COMPARTMENTALIZATION

OF
DECAY
IN
TREES

Forest Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Agriculture Information
Bulletin No . 405
July 1977

Watercolor illustrations by David M. Carroll, Warner, New Hampshire.

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COMPARTMENTALIZATION
OF DECAY IN TREES
Alex L. Shiga
Plant Pathologist, U,S, Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station,
Durham, New Hampshire

and
Harold G, Marx
Research Applications Staff Assistant, U,S, Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Washington, D,C,

Agriculture Information
Forest Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Bulletin No. 405

July 1977

INTRODUCTION

report must be studied very carefu lly. The system is called

CODIT
The science of tree pathology
Compartmentalization Of Decay
emerged from studies on decay
In Trees
almost a century ago. Many of
When the system is learned , it
the concepts developed then
will act as the code for underhave changed little over the
standing a wide variety of
years. But, in the last few decades some additional information
defects on most tree species.
on the decay process in trees
The CODIT system is based on
ha s been developed. Th is new
two major points. First, a tree is
information has added to the
a hi ghly compartmented plant
basic story of decay without
Second, after a tree is wounded ,
subtract ing anything important
the resulting defects are
compartmentalized .
from it The new expanded
To apply the CODIT system
concept of decay is simply more
complete. And this new, more
it is necessary to understand that
complete concept gives us a
the new expanded decay concept
developed in the last few decades
better opportunity to regulate and
control decay.
includes: 1) Successions of
Dr. George H. Hepting made
microorganisms associated with
discoloration and decay, and 2)
th e first sound observations on
compartmentalization of decay in Compartmentalization of dis
colored and decayed wood
tree s in 1935. His idea s acted
as a trigger for the work that
associated with trunk wounds.
To begi n with , decay of wood
followed. The work presented
is a natural process caused by
here is an ex pansion of hi s
microorganisms, mainly fun gi,
ideas.
The informati on in this pubthat enter trees throu gh wounds.
Tree wounds are usually inflicted
lication is based on 16 yea rs of
by fire, weather, in sects, birds,
research by Dr. Shiga th at insmall or large animals, or man
volved complete dissections of
and hi s act ivities. These wounds
approximately 10,000 trees start the processes that can lead
mostly deciduous hardwoods, at
to
decay, and decay is a major
least 1,000 conifers, and 17
cause
of damage to trees. While
tropical species. Details of these
wood
decay
is most often caused
stUdies have been published
by decay-ca usin g fungi, these
elsewhere.
fungi are often intimately asso
The purpose of this publication
ciated with bacteria and nonis to show how most columns of
decay fun gi in t he process.
discolored and decayed wood
Decay is the breakdown or deassociated with trunk wounds in
composition of dead organic
trees are compartmentalized . A
matter. It is also essential to
great number of confusing
new life.
terms are given to a wide variety
of defects caused by discoloraTo understand how trees react
tions and decays in trees. This
to wounding and the associated
book describes a system that
defects by compartmentalizing
makes it possible for forest
the defects, it is necessary to
managers to understand how
reevaluate our concept of how
most of these defects develop.
a tree is constructed. A tree is
To understand the system, the
considered here as a highly

compartmented plant In a sense,

a tree is made up of many trees;
each growth ring is a "t ree. "
Each " tree" is divided into many
compartments. A compartment
can be thought of as a "room,"
with side walls made up of rays
and front and back wa ll s made
up of cells that are the last to
form in each growth ring. The
top and bottom of the compartment is formed after wounding
when the elements that transport
liquids plug up. The compartment is the least common denominator of the tree. All the
types of cells found in the woody
stem of a tree will be found in
each compartment
When microorgani sms invade
tree stems through wounds, they
do so in succession s. Bacteria,
nondecay fungi , and decay fungi
are often intimately associated
in this invasion process. When
microorganisms invade, they first
su rmount the chemical protec
tive barriers set up by the tree
and then move into the tree from
compartment to compartment
The weakest walls of a compartment are the tops and bottoms,
and the inner walls. The side
wa lls are fairly strong. When all
these walls fa ll to the invading
microorganisms, there is another
wall that begins to form. The
wall formed by the cambium
after wounding is the barrier
zone. This wall confines the in
vasion to the wood present at the
time of wounding. The new
"trees" or rings that continue
to form are then protected from
invasion unless new wound s are
inflicted. When new wounds are
inflicted at later times, multiple
columns of defect develop.
An understa nding of CODIT
will help to clarify many misconceptions about decay.

Decay is a natural process.

The breakdown of dead organic
matter is essential for new
life.

- "" -

Fungi are the major group of

microorganisms that decay wood.
In many cases fung i accomp lish
this on ly in association with
other organisms, especially
bacteria.

Wood -inhabiting microorganisms enter trees through wounds.

Wounds start the processes that
can lead to decay. And decay is
a major cause of damage to
trees.

Decay

1,p.,.ci,jU()US hardwoods and

ti nJoical trees

Small animals

Insects

~
I,

Fire

Large anima ls

But, before explaining how

start the decay process,

necessary to understand
a tree is constructed. A
highly compartmented p.laij1!i~
" -' <i'~,'VrP.< do not replace i
as anima ls do.

A tree is a
compartmented plant

10

In a sense, a tree is made up

of many trees. Each growth ring
can be thought of as a separate
tree,

Diagrammatic

drawing
of a tree.

"15
", ee

,...'

\
\
"

11

In a diagrammatic way, here

is how a tree is constructed.
(The drawings are designed to
give a general impression of
compartments in trees and they
are not intended as technical
anatomical descriptions of cell
types and arrangements.)

The rays define the side walls

of the compartments. The last
few series of cells in the growth
ring define the inner walls. The
compartment has holes in the
top and bottom walls because
the flow of materials is maintained in a vertical direction.
But, one of the first events that
happens after wounding is a
plugging of this system above
and below the injury. Complete
tops and bottoms then begin to
develop on the compartments.
(The term "walls" is used here
in a very loose sense only to
give the mental impression of
"rooms" or compartments in

the tree.)
Pith

Ray cells form side walls of

compartments. 3

-----;--------.11
~tH-+-_

Last cells to form in growth ring

form inner walls of compartment.
2

Top and bottom of compartment

form when vertical elements plug
after wounding.

------r-ll~fSt;-:~~l::tJ=::_-\~

Compartment

12

.l

In wood present at the time of

wounding, the tops and bottoms
of the compartments are the
weakest walls. These we will call
Wall 1. The inner walls are the
second in weakness-Wall 2. The
side walls are fairly strongWall 3. The strongest wall is the
one formed by the cambium
after wounding-Wall 4.
Wall 1 is incomplete in living
sapwood because the conducting elements-vessels, tracheids
-conduct liquids in a vertical
direction. But as heartwood
forms, or after wounds are
inflicted , pits close or the con-

ducting elements are plugged.

The rate and degree of pit closure
and element plugging depend on
many factors. Completion of
Wall 1 is the result of a dynamic
process. The plugging will then
set the limits for the vertical
extension of each compartment.
When plugging occurs rapidly,
short compartments form , but
when plugging is slow, long
compartments form.
Wall 2 is continuous around
every growth ring, and from the
top to bottom of the tree.

Wall 3 is discontinuous because sheets of ray cells are not

continuous radially and longitudinally throughout the tree.

Wall 4 is a much stronger,

more localized version of Wall 2.
The area-longitudinal, tangential
-covered by Wall 4 will depend
on many factors: Wound size,
type, position, severity, time of
year when wounding occurs,
and intrin sic genetic potential
to respond to wounds.

growth~j~~~~;~~~i~:~~5~~~~i~~~:~:~~j

ring and from top to bottom of the

tree.
Wall 2 is continuous around

Side Walls 3 are the strongest walls.

Present at time of wounding.

---....;f.-------.;;:

Inner Walls 2 are the next weakest

walls.

------------.!j--~l----!j--

Wall 1 is incomplete until heartwood

forms or after wounding. It is not
planar.

----------....:.L.._

Top and bottom Walls 1 are the

weakest walls.

Wall 3 is discontinuous.
Sheets of ray cells may end abruptly
both radially and

10ngitUdinaIlY.:::::::==~~j~~~~W~::==::;~l~~~1

Each growth ring is made up of

many compartments.

13

aroundi~t~h:e1:~~~i~~~i~:~~~;~;~;~.~

rings and from top to bottom.

Walls 2 are continuous

A compartment _;;.---'-;----

Wa ll 3 ,...,............-r-__~

Wa ll 2
Wall 1 is in complete un til after

+'+it-......."-.r-F-S-,...

,.....I;j.:.

wounding. _________

Wa lls 3 are discontinuous inwa rd and

up and down.

A compartment

Vascular elements plug after

wou nding and complete Wall 1.
14

Discontinuous Walls 3

Continuous Walls 2

Each growth ring is made up of

many compartments.
A tree is a highly compartmented
plant.

Discontinuou s Walls 3

Continuous Walls 2

15

.u.Ii+4lill. Section

Barrier zone

lOyearold wound on maple

After wounding, the cambium

forms Wall 4. Thi s wall is called
a barrier zone. It sepa rates wood
formed before wounding from
wood that forms after wounding.

Color key to all drawings

Barrier zone Wall 4 formed atter
illlli.lL wou 11d in g

RED-Host response to wounding,

chemical reactions to STOP
invasion.
GREEN-Invasion processes by
microorganisms GO through the
barriers set up by the tree.
BLUE-Infection of dead and dying
tissues on wound surface.
BROWN-Decay processes.

16

Section A

_ _ _ _ _ Bark

1-Top and bottom walls are weakest walls

4-Barrier zone equals strongest wall

2-lnner wall

3-Raywall

17

Deep
experimental

i wound

Host
response

Maple

After wounding, the tree

reacts. Chemical barriers de
velop around the injured tis sues.
Some woodinhabiting micro
organisms surmount these
barri ers and begin to interact
with the tree . The tree exerts a
living protective force to keep the
invaders out, and the invaders
exert a strong fo rce to get into
the tree through the wound.
When microorganisms are able
to get in, they move from com
partment to compartment. And

18

when the walls of the compart

ments begin to fall to the force
of the invaders, the tops and
bottoms (Wall 1) go first, then
the inner walls (Wall 2), and
then the side walls (Wall 3). But,
most of the time the barrier zone
(Wall 4) holds, and confines the
invaders to the wood present at
the time of wounding. The
figures 1, 2, 3 , and 4, in addi
tion to naming the wall, al so
indicate the relative strength of
each wall. It must be emphasized

that the walls are not absolute

in their compartmentalizing
capacities and given enough
time, even the barrier zone
(Wall 4) will fall.

Wood formed
after wounding

lOyearold wou

Barrier zone
WaIl 4 --~~

Ii
Barrier zone Wall 4

Ii

-I1HlIH
Wall-l Weakest

-2
-3
-4 Strongest

19

The type, severity, and posi

tion of the wound will affect the
extent of compartmenta lization.
Here are some of the most
typica l examples .

;
r

Wood altered slightly-NOT

\ ..--~ heartwood

\-+-_4

I
Barrier zone Wall 4

Barrier zona

l-i'--_ Wall 4

Red maple

20

A basal wound of moderate

severity. The entire "group of
trees" present at the time of
wounding was altered slightly,
and were confined by the
barrier zone . The side walls, or
rays, held here and the column
was wedge -shaped in crosssection. The jagged vertical edge
was due to variation in confining
ability of compartment tops and
bottoms in different growth
rings.

22

A sli ght basal wound . The

entire column of wood present
at the time of wound in g was
altered very littl e, but it was
st ill confined by the barrier zone.
The inner wa ll s and side walls
held firm here and on ly a
"moon ring" formed.

Very fain t
discoloration

=:::====:====f~4~_~~

Diameter of tree

whenwounded:::::===:=~~~~~___~~

l,l

~ . "

I.,. .

Slight wound

23

In genera l, the same types of

columns occur in trees that have
a heartwood core. Discolored
and decayed wood is compartmentalized in heartwood. When
a mechanical wound penetrates
the sapwood to the heartwood,
the co lumn develops most
rapidly along the sapwood
heartwood boundary .

f------

Heartwood

Sapwood

Heartwood ---4111

Sapwood ---110,

Wound -.+-IP

You ng red oak

24

RED-Host response to wounding

BLUE-Surface infection
GREEN-Discoloration
BROWN-Decay
YELLOW-Heartwood

\
Injured cambium

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I n j u r e d cambium

Host response

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Injured cambium

25

Heartwood --Hl~*,,~

Slightly
altered

Heartwood formation stalled near

wound.

Barrier zone in heartwood

26

f/J.- - - - - - - - Injured cambium

Di scolored and decayed wood

assoc iated with poorly heal ed
large branch stubs is compart
mentalized in heartwood . Central
column s of defect in hea rtwood
formi ng t rees are often asso
ciated with poorly healed
branch stubs.

_ - - - - Large broken
branches

Young

4
4

4_~+-

27

Here are the basic patterns of

compartmentalized columns of
discolored and decayed wood
associated with a singl e wound
and with seve ral wounds at one
time shown on cross section
in nonheartwoodforming
trees.

r - *--4
central core

altered
wood

28

Slightly .......~...A/1~"
3

altered

Here are some basic patterns

for heartwood-forming trees.

Discolored
heartwood

Slightly
altered
heartwood ---;H~""

29

Injured
- - - - cambium

Injured
cambium

Large
broken
branch

30

Most trees receive many

wounds du rin g their lives. Every
tree has some branches that
die. When the branches are
small and the wound s close
rapidly, very little internal defect
foll ows. But, when large branches
die and healing is slow, trouble
starts for the tree. Add to this
the injuries caused by othe r
types of wounds at irregu lar
time intervals and a pattern of
multiple columns begins to de
velop. But again the tree compartmentalizes the injuries and
each column is separated
from the others.

Wound

Injured cambium, new barrier zone

forming

Injured

cambium

31

Old barrier
zone Wall 4

New barrier

e forming
Old barrier

Barrier zone

32

!
30-year-old branch stub wounds

Lu-yei,,-cHo wound

zone Wall 4

O-vea r-old wound

Hr.ttHtttt

Barrier zone 4

33

Multiple columns are common

in trees. A minor wound may set
up a central colum n of discolored
wood and later large branches
die and heal slowly. The decay
associated with the branch stubs
does not penetrate the inner
column of compartmenta lized
discolored wood.

Open branch stub ~;(I;Ir::J'P

Diameter

when first

cen tral colum n.

~~,.,..-.,. Wound

34

.-,

"-

A central column of compart

mentalized discolored wood may
be associated with large branch
stubs that healed slowly, but
did close before decay set in.
Additional columns of discolored
and decayed wood could develop
later, for example , from severe
mechanical wounds on the
trunk.

Stub

barrier
zone 4

r l-f_IJ IO

-,I-BarrIEi" zone
Wall 4

35

Here are some typical patterns

of multiple colum ns found in

nonheartwood forming trees .

36

In heartwoodforming trees the

patterns are the same, but they
are sometimes difficult to see
because they are often contained
in heartwood that is already
dark in color. Compartmentali
zation explains how columns
of discolored and decayed wood
can be found in ring patterns
separated by sound wood.

37

A major obstacle in understanding multiple columns of compartmentalized decay is the

difficulty in "seeing" them in
three dimensions.
Here are some examples:
Birch-Column of discoloration
and decay associated with
a wound developing
around a central column
of discoloration associated
with branch stubs.

:-_ _...._ _ Barrier zone

Central column

Stub

---i---HtR

1--+---;----01 discolored wood

--+--ll..=

4 _ _ _--1

1-_ _- 4

~!i!t-_-4
Old wound - - ;

IIHIItfllll-- - 4

38

Maple-Column of discoloration
and decay associated
with a wound developing
around a central column
of discoloration. The
entire column of wood
present at the time of
wounding has been
altered slightly. When
this wood is dried, it
will be a different shade
from the wood that
formed after wounding.

Wood altered slightly _ _~........,,,,,

Central column of
discolored wood

---IF-....-fltt"t

Wound

Barrier zone - .......""Im'!

39

Pine-Column of discolored and

decayed wood associated
with a wound developing
around a central column
of discolored heartwood
associated with poorly
healed branch stubs.

Central column of discolored

....;.,r-;..::;#H~-- heartwood

Barrier zone ---I""""

Wound

40

,!f '~!I-- Hea rtwood

Fornes pini

44

_ ......_ _ _ _ Heartwood

;'-_ _.J..._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Discolored heartwood

Sporophore of

L__~":li&:_-F'on~es pini

New column of defect not in

sapwood

White
pine

45

The " holding power" of column s

of discolored wood ca n be shown
by wound s that penetrate th e
column s. The new column th at
form s remain s separate f rom
the inner co lum ns . When th e
second wound is seve re, decay
may deve lop in th e new column .
Thi s occurs in nonhea rtwood
forming t rees.
New barrier

zone Wall 4
Deep drill wound into sapwood and
established central column
discolored wood

Old column

New
column

Injured
cambium

column

Nonheartwood forming tree

46

Individual column in each growth

ring

Decay did not penetrate discolored

column.

47

And in heartwoodf ormin g trees.

Deep drill wound penetrates

sapwood, heartwood , and central
column of discolored heartwood .

Injured
cambium

When new wou nds penetrate old

columns of decay, the decay
process proceeds rapidly in the
new col umn .

48

4 --1)_

49

There are some patterns of

defects that on first inspection
do not appear to fit the concept
of compartmentalization. However, they do. The most notable
are the defects associated with
canker rots. Canker rot fungi,
once established in a tree, keep
the wound open by slowly killing
some living tissues around the
wound. This process is the same
as re-wounding. And, when the
new wound is made, a new

column begins to develop. An

intricate pattern of multiple
columns is associated with
canker rot.

New columns form as cambium is

killed each year.

Some fungi produce sterile fungus

material.
Diameter of trunk
when branch died.
Fungus kills cambium and new
wounds form.

50

---4l~

Mass of fungus material

Cambium killed

Q!l7W17r1I. 'f?.z....

51

Another type of defect that does

not appear to fit the concept are
ring shakes-separation of the
wood along the rin gs. The prob
lem here is that the barrier
zone associated with the wounds
often form s far beyond the
visible column of defect. The
barrier zone acts as a partition
between the wood present at
the time of wounding and the
new wood formed after. When
growth stresses or other stresses
are applied, the wood sometimes
pulls apart along the barrier
zone . Most shakes are associated
with wound s, but not all wounds
result in shakes.

Ring shake zone

Barrier

zone

Slightly altered wood

large, old open wound

-~

52

..

Wound

UrV~_

l,.

:I

,',

And, yet another type of defect

pattern that appears not to fit
th e compartmentalization concept
is the "island" pattern or streak
pattern often spoken of as
mineral streak. Wounds indeed
start these processes. A pattern
type that can be termed "palm
and fingers" develops. Near the
wound all the columns in the
indi vidual growth ring are
coa lesced to form the "pa lm."
As the discolored colu mns deve lop vertical ly above and below
the wound, Walls 1, or the tops
and bottoms of t he compartments
in individual growth rings, react
in different degrees to the
wound and the invading microorganisms . When such a "palm
and finger" co lumn is viewed
in cross section at increas ing
di sta nces above and below the
wound, is lan ds of defect appear.
Often , a few " fin gers" will develop
far beyond all the others .

Barrier

Wall 4

Wood formed
after wounding

53

In sugar maple, for examp le, the

"palm and finger" pattern is
the mineral streak pattern asso
ciated with sugar maple borer
wounds. This insect is a major
cause of minera l st reak in sugar
maple .

54

\
I

55

The yellow-bellied sapsucker (see

page 7) inflicts seve ral types of
wound patterns on many species
of tree s. In one type of wound
pattern a large wound is the
result, and the "palm and
finger" defect pattern develops.
Again, th e "fingers" may extend
great distances above and below
the wound. And cross sections
of trunks made through the
"fingers" will show islands of
defect, or mineral streaks.

..~I
56

..

The "pa lm and finger" defect

pattern is also associated with
some other wound ing patterns
made by the sapsuckers.

Sapsucker

wounds--_________

,
H

:;

1
1

,,

)1

;;
!

II

~~per

birch

57

Palm and fin ger

58

Sapsuckers wi ll often wound one

area on a trunk . On paper birch
a swollen black band will form
at these sites.

Not only will discolored streaks

of the "pa lm and finger" pattern
deve lop from such wounds, but
the barrier zone that develops
after wounding may pu ll apart
from the inner rings to form a
complete ring shake which is
sometimes called cup shake or
loose heart.

59

On some trees, such as eastern

hemlock, the yellow-be lli ed
sapsucker inflicts many wounds
over large areas of the trunk,

"

....-Ik-- -

60

The barrier zones that form after

wo unding act as partitions be
tween wood present at the time of
woundi ng and wood th at forms
after wounding. When growth
st resses and other stresses
develop over lon g periods, the
wood may separate alo ng the
barrier zones, and multiple ring
shakes form.

-~
-'---- ' - -.,.....-_._.-

4
Ring shake zone

Ring shake zone

61

The " palm and finger" pattern

of defect and barrier zones that
form shake are commonly
associated with wounds made
by larger animal,s such as beavers
and porcupines (see page 9 ),
When wounds are severe, Walls
1 and 2 may fall to invading
microorganisms .

I
I
!

',.,

\,

r.

,
!

\
I

~l

1\'
!

C17

-1

-\

-...)

.;

Ri ng

shake

\.

62

Squirrels wound young, smooth

barked trees in several genera
(see page 8 ). The typical "palm
and finger" defect pattern reo
suits. In some species these
defects are called mineral
streaks.

63

Insects wound trees (see page

8) and small islands of defects
form. Each island of defect is
a sma ll "palm and finger"
column. The columns usually
penetrate only to the depth of
the hole made by the in sect.

Insect
hole

,.=-:- ~;-~

Tubes from
scale insect ~, ... -1fO., __

lS!it:::::t"'O;;"-fff------=:;---4-

Scale insect that lives in old insect

holes

.. - --;..;;...:...... = }
I~

Insect
holes

-..."...,

-:-:U ::-.c.?

=: :.

"-"=====

64

C"~~--

-- ._ . - - ~------. "

When many insects attack a tree

at the same time, a barrier zone
may develop around the entire
tree. All the wood present at
the time of wounding will be
slightly altered. When dried, the
wood present at the time of
wounding will be a different
shade from the wood that formed
after wo unding.

I
I

I
I

..'

65

The cambium miner is a small

larva of a type of fly that eats
its way down the cambial region
of some trees . The "tracks" of
the larvae are compartmentalized
as ve ry lon g narrow streaks of
discolored wood within growth
rings.

66

On some trees the wounds are

not visible. This is common with
small basal wounds, especially
those caused by fire when the
tree was very young and now
the healed wound is hidden by
forest litter. The barrier zone still
forms around such wounds and
often results in ring shake. Also,
the inrolled callus serves as a
weak spot on the tree that may
continue to split vertically. Addi
tional cracks may form from
the barrier zone outward into
the wood that forms after wound
ing. When the cross section of
a trunk with such a pattern of
internal defect is viewed above
the base, a starshaped pattern
of cracks radiating out from
the center will be seen.

l, ~

67

With some basal wounds, long

internal cracks, called seams,
form at right angles to the
wounds at the points where the
calius inrolis.

-~/

68

Seams wi ll also form from

mechanical wounds on trunl<s.
Once a seam begins to form,
it will usually continue to en large
throughout the life of the tree.

70

-'-'~{

,I

, J.I '

-..

--

' '':

.........,... .
-I _ .... 'I/'...s,.."

':--"" ,0

..,\

71

In summary, the compa rtmental

ization of defects in trees is a
surviva l system that is effect ive
most of the time-not all of the
time ! And after the tree dies,

72

the powerful decay processes

cont inue to decompose the
wood . The decaying wood provides nourishment for a wide
variety of organisms.

The decomposed wood provides

nourishment for new trees.

73

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