Industrial Effectiveness. Ph.D. Thesis, Unpublished.

Ibadan: University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

Selamat, N., Samsu, N.Z. & Kamalu, N.S.M. (2013). The
Impact of Organizational Climate on Teachers' Job
Performance. Education Research Journal, 2 (1), 7182.
Wright, A. C. (2012). A Literature Review on the
Determinants of Teacher Performance. Retrieved
May 26, 2014, from www.econ.ucsb.edu/............

Vol. 1, No., 2 August, 2015

196

THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE MENTAL

HEALTH OF ADOLESCENTS IN MAKURDI PUBLIC
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
By
Obi Ekpeme Gabriel
2
Akpenna Demenongu Donald
1
Benue State School of Health Technology, Agasha
2
Catholic Caritas Foundation, Markurdi
1

Abstract
The study examined the effect of alcohol on the mental
health of adolescents in Makurdi public secondary schools.
It aimed at determining the commonly used alcohol among
adolescents in the public secondary schools, the factors
that influence their use, and the effect of its use on the
mental health. Three hypotheses were formulated for
testing. A total of 400 students were randomly selected
from five public secondary schools in Makurdi. The
research adopted the WHO questionnaire on alcohol use
designed in 2009. Descriptive statistics was used to
characterize the study population and the hypotheses
were tested using the simple t-test and independent t- test
performed with the SPSS software (version 17). Results
obtained showed that palm wine, 111(27.8%) had the
highest prevalence of intake amongst adolescents in
Makurdi, closely followed by wine Champagne
109(27.3%) and ordinary beer 75(18.8%). It also revealed
that alcohol has a significant effect on the mental health of
adolescents in Makurdi public secondary schools. [t (399)
= 154.77; P < .05]. The study also recorded a significant
gender difference in the effect of alcohol on the mental
health of adolescents in Makurdi public secondary schools.
[t (398) = -3.55; P < .05]. Much evidence indicates that
alcohol use or abuse is associated with students poor
performance, absenteeism from class and even theft in
and outside the school environment. It is therefore
recommended that the security service should actively
monitor the movement of students and Drug-free clubs

197 Contemporary Journal of Empirical Research

should be encouraged amongst the students in the

schools because peer-pressure is one of the reasons for
students' involvement in alcohol use and abuse.
Keywords: Effect, Alcohol, Mental Health, Adolescents,
Secondary Schools

Introduction
Alcoholic intake during adolescence and young
adulthood remains a prominent public health problem in
Nigeria like other parts of the world because of increased
psychological effects on mental health. Studies have
shown a high prevalence of substance use among young
people and much of this practice takes place in schools
(Eneh & Stanley, 2004). Drug and alcohol use during
adolescence is usually a social experience and a learned
behaviour (World Health Organization, 2011). One of the
important psychological phenomena observed among this
demographic group is experimentation (Graham, Turk, &
Verhulst, 1999) and this behaviour has been found to lead
to trying out of new experiences in drug and alcohol use,
sometimes with dire consequences to the adolescents.
Adolescents are a group of youngsters between childhood
and adulthood. (Eneh & Stanley, 2004).
Alcohol is described as 'gateway' drugs because
they are usually the first substances used before other
drugs are tried out as they are readily available.(World
Health Organization, 2010). Alcohol used by students can
lead to a sharp decline in their academic performance,
increase reports of truancy, deviant behaviours and
ultimately, expulsion from schools. It can also lead to
addiction (increased desire for drugs without which normal
life processes are disturbed).

Vol. 1, No., 2 August, 2015

198

Statement of the Problem

This study was precipitated by the dwindling
academic performance and delinquent behaviour of
secondary school students in Benue State, occasioned by
the high rate of alcohol intake among them. Looking at the
level of indiscipline in our secondary schools today, one can
easily find out that alcohol intake has an influence on the
mental health of these adolescents. Reports also show that
there has been a sporadic increase in the rate of alcohol
intake among students in secondary schools in Makurdi
metropolis and consequently, school indiscipline, such as;
lateness to school, skipping of classes, failure to complete
assignments, armed robbery, burglary, high rate of road
and fire accidents, juvenile delinquency and other societal
ills. These problems have aroused great attention to many
well meaning Nigerians including students; all making
efforts to study and analyze factors and problems
associated with alcohol intake.
Thus, it is against these background that this study
seeks to evaluate the effect of alcohol on the mental health
of adolescents in Makurdi public secondary schools.
Purpose of the Study
This research seeks to evaluate the effect of alcohol
on the mental health of adolescents in Makurdi public
secondary schools. The specific objectives of this study
are:
I. To ascertain the prevalence of commonly used
alcohol amongst adolescents in Makurdi public
secondary schools.
II. To evaluate the effects of alcohol on the mental
health of adolescents in Makurdi public secondary
schools.
199 Contemporary Journal of Empirical Research

III. To measure gender difference in the effect of alcohol

on the mental health of adolescents in Makurdi
public secondary schools.
Hypotheses
I. There would be a certain prevalence rate of
commonly used alcohol amongst adolescents in
Makurdi public secondary schools.
II. Alcohol use by Makurdi adolescents in public
secondary schools will result in a significant main
effect on their mental health.
III. There would be a significant gender difference in the
effect of alcohol on the mental health of adolescents
in Makurdi public secondary schools.
Significance of the Study
The relevance of this study is presumed on the following
stand point:
I. The results of the study should help in creating
awareness in the society on the general effects of
alcohol intake on mental health most especially the
secondary school students. It will make the
youth/adolescents to realize that excessive or even
small intake of alcohol has inhibitory effects on their
brain.
II. That this research would be a guide for the
Government, school authorities, Non Governmental
Organizations, Faith based organizations and
health care workers in knowing the extent to which
alcohol has influence on the mental health of
adolescents in Benue State and Nigeria at large,
hence, set out structures for prevention and
management.
Vol. 1, No., 2 August, 2015

200

III. The mass media will have more knowledge on the

commonly used alcoholic drinks by adolescents in
secondary school and its effect on mental health.
This will help them adopt a more sophisticated
approach in using the mass media to discourage
secondary school students from indiscriminate
alcohol intake.
IV. It will serve as a foundation for further research
extension and improvement on previous studies.
Scope of the Study
This study covered five council wards in Makurdi
metropolis. These wards include; Wadata, High level,
Wurukum, North bank and Kanshio. One public secondary
school was purposefully selected from each of the wards.
The public secondary schools include; Government
Secondary School, North bank, Government College, High
level, Community Secondary School, Wadata, Government
Model College, Wurukum, and Government Secondary
School, Kanshio. A total of 400 students participated in the
study.
Theoretical Review
The Modified Social Stress Model (MSSM) for
understanding drug use guides this study. The model was
developed by Rodes and Jason (1990) and modified by the
World Health Organization/Program on Substance Abuse
(WHO/PSA, 2011) to include the effects of drugs or
substances, the personal response of the individual to
drugs and additional environmental, social and cultural
variables. Research has shown that in order to prevent
substance abuse, two things must be taken into
consideration: factors that increase the risk of developing
201 Contemporary Journal of Empirical Research

the problem must be identified, and ways to reduce the

impact of these factors must be developed. This theory
maintains that risk factors are those factors that encourage
drug use. Factors that make people less likely to abuse
drugs are called protective factors. The key to health and
healthy families is increasing the protective factors while
decreasing the risk factors.
According to this model, if many risk factors are
present in a person's life, that person is more likely to begin,
intensify and continue the use of drugs or alcohol. The
model identifies risk factors as including: stress (which
could be due to the school or home environment, and
adolescent developmental changes); the normalization of
substance use which could be seen in terms of legality and
law enforcement; the availability and cost of drugs or
alcohol; and advertising, sponsorship and promotion
through media, as well as the cultural value attached to
various drugs. The more protective factors that are present,
the less likely a person will become involved with drugs.
Protective factors are identified as: attachments to people
such as family members and peers, and institutions such as
religion and school; physical and performance capabilities
that help people succeed in life; the availability of resources,
within the person or the environment, that help people meet
their emotional and physical needs; positive role models;
and anti-drug campaigns along with guidance and
counselling services.
According to this model, it is easier to understand the
drug/alcohol problem if risk and protective factors are
considered at the same time. Probability of alcohol intake is
determined by these factors and this framework is useful as
a way of planning interventions to prevent or treat problems
related to alcohol use. It is important to note that the factors
Vol. 1, No., 2 August, 2015

202

listed above are not exhaustive. The presence of risk and

protective factors is context dependent and the proportions
of their contribution depend on their intensity in given
situations. Thus, it was important to examine the effects
unique to adolescent students in Benue State, Nigeria.
The number of young people who drink alcohol and
the way they drink results in a wide range of negative
consequences affecting large numbers of underaged
drinkers and those around them. These consequences
include; risky sexual behaviour, physical and sexual
assaults, potential effects on the developing brain,
problems in school, at work, and with the legal system;
various types of injury, car crashes, homicide and suicide,
and death from alcohol poisoning. Research shows those
adolescents' expectations about alcohol usethat is, what
they expect to experience when drinkinginfluence their
drinking. An adolescent who views alcohol more positively
are more likely to drink than those who view alcohol
negatively (Greenfield, 2009). It also worth noting that
expectations change as children mature. Between the
ages of 9 and 13, children's expectations about alcohol shift
from primarily negative to primarily positive (Allen, Anglin &
Giesbrecht, 1998). Both drinking and binge drinking ramp
up dramatically during the teen years and into early
adulthood (Dierker, Pescosolido, & Cabassa, 2012). By
age 15, approximately 50 percent of boys and girls have
had a whole drink of alcohol; by age 21, approximately 90
percent have done so. Among college students, about 80
percent drink alcohol, about 40 percent binge drink, and
about 20 percent binge drink three or more times within a 2week period (Dierker et al., 2012). In addition, early
initiation of drinking is associated with alcohol dependence
both during adolescence and later in life.
203 Contemporary Journal of Empirical Research

The sale and consumption of alcohol has caused a

lot of problems in Nigerian society and in international
communities. Drug use by students has hampered
education and management in Nigerian secondary schools.
In Nigeria, recent statistics suggest that one in every three
secondary school students consumes alcohol (Stephen,
2012). Alcohol is a substance that man has learned to
ingest in order to get special bodily sensation many
centuries ago and is deeply embedded in diverse cultures
of the world. It is used in almost all parts of the world yet
many people are not even aware that it is a drug. According
to Adelekan (2000), many Nigerians do not regard alcohol
as a very potent drug due to the fact that it is readily
available and its use is socially accepted by the society. In
some societies other than Nigeria today, drinking behaviour
is considered important for the whole social order and so
drinking is defined and limited in accordance with
fundamental motives of the culture. In Nigeria, alcohol has
contributed immensely to various road accidents and
crimes. Adelekan (1989) also stated that many years ago,
alcohol used to be the preserve of adult males, but recent
studies show that alcohol is now abused by the young ones
and also the females. Alcohol is in the composition of many
beverages and varies greatly in their nature and strength.
Some have from 3-20% while some contain up to 50%
alcohol.
Researches show that a variety of social, cultural,
and biological factors influence an adolescent's decision to
drink, and that drinking is linked not only to individual risk
factors but also to adolescent development. Recognizing
that adolescents operate within many different social
systems, all of which can influence their drinking behaviour,
environmental factors must also be considered.
Understanding all these factors, including the processes of
Vol. 1, No., 2 August, 2015
204

adolescent development, is vital to creating effective

interventions and identifying young people who may be
especially vulnerable to developing problems with alcohol.
(Laslett, 2010).
Mental disorders, including depression and anxiety,
also are correlated with adolescent alcohol use. Mental
disorders and underage alcohol use can be
interdependent: adolescents may use alcohol to cope with
depression and anxiety, and alcohol consumption may
raise levels of depression and anxiety. It is also important to
recognize that children of alcoholics are at increased risk
for developing problems with alcohol. These individuals are
between 4 and 10 times more likely to become alcoholics
than those with no family history of alcoholism (Laslett,
2010).
When people have alcohol in their blood, their mood
changes, and their behaviour then also changes. This
change depends on how much they drink and how quickly
they drink it. Alcohol depresses the central nervous system,
and this can make people less inhibited in their behaviour. It
can also help 'numb' their emotions, so they can avoid
difficult issues in their lives. Alcohol can also reveal or
magnify their underlying feelings. This is one of the reasons
that many people become angry or aggressive when
drinking. If their underlying feelings are of anxiety, anger or
unhappiness, then alcohol can magnify these. (Swenden,
Fisher, Lucas, Dulcan & Schwab-stone, 2012).
Gender was significantly correlated with alcohol use,
with males more likely to use alcohol than females. This
gender difference is in keeping with findings from other
studies conducted in the Limpopo region (Peltzer & Cherian,
2000) Cape Town, Ghana, Nigeria and Zimbabwe. These
low prevalence rates for young females may be due to the
205 Contemporary Journal of Empirical Research

cultural context of the study site which is entirely inhabited

by Black African persons for whom traditionally alcohol use
by adolescents in general and females in particular is
culturally prohibited. According to traditional African values,
it would be unmannered, uncultured, and a sign of parental
irresponsibility for a typical Black African child to use
alcohol or other drugs. (Maher & Daly, 2000)
Research Design
The study made use of a cross-sectional survey
design to study the effect of alcohol on adolescent's mental
health based on class level, Gender and school system.
Participants
A total number of 400 secondary school adolescents
in Makurdi metropolis were used to determine the outcome
of the study. The age range was between 11-15 years,
198(49.0%), 16-20 years 202(51.0%). In terms of
Adolescent sex, 261(65.3%) were males and 139(34.8%)
were females. Class distribution of respondents indicate
42(11.0%) were in JS 1, 53(13.0%) were in JS 2,
225(56.0%) were in SS 1 and 80(20.0%) were in SS 2. JS 3
and SS 3 were not in the schools at the time of the research.
Sample and Sampling Technique
In order to obtain participants for the study, simple
random sampling, stratified and purposive sampling
techniques were used to select 400 respondents (students)
who reported having tasted alcohol at any point in their lives.
A stratified random sampling was first used to divide
the entire Makurdi Metropolis into Strata (zones) as Wadata,
High level, Wurukum, North bank and Kanshio. Purposive
sampling was used to select five secondary schools, one
Vol. 1, No., 2 August, 2015

206

from each zone. Students across the classes; JS 1, JS 2,

SS 1 and SS 2 were randomly selected. This was done in
each of the schools to get a representative of the entire
population.
Instrumentation
The instrument adopted in this research was a
questionnaire designed by the WHO in 2009 on the use of
alcohol and its effect on mental health. The instrument was
a collaborative process of international partners including
UNAIDS, UNICEF, and the World Bank. The questionnaire
is a 20 item statement which measures effect of alcohol
on mental health on a 3-point scale ranging from 1-yes
(often), 2-No, 3-Sometimes. The scale has a cronbach
alpha coefficient of 0.71, and has a reliability coefficient of
0.74. It was therefore considered adequate for use in this
study.
Method of Data Collection
The researcher obtained permission from the school
authorities of the participated secondary schools within
Makurdi metropolis and administered the questionnaires to
students in their class room with the assistance of the
teachers.
Method of Data Analysis
Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0 Frequency table was
generated as well as simple t-test and independent t- test
was used to check the level of statistical significance.
Result
The results were discussed based on formulated
hypotheses. Frequency/percentages were used to
207 Contemporary Journal of Empirical Research

determine the most used alcohol amongst the adolescents,

simple t-test was used to test the effect of alcohol on mental
health and independent t- test was used to measure the
gender difference on the effect of alcohol on mental health.
The results are presented in tables below.
Hypothesis 1: There will be a certain prevalence rate of
alcohol use amongst adolescents in Makurdi public
secondary schools.
Table 1: Frequency and percentage showing prevalence of
alcohol use amongst adolescents in Makurdi public
secondary schools
Variable

Frequency

Percent

Ordinary Beer
Low alcohol beer
Wine Champagne
Ogogoro
Burukutu
Pito
Palm wine
Spirit
Total

75
38
109
11
20
18
111
18
400

18.8
9.5
27.3
2.8
5.0
4.5
27.8
4.5
100

The result in table 1, shows that palm wine, 111(27.8%) had

the highest prevalence and closely followed by wine
Champagne 109(27.3%) and ordinary beer 75(18.8%).
Hypothesis 2: Alcohol intake by adolescents in Makurdi
public secondary schools will result in a significant main
effect on their mental health.
Table 2: Summary of simple t-test analysis showing that
Vol. 1, No., 2 August, 2015

208

alcohol intake has a significant effect on the mental health

of adolescents in Makurdi public secondary schools
Variable

Effect on Mental Health

Mean

400 39.85

SD

DF

5.038 399 154.77 >.05

The result in table 2, shows that alcohol intake has a

significant effect on the mental health of adolescents in
Makurdi public secondary schools [t (399) = 154.77; P <
.05]. Hypothesis two is hereby confirmed.
Hypothesis 3: There will be a significant gender difference
in the effect of alcohol on the mental health of adolescents
in Makurdi public secondary schools.
Table 3: Summary of independent t-test analysis showing
gender difference on the effect of alcohol on the mental
health of adolescents in Makurdi public secondary schools.
Variable

Mean

SD

Male

261

38.19

5.19

Female

139

40.04

4.53

DF

398

-3.55

< .05

The result in table 3 shows that there is a significant gender

difference in the effect of alcohol on the mental health of
adolescents in Makurdi public secondary schools. [t (398) =
-3.55; P < .05], with the male (M = 38.19, SD = 5.19) having
higher effect on mental health than the female (M = 40.04,
SD = 4.53). The hypothesis is hereby confirmed.
209

Contemporary Journal of Empirical Research

Discussion of the Findings

The results of the study are discussed in line with the
hypotheses. Hypothesis one revealed a certain prevalence
rate of alcohol use amongst adolescent in Makurdi public
secondary schools. Palm wine, 111(27.8%) had the highest
prevalence and closely followed by wine Champagne
109(27.3%) and ordinary beer 75(18.8%). Others include;
low alcohol beer 38(9.8%), ogogoro 11(2.8%), burukutu
20(5.0%), pito 18(4.5%), spirit 18(4.5%). This means that
adolescents in Makurdi public secondary schools consume
more of palm wine as compared to other alcoholic drinks.
This could be due to its local production which made it
readily available at affordable rates and its soft taste. Palm
wine is closely followed by wine Champagne and ordinary
beer. This result tally with finding of Eniojukan and Chichi
(2014), where the most preferred alcoholic drink by
adolescent in Benue State is beer (79.3%) followed by wine
(13.3%) and least favoured is the local spirit Ogogoro
(7.5%). However, a study among south western Nigerian
students reported that the most commonly used alcoholic
beverage was palm wine (60.1% of users), followed by beer
(20.8%), locally fermented wine and locally distilled gin
(14.7%). (Fatoye & Morakinyo, 2002).
Other studies by Abiodun et al., (1994) show that
underage drinking is a significant but often overlooked
problem in Nigeria. Young people between the ages of 12
and 20 are more likely to use alcohol than use tobacco or
illicit drugs. Although adolescents tend to drink less
frequently than adults, they drink considerably more per
occasion. Their research recorded higher prevalence for
ordinary beer, wine Champagne and palm wine.
The second hypothesis was tested and found that
there is a significant effect of alcohol on the mental health of
Vol. 1, No., 2 August, 2015

210

adolescents in Makurdi public secondary school [t (399) =

154.77; P < .05]. Evidence shows that people who
consume high amounts of alcohol are vulnerable to higher
levels of mental ill health and it can be a contributory factor
in some mental illnesses, such as depression. (Swenden et
al., 2012) Although adolescence in general brings
increased risk for alcohol use, certain factors put some
individuals at particular risk for abusing alcohol. These
include high levels of impulsiveness, novelty seeking, and
aggression; conduct or behaviour problems; and low harm
avoidance, or a tendency not to consider the negative
consequences of one's actions (Greenfield, 2009).
A study by Swenden et al. (2012) shows that alcohol
depresses the central nervous system of adolescents and
this can make people less inhibited in their behaviour. It can
also help 'numb' their emotions, so they can avoid difficult
issues in their lives. Alcohol can also reveal or magnify their
underlying feelings. This is one of the reasons that many
people become angry or aggressive when drinking. If their
underlying feelings are of anxiety, anger or unhappiness,
then alcohol can magnify those.
Hypothesis three confirmed a significant gender
difference in the effect of alcohol on the mental health of
adolescents in Makurdi public secondary schools. [t (398) =
-3.55; P < .05], with the males (M = 38.19, SD = 5.19)
having higher effect of alcohol on mental health than the
females (M = 40.04, SD = 4.53). A study carried out by
Peltzer and Cherian (2000) in Cape Town, Ghana, Nigeria
and Zimbabwe showed specifically that gender was
significantly correlated with alcohol use, with males more
likely to use alcohol than females. This gender difference is
in keeping with findings from other studies conducted in the
Limpopo region. These low prevalence rates for young
211

Contemporary Journal of Empirical Research

females may be due to the cultural context of the study site

which is entirely inhabited by Black African persons for
whom traditionally alcohol use and cigarette smoking by
adolescents in general and females in particular is
culturally prohibited. According to traditional African values,
it would be unmannered, uncultured, and a sign of parental
irresponsibility for a typical Black African child to use
alcohol or other drugs. (Maher & Daly, 2000)
Conclusion
This study has shown that alcohol has a significant
effect on the mental health of adolescents in public
secondary schools in Makurdi. Palm wine, wine
Champagne and ordinary beer were the highly consumed
alcohol amongst the students with the research recording a
significant gender difference on the effect of alcohol on the
mental health of this group of adolescents.
Recommendations
Much evidence indicates that alcohol use or abuse
is associated with student poor performance, absenteeism
from class and even theft in and outside the school
environment. It is therefore recommended that the school
authority should intensify security services to actively
monitor the movement of students. Drug-free clubs should
be encouraged amongst the students in the schools
because peer-pressure is one of the reasons for students'
involvement in alcohol use and abuse.
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