TALAT Lecture 3403

Designing of Forgings
17 pages, 18 figures
Basic Level
prepared by K. Siegert, D. Ringhand and R. Neher, Institut fr Umformtechnik,
Universitt Stuttgart

Objectives:
to gain an understanding of the interaction between part design, tool design and
forging process parameters in order to achieve optimum quality forged products

Prerequisites:
general understanding of metallurgy and deformation processes

Date of Issue: 1994

EAA - Euro p ean Aluminium Asso ciatio n

3403

Designing of Forgings

Table of Contents
3403 Designing of Forgings ..................................................................... 2
3403.01 Examples of Aluminium Forgings ............................................ 3
3403.02 Classification of Forms for Die Forgings .................................. 4
3403.03 Tolerances for Aluminium Forgings.......................................... 6
3403.04 Design Rules ............................................................................. 8
3403.05 Dimensional Precision of Die Forgings .................................. 10
3403.06 Designing for Material Flow and Grain Structure ................. 13
3403.07 Literature.................................................................................. 16
3403.08 List of Figures.......................................................................... 17

TALAT 3403

3403.01 Examples of Aluminium Forgings

Aluminium Forgings

Source: Aluteam
alu

Examples of Aluminium Forgings

3403.01.01

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Aluminium forgings were first used about 60 years ago for the aerospace industry. Since
then, there has been a rapid increase of their use in other fields of application.
Aluminium forgings are used predominantly in the transport industry, where weight
savings lead to savings in fuel consumption.
Aluminium forgings provide the following advantages:
high strength and low weight
good corrosion resistance (for most aluminium alloys)
the fibre (grain) structure can be arranged to correspond to the main loading
direction leading to high strength and fatigue properties
The diagram illustrates some typical forgings, e.g.
foot pedal for a helicopter
cuppling flange with undercut
radial compressor rotor

TALAT 3403

3403.02

Classification of Forms for Die Forgings

Form classifications according to Spies (Figure 3403.02.01)

Classification of Forms for Die Forgings

compact form
b
h

102
with
one-sided
extending
elements

101
without
extending
elements

Form class 1

Subgroup

103
with circumferential
extending
elements

104
with one-sided
and circumferential extending elements

l b h

spherical &
cubic parts

Form class 2

Subgroup

disk form

h
l

lb>h
Parts with round,
square & similar
contours.
Cross parts with
short arms,
compressed
heads on long
forms (flange,
valve disk etc.)

Form class 3

without
extension
elements

21
disk form
with onesided extension

211

22
disk form
with doublesided extension element

Subgroup

without
extension
elements

h
b

l>b h
Parts with
elongated axis.
Length groups:
1 short part
l < 3b
2 half-length parts
l = 3 ... 8b
3 long parts
l = 8 ... 16b
4 very long parts
l > 16b
(Digits of long
groups added
as suffix after
slash, e.g. 334/4)

with hub
and hole

with edge
(ring)

with edge
and hub

Form group

Long form

with hub

212

213

214

215

222

223

224

225

with extension elements

symmetrical
to axis of
main form
element

with open
or closed
forks

with extension elements

unsymmetrical to axis of
main form
element

2 or more
different
extension
elements of
similar size

Form group
31
Main form
element
with straight
long axis

311

312

313

314

315

32
long axis
of main
form element
curved in
one plane

321

322

323

324

325

33
long axis
of main form
elements
curved in
more than
one plane

331

332

333

334

335

Source: K. Spies
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Form Classification

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

3403.02.01

Forgings are classified according to their geometry in different groups. The Spies form
classification serves as a help for the layout of die forging operations.
TALAT 3403

Starting backwards from the final form required, this form classification can be used to
ascertain the starting form and the intermediate form.

Classifications of Forms for Die Forging

Form class 1 and 2: Forgings with few extension members
Forged directly from rod sections
Form class 3:

Forging without intermediate forms if the

preformed stock matches the final form.

The number of intermediate forms depends on:

- the formability of the material
- the complexity of the workpiece geometry
- the number of forgings
Source: K. Spies
alu

Form Classification According to Spies

3403.02.02

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Merits of the classification system by Spies:

A clearly arranged representation using 3 classes of forms. The sub-groups are
determined by the number, type and geometry of the secondary form elements
(see Figure 3403.02.02).
Shortcomings:
All combinations cannot be considered.
No difference is made between axially symmetrical and non-symmetrical
workpieces.
For an alternative classification of forms see Figure 3403.02.03. This modular form
arrangement according to Schmieder is planned for use in data base systems for
computer assisted planning of intermediate forms with CAD interface.
The workpiece is described using a 6-figure alpha numerical code. The features of this
classification are:
Classification in 3 independent regions:
rotation parts, basic form parts, combined parts
Form elements are abstracted, i.e. the workpiece is broken down into different
basic forms.
Further characteristics for the classification are the form and direction of the
main axis of the individual components.

TALAT 3403

Classifications of Forms for Die Forgings (Scheme)

Geometry of
forging
company specification
special part?

yes

company spec.
classification

no
yes

rotational
symmetry
no
dominant
basic form?

no

yes
Modul 2

Modul 1
Rotat. symmetry
Form class: A-D

Basic form parts

Form class:E-F

Modul 3
Combined parts
Form class: K-Z

Classification code

Source: IFU Stuttgart

alu

Form Classification according to Schmieder

3403.02.03

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

3403.03

Tolerances for Aluminium Forgings

Figure 3403.03.01 shows the tolerance allowances in a forging.

Form Tolerances for Aluminium Forgings

When designing forgings deviations of form have to be allowed for between the as-forged form
and ready-to-use form.These deviations are a result of:
- fabrication tolerances of the dies
- wear of the dies
- variations in operating conditions (e. g. workpiece / die temperature, lubrication)
- mismatch of the tool
- machining allowance
Machining allowance for die forgings (exaggerated)
F
A: surface of finished part
B: machining allowance
G
C: tapers (draft angels)
Length or width
D: tolerances for length/width
E: mismatch tolerance
F: thickness tolerance
G: flatness tolerance
Source: H. Meyer-Nolkemper

A
B
C
D
E
G

Machining tolerances are allowed for

- fabrication of machine-finished surfaces
- compensation of forging imperfections
Tolerances for forgings are specified in relevant European or national standards:
for aluminium forgings, DIN EN 586
for precision forgings, narrower tolerances are valid than specified in DIN EN 586
alu

Form Tolerances for Aluminium Forgings

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

TALAT 3403

3403.03.01

The difference between the final form and the forged form is a result of:
Fabrication defects of die (die tolerances),
wear of die,
deviations in the production parameters (temperature),
mismatch of upper and lower die and
machining allowances.
After the forming process, the allowances are machined off. Machining may cut into the
fibre structure.
Figure 3403.03.02 illustrates the dimensions which determine the geometric tolerances
for aluminium forgings. The geometric tolerances in aluminium forgings are divided
into form-dependent and form-independent dimensions (according to DIN 1749, EN 586
part 3 (draft).
Form-dependent dimensions depend only on the geometry of the die cavities. These vary
with the nominal size.
Form-independent dimensions depend additionally on the closure and flash extension of
the die. They depend on the nominal size and content of the projected cross-sectional
area.

Tolerances for aluminium forgings (DIN 1749)

Limiting deviations for
form-dependent dimensions
within cavity

Dimensions independent of
forms and across parting line

Impact direction

Impact direction

upper die
tmax

t1

t3

t2

lower die

n
n
Source: DIN 1749
alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Form-dependent and Form-independent Tolerances

3403.03.02

Tolerances for form-independent dimensions are, as a rule, larger than for formdependent dimensions.

TALAT 3403

3403.04

Design Rules

Figure 3403.04.01 summarizes design rules for radii in aluminium forgings according
to DIN 1749 and EN 586 part 3 (draft).
Radii in the die cavities influence:
grain flow
forging load
die wear
strength properties offorged part
The size of the radius depends on the form elements, e.g., fins or side walls and on the
type of forging process. The table shows guide values according to DIN 1749 for
dimensioning the radii:
r2: radius of die cavity edge
r3: fillet radius for fins
r4: fillet radius for side walls

Roundings:
Fillet and other radii should be designed as large as possible
small radii
increased die wear
danger of folds
large radii
increased workpiece mass
favourable for material flow
Choose uniform radii as much as possible
Minimum radius depends on material
C

Section A-B

Section C-D

r4

r3

r3

r2

Radii at transitions
(fillet radii etc.):

B D
r3

Height h
in mm

up to 4

r2
r3
r4

1.6
2.5
4

greater than greater than greater than greater than greater than greater than
4 up to 10 10 up to 25 25 up to 40 40 up to 63 63 up to 100
100

1.6
4
6

2.5
6
10

4
10
16

6
16
25

10
20
32

16
25
40

Source: DIN 1749/ EN586 (draft)

alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Design Rules - Radii

3403.04.01

Figure 3405.04.02 gives recommendations for the bottom thickness of forged

aluminium parts according to DIN 1749 or EN 586 part 3 (draft). The thickness of the
bottom influences the forging load. For a low bottom thickness, a number of forming
steps could, in some cases, be necessary. The thickness of the base depends on the
projected surface of the workpiece in the pressing direction and the forming properties
of the material.

TALAT 3403

Pressing (impact) direction

small bottom thickness

high forging load

multiple forming steps

lage bottom thickness

more material required

s1

Bottom thicknesses:
Bottom thickness depends on the projected area in
the direction of forging (circle or circumscribing rectangle)

Projected area A
Area A
in mm

s1 in
mm

greater than
greater than
greater than
greater than
greater than
up to 2500 2500 up to 5000 5000 up to 10000 10000 up to 20000 20000 up to 40000 40000 up to 80000

a)

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

6.5

b)

3.5

4.5

8.5

11

a):
b):

easy to forge materials

difficult to forge materials

Source: DIN 1749/EN 586 (draft)

alu

Design Rules - Bottom Thickness

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

3403.04.02

Figure 3403.04.03 shows practical recommendations for the bottom thickness of mainly
large forged parts. The geometry of the forging - long, thin parts or parts with square
cross-section - also influences the base thickness. The diagram shows recommended
values for:
minimum values (high forging load, low amount of material, in some cases
no machining required),
the most economical design.
small bottom thicknesses can be produced by chemical milling.

Design Rules for Bottom Thickness

Base thickness in mm

12.5
10
Most economical
Design

7.5

1
5
Minimum value 3

2.5
2
0
0

1000
2000
3000
Projected area in cm

1 Necessary for parts with approximately

square area and surrounded by fins

2 Possible for parts with thin long form

and/ or (relieving) holes in bottom region

3 Thin bottoms obtained by chemical milling

Source: Fuchs Metallwerke
alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

TALAT 3403

Design Rules for Bottom Thickness of

Aluminium Forgings (Flat Parts)

3403.04.03

Figure 3403.04.04 contains design rules with respect to draft angles (tapers) according
to DIN 1749 or EN 586 part 3 (draft). Draft angles facilitate the removal of forgings
from the die. A large draft angle (3) facilitates forming. When designing draft angles,
the die type - with or without stripper - should be considered. The base is also drafted to
facilitate the material flow. The tolerances for drafting depend on the dimensions of the
forging.
The taper (draft) of a die facilitates removal of forgings
Small taper
Large taper

large removal forces

low forging loads required
more material required
large deviation from ready-to-use form

Bottom taper facilitates material flow

Tapers in a workpiece:
internal taper
external taper
bottom taper
external and internal
taper (draft angle)

bottom taper
(draft angle)

Die with stripper

Die without stripper

Source: DIN 1749/EN 586 (draft)

alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

3403.05

Design Rules - Draft Angles (Taper)

3403.04.04

Dimensional Precision of Die Forgings

Figure 3403.05.01 tabulates a comparison of precisions obtained with different

production processes.
IT 6 and 7 can be obtained by die forging only in exceptional cases. Values normally
attainable are IT 12 to IT 16.
Under special conditions, even IT 8 can be attained (precision forging).

TALAT 3403

10

Precision of forgings
Precision available with different forming and machining processes
IT quality
Fabrication process

Dimensions
5 6

die forging

diameter

hot extrusion

diameter

cold extrusion

diameter

stamping to size

thickness

turning

diameter

milling

thickness

round grinding

diameter

normally attainable

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

attainable through special measures

attainable in exceptional cases

Source: H. Meyer-Nolkemper
alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Precision Attainable in Die Forgings

3403.05.01

Figure 3403.05.02 lists measures to improve the precision of die forgings. Improving
the dimensional accuracy leads to precision or high precision forging. For this purpose,
extra care must be taken during each individual step of the forming process.
The measures used depend on the listed sources of defects and describe the steps
recommended for the individual influencing parameters.

Starting form,
separating

(b) temp. stability, (d) constant end

furnace control,
temperature,
constant stroke
constant stroke,
intermediate
heating
(e) intermediate
form
calibration

1. Dimensional
deviations
1.1 form dependent
dimension (l,b,d)

1.2 form independent dimensions(h)

Heating

(a) mass dosage,

closer tolerances
for semis,
precise vol.
cutting

as in b)

Tool
precision of
fabrication,
low wear,
constant
temperature
(30 to 40 C
below
forming temp.)

as in (d)
intermediate
flash removal,
etching & magnaflux inspection,
then reforging in
the final die cavity

1.3 Misalignment
as in a)

hydraulic
pressing
for easier
control

low spring-back

precise assembly, clamping

2. Deviations betw.
raw/finished form

Machine

low guiding
play

as in e)

2.1 low base thicknesses

2.2 narrow ribs
2.3 small corner radii
2.4 small taper

as in e)

lubrication
low edge wear
stripper
cleaning die
cavity, low wear
of die cavity

3. Surface defects
Source: H. Meyer-Nolkemper
alu

Measures to Improve the Precision of Die Forgings

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

TALAT 3403

11

3403.05.02

Figure 3403.05.03 illustrates a precision forged part of an aeroplane door in a

honeycomb construction. In the part forged with a drafting angle of 0, only holes have
still to be drilled or cleaned. The front flash, designed to relieve the die, must still be
removed.

Precision and High-Precision Forgings

Example of a precision forging

Narrow tolerances apply to precision forgings:

53.3
C
D

52.3

19.3

Grat

High-precision forgings almost "ready-to-use" parts

25.4

A-B

Source: H. Meyer-Nolkemper

alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Tapers: 0 - 0.5
Length and width tolerance: 50 %
Thickness: 60 %

C-D

High-precision forgings are used to

- increase the accuracy of the structural part
- increase the fatigue strength
- reduce the mass of the component
- reduce the finish-machining required
- improve the economy
Precision Forging

3403.05.03

High precision forging is a special case of precision forging. In precision forging, the
accuracy and surface quality are of such a high quality that at least one operational step
can be saved. In high precision forging, the ready-to-use components are produced
with an accuracy which can be attained otherwise only by machining. High precision
forgings are designed keeping the following aspects in mind:

TALAT 3403

Increasing the accuracy of the component

Increasing the fatigue strength
Reducing the mass of the component
Reducing the amount of machining
Increasing the economy

12

3403.06 Designing for Material Flow and Grain Structure

Figure 3407.01.01 illustrates an example for the grain (fibre) structure in the
longitudinal direction for different fabricating processes. During forging, an attempt is
made to create a fibre structure corresponding to the main loading direction. Castings do
not exhibit a fibre structure. During fabrication by machining of an extruded semiproduct, for example, individual fibres are cut. This leads to a reduction of the fatigue
strength. The fibre structure depends to a large extent on the type and form of the
starting material. Because of the good extrudability of aluminium, it is advisable to use
extruded sections as pre-fabricates for the forgings. The final part then exhibits a mixed
fibre structure.

Fibre structure obtained by different

production processes

Die-forged from a rod section fibre structure satisfactory

Machined from rod section fibre structure unsatisfactory

Die-forged from intermediate form fibre structure satisfactory

Cast - no fibre structure

Source: DIN 1749 / EN 586 (Draft)

alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Material Flow During Different Production Processes

3403.06.01

Figure 3403.06.02 shows the most important parameters which have an influence on the
material flow during forging. The type of material flow itself affects a number of
forming parameters and index values of the workpiece.
The fibre structure affects the statical and dynamical strength properties in particular, as
well as the stress corrosion properties of certain alloys (AlZnMgCu).

TALAT 3403

13

Parameters influencing the material flow and fibre structure

forming
speed
flash
geometry

material
properties
material flow /
fibre structure

tribological
system

intermediate /
prefabricated
form

forming
temperature

structural
part geometry

The material flow has an effect on:

- the form filling
- the forging loads
- the fibre structure
- the anisotropy

The fibre structure has an effect on:

- the static and dynamic strength properties
- the stress corrosion resistance

Source: IFU Stuttgart

alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Parameters Influencing the

Material Flow and Fibre Structure

3403.06.02

The position of the parting plane of the tool has an influence on the material flow during
forming (see also Figure 3402.03.04). Figure 3403.06.03 illustrates how the material
flow and consequently the fibre structure can be improved by shifting the parting plane
from the middle of the section to the top. The section of the modified die parting shows
a more uniform fibre structure at the rounding.

Effect of Die Parting on the Material Flow

Avoid fibre exit

at high stress
concentrations
after
machining

Parting line in
middle of part
Final Form

Parting line on
top edge of
workpiece
Improved fibre
structure at
roundings

Source: H.Meyer-Nolkemper
alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

TALAT 3403

Effect of Die Parting on the Material Flow

14

3403.06.03

Filling of Closed Dies with and without Flash

closed die
without flash

closed die
with flash groove

starting form
punch

upper die

cavity

flash grooves

die cavity insert

lower die

flash cavity

Source: P. Johne
alu

Form Filling of Closed Dies with and without Flash

3403.06.04

Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

Figure 3403.06.04 illustrates the process of form filling in closed dies with and without
flash. During forming in dies with flash, the extra material is pressed out of the die
cavity into the flash or flash cavity. The geometry of the flash gap has a deciding
influence on the forging load and the form filling of the die cavity.
During forging without flash, the whole material remains in the die filling it out
completely. Both, forging stock and finished forging, have to have identical masses. The
material flow is controlled by the geometry of the raw stock, the flow stress and the
tribological conditions at the contact zone of the die.

Effect of Die Radii on Material Flow

Small radius
Upper die
Work piece
Lower die

Large radius

Material lifts off

Material hugs the curve

Material deflected
downward

Material rises upward

Fold

Forge fold
Radius too
small

Source: K.Lange
alu
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

TALAT 3403

No flaws
Radius sufficiently
large

Effect of Die Radii on Material Flow

15

3403.06.05

Figure 3403.06.05 shows the effect of increasing die radii on material flow during die
filling. Folds can be effectively avoided.
The schematic diagram illustrates, how the material flow is affected by the design of the
fillet radii (see also Figure 3403.04.01, Design rules - fillets). When the radii are chosen
properly, the material hugs the radius of the die cavity during forming and then flows up
along the walls. If the radius is too small, then the material pulls away from the die
cavity, coming to rest on the opposite wall from where it then rises up. On reaching the
top of the cavity, the material is redirected downwards and fills out the cavity.
Consequently, cold shuts form and laps occur where the redirected material glides over
the material flowing up from the bottom leading to a high loss of strength properties at
this location.

3403.07

Literature

K. Spies: Eine Formenordnung fr Gesenkschmiedestcke, Werkstattstechnik und

Maschinenbau 47 (1957) 201 - 205
H. Meyer-Nolkemper: Gesenkschmieden von Aluminiumwerkstoffen (IX),
Aluminium, 55 (1979) No. 12
H. Meyer-Nolkemper: Gesenkschmieden von Aluminiumwerkstoffen (IV),
Aluminium 55(1979) Nr.6
H. Meyer-Nolkemper: Gesenkschmieden von Aluminiumwerkstoffen (VII),
Aluminium 55(1979) Nr.10
P. Johne: Formpressen ohne Grat in Gesenken ohne Ausgleichsrume. Diss. TU
Hannover 1969.
K. Lange: Umformtechnik, Vol. 1 - 4, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York,
Tokio
F. Schmieder: Klassifizierung rotationssymmetrischer Schmiedeteile, Teil 1 - 3,
Industrie Anzeiger, 1988
Standards DIN EN 586 Aluminium und Aluminiumlegierungen - Schmiedestcke;
Teil 1 bis 3 (Edition 1993/94)

TALAT 3403

16

3403.08 List of Figures

Figure No.

Figure Title (Overhead)

3403.01.01

Examples of Aluminium Forgings

3403.02.01
3403.02.02
3403.02.03

Form Classification
Form Classification According to Spies
Form Classification According to Schmieder

3403.03.01
3403.03.02

Form Tolerances for Aluminium Forgings

Form-dependent and Form-independent Tolerances

3403.04.01
3403.04.02
3403.04.03
3403.04.04

Design Rules - Radii

Design Rules - Bottom Thickness
Design Rules for Bottom Thickness of Aluminium Forgings (Flat Parts)
Design Rules - Draft Angles (Taper)

3403.05.01
3403.05.02
3403.05.03

Precision Attainable in Die Forgings

Measures to Improve the Precision of Die Forgings
Precision Forging

3403.06.01
3403.06.02
3403.06.03
3403.06.04
3403.06.05

Material Flow during Different Production Processes

Parameters Influencing the Material Flow and Fibre Structure
Effect of Die Parting on the Material Flow
Form Filling of Closed Dies with and without Flash
Effect of Die Radii on Material Flow

TALAT 3403

17