to reshape the conditions for a new philosophy which their contemporaries and successors tried to satisfy. Finally, we note the consummation and
disappearance of the expectation of a new philosophy in the emergence of the
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mechanical philosophy. How precisely the mechanical philosophy attempted to

satisfy this expectation in the different fields of philosophy, and what transformations and new controversies it brought about in these fields, will be major themes
of this volume.
In the history of Christianity, the early to mid seventeenth century was an age
of continual crisis, and of searching for a formula for stability. The fragile balance
between Catholic and Protestant Europe had been destroyed by the ambitions of
the Spanish crown to unite Europe under Habsburg and Catholic hegemony. The
revolt of the Protestant Netherlands against Spanish rule and the overthrow by
Bohemian Protestants of their Habsburg ruler combined to precipitate the Thirty
Years' War (1618-48), the culmination of all earlier wars of religion, which
involved, and threatened to destroy, every European state.
Philosophy was affected by the theological controversies, but also more generally by the search for a formula of peace. In England, suspicions of a royal
conspiracy to restore Catholicism helped spur the parliamentary revolution, and
thus the civil wars. The turmoil provided the environment for all varieties of
religious sectarianism, and for hot debates on the Christian duty of obedience to
authority, and on the interpretation of scripture generaOy. Many of the sectaries
rejected the use of philosophy in the interpretation of scripture and questioned
doctrines which had been accepted for centuries as the philosophical content of
Christianity: many denied the existence of moral standards apart from God's
particular will, and many took up the 'mortalist' thesis denying the soul's separate
existence between death and resurrection.79 Hobbes, Digby, Charleton, and the
Cambridge Platonists all attempt to resolve these religious battles through their
new philosophies. Many of these thinkers use Platonist or Cartesian philosophy to
defend immortality and other traditional Christian theses against the sectaries;
Hobbes does the reverse, defending Christian mortalism. But Hobbes, too, is
concerned to argue against a false philosophy undermining Christianity and
morality: in a strange twist, Hobbes attacks the doctrine of incorporeal substances
as a pagan Aristotelian corruption, introduced by the scholastics to shore up
priestly power, which has undermined the authority of the sovereign and led to
civil war.80
As many of the English philosophers had royalist sympathies and some spent
time in exile in France, the new philosophies that emerged in England were often
influenced by French models. The French state had been safely Catholic since the
conversion of Henri IV, and it offered only an unstable toleration to its Protestant
minority. But the French crown, and its chief minister Cardinal BJchelieu, were
more interested in preserving their independence from Spain than they were in a
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pan-Catholic alliance: when France finally entered the Thirty Years' War, it did
so on the Protestant side. Since the crown retained the right to make ecclesiastical
appointments, the hierarchy could not implement the Tridentine reforms in
France as it did in Spain; and the Jesuits, though they were eventually admitted
into the kingdom, were widely suspected of being Spanish agents. Thus, when
the Counter-Reformation finally took root in France, its base was not in institutions but in saintly individual reformers with popular followings. Often these
reformers took Augustine as their model and so depreciated scholastic theology
against him; instead, like Bishop Cornelius Jansen, they praised Augustine's 'positive' theology of grace, or, like Cardinal Pierre de Berulle, his 'mystical' theology
of spiritual contemplation.81
In the introductory book 'on reason and faith in theological matters' prefaced
to the second volume of his Augustinus, Jansen attacks philosophy as the chief
source of theological conflict within the church and praises instead the authority
of the Fathers, above all of Augustine, to whom Jansen specifically reassigns the
titles of honor traditionally given to Thomas, Scotus, and other scholastic doctors.82 On the face of it, this does not seem promising for philosophy, but there is
the familiar ambiguity: perhaps it is only the bad old philosophy of Aristotle
which has had these unfortunate results, and a new philosophy could do better.
By the early seventeenth century, there were far too many new philosophies
available: the problem was to find a single good one. Baillet's Vie de M. Descartes
has preserved the story of a certain Sieur de Chandoux, 'one of those free spirits
who appeared in great enough number in the time of Cardinal Richelieu, and
who undertook to throw off the yoke of scholasticism'. In 1628 Chandoux gave a
lecture at the home of his patron, the Papal Nuncio, in which he attempted to
impress Berulle and other notables with his 'new philosophy'. The then unknown
Descartes rose to refute Chandoux and proved that Chandoux's new philosophy
was mere probability, and different only verbally from scholasticism; and although
Berulle lost interest in Chandoux, he did not lose hope for a new philosophy and
encouraged Descartes to complete the work instead. Descartes followed Berulle s
advice and attempted to derive his new philosophy from the Augustinian discipline for contemplating the soul and God; Pascal and other Jansenists would attack
Cartesianism (as they attacked all other philosophies), but both the Jansenist
Antoine Arnauld and the Berullian Nicolas Malebranche hailed Descartes as
fulfilling their Augustinian expectation of a new and more Christian philosophy.83
Also present with Descartes and Berulle at the home of the Nuncio was
the Minim (reformed Franciscan) Marin Mersenne, a professional observer of new
philosophies, the friend and adviser of Descartes, Gassendi, and the exiled
70
Hobbes.84 Mersenne was above all an apologist for Christianity, and he undertook
in such works as the Quaestiones celeberrimae in Genesim to defend the scriptures
against the magical and astrological accounts of miracles favoured by the 'new
philosophies'. Mersenne is not insensitive to the accumulated criticisms of Aristotelian philosophy, but he is not convinced that the new philosophies are better.
Mersenne admits that Aristotle has erred on a number of specific points, especially
where he contradicts Christian belief in creation and providence. But Aristotle's
critics (and Mersenne names several, including Patrizi) are earthbound creatures
who cannot mount high enough to knock Aristotle down. Their favoured disciplines (Mersenne discusses alchemy in particular) are neither more pious nor more
scientific than Aristotelian philosophy. If Aristotle is not yet a Christian philosopher, the alchemists who 'put our Redeemer in parallel with their universal spirit
and their center of nature' are in positive contempt of Christianity.85 Again, if the
principles of Aristotle's philosophy are not known as clearly as the criteria of
science demand, at least his matter and form are intelligible, incorporeal beings:
he does not, like the alchemists, remain prisoner to sense and imagination.
Mersenne regards the Aristotelian principles as a probable hypothesis, more
probable than any other we have. A Christian philosopher is well advised to
follow the model of St. Thomas, and to appropriate the principles of Aristotle's
philosophy, except where they contradict the Christian faith. But he remains free
to diverge from Aristotle: the only authority is God, who is the source of all truth,
whether He sends it through Aristotle or through some other vessel. Thus, 'We
do not approve Aristotle's doctrine in all its parts, and we do not embrace it
because it is Aristotle's, but because we do not find any which is more true,
which is better connected, or which is more general and universal.'86 Mersenne
deliberately chooses this negative form of praise: he will not say that Aristotle's is
the best possible philosophy, for he acknowledges 'that God is omnipotent, and
can raise up some mind which will penetrate a hundred times further into the
nature of things than all the Peripatetics, all the Platonists, all the Alchemists and
all the Kabbalists have done'. 87 Thus, Mersenne takes up an attitude of provisional
acceptance of Aristotle's philosophy, except on particular controverted points,
while keeping watch for the mind through which God might grant a new
philosophy genuinely more scientific and more Christian than Aristotle's.
In many places, Mersenne considers the charges of circularity and tautology
brought against the Aristotelian method of analysis and concludes they are well
founded. But he finds that the charges bear equally on the Platonist alternative:
The supposition of a universal soul gives us no more light and no more facility in
philosophizing. For when I ask you,forexample, why amber and crystal attract fur, I know
71
no more and am no more satisfied, if you tell me that it is the soul of the world which
produces this effect through the conjunction of the various accidents by which it is limited
and circumscribed, than if you tell me that it comes about through the particular property
of the specific form which brings it about that amber has this power.88
Currently, only mathematics can demonstrate its conclusions from rationally intuited first principles; but since mathematics is restricted to quantity and cannot deal
with substances or with the causes of things, it would be inferior to a science of
nature, if there were one. Sometimes Mersenne argues that there cannot be a
science of nature, at least not a science meeting Aristotle's criteria: for a science
must be of immutable truths, and God can change the laws of physics as He will.89
But at other times he speaks with hope of 'a single principle of physics which
would be as fertile as those of mathematics'.90 Even without principles proper to
natural things, we may still apply mathematical results to physics. But if we cannot
understand natural phenomena from first principles, then alternate explanations
will always be possible. Mersenne continues:
I do not see that one can demand anything from the most learned except for their
observations, and what they may remark about the different effects or phenomena of
nature. For example, since one cannot demonstrate whether the earth is at rest or in
motion, one must content oneself with knowing all the observations which the astronomers
have made in the heavens, and in everything which seems to have some manner of regular
By accepting the negative without the positive results of Renaissance antiAristotelianism, Mersenne is led close to the position of Francis Bacon on the
method for discovering a new philosophy. In many respects, Bacon was a typical
Renaissance anti-Aristotelian.92 His Essays are purely humanist productions, and
he takes pleasure in presenting his views as interpretations of ancient fables or
revivals of pre-Socratic wisdom. He agrees with the humanists that Aristotelian
philosophy has corrupted Christianity, and that it offers only disputations and
verbal solutions without practical effects. Like Erasmus and Charron, Bacon calls
for a practical philosophy, which should be judged by its usefulness for human life;
but he places his emphasis differently from the earlier humanists. Although Bacon
agrees that philosophy should make us virtuous, he is chiefly concerned that it
should make us technically able to achieve the ends of human life through the
mastery of nature. When Bacon surveys the history of philosophies old and new,
they seem to him productions of the imagination, which vanish and leave no solid
works behind them; it is not the famous philosophers, but the anonymous
inventors of gunpowder, of printing, and of the magnetic compass who have left
the world transformed.
72
When Bacon speaks of discovering the latent powers of nature and bringing
them together for the service of human life, he is echoing the language of the
magicians. But he is highly critical of the esotericism and charlatanry which
dominate the practice of magic, and he wishes 'the practical part of natural
science' to emulate instead the mechanical arts, which progressively expand their
knowledge through honest collaborative effort. Bacon agrees with many others of
his time that a method is needed for systematically exploiting the sources of
knowledge, be they sensations or intellections or divine revelations. In a manner
familiar from humanist compilations, Bacon proposes to assemble everything
which has been learned on each particular topic, whether in the mechanical arts
or through incidental observations. We can then sift through this 'historical' data
to induce general laws of cause and effect; from these laws we can build up a
philosophy which will inform our practice, by showing us which cause we must
apply in order to yield any desired effect. By gathering new observations and
extracting new consequences, we will continually improve our mastery of nature,
and thus the felicity of human life.
Mersenne doubts Bacon's claims for his 'method' and wishes to reserve a
greater place than Bacon for the disciplines of pure intellect, metaphysics and
mathematics and logic; but he approves Bacon's belief in scientific progress
through the accumulation of observations. On the question whether 'one now
has more knowledge of some art or science than did the ancients', Mersenne
prefers the ancients: they possessed arts now lost, and their texts remain our
standards for scientific knowledge. If we surpass the ancients, it is only in astronomical observations, and in the invention of clocks, printing, artillery, and optical
devices. But, says Mersenne, the Greeks did not 'pull up the ladder after them',
and we remain capable, through methodical and collaborative work, of augmenting and even reforming the established sciences.93
Philosophers of the seventeenth century take to distinguishing their new philosophies from the vain imaginings of the past by citing new observations, especially in astronomy, and new mechanical inventions.94 The prominence of these
new discoveries is not necessarily related to their direct philosophical consequences. They had chiefly a symbolic importance, as decisive refutations of the
Aristotelian world-system, and tokens of the progress of knowledge. A philosopher
might take some newly discovered phenomenon as a model for the other phenomena of nature and so construct a whole philosophy upon it; he may say that the
new phenomenon 'proves' the new philosophy, but this means only that it tips the
balance towards his new philosophy as against the old philosophy of Aristotle.
Thus, Hobbes takes Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood as proving
73
that life is motion, and that phenomena should be explained through local motion
and not through immaterial causes. William Gilbert writes a book, full of his
empirical discoveries, De magnete, magnetisque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure
(On the magnet and magnetic bodies and the great magnet, the earth); but he
subtitles it 'a new physics, demonstrated with many arguments and experiments',
and he uses his 'magnetic philosophy' to construct another book, De mundo nostro
sublunari nova philosophia, subtitled 'A new physics against Aristotle'.95 Gilbert's
discovery that the earth is a magnet has destroyed (he thinks) the Aristotelian
doctrine that the sublunar world is made of four corruptible elements, and the
heavens of an eternal fifth body: the body we live on is made not, as Aristotle
charges, of dirt but of magnet, an incorruptible, uniformly rotating, and animated
substance, identical with the substance of the stars. Similarly, Tycho Brahe's
parallax observations proving that comets and novae were supralunar, and then
Galileo's discovery of the sunspots, were used to show that the heavens were not
incorruptible and not made of solid spheres, and thus to justify physical theories
which treat celestial and sublunar bodies alike. From this time on, even if a new
philosophy did not wish to base itself on magnetism or on the moons ofJupiter, it
would be expected to give an account of these phenomena.
The religious and scientific components of the expectation of a new philosophy
combined in different ways in the programmes of the different seventeenthcentury philosophers. Pre-eminent were Mersenne's three friends Descartes, Gassendi, and Hobbes, his candidates to be the new Aristotle of the modern Christian
world. Their new philosophies took different attitudes towards metaphysics and
gave different foundations for morality and religion, but they all attempted to
establish physics on 'a single principle . . . as fertile as those of mathematics'. It is
Descartes who says 'my whole physics is nothing but mechanics', but the others
could have said the same. Rejecting Aristotelian substantial forms and real qualities, and equally rejecting Platonist souls and natures, sympathies and antipathies
and influences, they instead describe the world 'on the likeness of a machine'.96
Using the mathematical science of mechanics, as strengthened by the recent
discovery of the natural persistence of motion, they undertake to derive even such
implausible phenomena as magnetism and animal life from the geometric and
kinematic properties of the parts of matter. If they can succeed in generating a
practical wisdom from these self-evident principles (and, for Descartes, from a
knowledge of God and the soul), then their philosophy will be at once a better
science than Aristotle's and a better wisdom than the humanists', refuting the
contention of Montaigne and Charron that science is useless for wisdom.
The 'mechanical philosophy' was not a single doctrine but a group of compet-
74
ing 'new philosophies', taking their origins from an incongruous mixture of

Archimedean mechanics, chemical and medical traditions, humanist Epicureanism, scholastic voluntarism and nominalism, and many another philosophy new or
old. But the common core of the mechanical philosophy survived, through its
own successes and by the elimination of its competitors, to become identical with
'the new philosophy'. When Baillet, from 1691, surveys the conditions of the
sciences at the birth of his hero Descartes, he divides philosophy into 'the old' and
'the new': 'The old philosophy, and particularly that of Aristotle, was then finding
itself rudely attacked by Francesco Patrizi,' while 'Chancellor Bacon was already
laying the foundations of the new philosophy.'97 Patrizi's destructive Discussiones
peripateticae are well remembered, but his Nova de universis philosophia is forgotten:
it is but one of the many works destined not to become the new philosophy.
NOTES
1 Randall 1961, p. 118. Randall himself sees naturalistic Aristotelianism at the root of
modern science; Duhem 1913 (or see Duhem 1985) sees the exactly opposite pole of
scholasticism, namely theological voluntarist anti-Aristotelianism, as responsible. Most
other scholars pick some non-scholastic tendency: Puritanism, latitudinarianism, humanism, mathematical Platonism (Koyre 1978), Epicurean atomism, Hermetic magic
(Yates 1964), the defense of orthodoxy against Hermetic magic (Lenoble 1971),
scepticism (Popkin 1979), Christian and Jewish millenarianism (Popkin 1986a) have
been favourites. These are all views held by serious scholars, and there is almost
certainly some truth in each of them. T h e Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy
(Schmitt, Skinner, and Kessler 1988) gives a general survey, with full bibliography, of
the period of the history of philosophy here under discussion. The articles in that
volume by Cesare Vasoli (chap. 3) and Alfonso Ingegno (chap. 9) cover many of the
same philosophers and themes discussed in this chapter, although I have serious differences of approach and interpretation with both of these authors. Other articles in that
volume also cover some of the topics discussed here, often in greater detail.
2 As long as a philosophy is not the one currendy regnant, it may be called 'new'. Most
of the 'new philosophers' saw value in being ancient, as well as in being new (Conway
1982, originally published in 1690 [Latin] and 1692 [English], is entitled Principles of the
Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy), and represented their philosophies as revivals of an
ancient wisdom long submerged (perhaps since the time of Adam) under corrupt
traditions. This is often connected with a conception of the original purity, subsequent
corruption, and recent reformation of the church. This connexion could be quoted
from authors of many different stripes, but I will here quote it from Thomas Vaughan's
Anthroposophia theomagica (1650): 'Thou wilt tell me perhaps, this is new Philosophy,
and that of Aristotle is old. It is indeed, but in the same sence as Religion is at Rome.
It is not the primitive Trueth of the Creation, not the Ancient, reall Theosophie of the
Hebrewes and Egyptians, but a certaine preternaturall upstart, a vomit of Aristotle,
which his followers with so much diligence lick up and swallow' (Vaughan 1984, p. 53).
Bacon, Galileo, and Descartes are among the more consistently 'new' of new philoso-
75
phers, but Bacon attempts to find his ideas in ancient fables or in the pre-Socratics;
Galileo reads his into Plato's Timaeus (Galilei 1890-1909, vol. 7, pp. 44-5 [Galilei 1967,
pp. 20-1]); and Descartes declares that his method is not new, 'for nothing is more
ancient than the truth' (AT VII 3); perhaps only Hobbes never falls into this way of
speaking. As late as 1690, Sir William Temple could doubt whether any really new
philosophies had yet been introduced: 'But what are the sciences wherein we pretend
to excel? I know of no new philosophers that have made entries upon that noble stage
for fifteen hundred years past, unless Des Cartes and Hobbs should pretend to it; of
whom I shall make no critique here, but only say, that, by what appears of learned
men's opinions in this age, they have by no means eclipsed the lustre of Plato, Aristotle,
Epicurus, or others of the ancients. . . . There is nothing new in astronomy to vie with
the ancients, unless it be the Copernican system; nor in physic, unless Harvey's circulation of the blood. But whether either of these be modern discoveries, or derived from
old fountains, is disputed, nay it is so too whether they are true or no; for though
reason may seem to favour them more than the contrary opinions, yet sense can very
hardly allow them; and, to satisfy mankind, both these must concur. But if they are
true, yet these two great discoveries have made no change in the conclusions of
astronomy, or in the practice of physic, and so have been of little use to the world,
though perhaps of much honour to the authors' (Temple 1963, pp. 56-7). Contrast the
passage from Hobbes on the newness of philosophy, cited below in note 94.
3 Some 'new philosophers' held university positions as professors, but not as professors of
philosophy: thus, Galileo held a professorship in mathematics, Justus Lipsius in history,
Henricus Regius in medicine, while writing or teaching their 'new philosophies' on
the side. Of the non-scholastic philosophers discussed by name below, only Patrizi and
Gassendi held professorships in philosophy, and only Patrizi was able to teach his 'new
philosophy' officially: Gassendi was compelled to teach the Aristotelian philosophy he
despised, while on the side compiling his dossier of arguments against Aristotle, the
Exercitationes paradoxkae adversus Aristoteleos (see Gassendi 1959, pp. 6-9). See Chapter 1
of this volume for a discussion of seventeenth-century academic institutions.

4 For a very interesting general survey of the reform movement (and of what the
reformers thought needed reforming), see Oberman 1981, including translations of
primary documents, a general introduction, and short introductions to particular clusters of documents. Readers of Protestant background should be warned not to associate
the reform movement automatically with the Protestant Reformation; this is only a
part of the wide range of ways in which the reform movement could and did develop.
As Oberman says (p. 40), the Council of Trent is often closer to the fifteenth-century
reform movement than the Protestant reformers were.
5 The phrase is from G. F. Pico 1972, vol. 1, sec. 2, p. 1053; the context there is not
polemical, but the phrase is indelibly sarcastic. 'Parisiensis' was a standard pejorative term
for the scholastics, who are said to write in a barbarous language, 'Parisian', rather than
in Latin; cf. G. Pico 1971, vol. 1, p. 356.
6 Erasmus 1969 , vol. IV-3, p. 148 (Erasmus 1979, pp. 889). See the editor's notes in
Erasmus 1969- for the scholastic sources of these questions, except the devil and the
cucumber.
7 I will return briefly to the Aristotelianism of the Spanish Dominicans and Jesuits later
in the chapter. On some Protestant attitudes to Aristotelianism, in the Reformation
period and later, see Petersen 1921.
8 Schmitt 1967, p. 55.
9 Besides Bishop Etienne Tempier's famous condemnation of 219 Aristotelian proposi-
76
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

tions at Paris in 1277 (available in Mandonnet 190811, vol. 2, pp. 175-91, and in
English translation in Lerner and Mahdi 1972, pp. 33554), important indictments of
Aristotelian philosophy are, in Islam, GhazaU's Tahafut al-Falasifa (Incoherence of the
philosophers), in which the philosophers are charged with three counts of infidelity and
seventeen of heresy (almost the whole text is available in English translation, along with
Averroes's reply, in Averroes 1954), and, in Christendom, Errores philosophorum of
Aegidius Romanus (Giles of Rome) (edited with English translation, Aegidius Romanus 1944). Ghazall has arguments as well as religious condemnations; Aegidius and
Bishop Tempier just condemn, but others in the same tradition argue. For a similar
development (on the argumentative side) in Judaism, see Harry A. Wolfson, Crescas'
Critique of Aristotle (Wolfson 1929).
Duhem 1913 contains (among other things) the classic study of the philosophical
consequences of the condemnation of 1277, and in particular of the questioning of
fundamental notions of Aristotelian physics by such moderni as Ockham, Buridan, and
Oresme. The crucial part of Duhem's argument is available in English translation in
Duhem 1985.
Oresme 1968. Oresme is cited by the folio numbers given at the top of each page in
this edition. Oresme's remark that the king has made him bishop of Lisieux is at the
very end of the book, f. 203c. Oresme was a student ofJohn Buridan, and many of the
views I will be citing from Oresme could also be cited from Buridan. But Oresme is
unusually outspoken and is easy and pleasant to use as a source for scholastic criticisms
of Aristotle. See Duhem 1913 or Duhem 1985 for discussion of the Buridan school,
and of the relations between Oresme's position and those of Buridan and others on the
criticism of Aristode's physics.
Oresme 1968, f. 39b.
Oresme 1968, fT. 20cd.
Oresme 1968, f. 7od.
Oresme 1968, f. 63d.
Petrarca citations give the original-language text from Petrarca 1975, followed by the
translation from Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randal] 1948, when available. Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall 1948 give a generous selection of Petrarca's writings and, in particular, the whole of the De sui ipsius et multorum ignorantia, the work this discussion will be
most concerned with. For a good discussion of Petrarca and more generally of the
origins of humanism and its relations to philosophy, see Seigel 1968. Many other works
on the subject contain a glorified view of the philosophical interests of the humanists
and should be treated with caution.
Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall 1948, pp. 140-1.
For Petrarca's religious devotion to Augustine, see his dialogue between himself and
Augustine, De secreto confiictu curarum meanim, Petrarca 1975, vol. 1, pp. 44258, esp. p.
48. For Augustine rather than Plato or Aristotle as the true philosopher, see Petrarca
'975, v o '- 2 , P- 1104 (Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall 1948, p. 101). There 'nostri
philosophi' means primarily Augustine; Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall give an appropriate reference in Augustine, but they are mistaken in glossing 'nostri' here as 'Latin'
rather than 'Christian', although it can mean either in Petrarca.
Petrarca 1975, vol. 2, p. 1038 (Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall 1948, p. 58).
Petrarca 1975, vol. 2, p. 1106 (Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall 1948, p. 103).
Petrarca 1975, vol. 2, pp. 11068 (Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall 1948, pp. 1034).
Confessiones III,iv,7, recalled in Petrarca 1975, vol. 2, p. 1108 (Cassirer, Kristeller, and
Randal] 1948, p. 105).
77
23 Tusculanae disputationes I,iv,7.

24 De natura deorum I,v, 11.
25 Perhaps the most important of the systematic anti-Aristotelian summae are Gianfrancesco
Pico's Examen vanitatis doctrinae gentium et veritatis christianae disciplinae (in G. F. Pico
1972, vol. 1, sec. 2, pp. 710-1264), Juan Luis Vives's Adversus pseudodialecticos (reprinted
with English translation in Vives 1979), Mario Nizolio's De verts principiis et vera
ratione philosophandi contra pseudophilosophos (Nizolio 1956; the book is sometimes called
Antibarbarus philosophicus, but this title is the invention of a later editor; see Nizolio 1956
p. lxxiii), Peter Ramus's Aristotelicae animadversiones (later called Scholae dialecticae, and
supplemented by Scholae physicae and Scholae metaphysicae, all collected in Ramus 1569),
Francesco Patrizi's Discussionesperipateticc.e (Patrizi 1581), and Pierre Gassendi's Exercitationesparadoxkae adversus Aristoteleos (edited with French translation in Gassendi 1959).
26 Academica II,xxxviii,H9. For a discussion of some Renaissance follies built on this
phrase of Cicero's, see Schmitt 1983a, chap. 3 and esp. p. 73. Cicero is of course thinking
of Aristotle's 'exoteric' writings, which had been lost long before the Renaissance; but
many of the humanists tried to discover this eloquence in the Greek text of the extant
treatises and to reproduce it in their new (and supposedly more faithful) translations.
27 De divinatione II,lviii,ii9.
28 The Christian humanist and anti-philosopher Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola
(14691533) is not to be confused with his uncle, the Platonist Giovanni Pico della
Mirandola (1463-94); both will be discussed further below. In bibliographical references, I will cite Gianfrancesco Pico as 'G. F. Pico' and Giovanni Pico as 'G. Pico'.
Thus, for the Examen vanitatis, see G. F. Pico 1972, vol. 1, sec. 2, pp. 710-1264. The
now classic study of Gianfrancesco Pico is Schmitt 1967.
29 The quotation is from Hobbes's Lev. xlvi, Hobbes 1968, p. 695, but the idea is a
commonplace; cf. Descartes, AT IXB 8.
30 See- Zabarella's De methodis and especially his short treatise De regressu, devoted to
defending Aristotelian analysis against the charge of circularity, both available in Zabarella 1597 (the De regressu is pp. 479-98); the De regressu gives a nice summary of the
point at issue, and of the traditional Aristotelian position. Some scholars have seen
Zabarella's doctrine of analytic method as an innovation preparing the way for Cartesian
and other early modern methodologies. In fact, Zabarella was a traditional scholastic of
the Averroist-Alexandrist branch, and his doctrine of method sticks very close to his
predecessors: to discover this, it is often sufficient to look up the references Zabarella
himself explicitly gives. The resemblances between Zabarella and Descartes (say) are
real, but this means only that they are both drawing on an ancient and widely ramified
tradition of thinking about the methods of analysis and synthesis, a tradition encompassing mathematicians, Aristotelian and Platonist philosophers, and practitioners of yet
other disciplines. For more discussion of doctrines of method, including Zabarella's, see
chap. 7 in this volume.
31 The word pansophia, universal wisdom, is that favoured by Johann Amos Comenius; but
the ideal is shared by a great many other philosophers of the time. The tripartition of
the sources of our knowledge into sensation, reason, and scripture is found in Comenius, but it is in fact a commonplace of the time; many philosophers propose a method
of systematising the results of all three, or some one or two, of these sources of
knowledge.
32 Comenius 1969- , vol. 3, pp. 314-16 (Comenius 1942, pp. 56-9). The Rosicrucians
are an extreme manifestation, and in some ways a parody, of the expectation of a 'new
philosophy'; but they and the other 'new philosophers' are parts of the same phenome-
78
33
34
35
36
37

non, and certainly at the time there was no clear criterion for sorting out serious from
bogus philosophies. We may note that while the president of Comenius's Rosicrucians
has attained the age of 562 years, Descartes has the more modest expectation of living
for 'more than a century' (AT I 507) and will work out all the details if he has enough
time and money for experiments. The eschatological prophecy that 'many shall run to
and fro, and knowledge shall increase' (Daniel 12:4) becomes a commonplace in the
seventeenth century; thinkers of all stripes are sure that this prophecy is being fulfilled
in their own time, the first clause by the discovery of America and the second by the
new philosophy, whatever the thinker in question takes that to be. Francis Bacon
discusses this prophecy in several places (e.g., at Farrington 1964, pp. 131-2), and uses
it as an epigraph to his Instauratio magna. On the importance of millenarian themes in
seventeenth-century thought, see Popkin 1986a.
The quotations are from Suarez's preface to the Disputationes, unpaginated prefatory
material to Su. Op. omn. 25.
Suarez's Disp. met. is the most important source for the metaphysics of the Spanish
scholastics: Suarez always states the positions of all sides to a controversy within the
narrow world of scholasticism, occasionally noting positions beyond. Suarez is very
useful for understanding the technical terminology of the new philosophers, and for
filling out what these philosophers assumed the scholastic position to be; but except on
the special issue of divine foreknowledge, that is usually as far as it goes. On the
influence of Spanish scholastic theories of natural law and the social contract, see
Skinner 1978, and this volume, Chap. 35. For the controversy between the Dominicans
and the Jesuits on grace, free will, and divine foreknowledge, and for the extremely
wide-ranging effects of this controversy, a good introduction is Abercrombie 1936. The
crucial document of the controversy is Molina 1953, partly translated in Molina 1988,
with a valuable introduction (from a philosophical point of view) by Alfred Freddoso.
For seventeenth-century developments influenced by this controversy see, in this volume, Chap. 33.
It is understandable that the humanists, in their anti-scholastic polemics, should accuse
their opponents of being captive to systematically misleading translations; but for
modern scholars to repeat such accusations without citing evidence is unacceptable. I
would like to add a protest against something much worse, the habit of describing the
Arabic translators and commentators of Aristotle, just because they were Arabs or
Muslims, as corruptors of Aristotle's true sense. This piece of blatant racism continues
to be repeated by scholars of the history of Aristotelianism, especially by those who
know no Arabic.
Agrippa 1533, p. 8; compare Galileo's story (Galilei 1890-1909, vol. 7, pp. 1378
[Galilei 1967, pp. m - 1 2 ] ) of the Peripatetic who proved the soul's mortality out of
Aristotle but thought it trivial enough (if required in order to publish) to modify the
argument so as to prove immortality instead.
For Thomas on the problem of the status of the human soul, see Summa th., I q 75-6,
and his separate Quaestio disputata de anima, especially arts. 1 and 2; for the need to
invoke a special divine creation of the human soul in order to make its individuation
independent of matter, see, e.g., Quaestio disputata de anima, art. 1, ad secundum. For
some doubts that Aristotle could have held the Thomist doctrine, or that he held any
consistent position, see Duns Scotus 1987, pp. 147-52: 'It is probable that he [Aristotle]
was always doubtful about this conclusion [the immortality of the soul], and seemed
now to agree with one side, now with the other, according as he was treating a subjectmatter more consonant with one side than with the other' (p. 148). Note that Scotus
38
39
40
41
42
79
considers it a reductio ad absurdum of ascribing a certain doctrine about the human soul
to Aristotle that 'therefore he [Aristotle] would have conceded creation' (p. 151); Scotus
correctly takes it for granted that Aristotle's God must act in an eternally immutable
manner and so can produce something new only by a natural necessity, in so far as a
recipient acquires a new passive power to be made into something. Scotus's final
conclusion is that, from the standpoint of natural reason, the immortality of the soul is
probable but not certain (p. 156, where immortality is the 'second proposition'); it
becomes certain through revelation. All the difficulties facing the Thomist position as
an interpretation of Aristotle are brought out by Pomponazzi De immortalitate animae (in
Pomponazzi 1938; and in Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall 1948), chaps. 89.
Aristotle speaks of the 'agent intellect', the source of intellectual illumination to the
soul's 'potential intellect', in De anima 111,5; his statements on the status of the rational
soul are unclear. It is not likely that Aristotle intended the 'agent intellect' as a part of
the soul: not only Averroes but also Alexander of Aphrodisias, Avicenna (usually), some
Christian scholastics, and, in the Renaissance, Pomponazzi and Zabarella take the agent
intellect to be a single eternal substance separate from human souls. Some but not all of
them identify this substance with God, as Aristotle probably intended. Thomas, the
ancient commentators Themistius, Philoponus, and Simplicius, and Avicenna (sometimes) take the agent intellect as part of the individual soul, because they think this is
the only way of saving the doctrine of the immortality of the individual human soul on
Aristotelian terms. The peculiar and 'monstrous' Averroist doctrine is that the potential
intellect is also a single eternal substance separate from human souls. In what follows,
when I discuss controversies about the doctrine of the intellect I will mean the potential
intellect; only this would be called an 'intellect' in the modern sense of the term.
Savonarola, De triumpho crucis, Savonarola 1955- , vol. 7, p. 214.
G. F. Pico 1972, vol. 1, sec. 2, pp. 718-19.
See Randall's introduction to Pomponazzi's Tractatus de immortalitate animae, Cassirer,
Kristeller, and Randall 1948, pp. 26971, for Pomponazzi's biographical background as
a Thomist and as an Averroist. Randall's judgements in this introduction about Pomponazzi's relations to humanism, Platonism, Stoicism, etc., are unreliable.
Religious insincerity is quite rare among Christian philosophers, and many philosophers (e.g. Montaigne, Hobbes, Gassendi, sometimes even Descartes) have been
groundlessly accused. But there is ample evidence, from Pomponazzi's own words, that
Pomponazzi follows a policy of insincerely disclaiming the views of Aristotle and
natural reason; and this policy is what we would expect, given Pomponazzi's place in
the Averroist tradition generally, and given in particular his Averroist understanding of
the religions or 'laws', including Christianity; this is discussed later in this chapter under
'Philosophies emerging from humanism'. Pomponazzi 1567, pp. 200-208, attributes to
the philosophers, including Aristotle, a policy of withholding their arcana from the
vulgus and the 'priests'; this is historically nonsense as far as Aristotle is concerned but is
all standard Averroism. Nardi 1965, pp. 12248, discusses Pomponazzi's insincerity,
citing new manuscript evidence: a reading of the texts printed by Nardi, pp. 134-5
(where Pomponazzi is commenting on Averroes), is likely to silence any doubts on the
question. It should be noted, against tendencies to exaggerate the importance of
'esoteric' writing, that it is always obvious when Pomponazzi (or Averroes, etc.) is
lying. The deceptive statements are perfunctory appendices to Pomponazzi's real views
and can always be detached without harming the overall logic of Pomponazzi's argument; they are uttered out of willingness to conform to the rules of the game, and
without any real hope of deceiving anybody. There is no irony or deception in anything
80
Pomponazzi says philosophically, and there is in particular no reason to doubt the sincerity
of Pomponazzi's (or Averroes's) statements about the essential value of the 'laws', or
about the existence and attributes of God and of the other separate substances. The
whole philosophy would collapse without these doctrines.
43 Pomponazzi's treatise on immortality is reprinted in Pomponazzi 1938, with an English
translation; a revised version of this same translation is printed in Cassirer, Kristeller,
and Randall 1948, pp. 280-381. In the remainder of this paragraph I summarise
Pomponazzi's negative conclusions about other theories of the soul, from the first eight
chapters of the treatise; the next paragraph summarises Pomponazzi's positive view as
he puts it forward in Chapter 9.
44 Pomponazzi in his commentary and questions on Averroes's De substantia orbis (Pomponazzi 1966) defends Averroist doctrines which others might well find monstrous,
notably that the heavenly bodies are only equivocally called bodies, that they are simple
substances, and that they do not have parts really distinct from one another. Pomponazzi's Defato (Pomponazzi 1957) defends an extreme astrological fatalism, generally
agreeing with Averroes (though outdoing even him in its consistent extremism) and
directly attacking Alexander's Defato, which had defended free will and indeterminism.
Pomponazzi is about as far from humanism as a philosopher could hope to be; his only
trait which might be called humanistic is a willingness to use examples from the Italian
poets.
45 For Pomponazzi's rejection of the Thomist account, which would raise human beings
to equality with the spheres, see De immortalitate, chap. 9; instead, he thinks, the souls
of human beings should be placed midway between the souls of beasts and the separate
intelligences of the spheres. The quotations are from Pomponazzi 1567, pp. 53 and
251.
46 See the text from Cajetan's commentary on the De anima cited by Cassirer, Kristeller,
and Randall 1948, p. 271: Cajetan says that the human potential intellect is generable
and corruptible according to Aristotle's opinion, but not according to philosophy (let
alone according to the truth): 'This is shown to be false from faith; hence it cannot
follow from the principles of philosophy. Whence I have not written these words
[explicating Aristotle's doctrine] as true or as consistent or as probable in philosophy,
but merely as setting forth the opinion of this Greek, which I shall endeavour to show
to be false according to the principles of philosophy' (Cajetan 1598, p. 205). John of St.
Thomas, after defending against Scotus the doctrine that natural reason can prove the
immortality of the soul, comments on Cajetan's position: 'Nor was Cajetan right in
saying, in his commentary on Ealesiastes 3:21, that none of the philosophers has
hitherto demonstrated the immortality of the soul. But perhaps he is speaking of the
ancient [antiqui, i.e. pagan] philosophers; for when he speaks of this argument of St.
Thomas, in his commentary on the Summa theologiae, First Part, Question 75, article 2,
he defends this argument and responds to Scotus's objections' (John of St. Thomas
19307, vol. 3, p. 285). Thomas may thus be called a philosopher, but a new philosopher
and not a philosophus antiquus; this is a difficult thing for a Thomist to say. Cajetan's
attitude may be contrasted with earlier scholastic anti-Aristotelianisms: even a thinker
as radical as Oresme, who is constandy finding fault with Aristode, seems never to
question Aristotle's standing as the authoritative exponent of the standpoint of natural
reason.
47 See, for example, Petrarca 1975, vol. 2, p. 1102 (Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall 1948,
p. 101); Gianfrancesco Pico gives a similar explanation for why he will concentrate on
attacking Aristotle in his Examen vanitatis doctrinae gentium et veritatis christianae disciplinae,
G. F. Pico 1972, vol. 1, sec. 2, p. 720.
81
48 Hobbes, Lev. (Hobbes 1968, p. 688); similarly, Petrarca 1975, vol. 2, p. 1062 (Cassirer,
Kristeller, and Randall 1948, p. 74): 'from being philosophers and eager [studiosi\ lovers
of wisdom, we have become Aristotelians, or rather Pythagoreans', since it was the
Pythagoreans, as Cicero tells us, who solved all questions by 'ipse dixit'. The commonplace opposing philosophy or love of wisdom or truth to love or respect for one man is
used by Plato against Homer (Republic X 595b9-C3), is turned by Aristotle against Plato
(Nicomachean Ethics 1,6), and is here being turned against Aristotle.
49 Augustine, Contra academicos III. 19.42.
50 Erasmus writes, 'A philosopher is not he who is clever at dialectic or physics, but he
who, scorning the false images of things, with chastened heart both sees and follows the
things which are truly good: to be a philosopher and to be a Christian are different in
name but the same thing in reality' (Erasmus 1969- , vol. IV-1, p. 145). Gianfrancesco Pico writes a comparison De studio divinae et humanae philosophiae, in G. F. Pico
1972, vol. 1, sec. 1, pp. 139: philosophy is the knowledge of truth, and it is good per
se; but human philosophy, i.e., 'that invented by man and proceeding by means of the
traces [vestigia] of nature' (pp. 7-8) is inferior to divine philosophy, i.e., that revealed in
scripture. For Nizolio's contrast between 'truly philosophical and oratorical', on the
one hand, and 'pseudophilosophical and barbarous' on the other, see, e.g., Nizolio
1956, vol. 2, p. 79.
51 Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall 1948, p. 34.
52 For a useful general account of scepticism in the Renaissance and the seventeenth
century, see Popkin 1979. Popkin emphasises the Christian motivations of Renaissance
scepticism, particularly its polemical use against the Protestants; this is a very important
side of Renaissance scepticism, although humanist anti-Aristotelianism is equally important, at least in the earlier part of the period. If there is something misleading in
Popkin's account, it is his tendency to emphasise the (from a modern perspective)
intellectually respectable aspects of Renaissance scepticism. This may lead Popkin to
overstress the importance of (1) philosophical arguments as opposed to humanist suspicion of philosophy, (2) rediscovered Pyrrhonism as opposed to Ciceronian Academic
scepticism, and in particular (3) the sceptical arguments against the possibility of a
criterion, from circularity or infinite regress. All of these elements were present in
Renaissance scepticism, but they were not at the centre of the phenomenon.
53 Agrippa 1974; the first quotation is from p. 11, the second from pp. 17-18.
54 Charron 1986. In his preface, explaining the purely practical and moral sense of wisdom
which he means to teach, Charron rejects the 'lofty and elevated sense of the theologians and philosophers (who take pleasure in describing and picturing things which
have never yet been seen and heightening them to a perfection of which human nature
does not find itself capable except in imagination)', who take wisdom for 'a perfect
knowledge of things divine and human, or even of the first and highest springs and
causes of all things' (pp. 25-6). Charron will teach, as a foundation for right action,
self-knowledge: the five chief moral attributes of man are vanity, weakness, inconstancy,
misery, and presumption. This will undermine the hope of a scientific wisdom, founded
on an overestimate of our capacities. Note also the way in which parents ought to
educate their children, and the connexions between wisdom and judgement and
between science and memory, Charron 1986, pp. 685-94.
55 Lipsius 1604a, p. 49.
56 Lipsius 1604a, p. 48.
57 Lipsius 1604a, p. 83.
58 For Gassendi see Joy 1987, Jones 1981. Jones also gives a survey of earlier Renaissance
Epicureanism.
82
59 Gassendi 1959; the first quotation is from p. 13, the second from p. 15.
60 See this volume, Chapter 23.
61 Lipsius 1604b, p. 14. For Cudworth's argument, see Cudworth 1731, pp. 55-7. The
most famous of the 'Mosaic philosophies' is Fludd 1659, but there is at least a bit of
'Mosaic philosophy' in almost every thinker of the time: see Descartes's flirtation with
the idea, AT V 168-9.
62 For a general survey of Byzantine philosophy, see Tatakis 1949.
63 Plethon's main constructive work is the Laws (not fully extant; what remains is available
in Plethon 1858), a program for a pagan Greek state to be carved out of the collapsing
Byzantine empire, complete with model hymns to the different gods: the political
inspiration is from Plato's Laws, supported by metaphysical foundations from Proclus's
In Theologiam Platonis. Woodhouse 1986 gives a useful survey of Plethon's career, with
summaries of Plethon's major works, and a complete translation of the De differentiis,
pp. 192-214. The critical edition of the Greek text of the De differentiis is Lagarde 1973.
64 From the programmatic introduction to Ficino's Theologiam platonka, Ficino 1964, vol.
1, p. 36.
65 The letter to Barbaro is in G. Pico 1971, vol. 1, pp. 351-8. Pico defiandy accepts the
accusation of a barbarian 'Parisian' language, p. 356; he contrasts Lucretius with Scotus,
pp. 357-8.
66 The only part of Pico's encyclopedic project which was actually completed is De ente et
uno, in G. Pico 1971, vol. 1, pp. 241-56 (followed by objections and replies through p.
310); there is an English translation (without the additional material) in G. Pico 1965,
pp. 3762. There is a modern edition of Ficino's Theologiam platonka, with French
translation, in Ficino 1964, from which I will be summarising what follows. There is as
yet no philosophically thorough study of Ficino, taking the background of ancient
Platonism into account; Ficino, like other Renaissance philosophers, has become the
property of the historians of ideas, who have viewed him as the creator of a 'system' or
'world-view', where they have not reduced him to an art-critic or a magician. Kristeller
1943 remains a useful survey of Ficino's 'system'; for the magical approach, see Walker
1958 and Yates 1964. For Ficino as a commentator on Plato, see Allen 1984 and 1989;
and Ficino 1975 and 1981.
67 Thus far, this paragraph summarises Ficino 1964, vol. 1, pp. 40-72.
68 For Pico's solution, see his De ente et uno, as referred to in note 66. In the Theologia
platonka, Ficino calls God unity, goodness, and truth (Ficino 1964, vol. 1, pp. 73-5) but
apparendy avoids getting into the question of whether God is a being, being-itself, or
beyond being; but in more esoteric works, as in his commentary on the Sophist, he
follows Plotinus in identifying the realm of being, and the chief genera of being
discussed in the Sophist, with the intelligible world; God as pure unity is therefore
superior to being (Allen 1989, pp. 234-43; s e e also PP- 3 582).
69 Patrizi's chief philosophical works are the Discussiones peripatetkae (Patrizi 1581) and the
Nova de universis philosophia (Patrizi 1591), which was reprinted in 1979 with a translation into Serbo-Croatian (since Patrizi was born in what is now Croatia); there is a
short but useful survey of his work, Brickman 1941.
70 There is a modern edition of Telesio's De rerum natura, with Italian translation, Telesio
1965-76. In Book VIII, chap. 15, Telesio distinguishes within 'the substance which
reasons in man' two components, 'the spirit educed from the seed' and 'the soul created
by God' (vol. 3, p. 232); this is reminiscent of St. Thomas's distinction between the
sensitive and vegetative souls educed from the potency of matter and the rational soul
created by God; or of Gassendi's distinction between the corporeal lower soul and the
71
72
73
74
75
83
incorporeal rational soul. It is not clear to me how well Telesio's doctrine of the higher
soul is integrated into his philosophy.
Lenoble 1971 has an extensive and interesting discussion of Mersenne's polemic against
different varieties of'naturalism', pp. 83-167. But Lenoble moves much too readily to
lump many different kinds of philosophers under the catch-all label 'naturalism', and to
assume that all these people share some doctrine or doctrines setting them apart from
Christian orthodoxy. In particular, Lenoble presents the doctrine of the world-soul
(very crudely interpreted) as constitutive of naturalism, and as being irreducibly pagan
and even anthropologically 'primitive'. There is, in fact (as Mersenne himself recognised), nothing in Christianity which contradicts the doctrine of a world-soul, and as
far as I know nobody in the Renaissance or the seventeenth century said there was. St.
Augustine (e.g.) affirms a world-soul in the early period after his conversion; in later
works he retracts this affirmation and professes agnosticism on the question, but he
never condemns the doctrine as false or pagan. It is nonetheless true that Platonist or
Stoic explanations of particular 'miraculous' events through the world-soul might
undercut Christian explanations of those events through special divine intervention.
Pomponazzi 1567, summarising especially from pp. 278-97. The doctrine is standard
Averroism. But Pomponazzi's picture of the current senescence of Christianity and of
the approaching transformation (p. 286 and following) is really quite touching and puts
him in an odd agreement with the Protestant and Catholic reformers, on the one hand,
and with Plethon's hope for the revival of a pagan Greek nation out of the corruption
and collapse of Byzantine Christianity, on the other.
Giovanni Pico, Disputationes adversus astrologiam divinatricem, in G. Pico 1971, vol. 1, pp.
411731. Yates 1964 has some discussion of the Renaissance Platonists' polemic against
astrological determinism, noting correctly that this polemic derives from Plotinus and
other ancient Platonists and that it is compatible with a belief in non-determining astral
influences. Yates is right in saying that the Platonist opposition to astrological determinism could be used to support a human ability to manipulate astral influences through
magic; but the fundamental Platonist criticism of astrology was based simply on a
defense of human freedom and did not necessarily involve any commitment to the
possibility of magic. It is true, however, that astral magic and (deterministic) astrology
were fundamentally opposed to each other, and that those most credulous of one were
often sharply critical of the other.
Giovanni Pico, Conclusiones magicae 14. The Conclusiones magicae are a subdivision of
Giovanni Pico's famous '900 theses'; they can be found in the critical edition G. Pico
!973- The theses are also printed in G. Pico 1971, pp. 62-113, followed by Pico's
defence of himself, pp. 114-240.
The remains of the Chaldean Oracles may be consulted (in Greek with French translation) in Oracles chaldaiques 1971; there is now also a version with English translation and
notes, Chaldean Oracles 1989. (The Oracles are now ascribed to a father and son, both
named Julian, living in the second century A.D.; they have nothing whatever to do with
Zoroaster, to whom they are often attributed in the Renaissance.) The Hermetica should
be read in Hermes Trismegistus 1945-54 (Greek or Latin with French translation);
Hermes Trismegistus 1924 (Greek or Latin with English translation) is eccentric. There
is now also an English translation with notes and introduction by Brian Copenhaver,
Copenhaver 1992c. Strictly speaking, the Corpus Hermeticum is a collection of Greek
treatises (some in dialogue form) preserved together, and first published (for the most
part) in Latin translation by Ficino; the Hermetica include also a dialogue called Asclepius,
which is an ancient Latin translation of a lost Greek original and various excerpts
84
76
77
78
79

ascribed to Hermes and cited by various Greek or Latin authors. There are yet other
works ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, considered to be even more than usually
spurious, which are not included in these editions. For a broad picture, not just of the
Hermetica but of the whole intellectual climate from which they emerged, see Festugiere
1983 and Fowden 1993. Yates 1964 presents an interesting picture of the Renaissance
career of the Hermetica and of prisca theologia generally, but some cautions are in order.
Yates puts too much emphasis on the exotic side of Renaissance Platonism, describing
Ficino and Pico and the others as 'Hermetists' or 'syncretists' rather than as (neo-)
Platonists, and suggesting that these thinkers were influenced as much by the magic of
the prisci theologi as by the mainstream Platonic tradition; the truth is that reference to
the Chaldean Oracles and similar writings had been a standard feature of Platonism since
about A.D. 300, and that all such authorities were subjected to an interpretation bringing
them strictly into line with the over-arching Platonic system, in Ficino and Pico as
much as in Proclus. Also, within the realm of prisca theologia, Yates gives undue priority
to the Hermetica as against the Chaldean Oracles and other writings.
It is a mistake to suppose either that Renaissance Platonists are just magicians and the
philosophy is merely ideological justification for magic, or that there were no magical
practices and 'magic' is merely a metaphor. Some people were more interested in the
theory and others in the practice, but there was always continuity. Cornelius Agrippa
De occulta philosophia (Agrippa 1533) gives a fair amount of practical advice, but his
justification of the three kinds of magic comes straight from the philosophical theory
described here.
Conclusiones magicae 15 and 7, in G. Pico 1973.
An entire section of the Conclusiones is entitled '71 Kabbalistic conclusions, according
to his own [Pico's] opinion, best [maxime] confirming the Christian religion from the
foundations of the Hebrew sages themselves'. The Christian truths thus confirmed
include the facts that the Messiah is named 'Jesus', that he suffers for sinners, that he
'comes with the baptism of water', that Satan tempts him with the promise of the
kingdoms of the earth, and so on. Pico's Heptaplus (G. Pico 1971, vol. 1, pp. 162 [G.
Pico 1965, pp. 67174]) is a tour de force of a Kabbalistic commentary, giving seven
different interpretations of the seven days of creation (in seven books of seven chapters),
fitted into the usual prisca theologia scheme of the three worlds (Pico adds man as a
fourth world containing the three great worlds in abrege). Although the seventh chapter
of each book says something about Christ, it is especially the seventh book which is
devoted to proving Christianity: 'I pray you, Christian brothers, to consider a little
more attentively how true and sound the scheme of my interpretation is. Against the
stony hearts of the Hebrews it will furnish you with powerful weapons drawn from
their own arsenals. In the first place we shall prove from the testimony of the Jews that
the works of the fourth day signify the coming of Christ. Secondly, we shall show that
nothing represents the Messiah to us more fittingly than the sun, and we shall clearly
deduce from the periods of time that the Christ is not still to come in the future but
that Jesus of Nazareth, the son of the Virgin, was the Messiah promised to the Hebrews'
(G. Pico 1965, p. 158 = G. Pico 1971 vol. 1, pp. 51-2). Johannes Reuchlin has a
treatise De arte cabalistica, included in G. Pico 1971, vol. 2, pp. 733-899. On Renaissance
Christian interest in kabbalah, see Blau 1944.
For a picture of the sectarian England of the revolutionary period, see the works of
Christopher Hill, especially Hill 1972 and 1977. For a helpful survey of Christian
mortalism, see Burns 1972. The best systematic statements of seventeenth-century
mortalism, besides Hobbes's Leviathan, are Richard Overton's Mans Mortallitie (Overton
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
85
1644) and John Milton's posthumously published Christian Doctrine (in Milton 1931-8,
vol. 15). Within what can be broadly called Christian mortalism, several positions
should be distinguished: mortalism in the strict sense maintains that the soul does not
exist between death and resurrection; 'soul-sleeping' or 'psychopannychia' maintains
that the soul exists during this period in an unconscious state, so that subjectively no
time will appear to have elapsed between 'falling asleep' at death and 'reawakening' on
the last day; a marginal extremist position not really related to these other currents of
thought denies any existence after death, and allegorises immortality and resurrection
as events within this life. Soul-sleeping, shading into strict mortalism, has been a
perennial minority Christian position and had the sympathy of Luther and of many
other opponents of the 'philosophical' and thus pagan doctrine of separate immortality.
It is an anti-historical prejudice to question the sincerity of seventeenth-century Christian mortalists; there might, of course, be reasons for doubt in some individual cases,
but I am unaware of any such case (see, however, note 43 on Pomponazzi, who belongs
to a very different [Averroist] intellectual tradition, and who professes not mortalism
but the standard Thomist position on immortality).
For Hobbes on scholasticism as a corruption of Christianity by pagan philosophy, see
especially Lev. xlvi, 'Of Darkness from Vain Philosophy and Fabulous Traditions'. We
have no grounds for questioning Hobbes's religious sincerity, once we understand how
widespread Christian mortalist and voluntarist doctrines were in the sectarian England
of his time.
See the appendix to Gouhier 1972 for a discussion of'mystical' and 'positive' theology,
which Gouhier places within the context of a more general search for a 'simple and
effective' theology to replace (what many Catholic reformers saw as) the useless subdeties of scholastic theology. For an immersion in the religious thought-world of the
French Counter-Reformation, see the great Histoire litteraire du sentiment religieux en
France of Henri Bremond (Bremond 1967).
Jansenius 1640, vol. 2, Liber prooemialis: philosophy as the source of everything that is
wrong with scholastic theology, by contrast with the teaching of the Fathers, pp. 512;
Augustine as 'Father of Fathers, doctor of doctors, the first [in authority] after the
canonical [biblical] writers, among them all the one who is truly solid, subde, irrefragable, angelic, seraphic, most excellent, and ineffably marvelous', pp. 53-4. On Jansenius
see also the excellent Abercrombie 1936, containing (among many other things) a
detailed summary of the Augustinus.
For the story about Chandoux and Berulle and Descartes, see Baillet 1691, vol. 1, pp.
160-5. For the range of attitudes Augustinian reformers took towards Cartesianism, see
Gouhier 1978 and the appendix to Gouhier 1972; for Augustinian influences on
Descartes himself, see Menn 1989.
The classic study of Mersenne is Lenoble 1971; see also Dear 1988.
Mersenne 1625, p. 117.
Mersenne 1625, p. n o .
Mersenne 1624, vol. 2, p. 372.
On Bacon, see Farrington 1964; Rossi 1968; Jardine 1974. All these studies, with
different emphases, show Bacon's continuity with different trends of Renaissance antiAristotelianism.
86
93 Mersenne 1985, pp. 87-8.

94 The idea that real philosophy has only just begun may be illustrated from Hobbes, who,
in the dedicatory letter to his De corpore, denies that either natural or moral philosophy
had existed in antiquity. 'But what? were there no philosophers natural or civil among
the ancient Greeks? There were men so called: witness Lucian, by whom they are
derided; witness divers cities, from which they have been often by public edicts
banished. But it follows not that there was philosophy' (Eng. Works, vol. 1, p. ix,
translating Lett. Works, vol. 1, unpaginated prefatory material). The inventors of celestial
physics, of general physics, of the science of the human body, and of moral philosophy,
we are told, are, respectively, Copernicus, Galileo, Harvey ('the only man I know, that
conquering envy, hath established a new doctrine in his life-time'), and Hobbes himself,
the first to reason systematically from observations in their respective fields. Contrast
the quotation from Sir William Temple cited in note 2.
95 De magnete (Gilbert 1600) and De mundo (Gilbert 1651) (as the works are usually called
for short). There is a study of the De mundo, with comparisons to the De magnete and to
Gilbert's contemporaries, including Bacon, in Kelly 1965. I am summarising from the
De magnete in the next sentence.
96 The first Descartes quotation is from AT II 542, the second from AT VIII 315.
97 Baillet 1691, vol. 1, p. 10.

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THE INTELLECTUAL SETTING

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

of the expectation of a new philosophy from its beginnings in mere distrust of

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

movement took are indicated here, inasmuch as they served to encourage or

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

be found in the French Epicurean Gassendi and in the Persian illuminationist

AH the religious objections to the introduction of Aristotelian philosophy in the

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

seventeenth century, anti-Averroism is both a motivation and an excuse for a

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

as an example of a philosopher who disagreed with the other philosophers and as

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

Aristotelian scholasticism was not annihilated by its Renaissance critics; at least in

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

throughout the sixteenth century, recovering and developing in new directions

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

limited. The continuing commitments to Aristotelian principles in physics and

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

by species or by individuating matter. These difficulties lead the Averroists to

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

with Aristotle and Averroes.42 On the crucial question of immortality, however,

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

the Thomist doctrine of immortality precisely because it would elevate humanity

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

The intellectual setting

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

Context of seventeenth-century philosophy