Faith & Economics Number 36Fall 2000Pages 19.

ANNOUNCEMENTS

THE ORIGIN OF PROPERTY RIGHTS:

A CRITIQUE OF ROTHBARD AND HOPPE
ON NATURAL RIGHTS
TIMOTHY D. TERRELL

Timothy Terrell is assistant professor of economics at

Wofford College (SC).

Editors Note: This paper extends the argument of Terrell

(1999). Small portions of this 1999 article, which appeared
in the Journal of Markets and Morality, are included here
with permission of the Center for Economic Personalism.
The author wishes to thank Mark Brandly of Patrick Henry
College, Gene Callahan of the Ludwig von Mises Institute,
Glenn Moots of Northwood University, Robert Murphy of
New York University, two anonymous referees, and seminar attendees at the 2000 Austrian Scholars Conference for
their helpful comments and criticism. The author claims
sole responsibility for all errors and omissions.
he natural right to self-ownership, and the right to
homestead that with which one mixes his labor, are the
twin axioms upon which all libertarian social thought
rests, according to Murray Rothbard and Hans-Hermann
Hoppe. This paper contends that while Austrian economists have made unique and valuable contributions to
economics in many areas, the ethical defense of property
rights espoused by some Austrians is flawed.1
In contrast to the utilitarian approaches of mainstream
economists, Rothbard and some other Austrians propose a
normative approach based on two self-evident axioms.2
The first of these is the right of self-ownership: the absolute
property right of each individual in his own person.3 The
second axiom, which is alleged to follow from the first, is
the homesteading right: the absolute right in material
property of the person who first finds an unused material
resource and then in some way occupies or transforms that
resource by the use of his personal energy.4 In Rothbards
own words,
the basic axiom of libertarian political theory holds
that every man is a self-owner, having absolute
jurisdiction over his own body. In effect, this means
that no one else may justly invade, or aggress against,

Association of Christian Economists

anothers person. It follows then that each person

justly owns whatever previously unowned resources
he appropriates or mixes his labor with. From
these twin axiomsself-ownership and homesteadingstem the justification for the entire system of
property rights titles in a free market society.5
There is much that is commendable in the immense body
of work from Rothbard and Hoppe on the necessity of
private property.6 Yet for all its strengths, there remain some
flaws in the foundations of libertarian property rights theory.
Ultimately, this paper argues, the natural rights approach to
property rights is based on a set of unsupported assumptionswhich some might call faith. Rothbard, Hoppe,
and their followers are right to seek fundamental ethical
norms to support private property rights, but key parts of
their arguments depend on faith: a faith their readers may
not share. Faith is certainly not incompatible with economics, but the statement of faith should at least be made clear
rather than maintaining the pretense that there are universally accepted external standards by which an argument
may be tested. Presuppositions are necessary to any argument, but presuppositions vary. Christians, for instance,
presuppose the truth of Biblical revelation. A revelationbased approach is neither more faith-dependent than, nor
inferior to, the natural rights approach employed by Rothbard
and Hoppe. For the Christian, the ethics of property ownership originate not with natural rights but with Biblical truth.
This in no way undermines the imperative of private property, but rather places it in its proper context.
The first section of this paper critiques the self-ownership axiom by asserting the property rights of the Creator.
Section two discusses the homesteading axiom. Section
three makes applications to the difficult ethical issues
surrounding animal rights, abortion, and childrens rights.
Section four concludes the paper.

FAITH & ECONOMICS

ANNOUNCEMENTS
Is Every Man a Self-Owner?
Hans-Hermann Hoppe defends the self-ownership axiom
by contending that the process of argumentation necessarily
presupposes the existence of self-ownership and private
property:
. . . [A]rgumentation . . . is a form of action requiring
the employment of scarce means; and furthermore
that the means, then, which a person demonstrates as
preferring by engaging in propositional exchanges
are those of private property. For one thing, obviously, no one could possibly propose anything, and
no one could become convinced of any proposition
by argumentative means, if a persons right to make
exclusive use of his physical body were not already
presupposed.7
That is, to verbally oppose private property is selfcontradictory. Because one must assert private property
rights in ones own body in order to make any argument
For the Christian, the ethics of property ownership
originate not with natural rights but with Biblical truth.
whatsoever, one cannot make any consistent argument
against private property. Also, anyone who argues must
presuppose the right of the other person to accept or reject
the argument, for if this right were not recognized, brute
force would supplant free discussion. Thus, Hoppe argues,
any participant in discourse must implicitly recognize certain basic property rights of the listener.8 Many in the
Austrian school of thought have found Hoppes reasoning
appealing, and have adopted it as their ultimate defense of
private property and, ultimately, of the system of anarchocapitalism.9
Hoppe, as a Kantian, rests his defense of the selfownership axiom upon self-evident synthetic a priori
propositions. These propositions are established not through
observation or formal logic, but through inner, reflectively
produced experience.10 Why, then, are these self-evident?
Drawing from Kant, Hoppe answers,
[I]t is not because they are evident in a psychological
sense, in which case we would be immediately
aware of them. On the contrary, Kant insists, it is
usually much more painstaking to discover such
axioms than it is to discover some empirical truth
such as that the leaves of trees are green. They are
self-evident because one cannot deny their truth
without self-contradiction; that is, in attempting to
deny them one would actually, implicitly, admit
their truth.
How do we find such axioms? Kant answers, by
reflecting upon ourselves, by understanding ourselves as knowing subjects. And this factthat the
truth of a priori synthetic propositions derives

ultimately from inner, reflectively produced experiencealso explains why such propositions can
possibly have the status of being understood as
necessarily true.11
This is essentially an admission that faith is necessary to
establish these axioms. Rothbard and Hoppe depend upon
the rule of ethics that an ethical system must apply equally
to all people.12 They do not present a reason why this rule of
ethics must hold true. If this rule did not hold true, a special
entity or class of entities could own one or more people. It
is no defense to place the burden of proving the existence of
owned people on the opposition, for neither Hoppe nor
Rothbard presents any compelling reason to believe that
this universality rule should hold over any other ethical rule.
No justification is offered other than the self-evident
nature of these principles. To argue the universality rule
based on a majoritarian argument seems to ignore grave
epistemological difficulties.
Because the libertarian theory of property rights is
essentially faith-based, it is no more objective than any
other faith-based property rights theory. The Christian may
assert that God is the creator, and therefore the owner, of all
men.13 The Christian ethical system applies equally to all
people in principle, not because God is constrained by an
external rule of ethics but only because God has chosen to
act in this way with his creation. Though it appeals to our
sense of fairness to say that an ethical rule should apply to
all people equally, the universality rule cannot stand apart
from an ethical system that supports and applies it. The
burden of proof might just as well be placed upon Hoppe to
show that the universality rule is superior.
However, let us concede Hoppes point for the sake of
argument; i.e. if I attempt to justify slavery to another
individual, then that effort in and of itself shows that I view
the listener as one who enjoys self-ownership. So what?
This rules out only a small (and historically unimportant)
class of tyranny. For it would still allow one Nazi to say to
another, We are masters of all Jews. This would involve
no contradiction. Hoppes argument even allows the wouldbe tyrant to say to himself: I alone am the supreme being,
ruling over all others.
It cannot be countered that to implement these plans for
conquest, verbal commands would need to be issued at
some point to the alleged slaves. For we frequently give
verbal commands to beasts of burden, pets, computers with
speech recognition programs, etc., and clearly there is no
implication that these items enjoy self-ownership. Therefore, even if Hoppe is correct, all our tyrants need to do is be
careful to avoid ever trying to justify the slavery of the
masses to the masses themselves. So long as they do this,
even accepting Hoppes argument, they are not being
inconsistent.

Timothy D. Terrell

Libertarian rhetoric vociferously opposes slavery, of

course, but Rothbard and Hoppe fall short of a consistent
repudiation of slavery. Rothbard (1998) addresses the possibility that one class of humans might own (or partially
own) another class, basing his argument on the unsupported
universality rule:
. . . [H]ere, one person or group of persons, G, are
entitled to own not only themselves but also the
remainder of society, R. But, apart from many other
problems and difficulties with this kind of system,
we cannot here have a universal or natural-law ethic
for the human race. We can only have a partial and
arbitrary ethic, similar to the view that Hohenzollerns
are by nature entitled to rule over non-Hohenzollerns.
Indeed, the ethic which states that Class G is entitled
to rule over Class R implies that the latter, R, are
subhuman beings who do not have a right to participate as full humans in the rights of self-ownership
enjoyed by Gbut this of course violates the initial
assumption that we are carving out an ethic for
human beings as such.14
The initial assumption here is inappropriate, in a
critical aspect. As Christians, we are not carving out an ethic
for ourselves, but following the ethical system imposed on
all humanity by God. That ethical system, contained in the
Bible, asserts our humanity and provides certain protections
against unjust enslavement, theft, murder, etc. Yet the Bible
makes very clear that there is a distinction between the
Creator and the creation. Following Rothbards pattern in
the quotation above, Christians would argue that we are not
subhuman, but we are sub-God. God is in fact the only being
to enjoy true self-ownership and the authority to homestead
the work of his hands.
The self-ownership axiom is not intuitively obvious. It
is a statement that is essentially arbitrary and must be
accepted by faith.15 Questions of faith certainly bear on
economics, but without an internally consistent, trustworthy revelatory document, these questions cannot be answered definitively. Neither Rothbard nor Hoppe present or
even argue the existence of such a document. It is also no
defense to defend the self-ownership axiom with the
homesteading axiom,16 for the homesteading axiom has
difficulties of its own. The entire system derived from the
faith-based assertion is therefore on shaky ground. Those
who do not share Rothbards or Hoppes faith will not
necessarily accept this first axiom.
Property and the Homesteading Principle
Murray Rothbard, following John Locke, argues that
each human is entitled to appropriate all those unowned
substances outside his own body with which he mixes his
labor because each human must make use of substances

outside his own body to survive. There is some ambiguity

here as to the extent of mixing necessary to produce a
property right in an unclaimed resource. One cannot simply
affix a flagpole in a beach and lay claim to all unowned land
for a thousand miles in every direction, Rothbard says.17 Yet
exactly how much transforming of the land must take place
before a title to the land is held by the settler? Is the claim
limited to the area of the settlers footprints and the grains
of sand displaced by the flagpole? With no appeal to
common law or a legitimate state to adjudge these issues,
there is no unambiguous solution. Suppose I fence off forty
acres of previously unclaimed land, on which I construct a
house and outbuildings whose foundations cover half an
acre, keep half an acre for a corral, and I plow 29 acres.
Because I like to view some land in its natural state, I leave
10 acres uncleared and unplowed. Is this section of land then
not truly mine? Rothbard would seem to say it is not:
Suppose, for example, that Mr. Green legally owns
a certain acreage of land, of which the northwest
portion has never been transformed from its natural
state by Green or anyone else. Libertarian theory
will morally validate his claim for the rest of the
landprovided, as the theory requires, that there is
no identifiable victim (or that Green had not himself
stolen the land). But libertarian theory must invalidate his claim to ownership of the northwest portion.
No, so long as no settler appears who will initially
transform the northwest portion, there is no real
difficulty; Browns claim may be invalid but it is
also mere meaningless verbiage. But should another
man appear who does transform the land, and should
Green oust him by force from the property (or
employ others to do so), then Green becomes at that
point a criminal aggressor against land justly owned
by another.18
It remains unclear how Rothbard would resolve this ambiguity without appeal to his own personal preference.
Explaining the core of the homesteading argument,
Hoppe writes,
it would be . . . impossible to sustain argumentation
for any length of time and rely on the propositional
force of ones arguments, if one were not allowed to
appropriate next to ones body other scarce means
through homesteading action, i.e., by putting them
to use before somebody else does, and if such means,
and the rights of exclusive control regarding them,
were not defined in objective, physical terms. For if
no one had the right to control anything at all except
his own body, then we would all cease to exist and
the problem of justifying normsas well as all other
human problemssimply would not exist. Thus, by
virtue of the fact of being alive then, property rights
to other things must be presupposed to be valid, too.
No one who is alive could argue otherwise.19

FAITH & ECONOMICS

This is a non sequitur. It does not follow that because I

must use certain substances outside my body, that I must
therefore appropriate them as my own property. Not only is
it possible to not own our own bodies, it is possible to use
things that we do not owneven things essential to our
survival. Again, if we can imagine the existence of an entity
or class of entities that owns a person or group of persons,
we can easily imagine that that entity also owns all substances necessary for that persons survival. For some
reason, that entity may permit the use of the human body and
substances surrounding that body. Of course, this is the
Christian view. The Bible makes very clear that God owns
the world, and all that is in it.20 Our bodies, and all we
possess, may be thought of as being provisionally lent to us
for our temporary use, enjoyment, and service of God.
God is in fact the only being to enjoy true self-ownership
and the authority to homestead the work of his hands.
Ironically, Rothbards own arguments for homesteading parallel Scriptures contention for Gods sovereignty
over all his creation:
Surely, it is a rare person who, with the case put thus,
would say that the sculptor does not have the property right in his own product. For if every man has
the right to own his own body, and if he must grapple
with the material objects of the world in order to
survive, then the sculptor has the right to own his
own product which he has made, by his energy and
effort, a veritable extension of his own personality.
He has placed the stamp of his person upon the raw
material, by mixing his labor with the clay.21
When God made Adam and Eve in his image, he
acquired property rights in all mankind. As Rothbard himself says, By what right do they appropriate to themselves
the product of the creators mind and energy?22 As Isaiah
said, Surely you have things turned around! Shall the
potter be esteemed as the clay; For shall the thing made say
of him who made it, He did not make me? Or shall the
thing formed say of him who formed it, He has no understanding?23
The implications of Gods ownership of and sovereignty
over his creation are found throughout the Bible. R.J.
Rushdoony explains the outworkings of the Christian view:
The implications of this are spelled out in the
law. Sovereignty means taxing power: hence the
tithe. Sovereignty means absolute jurisdiction: thus
man can use the earth and his own being only subject
to Gods law. Sovereignty means property rights:
the Bible thus affirms the absolute ownership of the
earth by God, and its possession as a steward by man
under God. The private possession of property is

Gods purpose, but it is at all times subject to Gods

law and taxation.24
The beginning of a Biblical doctrine of property
is to see Gods absolute property rights over us, and
over our income, vocation, family, and total life.
What belongs to God cannot be surrendered to
another. Our sin begins with a claim that we are our
own property, and it ends with our enslavement by
a tyrant state.25
The contrast here between Rushdoony and libertarian
thinkers is striking. Rushdoony views the claim to selfownership as the initial step toward statism, while Hoppe
believes that self-ownership is a guard against statism. The
different views stem from different faith-based assumptions about human nature. Rushdoony believes that the man
who claims self-ownership will see himself as free to
surrender his life and property to the state, and because of
his fallen condition, he will tend to do so. Only the acknowledgment of Gods ultimate ownership provides a rationale
for limiting the power of the state. Hoppe must assume that
man has the moral fortitude to resist an unjust transfer of
individual rights to the stateself-enslavement. Why is the
assertion of biblical truth any less valid than Hoppes
assertion of ideas without any appeal to revelation?
Applications to Animal Rights, Abortion and
Childrens Rights
To see another problem with the non sequitur in the
homesteading axiom, consider the life of a newborn baby.
Newborns cannot appropriate to themselves any substance
that is not given to them.26 Though we typically do not
declare that a newborn is owned by his parents,27 it is clear
that the newborn depends for his very life upon substances
owned by his parents. For their own reasons, parents permit
and even encourage the use of these substances by the child.
Christians believe that God acts in a similar way with his
creation.
It is unnecessary for a property owner to continually
reassert rights to the property to retain rights to the property.
The owners quiescence does not deprive him of the right to
his property. If a person is owned by another entity, he may
never even know of the entitys existence.28 Yet we see in
the first chapter of Romans that God has not been silent
that the case for Gods property right over all humanity is
obvious in natureand any denial of that property right is
rebellion against the Creator.29 Atheists certainly do not
admit to Gods existence, much less Biblical revelation or
his ownership of the world. Yet their belief has no impact on
the fact of Gods existence and sovereignty over his creation.
Hoppe says that to argue presupposes private property
rights. He does not show that failure to argue implies a lack

The Origin of Property Rights

of property rights. It is not clear, then, under Hoppes

argumentation ethic, why animals do not have property
rights in their own bodies. Hoppe vociferously contests the
validity of this criticism,30 but his objections appear to be
raw assertions: Animals are not moral agents, because they
are incapable of argumentation; and my theory of justice
explicitly denies its applicability to animals and, in fact,
implies that they have no rights! Animals may not argue,
but they do contest territory. Why isnt this the same thing?
Even so, the Christian argues for or against certain animal
rights based on biblical truth, not the presence or absence of
the ability to argue.31 It would also appear that the killing of
human fetuses, infants, the senile, mentally retarded, and
comatose would be acceptable under Hoppes ethical system, because they cannot argue.
Rothbard (1998) contends that mans rights are grounded
in the nature of man; they are natural rights. Because man
is uniquely distinguished from all other creatures by his
capacity for rational thought, the rights-ethic for mankind
is precisely that: for all men, regardless of race, creed, color
or sex, but for the species man alone. . . . Natural law is
necessarily species-bound.32 The Christian might well
agree, but the Christian would base that belief on the fact
that biblical law explicitly recognizes the unique place of
mankind in the world. Rothbard, in contrast, bases his
argument on the sympathies of the reader. Statements
beginning with It would surely be absurd to say . . .33 beg
the question. Rothbard hopes to prove that the concept of
a species ethic is part of the nature of the world . . . by
contemplating the activities of other species in nature. The
proof lies in the contention that the wolf, in devouring
other species, is simply following the natural law of his
own survival. In other words, ethics are species-specific
because other species act as though ethics are speciesspecific. Apparently, the commonality of the practice implies its moral rightnessa natural right. The principle
here carries consequences at which Rothbard would likely
have balked. Contemplating the activities of other species in
nature might lead us to infer a natural right to infanticide.
Lions, alligators, guppies, and other species often devour
their youngmay we then infer a natural right to do the
same?
A human fetus within the body of its mother cannot
argue, and what it consumes is provided entirely by the
mother, perhaps without her consent. This leads many
libertarians to defend the legality of abortion at any time
prior to birth.34 In The Ethics of Liberty, Rothbard lays out
clearly the libertarian position on abortion:35
The proper groundwork for analysis of abortion
is in every mans absolute right of self-ownership.
This implies immediately that every woman has the
absolute right to her own body, that she has absolute

dominion over her body and everything within it.

This includes the fetus. Most fetuses are in the
mothers womb because the mother consents to this
situation, but the fetus is there by the mothers
freely-granted consent. But should the mother decide that she does not want the fetus there any longer,
then the fetus becomes a parasitic invader of her
person, and the mother has the perfect right to expel
this invader from her domain. Abortion should be
looked upon, not as murder of a living person, but
as the expulsion of an unwanted invader from the
mothers body. Any laws restricting or prohibiting
abortion are therefore invasions of the rights of
mothers.36
Rothbard notes that he is not trying to establish the morality of abortion (which may or may not be moral on other
grounds), but its legality, i.e., the absolute right of the
mother to have an abortion. He is concerned, he writes,
with peoples rights to do or not do various things, not
whether they should or should not exercise such rights. It
is certainly true that not all sins should be crimes. Yet the
Bible provides not only definitions of sin, but definitions of
crime (e.g., Exodus 21, 22, see also cf. Matthew 5:1719).
What is rightfully legal and illegal is determined by God,
not by rationalistic appeals to mans self-asserted right over
his own body and right to that which he homesteads.37
Whether or not we deem it proper that an unborn child
should be legally protected from harm,38 or that a woman
should be required by law to care for her child before and
after birth, these are Gods requirements.
Failing to appeal to Gods law concerning children
forces Rothbard into a difficult situation. After defending
the ownership of children by their parents, Rothbard recognizes that certain limitations would have to be placed on that
ownership.
But surely the mother or parents may not receive the ownership of the child in absolute fee
simple, because that would imply the bizarre state of
affairs that a fifty-year old adult would be subject to
the absolute and unquestioned jurisdiction of his
seventy-year-old parent. So the parental property
right must be limited in time. But it also must be
limited in kind, for it surely would be grotesque for
a libertarian who believes in the right of self-ownership to advocate the right of a parent to murder or
torture his or her children.
We must therefore state that, even from birth,
the parental ownership is not absolute but of a
trustee or guardianship kind. In short, every baby,
as soon as it is born and is therefore no longer
contained within his mothers body, possesses the
right of self-ownership by virtue of being a separate
entity and a potential adult. It must therefore be
illegal and a violation of the childs rights for a

FAITH & ECONOMICS

ARTICLE
parent to aggress against his person by mutilating,
torturing, murdering him, etc.39
At two points here Rothbard finds that his reasoning
leads to conclusions he finds objectionable. For a resolution
he relies partially on the readers sympathies. First, the
ownership of an older adult child by an aging parent is
bizarre, Rothbard claims, so the reader is expected to
agree to the limitation of ownership in time. If an appeal to
strangeness were sufficient to dismiss a position, then many
libertarian positions could be rejected out of hand.40 Why
must we agree with Rothbards notion of bizarreness?
Rothbards concept of parents as trustees or guardians
is entirely appropriate, but is defensible only from a
Christian perspective.
Second, the murder or torture of children by the parents is
called grotesque. It is relieving that Rothbard agrees with
Christians and others on this point, but again, our mutual
agreement does not suffice as an argument against child
abuse.41 To call something bizarre, grotesque, or strange
implies a standard. What is Rothbards standard?
Rothbards concept of parents as trustees or guardians is
entirely appropriate, but is defensible only from a Christian
perspective. Rothbards defense is arbitrary. A child ex
utero has the right of self-ownership, he writes, because the
child is a separate entity (no longer requiring the specific
services of the mother) and a potential adult. A child has the
right not to be harmed,42 but does not possess the right to any
property or services of another. Therefore parents may
legally allow a healthy child to starve to death, in Rothbards
system (though he probably would not have attached moral
legitimacy to such an action).43 Again, why we must accept
this assertion of rights is unclear.
Yet again, this position results from a refusal to acknowledge Gods ultimate ownership of all humanity. God
as creator sets the rules by which all men must live, and
among these is the requirement that parents provide for their
children.44 To the Christian who understands Gods ownership of all things, we are only trustees of all we possess.
One less-than-adequate argument made against
Rothbards position asserts that the parents, because they
have created their children, have an obligation to support
and protect their children. Depending heavily on the libertarian scholar Williamson Evers, Rothbard points out the
weaknesses of the creation argument: How long is this
obligation to last? To what extent must the parents or
guardians drain their personal resources in the support of a
needy child?
The parents are still the creators of the child, why
arent they obliged to support the child forever?
It is true that the child is no longer helpless; but

helplessness . . . is not in and of itself a cause of

binding obligation. If the condition of being the
creator of another is the source of the obligation, and
this condition persists, why doesnt the obligation?45
The most powerful argument against the creation thesis
may simply be to attack the blatant assumption lying at its
root: Why should creation imply any obligation toward the
created thing?
Rothbards criticism of the creation thesis is on target, as
far as it goes. God, as creator, has no obligation to support
any of his creation. However, he has done so, and he has
established rules governing the behavior of his created
beings. If Rothbard believed in the God of the Bible, he
would agree to this principle. Rothbard applies this principle in his discussion of the authority of parents over
children:
as long as the child lives at home, it must necessarily
come under the jurisdiction of its parents, since it is
living on property owned by those parents. Certainly
the parents have the right to set down rules for the
use of their home and property for all persons
(whether children or not) living in that home.46
Conclusion
According to Rothbard, Hoppe, and their followers, the
self-ownership and homesteading axioms form the foundation of all libertarian social thought. This paper has not
contended that all libertarian or Austrian thought is unsound. Austrians do have powerful criticisms of socialist
schemes, and there is much to appreciate in the vast body of
work that Rothbard, Hoppe, and many others have produced. What is needed now is a better, i.e., a more biblical
way of defending a social system based on private property
rights. At present, it seems that the foundation of libertarian
social thought rests upon unstable, sandy ground. All that
underlies libertarian property rights theory are assertions of
self-evident axioms.
Christians must begin to recognize, explicitly and
without apology, Gods ownership of creation. For the selfownership and homesteading axioms Christians should
substitute two axioms derived from the Bible: 1) God owns
the creation, and 2) God provides a system of ethics that
must govern our use of the creation. There is often substantial agreement between libertarian scholars and Christians
on the necessity and salutary consequences of private
property and a free market. However, Christians who import the natural rights approach into their own ethic of
property rights may be doing so at the cost of internal
consistency. Ultimately, Christians who wish to make consistent contributions to the ethics of property rights and
produce constructive contributions to economics must rely
on biblical truth. Such a revelation-based approach is

Timothy D. Terrell

ARTICLE
neither inferior to, nor less objective than, the natural rights
approach.
Christians will, of course, differ on the implications of
Gods property right in his creation, and on the derivation
and application of biblical ethical principles. It is beyond
the scope of this paper to delve deeply into those issues.
However, we can at least establish the necessity of private
property rights in any Christian economic system, by reference to the eighth and tenth commandments and other parts
of Scripture.47 The solutions to economic problems should
rest on biblically derived property rights. Once this is
recognized, some of the Austrian approaches to economics
can be quite useful. The Austrian emphasis on the deductive
method,48 entrepreneurship, subjective value, ordinality in
preference rankings, and time, the importance of wealth
effects, and certain other Austrian distinctives are valid and
contribute to a better understanding of economic problems.
In fact, we can find numerous situations in which the
libertarian/Austrian view and the Christian view will generate similar conclusions.49 The existing differences appear
in sharpest contrast where libertarians fail to acknowledge
Gods ultimate ownership and our provisional ownership of
our persons and possessions.

6
7
8
9

10

Endnotes
1 Of course, many Austrians view Austrian economics as
a body of analytical thought, not an ethical system, and
believe that there is no Austrian ethical position.
Austrians are deeply divided on their ethical views, and
in many cases it is difficult to see any ethical views in
their work. However, the prominent Austrian Murray
Rothbard and certain of his followers (notably HansHermann Hoppe) have espoused a particular ethical
view in their attempts to defend private property rights.
It is this view that is the focus of this paper.
2 See David Gordon (1993), pp. 2830.
3 Rothbard (1997a), p. 279.
4 Rothbard (1997a), p. 279.
5 Rothbard (1997b), p. 127. See also Rothbard (1997a),
pp. 279288. Note the similarity between Rothbards
statement and the position of John Locke:
[E]very man has a property in his own person.
This nobody has any right to but himself. The
labour of his body and the work of his hands, we
may say, are properly his. Whatsoever then he
removes out of the state that nature hath provided, and left it in, he hath mixed his labour
with, and joined to it something that is his own,
and thereby makes it his property. It being by him
removed from the common state nature placed it
in, it hath by this labour something annexed to it
that excludes the common right of other men. For

11
12

13

this labour being the unquestionable property of

the labourer, no man but he can have a right to
what that is once joined to . . . [John Locke, An
Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and
End of Civil Government, V. pp. 2728, in Laslett
(1960), pp. 305307; in Rothbard (1998), pp. 21,
22.]
See Terrell (1999), pp. 197202.
Hoppe (1993), p. 205.
See Kinsella (1996), p. 315.
Even so, many Austrians (e.g. the Kirznerians, the
Hayekians, and even some Rothbardians) do not agree
with Hoppes argument (see footnote 1, above), and not
all Austrians would consider themselves anarcho-capitalists. Mises himself clearly believed that civil government had legitimate functions. See, e.g., Mises (1995),
pp. 3740.
Hoppe (1995), p. 19. Rothbard [(1997a), pp. 64, 65]
seems to allow a greater role for observation: My view
is that the fundamental axiom [man acts] and subsidiary axioms are derived from the experience of reality
and are therefore in the broadest sense empirical. I
would agree with the Aristotelian realist view that its
doctrine is radically empirical, far more so than the postHumean empiricism which is dominant in modern philosophy. Yet Rothbard qualifies this by adding that
these axioms are so broadly based in common human
experience that once enunciated they become self-evident and hence do not meet the fashionable criterion of
falsifiability; they rest, particularly the action axiom,
on universal inner experience, as well on external experience, that is, the evidence is reflective rather than
purely physical; and they are therefore a priori to the
complex historical events to which modern empiricism
confines the concept of experience.
Hoppe (1995), pp. 18, 19.
Rothbard writes, if we are trying to set up an ethic for
man . . . , then to be a valid ethic the theory must hold true
for all men, whatever their location in time or place. This
is one of the notable attributes of natural lawits
applicability to all men, regardless of time or place
(Rothbard [1998], p. 42). This universality of ethical
norms is, according to Hoppe, the idea, as formulated
in the Golden Rule of ethics or in the Kantian Categorical Imperative, that only those norms can be justified
that can be formulated as general principles which
without exception are true for everyone (Hoppe [1993],
p. 182). This definitional statement cannot suffice for a
defense of the universalization test of ethical rules.
It might be contended here that man cannot voluntarily
enter into slavery. As Rothbard put it, . . . a man can
naturally expend his labor currently for someone elses
benefit, but he cannot transfer himself, even if he wished,
into another mans permanent capital good. For he

FAITH & ECONOMICS

ARTICLE

14

15

16

17
18
19
20

21
22
23
24
25

cannot rid himself of his own will, which may change in

future years and repudiate the current arrangement
(Rothbard [1998], pp. 40, 41). It might seem then that a
resolution would require either rejecting the idea that
man has an independent will, or giving up the thesis that
God is owner of all men. This is a false opposition,
however. God as Creator owns all men, whether or not
they will it to be so. The ownership is not voluntarily
entered into, neither are we slaves. We have a free will,
in that we all have the freedom to do what we please,
given our choices. Our choices are in turn determined by
our desires, which are naturally evil in Reformed thought.
St. Augustine essentially argued that we have the freedom to choose, but the ability to choose only what we
want.
Rothbard (1998), pp. 45, 46. The line of argument
Rothbard attempts to refute here has in fact been employed to defend human slavery. Before 1861, some
defended slavery in the U.S. by asserting that blacks
were subhumanthat they were not descended from
Adam, but were descended in Darwinian fashion from
apes. The prominent southern Presbyterian theologians
Robert Louis Dabney and James Henley Thornwell
argued for the unity of the races against this view.
Rothbard defines an axiom as a statement that cannot be
refuted without contradicting oneself in the refutation.
See also Rothbard (1998), pp. 32, 33. Yet this axiom
can be refuted, as this paper attempts to do in part.
Such a defense might run as follows: Because each
human was the first to make physical use of his own
body, each human has effectively homesteaded his own
body and is therefore entitled to property rights in it.
Rothbard (1998), p. 64.
Rothbard (1998), pp. 63, 64.
Hoppe (1993), pp. 205, 206.
Psalm 24:1, 2 states, The earth is the Lords and all its
fullness, The world and those who dwell therein. For He
has founded it upon the seas, And established it upon the
waters. See also Psalm 47:2, 78; Psalm 50:1012;
Jeremiah 27:5.
Rothbard (1997a), p. 282.
Rothbard (1997a), p. 283.
Isaiah 29:16. See also Isaiah 45:9, 10, 12.
Rushdoony (1982), p. 534.
Rushdoony (1982), p. 538. See also pp. 307310, and
pp. 690692, which says in part, Gods law-word is
binding upon man because man is Gods property . . . .
We are Gods property by virtue of creation, and, because of redemption, we are doubly His, bought with a
price. Hence we are not (our) own (I Cor. 6:1920).
We are the Lords, and His right to use us and to govern
us is total.

26 We will allow that the child can appropriate air to

himself, though in many cases children are born in such
a state that without outside intervention, even breathing
is impossible.
27 This, however, is the case Hoppe and Rothbard would
make. The parents cooperated in laboring to produce
the child, who did not exist before conception. If the
parents have property rights over their own bodies and
substances with which they mix their labor, it follows in
the libertarian system that the child is owned by the
parents. See also Rothbard (1998), p. 99112. The
Christian can counter with the argument that God, as
owner of all living things, retains property rights over
the offspring of his creation, and lays down parental
limitations and requirements. Parents may indeed own
their children, in a sense, but that ownership is temporary and conditional. See below, p. 13.
28 Certainly the unborn child is unaware of the existence of
his motheryet a Rothbardian would defend the ownership of the child by the mother.
29 Romans 1:1821.
30 Hoppe, (1993), pp. 205, 247.
31 See, e.g., Deut. 25:4, John 21:913.
32 Rothbard (1998), p. 155, 156.
33 Rothbard (1998), p. 156.
34 A possible exception would be when the mother is under
contract as a surrogate for another woman.
35 Some prominent libertarians do, of course, take exception with this position. Ron Paul is a notable example.
36 Rothbard (1998), p. 98.
37 See Rushdoony (1973, 1982, 1999).
38 See, e.g., Exodus 21:22, 23.
39 Rothbard (1998), p. 100.
40 Including, perhaps, Rothbards defense of markets in
children. Rothbard (1998), p. 103.
41 A similar case in which Rothbard borrows conclusions from Christian principles without acknowledging
their proper source (or providing a non-arbitrary alternative means of deriving the same conclusions) is found in
his chapter on punishment and proportionality in The
Ethics of Liberty (1998). Rothbard argues that the punishment should fit the crimethe criminal loses his
rights to the extent that he deprives another of his rights.
We might all deem this principle (the lex talionis) just,
but our mutual agreement does not make it so. See also
Exodus 21:2225. Incidentally, Rothbards favored principle of multiple restitution for theft also has precedent
in Hebraic lawe.g. Exodus 22:1, 4, 7, 9. See generally
North (1990). For another example, in Rothbards chapter Law, Property Rights, and Air Pollution in Logic of
Action One (1997b), Rothbard apparently borrows again.
Rothbard finds the presumption of the defendants

The Origin of Property Rights

ARTICLE

42
43

44
45
46
47
48

49

innocence in a tort case attractive (pp. 157, 158), without

clearly specifying the reasons. Deuteronomy 19:1520
shows that this presumption is indeed biblical.
Thus Rothbards implied opposition to corporal punishment by the parents. See Rothbard (1998), p. 105.
The source(s) of Rothbards moral pronouncements is
not clear. Is it divine revelation, human custom, or
Rothbards own preferences? If divine revelation is the
source, it is puzzling why Rothbard would accept divine
pronouncements of the immorality of abortion or infanticide but not divine pronouncements on the legitimacy
of the state to legally prohibit a subset of immoral
activity.
See, e.g., I Timothy 5:8.
Rothbard (1998), p. 102, citing Evers. See also Evers
(1978a, 1978b).
Rothbard (1998), p. 103.
See, e.g., Deuteronomy 19:14, Matthew 20:15, Acts 5:4.
See also Beisner (1988), pp. 154156.
When I was an undergraduate, the self-conscious epistemology of Austrian economics was one of the initial
attractions to me. How many economists in other schools
of thought can express the presuppositions of their
work? Though in my view the foundational assumptions
are flawed, at least Austrian methodology derives all
conclusions from stated fundamental propositions.
See, e.g., Wohlgenant (1998).

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10

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