Imec 27 Proceedings

LOCALORGANIZINGCOMMITTEEMEMBERS
ZAFIRAH BINTI AB RAHIM

ROHANA BINTI MUSA
LT CDR ISMAIL BIN OMAR
MOHANA A/P SHANMUGAM
RAYCHEL ANN STANLEY
SYAIRA NADHIRAH BINTI MD SAUFI
NURLIYANA BINTI AHMAD AZAHARI
MAISARAH BINTI ROSLI
MUHAMMAD SYAFIE B. ABDULLAH
NATASHAH BINTI JOHARI
FOREWORD
The IMEC-IMLA conference serves as a unique platform for Maritime English instructors
from all over the world to come together to conduct discussions on issues and
advancements related to maritime communication. It proves to be an exceptional
opportunity for educators to experience first-hand dialogues that will help shape the
structure and direction intended to develop Maritime English. The papers and workshops
presented at IMEC-IMLA conferences have always served as guidelines for what is to be
expected by Maritime English instructors.
The Netherlands Maritime Institute of Technology, the first maritime institute to be

established in Johor, Malaysia, was established in 2011. One of NMITs mission is to
produce graduates that are well-equipped to serve the global maritime industry.
Therefore, hosting the 27 th IMEC-IMLA is another mark towards its commitment in
welcoming innovative and thought-provoking insights related to the Maritime English field.
IMEC-IMLA has been a long-standing contributor towards the development of global
maritime communication and we are humbled to be a part of this event as we invite
delegates to be a part of the discussions with delegates from all over the world.
The Local Organizing Committee would like to thank Prof. Peter Trenkner and the Steering
Committee for their constant support and guidance throughout the IMLA-IMEC journey.
We would also like to express our gratitude towards the NMIT management for their
unwavering belief in the success of this conference. On behalf of the local organizing
committee, please enjoy the presentations and papers that will be presented at the 27 th
IMEC and we hope your stay in tropical Johor will be a memorable one.
Thank you and terima kasih.

Zafirah Ab Rahim
4
International Maritime English Conference
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
NMIT Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Contents
Papers
Piloting Pilots in a Full Mission Simulator Practicing Non-Technical Skills
(Peter Bjrkroth)
SWOT Analysis on Cultural Awareness Training for Seafarers

(Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu)
18
Lingua Franca Core for Maritime English Pronounciation Teaching

(Seunghee H. Choi & Jinsoo S. Park)
40
Limits and Considerations in Communicating Effectively on Board Ship

the View of Leadership & Teamwork (Hyun-wook Doo & Jane D. Magallon)
51
The Design of Maritime Education and Training: Progression and Integration in

Maritime English Courses, for a Global Maritime Approach
(Johan Eliasson & Annamaria Gabrielli)
62
Rapid-Learning and IT Tools for Teaching and Learning Maritime English

(Alcino Ferreira)
74
English as Lingua Franca at Sea (Erik Hemming)
83
The Review of Maritime English Course Syllabus in DMU A proactive way to the
revised Maritime English Model Course
(Zhaoyan Jiang, Chunyang Zhao & Yong Wang)
91
English and Non English major Teachers Assessment of Oral Proficiency: A case of
Iranian Maritime English Learners
(Hooshang Khoshsima & Ali Asghar Roostami Abusaeidi)
103
On-going Maritime English Education Reform in China

(Yan Li & Weihua Luo)
118
The IMO SMCP 15 years on: current perceptions and realistic recommendations
(Alison Noble)
127
Construct-Shift of Marine Engineering Cadets in Maritime English via On-Board

Training (Mjgan Ozenir & Erdogan Bada)
146
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Aligning Occupational, National and Global Standards in Maritime English

Competency: A Preliminary Study on Standard Marine Communication Phrases
(Shamsul Rizal bin Mohd Rosedi, Mohd Asri bin Md. Sap & P. George Oommen)
164
Communications between Ships Pilots, Masters, and Tug Operators Some Suggestions
for the IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases (Roy Stall)
177
ComPic Communication by Using Pictography- Enhancing Safety for Navigation by

using Pictography (Patrick de Jong, Max de Vette, Montijn van Rossem, Jurian La Roche,
Peter van Kluijven)
191
Blended Learning Will Be Applicable in MET (Haiyan Yu)
212
On the Linguistic Qualifications of Maritime English Teachers

(Yang Jin-qiu & Liu Xiao-pei)
219
Turning Salted into Needed: the New Model Course 3.17

(Xian Wang)
232
Workshops
Intercomprehension workshop: understanding unknown languages (workshop)
(Erik Hemming & Alison Noble)
241
Creating a Maritime English Board Game (workshop)

(Alcino Ferreira & Jean-Franois Jaouen)
248
Using Computer Dialogue Systems for Providing a Student-Centred Teaching Approach

in SMCP-Based Maritime Communication (workshop) (Peter John, Alison Noble,
Naoyuki Takagi & Peter Bjrkroth)
258
Language Learning Strategies for Continuous Language Improvement (workshop)

(Christine Holland & Annamaria Gabrielli)
264
List of authors
274
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Piloting Pilots in a Full Mission Simulator

Practicing Non-Technical Skills
Peter Bjrkroth Aboa Mare/Novia UAS, bo Akademi University (Finland),
peter.bjorkroth@novia.fi
Abstract
Novia UAS provides tailor made continuing education for maritime professionals. During the
spring 2015 a course for Finnpilot, the governmental provider of pilot services in Finland, was
planned. Communication was mentioned as one priority when discussing the content of the
course. A further wish was to include the communication issues in the simulations that were to
be part of the training. The process of planning and executing simulations in a full-mission
simulator, emphasizing different communication related questions was new for us, but at the
same time something we had been planning for some time at the UAS.
When doing background research for the training, communication related issues were put in
the spotlight. The research was an eye-opener. The IMO (Resolution A.960, Recommendations
on Training and Certification and Operational Procedures for Maritime Pilots other than DeepSea Pilots) and the International Maritime Pilot Association (ibid.) stress the importance of both
communication in general and English including the SMCP - in particular. Recent research
also underpins the importance of successful communication during pilotage, not least because of
accidents where communication breakdowns have occurred. This paper investigates the
background for planning a course in communication for pilots and it gives insights into reasons
for unsuccessful communication. It also describes the process of planning the training and the
simulations. Finally the paper discusses the results as well as the background research and the
execution of the simulations.
keywords: simulation, English, communication, briefing, pilot, exercise planning
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Introduction
Different simulators have been used for long time in maritime training. Radar simulators were
already being used, for example, in Turku, Finland in the 1980s. The maritime school in Turku,
Finland, (Aboa Mare), acquired the first visual simulators in the mid-90s, and since then the
technology has developed, become less expensive and thus more simulators have been acquired.
Aboa Mare has ten bridges all of which are visual, i.e. "you can look out from the window .
The image displayed, and seen from the navigating bridge, is shown in real-time. The bridges
can be connected with each other, in-house or even Finland The Philippines, so learners can
see other vessels (learners vessels or simulated) in the area. Swell, corresponding with the
prevailing wind conditions, fog, rain or darkness can be simulated, and islands, the on-shore
buildings and marine marks correspond to the reality.
figure 1. View in the visual simulator: the pilot boat (left) to pick up the pilot on his own ship.
Second simulation. (authors photo)
A realistic picture of the surroundings supports the feeling of reality, but for maritime
professionals it is more important that the equipment and the ships features correspond with
http://www.aboamare.fi/simulators/
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their experiences of the same. Aboa Mare, has a simulator bridge exactly like the bridge of
passenger vessel m/s Viking Grace , it is i.e. a replica. Also the ship model, i.e. the simulated
vessels maneuvering characteristics, is identical with the vessel. The fairways are of course
also identical with real fairways. All these technical solutions made it possible for the ship's
officers to train maneuvers and procedures even before the vessel was built! It is self evident
that such practice is desirable from a safety perspective.
In safety-critical areas such as maritime and air transport, it is important to practice also so
called non-technical skills, i.e. cognitive and social skills such as situational awareness, and
communication [1]. It is often claimed that up to 80% of accidents happen due to the human
factor, i.e. factors that include the above-mentioned skills. It is thus crucial to develop
simulator pedagogy in an interdisciplinary direction where both technical and non-technical
skills are developed. An opportunity to do this emerged for Aboa Mare when Finn Pilot
Pilotage Ltd (Finnpilot), the government owned company providing pilotage in Finland, turned
to Aboa Mare for further training covering e.g. communication.
This paper investigates the background for planning a course in communication for pilots and
it gives some insights into reasons for unsuccessful communication. It also describes the process
of planning the training and the simulations. Finally the paper discusses the execution of the
simulations, the feedback received in the course evaluation form, and some thoughts about the
results of the training.
The pilots, communication and training

The pilot functions as an advisor to the master and the crew. The pilot brings aboard
absolutely essential local knowledge, which is needed, for example, when navigating in an
archipelago with narrow channels, such as is the case in the congested stretch of water off the
coast of Turku. The master is responsible for his ship, and must be aware of the pilot's
decisions, instructions and plans. In order for the master to be aware of the aforementioned,
communication is required. Communication in Finnish waters happens in different languages,
Finnish, Swedish and English. The pilot communicates in either Finnish or Swedish with local
actors, such as other pilots, ships, VTS or an icebreaker. The communication between pilot and
non-local crew often takes place in English. A similar linguistic diversity is commonplace
https://youtu.be/JuF1trrylCs?t=2m20s
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everywhere in the world, maybe with the exception of English-language countries and e.g.
South America where Spanish supposedly is used. It can however be assumed that, for example,
local dialects, accents, slang etc. make it difficult for foreign listeners to understand the talk of
non-standard English speakers. Such a situation is not favorable for communication, and
difficulties have been detected. In Finland, for example, The Accident Investigation Board has
pointed out that there are communication problems related to pilotage. Communication between
master or crew, pilot and VTS may have been scarce and/or inaccurate [2] or has been totally
absent on the bridge [3] (See also [4] Wederhorn 2014.). Maybe this is the reason for Finnpilot
to include also communication in their further training of their pilots?
Finnpilot-pilots use simulators to keep up their skills for less frequently used routes.
Communication is wise to practice in connection with such routine exercises in order to make
optimal use of simulator time - two birds, one stone. This is one reason to design further
training in on board communication so that at least a part of the training would be realized in a
simulator. Another reason for us to realize communication practice in simulators was our wish
to work in a more interdisciplinary way in our simulators.
Briefings were chosen to be the focus of the communication exercises. Pilots could for
example use briefings to describe the current situation (c.f. situational awareness), to issue
instructions or give information. The topic is of utmost importance since a pilot, when boarding,
brings with him issues that he must share with the vessels crew. When, on the other hand, the
pilot leaves the vessel to continue out to open sea, the pilot will give instructions for possible
future measures that will need to be taken.
These two situations were taken as a basis for the simulator exercises to be planned: pilot
embarking and disembarking. Four sea captains, a maritime English teacher (the present author)
participated in designing the course and simulator exercises. One of the captains was an active
pilot and the three remaining seafarers were teachers/instructors.
Theory and practice

When real-life work is simulated communication is often involved, be it simulated
communication in navigation, aviation or healthcare. Communication, I would claim, is rarely
the focus of the full-mission simulator exercises in maritime training; it is considered as
something that takes place on the side, like a little extra so to speak. If problems in
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
communication occur, they might be registered and then they might be addressed in de-briefings
after the exercise. The communication that occurs is thus not something that first is taught and
practiced in class and then further consolidated in a simulator. Having said this it must be
pointed out that, of course, students learn and practice the SMCP, radio procedures and so on,
but the point is exactly this: those skills are rarely the focus in full-mission simulators! [5] We
thus did not have much experience in planning exercises on communication.
figure 2. The courses first simulation in the visual replica simulator:
A new pilot on the bridge (authors photo)
Theory provides a means to study communication and to teach it. The same theory can be
applied e.g. to all of the above-mentioned fields navigation, aviation and healthcare - even if
the realizations of the theory of course are different from each other. Since we were rather
inexperience in planning communication-simulations, I used theory, or experiences from other
fields, as a starting point for my planning. Manser & al. [6] discusses team communication
with focus on briefings in situations where a patient after surgery is handed over from the
operation room team to aftercare. A different team takes over the care of the patient and it is
obviously crucial for information to be transferred. This transfer is done in a briefing, and the
resemblance with pilotage is easily seen in both cases the responsibility for the continuously
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safely executed task is handed over to another team. It is different in that the pilot and the crew
either have been, or are going to be together for some time, but the briefing should, in any case,
succeed. Manser & als article [6] describes briefings and puts the emphasis on the interaction
between the briefer and the briefed: both should actively participate and questions and
discussions are recommended [6]. Another important technique for briefings is assessing the
situation and anticipating future problems [6]. To me it seems that including thoughts on
possible future occurrences in briefings, is a more sparsely used method in a maritime setting
and it would have been important at least in one of the cases described in Wederhorns study [4]
(c.f. [7]).
I decided to use Mansner & als [6] suggested model for briefings as a starting point. We did
not feel the need for longer studies since we had no chance of comparing the credibility of
different theories with our own experiences. I designed a lecture on the briefing techniques
mentioned in the article and the simulator exercises were planned with the lecture serving as a
basis. The lecture aimed at presenting different possible elements to be used during a briefing.
Such elements are e.g. information giving and seeking, confirmatory talk, assessing, planning
and so on. Since interaction and anticipation were found to be important in a successful
briefing, these were given slightly more emphasis a slight emphasis was put on them.
Emphasizing these elements was further supported by the fact that scarcity of communication
and the lack of anticipation were cited as partial reasons for two of the accidents mentioned at
the beginning of this text. I tried to give examples relating to a maritime context (see figure 3).
figure 3: Slide from authors lecture on pilots briefings
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After the lecture on briefings followed computer-based training on communication in a

broader sense. This was followed by simulation exercises.
The simulations
The idea with the simulations was to give the participants an opportunity to: a) observe their
own communication and b) practice skills learned in the lecture. The participants were divided
into groups of two or three persons. There were 2-3 persons on the bridge; master and pilot and
in some cases, an OOW. The vessels were thus manned as they would be under normal
circumstances. The focus of the first simulation was a pilot exchange this is normal practice in
some longer fairways in Finland. Since it was the first simulation and the pilots needed time to
get used to the equipment and vessels, it was designed to be just a normal, non-dramatic, case.
Figure 4: Excerpt from simulation plan (Aboa Mare)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_Resource_Management#Computer_Based_Training_.28CBT.29
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The second simulation was planned to be more challenging pilot disembarking. The scenario
was planned so that the pilot, due to weather conditions, had to leave the vessel before the
actual pilot station, thus creating a need for more thorough briefing. There was also more
traffic.
Figure 5: Excerpt from simulation plan (Aboa Mare)
Figure 6. The second simulation: more traffic and rougher sea.
Experiences, observations and difficulties

The participants were satisfied with the course content. In the course evaluation form the
statement The themes are or will be important for my work received an average of 8 on a
scale from 1-10 (10 = I totally agree). One must keep in mind though, that the training was two
days long and the second day dealt with technical matters rather than with communication. This
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
might have influenced the score. Having said that, it is doubtful that four participants of 18
would have given a 10 on the statement, if only the second day were to have been of importance
to them. The participants thus seem to have been content, but what learning took place is harder
to say.
As the colleague primarily responsible for the communication part of the course, I did ponder
on how successful the simulator exercises really were. In my experience the first simulation was
too simple and I do not think the participants learned a lot since they were so totally within their
comfort zone. Here two pedagogical principles seem to collide. One is to keep simulations as
close to reality as possible, i.e. not to force participants to deal with unrealistically complex
situations. The other principle could be to design simulations in a way that would force the
students to use what has been taught e.g. about briefings. The latter would seem to be more
useful for communication and language training.
Another problem is that communication can be difficult to assess, since an exercise in a fullmission simulator can run smoothly even though the communication is far from perfect or even
far from good. Poor communication can often be compensated through e.g. individual efforts
such as a course change or similar. And if a vessel has safely reached open sea or its berth, can
one claim that communication was not sufficient? In this case also the fact that the courseparticipants knew each other made it more difficult to assess the communication. It is hard to
change communication patterns they have developed through familiarity with the other, and
participants thus communicated in a kind of local slang, like mates would. Further the first
simulation took place in well-known waters for the pilots, making the exercise even more
routine, minimizing communication.
Conclusions and recommendations

Planning simulations for training communication has challenges. It would seem that the
simulations must be planned not to be as realistic as possible, but instead to force the
participants to use the vocabulary and/or language patterns or structures that are the objectives
of the training. This might go against what maritime simulator instructors in general might
think, making it more difficult for language teachers to realize their ideas. Thus the following
recommendations could be interesting to discuss with maritime simulator instructors. I here
discuss briefings, but the same applies to any communication exercise in a simulator.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
1. In order to force the participants out of their comfort zone, all exercises should be
carried out in English;
2. It would have been good to have e.g. more experienced students to perform the parts
of the crew in the simulations, thus enabling the participating pilots to focus only on
their own roles and eliminating the mate-factor;
3. The participants should be given a script for the briefings, already in connection with
the first familiarization-simulations. This would force the participants to do the
briefing in the way presented in lectures. Having practiced the script once, it could
underpin the usage of the script in the following simulations as well;
4. Simulations should be planned to maximize oral communication, disregarding the
authenticity (realistic factor) claim;
5. A debriefing session after the simulation must be held. The experiences from the
simulations are the most important source for learning. If a good discussion can be
created in the de-briefing that follows a simulation, the participants will analyze and
reflect on their performance. They will in other words reach the highest levels of
Blooms taxonomy [8]. If and when this happens, the simulation can be considered
successful. How reflecting over own communication can be supported needs to be
further practiced.
There has been some research into interaction with the pilot on the bridge leading to case
studies [9] [10] about the pilot-master relationship, but in-depth research with the focus purely
on communication would be interesting and welcome.
The workshop presentation is available at: https://youtu.be/VES1A7gW9qg
References
[1] Fletcher, GCL, McGregory, P., Flin, RH, Glavin, RJ & Mara, NJ 2002. The role of nontechnical skills in anesthesia: a review of current literature in the British Journal of
Anaesthesia;. 88: 418-29.
[2] AIB. 2011. The M / V STADIONGRACHT (NLD), grounding Rauma 29.12.2010. Available
from: http://www.turvallisuustutkinta.fi/material/attachments/otkes/tutkintaselostukset / en /
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
marine accident investigation / 2011 / c12011m_tutkintaselostus / c12011m_tutkintaselostus.pdf

[cited 04.10.2015]
[3] AIB. 2009. M / T CRYSTAL PEARL, ramming of edge mark 26.1.2009. Available from:
http://www.turvallisuustutkinta.fi/material/attachments/otkes/tutkintaselostukset/fi/vesiliikenneo
nnettomuuksientutkinta/2009/c22009m_tutkintaselostus/c22009m_tutkintaselostus.pdf
[cited 04.10.2015]
[4] Wederhorn, Titta. Effect of the master, the pilot and the other luotsaustapahtuman 2014. The
vessel operators in the roles and responsibilities of maritime safety . Available from:
http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:amk-2014110615312 [cited 04.19.2015]
[5] Sihmantepe, Y Sernikli, S Ziarati, R Building Maritime English by event simulation (pp 102113)
Available
from:
http://www.pfri.uniri.hr/%7Ebopri/IMEC_Proceedings/index.html
[cited 09.14.2015]
[6] Manser, T., Foster, S., Flin, R & Patey, R. 2013. Team Communication During Patient
Handover From the Operating Room: More Than Facts and Figures Human Factors;. Vol. 55,
Nr. 1: pp. 138-156
[7] AIB M/S BARENTSZDIEP (NLD), Collision with the edge mark off Oulu on 10.1.2012.
Available from: http://www.turvallisuustutkinta.fi/material/attachments/otkes/tutkintaselostuk set/sv/vesiliikenneonnettomuuksientutkinta/2012/m2012-01_tutkintaselostus/m2012-01_tutk intaselostus.pdf
[cited 09.10.2015]
[8] EET (The Encyclopedia of Educational Technology). Blooms Taxonomy. Available from:
http://eet.sdsu.edu/eetwiki/index.php/Blooms_Taxonomy_in_learning_environments
[cited 09.02.2015]
[9] The Nautical Institute (1998) Master/Pilot Relationship - The Pilots View. Available
fromhttp://www.nautinst.org/en/forums/mars/mars1998.cfm/MasterPilotRelationship
ThePilotsView
[10] Transportation Safety Board of Canada (1995) A safety study of the operational
relationship between ship masters/watchkeeping officers and marine pilots Available from
http://www.tsb.gc.ca/eng/rapports-reports/marine/etudes-studies/ms9501/ms9501.asp
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SWOT Analysis on Cultural Awareness Training for

Seafarers
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu, Constanta Maritime University (Romania),
carmen_chirea@hotmail.com
Abstract
When we think of a leader, our first thought may be of someone in a highly visible and
powerful position. The IMO Model Course 1.39 Leadership and Teamwork
is intended to
provide a person with the knowledge, skill and understanding of leadership and teamwork at
the operational level on board a ship .for the application of leadership and team working
skills Taking into account the previous researches on Intercultural Communication skills and
teamwork, the IMO Model Course 1.39 Leadership and Teamwork [1] needs to get back to
basics for its curriculum performance in order to avoid the creation of a giant with feet of clay,
as application by definition is the quality of being usable for a particular purpose or in a
special way , and skills are "the ability, coming from ones knowledge , practice, attitude, etc.,
to do something well.
Therefore this paper aims to highlight educational challenges to this dilemma. The topics of
Leadership and Teamwork Course framework, especially those related to Teaching working
knowledge of shipboard personnel management and training , and the empirical findings of the
author of this paper from conversations with Constanta Maritime Universitys students and
faculty
during
the
Developing
English
Language
Competencies
and
Intercultural
Communication on Board a Ship Course, are used by the author to conduct an analysis of
their productivity and potential success. The SWOT analysis is applied to the current cultural
awareness and diversity training practices to evaluate effectiveness, efficiency and profitability.
keywords: leadership, teamwork, intercultural communication on board a ship, diversity
training
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Introduction
No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of a continent.
(John Donne, English poet, 15721631)
Culture refers to the language, values, perceptions, norms, interpersonal expectations and con cepts shared within a community or organization. Often unspoken rules and expectations de termine if community or organization members excel or fail .
An overarching component in multilingual crew is communication. Diverse values, beliefs, at titudes, customs, and thoughts are brought by the crewmembers. Therefore, understanding other
crewmembers intentions, messages and expectations, as well as clearly expressing their own, is
fundamental not only for the effectiveness of the team, but for its very existence. Expectations
about leadership, decision making and communication are culturally defined. Although leader ship is modelled differently among cultures, those that lead are always major players in making
and communicating decisions. Cultural preferences affect how people view leaders and interpret
their actions in decision making and communication . Taking time to prepare for cross-cultural
see Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu, Intercultural education-a response to contemporary multilingual societies
and a new chllenge for Maritime Education and Training(MET)institutions , Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences Journal, Volume 116, 21 February 2014, Pages 42604263, Published by Elsevier B.V Ltd. ISSN: 1877-0428,
indexed in Scopus and ScienceDirect and submitted to Thomson Reuters Conference Proceedings Citation IndexScience (ISI Web of Science),
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu,, P.E. Rosenhave, A Door Opener: Teaching Cross Cultural Competence to
Seafarers,- Human Resources and Crew Management, Part IV: Maritime Education and Training, Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK, 2011, pg. 97-103, ISBN 978-0-415-69115-4(PbB), ISBN 979-0-203-15729-9 (eBook), (ISI
Web of Science)
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu, Good Intentions are not Enough: CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING for seafarers, a
MUST-HAVE of Intercultural education ALERT!, The International Maritime Human Element Bulletin, The
Nautical Institute under the sponsorship of Lloyd's Register Foundation., HE01180, Publish date: 10/10/2013
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu,, Getting Along at Sea-Some Aspects Related to culture Matters as Perceived by Ro manian Cadets During Their On Board Training , Proc. of IMEC 23, The 23 rd International Maritime English Conference, 10 Oct-14 Oct 2011, Constanta Maritime University, Constanta, Romania, Pg 150-165, Editura Nautica,
Constanta, 2011, ISBN 978-606-8105-61-1;
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu,, Good Intentions are not Enough: Cross-Cultural Training for seafarers, a MustHave of Intercultural Education, 20 th International Conference on Maritime Education and Training, IMLA 20
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
communication has merit whether the interaction will be short or long-term. Understanding
whether a culture is high-context or low-context, monochronic or polychronic, and how the cul ture views space, will help in preparing for a cross-cultural communication experience. Leaders
who are prepared will enjoy more effective cross-cultural communication, and thus be more
likely to get the results they desire . [2]
Cognitive Concepts and Cross-Cultural Awareness

No topics, probably, have been quite as exhaustively examined, studied, dissected, and dis cussed as cultural awareness, intercultural communication, effective communication, and lead ership and teamwork. But much of the focus must be on how the maritime industry defines intercultural communication/leadership and teamwork on board a ship. What works in some
parts of the world may or may not work in intercultural communication on board a ship in other
parts of the world.
Researchers were interested in intercultural communication that developed cognition skills
needed to understand life within multilingual crew . The basic part of a Cultural Awareness
Course (no matter how well-designed) was intended to heighten the participant's awareness of
Back to Basics, 1-5 July, 2012, Maritime Institute Willem Barentsz, West-Terschelling, The Netherlands .
Bordas, Juana. Salsa, Soul, and Spirit: Leadership for a Multicultural Age . San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler,
2007.
See Jan Horck, Diversity Management: A Course for STCW and a Challenge in Pedagogy , Proc. of
IMEC 23, The 23 rd International Maritime English Conference, 10 Oct-14 Oct 2011, Constanta Maritime Uni versity, Constanta, Romania;
Smorochynska Olena, Developing socio-cultural competence as a key for
improving cultural awareness of future seafarer, Proc. of IMEC 23, The 23 rd International Maritime English Conference, 10 Oct-14 Oct 2011, Constanta Maritime University, Constanta, Romania
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu People InterACT! On board Intercultural Communication: The MUST-HAVE of
education, Communication for Maritime Purposes-An International and Interdisciplinary Issue ,, published by
Universiteit Antwerpen Publishing House, Belgium, 2010,
pg. 87-99, ISBN: 978-90-3370-041-85; Carmen
Chirea-Ungureanu The STCW Manila Amendments for Training in Leadership Teamwork-Impact to MET Institutions, Proc. of IMEC 25 th International Maritime English Conference, 23-26 September 2013, Istanbul Turkey, pg
50-58; Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu Ioana Raluca Visan, Teaching Communication Skills as a Prerequisite of
the Course on Intercultural Communication Onboard Ships , International Maritime Lecturers Association, International Conference IMLA 19 , Modern Approaches to Efficient Maritime Education and Training, 28 Septem brie-1 Octombrie 2011, Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, Opatija, Croatia, ISBN 978-953-165106-6.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
his or her own "home-culture"; the latter part of such a Cultural Awareness Course concentrated
on assumptions, values, and behaviours of the "target-culture". The topics were divided into dif ferent sections by various researchers, but the main parts of such a course share the same frame work: Part 1: "Considering Parameters"; "Defining Culture"; "Human Needs"; "Cultural Expect ations and Behaviours"; "Identity Symbols"; "Rituals"; "Methodology: The Students Teach the
Teacher"; Part 2: Understanding Target-Culture Behaviour"; "Nonverbal Communication"; "Ba sic Reality-Assumptions"; "Home-Culture Values--Proverbs"; "Cultural Heroes"; "Cognition as
Culturally Determined"; "Stereotyping--Roadblocks to Understanding"; "Culture Shock and Ad justment"; "Critical Incidents"; and "Pedagogical Approach" etc. etc.
As the author of the framework of Developing English Language Competencies
and
Intercultural Communication on Board a Ship Course , I tried a different approach to discuss

the establishment of a connection between cognitive concepts and knowledge acquired through
English-as-a-Second-Language teaching and learning. Modern thinking focuses on effective ap plication of common global knowledge and language skills appropriate for culturally diverse
students. That suggests that a cognitive conceptual approach to language learning gives students
the responsibility to explore language and themselves, as well as their surroundings in order to
work cooperatively with peers and teachers. Teaching culture-specific differences may have farreaching consequences, because it can lead to self-aware, environmentally-aware relationships
which may increase students' awareness of intellectual issues. Successful intellectual commu nication becomes increasingly important as it improves on access to high quality international
experiences.
To increase our knowledge, we need to be mindful of what is going on in our own thinking,
feelings, and experiencing. The concept of mindfulness can serve as the first effective step in
raising our awareness of our own systems of thinking and judging [3]. Additionally, through
mindfulness, we can learn to be more aware of the commonalities and differences that exist
between dissimilar individuals and groups.
Robert J. House director of the Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Effective ness Research Program at the Wharton School has spent the past ten years studying how differ See Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu, Developing English Communication and Understandimg Skills on Board
Ship, Editura Crizon, Constanta, 2013, ISBN 978-606-8476-09-4
Mind Tools, 2012. Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions Understanding Workplace Values Around the World.
Available at: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_66.htm (Accessed August 18, 2015).
22
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
ent cultures throughout the world define leadership. He and his colleagues have found that
definitions and perceptions of leadership vary considerably from culture to culture. In the global
business world, organizations and executives face a growing need to understand the subtleties
and nuances of leadership as it is exercised in different cultures [4].
Culture includes the shared beliefs, norms and values within an organization. It sets the
foundation for strategy. For a strategy within an organization/institution to develop and be im plemented successfully, it must fully align with culture. Thus, initiatives and goals must be es tablished within an organization/institution to support and establish a Culture of Everyone does
Support.
Flexibility and Adaptability

Organizations that remain flexible are more likely to embrace change and create an environ ment that remains open to production and communication. This provides a model that welcomes
diversity and helps clarify strategy implementation. Culture within an organization can serve
many purposes, including to unify members within an organization and help create a set of com mon norms or rules within an organization that employees follow [5].
Characteristics of Stability
A stable culture, one that will systematically support strategy implementation, is one that
fosters a culture of partnership, unity, teamwork and cooperation among employees. This type
of corporate culture will enhance commitment among employees and focus on productivity
within the organization rather than resistance to rules and regulations or external factors that
prohibit success.
Goal Unification
Flexible, strong and unified cultures will approach strategy implementation and affect imple mentation in a positive manner by aligning goals. Goals can come into alignment when culture
House R.J. et al. (eds.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies . Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004
Schwartz, S.H., A Theory of Cultural Values and Some Implications for Work. Applied Psychology, 1999,
48(1), pp. 23-47
23
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
works to focus on productivity and getting the organizations primary mission accomplished.
Maritime shipping operates within a complex operational setting and incorporates many types of
workplaces and work roles. The maritime domain has been a bit slower than other complex do mains in its research and development of human factors and ergonomics application. The prob lem remains that the operator is continuously being excluded from the loop, which increases the
probability of shipboard errors and accidents.
There is a domino effect in the organization that ensures that all work performed by each indi vidual in the company and work group focuses on performance and on the strategic importance
of the company. This allows culture to align with strategy implementation at the most basic
level. For this level of unification to work, goal setting must align with and be supported by sys tems, policies, procedures and processes within the organization, thereby helping to achieve
strategy implementation and continuing the cultural integrity of the organization.
Process Implementation
Part of cultural alignment and strategy implementation involves process implementation. Pro cesses include utilizing technology to facilitate goal attainment and the results a company is
looking for when working with employees to meet their needs. While most of the time the hard
problems and needs of an organization get met, culture becomes neglected in the process. That
is where processes come into place and strategy implementation gradually comes into existence
to uphold and maintain culture and strategies.
Cultural Alignment
When culture aligns with strategy implementation, an organization is able to more efficiently
operate in the global marketplace. Culture allows leaders to work both individually and as teams
to develop strategic initiatives within the organization. These may include building new partner ships and re-establishing old ones to continue delivering the best possible goods and services to
a global market [6].
Lahey, Patrick, Mary Trant, Rudolph F. Verderber and Kathleen S. Verderber. Communicating Across Cultures. Communicate! Nelson Education Ltd. First edition, 2005. Available at: http://www.communicate!e.nelson. com/chapter09.pdf (Accessed August 18, 2015).
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Brainstorming & SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis, which evaluates Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats, gives
a community or organization a snapshot of its current position among others. To construct your
own SWOT analysis to set a course on Cultural Awareness, examine your current situation.
What are your strengths and weaknesses? How can you capitalize on your strengths and over come your weaknesses? What are the external opportunities and threats in your chosen frame work of the course?
An example: in order to perform brainstorming and SWOT Analysis of your academic course,
there are some steps to be taken:
Assembling a Group
To get as many perspectives as possible when brainstorming your SWOT analysis, assemble a
group of diverse students from across your class.
Strengths and Weaknesses

Ask the students in your group to brainstorm as many of your courses strengths as they can.
Strengths are areas of your course that you control and that can give you an advantage, such as
the courses activities. Then ask the group to list off as many weaknesses as possible. Your
weaknesses are any areas of your course that you control, but that put you at a disadvantage,
such as poor topics chain management. Write all these strengths and weaknesses down for later
use.
Opportunities and Threats

Ask the group to brainstorm as many opportunities for your course as they can. Opportunities
are external conditions that you can take advantage of. Then ask your group to list as many
threats as possible. Threats are also external conditions, but ones that can potentially harm your
position. Write all of these suggestions for later use.
25
I N T E R N A L
A S P E C T S

IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Internal positive aspects that are under

control and upon which you may
capitalize in planning of activities:
Work Experience
Education,
including
value-added
features
Strong knowledge within your field
(e.g. research projects)
Specific transferable skills
(e.g.,
communication, teamwork, leadership
skills)
Personal characteristics (e.g., strong
work ethic, self-discipline, ability to
work
under
pressure,
creativity,
optimism, or a high level of energy)
Good contacts/successful networking
Interaction
with
professional
organizations
Internal negative aspects that are under your

control and that you may plan to improve:
Lack of Work Experience
Lack of goals, lack of self-knowledge, lack
of specific knowledge
Weak technical knowledge
Weak skills (leadership,
communication, teamwork)
interpersonal,
Negative personal characteristics (e.g., poor

work ethic, lack of discipline, lack of
motivation, indecisiveness, shyness, too
emotional)
E X T E R N A L
A S P E C T S
Opportunities
Threats
Positive external conditions that you do

not control but of which you can plan to
take advantage:
Positive trends in your field (e.g.,
growth, globalization, technological
advances)
Opportunities you could have in the
field by enhancing your education
Field is particularly in need of your set
of skills
Opportunities you could have through
greater self-knowledge
Opportunities for advancement in your
field
Opportunities for professional
development in your field
Career path you've chosen provides
unique opportunities
Geography
Strong network
Negative external conditions that you do not

control but the effect of which you may be
able to lessen:
Negative trends in your field that diminish
jobs (downsizing)
Competition from your cohort of college
graduates
Competitors with superior skills,
experience, knowledge
Competitors who went to schools with
better reputations.
Obstacles in your way (e.g., lack of the
advanced education/training you need to
take advantage of opportunities)
Limited advancement in your field,
advancement is cut-throat and competitive
Limited professional development in your
field, so it's hard to stay marketable
Companies are not hiring people with your
major/degree
26
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Solutions
After assessing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to your course on cultural-awareness, you should have the group review them and brainstorm possible solutions or
actions to take. Ask the group for suggestions on how to use your strengths to take advantage of
opportunities, and how to avoid threats that can harm your weaknesses. Write down all of the
suggestions no matter how far-fetched or unrealistic they may seem.
In a general sense, the SWOT analysis can identify areas within the community or organiza tions culture that benefit or harm the community or organization. How a community/organiza tion performs is directly tied to its culture; therefore, a SWOT analysis is beneficial to see the
areas that are working for and against the organization's best interests.
What is the Objective of a SWOT Analysis on Cultural Awareness Training for Seafarers?
First, it discloses competitive advantages:
Second, it explores hopes for effective communication and communication skills development
Last, but not least, it organizes cultural awareness training for setback.
A SWOT analysis is a method to recognize where the designed course on cultural awareness
training is vulnerable and strong, and where it ought to protect and attack. The outcome of the
practice is an action plan, or plan of action. The analysis can be carried out on the way we
are delivering academic courses to our students/trainees.
How to carry out a SWOT Analysis?
Step 1: Information gathering; record all strengths that exist currently. Then consequently re cord all weaknesses that exist currently.
Step 2: What may be: record all opportunities that subsist at some point. Opportunities are like
future strengths. After that, record all threats that subsist at some point. Threats are likely poten tial weaknesses.
Step 3: Plan of action: assess the SWOT matrixes with an outlook to making an action plan
to deal with each of the four parts.
27
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
A SWOT analysis centres wholly on the four components incorporated in the short form, per mitting in our case, maritime education and training institutions/shipping companies, to recog nize the powers influencing a plan, action or proposal. Recognizing these negative or positive
impact aspects, can assist companies more efficiently communicate what components of a plan
should be identified. While planning a SWOT analysis, persons normally make a table divided
into four columns in order to list every impacting aspect alongside for contrast. Strengths and
weaknesses will not normally match scheduled threats and opportunities, even if some correla tion ought to exist because they are joined together somehow.
Count the Internal factors: the initial two letters in the short form, Strengths and Weak nesses, denote internal factors, which imply the experience and resources readily access ible: Human resources, employees, employee programs, on board ship hierarchies etc.
Dont forget the External factors: Each company, individual or institution is affected and
influenced by outside forces. Whether linked indirectly or directly to a threat or oppor tunity, each of these aspects is vital to take notice of or file: market trends, for instance
new technology and products or changes in crew requirements; crew features, for in stance age, culture and gender, race etc. [7]
SWOT Analysis of Developing English Language

Competencies and Intercultural Communication on
Board Ship Course
In this paper, an example of SWOT Analysis is carried out as an attempt to judge the effect iveness of the content and methods of the Cultural Awareness Course in preparing students for
joining multilingual crew on board ship In other words, it is an attempt to discover if the
Developing English Language Competencies and Intercultural Communication on Board a Ship
Course objectives were met. The research was carried out during the fall and spring semester of
the academic year 2014-2015 in Constanta Maritime University. Participants-350 students en rolled in their 3 rd full-time year of study, Navigation, and Marine Engineering specializationswere asked to answer questions concerning the usefulness of the topics covered in the course as
well as the various educational methods used in the course in an attempt to discern if students
Silzer, Sheryl and Sunny E. Hong. The Biggest Challenge of Multicultural Teams. Tokyo: 2010, May 13,
2010. Available at: http://www.tokyo2010.org/resources/Tokyo2010_Silzer.pdf (Accessed September 01, 2015).
28
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
acquired cultural awareness abilities that are construed as necessary for creating successful rela tionships. Cultural awareness abilities viewed as being necessary include communication,
knowledge, and skills, and were incorporated into the foundation of the course activities [8]. It
should be noted that students were given questionnaires at the end of the course as well to eval uate the course overall and that generally, feedback was positive. In fact, course evaluations in dicated that most students who took the course felt that they gained valuable knowledge and
skills in the course that would be helpful to them when they went on board a ship as well as in
the future after they returned.
The students found the topics and activities of the course to be useful tools they could use
during their study-abroad experiences (e.g. ERASMUS mobility for studies) or practice on
boardship within multilingual crew. Examining the effectiveness of the topics covered in the
course and the activities individually, one can see aspects which students found most useful.
Figure 1 shows the usefulness of individual topics. Students found all of the topics useful, but
knowledge and awareness of culture/transition shock was deemed to be the most useful. This
was followed closely by perceptions and stereotypes, cultural values and beliefs, cultural iden tity, and intercultural conflict styles.
Fig.1. How useful was what you learned from the following topics in
your onboard experience/study abroad?
Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Grove, C., & Torbiorn, I. (1993). A new conceptualization of intercultural adjustment and the goals of training.
In M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 73-108). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press,1993
29
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
The activities of the Developing English Language Competencies
and Intercultural
Communication on Board Ship Course were:
Small group discussion
Study of cases & discussion
Personal surveys and questionnaires
Textbook
Lecture
Videos
Large group discussion
Mid-Term test (short answers)
Final paper
Figure 2 shows the main reasons students found these activities useful in preparing for their
study abroad/ practice on boardship experiences. For most activities, most of the respondents
answered that they were in improving their communication skills. This was followed by the
view that activities helped them to know what to expect when they went on board ship/abroad,
and that it helped them get accustomed to this participation style:
It helped me get used to this style of participation
It helped me practice my communication skills.
It helped me practice my note-taking skills
It helped me understand what I would be expected to do when I went abroad

(Erasmus student mobility for study) or onboard the ship.
It did not help me with my study abroad /onboard experience.
30
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
figure 2
After examining the survey results and comments made by research participants, it can be said
that the Developing English Language Competencies and Intercultural Communication on
Board Ship Course was largely effective in preparing them for their study-abroad /practice on
boardship experiences. Many of the comments made by students show a clear awareness of
ideas studied in the course and their relations to what they actually experienced while abroad
(Erasmus student mobility for study)/onboard ship. It can be assumed from some of the com ments that the students have actually been capable of using the tools they learned in the course
to analyze their experiences. However, it is uncertain whether this ability was used during the
time they actually had the experiences, or whether they simply analyzed and synthesized these
experiences partly in response to doing the questionnaire for this course. This may somewhat
cast doubt on the actual effectiveness of the course as a pre-departure training device. More im portantly, it has given at least some of the students who took the course skills, awareness, and
knowledge that they can have access to during their lifetimes, and not only while they are parti cipating in this course.
Culture-driven Leadership
As teachers, we spend a lot of time training students to become leaders, teaching skills and in creasing knowledge aimed at turning smart, young people into effective leaders. Company train ing programs pick up where the schools leave off. Consider, for example, programs on work place diversity, with their emphasis on communication and team building. A critical component
31
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
of team building is culture, because if teams are to work effectively all employees must under stand and embrace the culture of the particular group and business. Theres no doubt that today,
a leaders success depends on how he or she moulds and develops that culture. Shipping is global, but each shipping organization has a culture shaped by the maritime business it is in and the
people who run the business. Executives are themselves products of the unique cultures in
which they have learned and conducted business. To see how culture might come into play, we
can easily imagine a situation in which a British executive who was trained at an American
maritime school is asked to run the Argentine shipping branch of a Japanese shipping company.
What leadership attributes should this executive work to develop: Japanese? Argentine? Americ an? British? This executive needs to understand both the unique culture within which he works
and, in addition, how his employees perceive leadership from their individual cultural stand point: One size does not fit all. An executive needs to develop bespoke leadership attributes,
tailored to the unique culture within which he or she works.
Paradoxes in leadership abound. Instant communications and easy accessibility may shrink
this world, but distinct cultures have always and will always continue to exist throughout the
global economy. The most successful companies will be those that not only understand the nu ances that exist among different cultures, but train their executives to lead in ways that demon strate an understanding and appreciation of distinct cultures. The global executives leadership
style will need to be protean, changing from situation to situation. Sensitivity to the unique cul ture within which the executive works may well be the most important leadership attribute in
the global economy.
Is Your Team Too Big or Too Small? Whats the Right Number?
When it comes to athletics, sports teams have a specific number of team players: A basketball
team needs five, baseball nine, and soccer 11. But when it comes to the on board ship workplace, where teamwork is increasingly widespread throughout complex and expanding organiza tions, there is no hard-and-fast rule to determine the optimal number to have on each team . Each
person counts. Size is not necessarily the first consideration when putting together an effective
team.
First, it is important to ask what type of task the team will engage in. Answering that question
will define whom you want to hire, what type of skills you are looking for. The interdependence
32
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
matters, because it is one of the mechanisms that you use to determine if people are getting
along.
Second, what is the team composition? What are the skills of the people needed to be translated into action? That would include everything from work style to personal style to knowledge
base and making sure that they are appropriate to the task.
And third, you want to consider size; when it comes to team size each person counts. We get
to know each other and share individual core values so we can come up with team values. But is
there an optimal team size?
Diversity: Bad for Cohesion?

Recent researches have looked at another confusing area when it comes to teams the value
of diversity . Various theories suggest that diversity represented by gender, race and age leads
to conflict and poor social integration while various other studies suggest just the opposite.
The general assumption is that people like people who are similar to themselves, so there is a
theory to suggest that a lot of diversity is bad for cohesionBut there is also a theory that says
diversity is great, that it creates more ideas, more perspectives and more creativity for better
solutions. [9]
Within a company, individual teams often begin to compete against each other, which can be
troublesome. One of the problems is the in-group, out-group problem [10]. Depending on
how we identify ourselves, we can be part of a group or separate from a group. At many ship Alison Noble, Lieve Vangehuchten, Willy Van Parys , Intercultural competence and effective communication, Proc. of IMEC 23, The 23 rd International Maritime English Conference, 10 Oct-14 Oct 2011, Constanta Mari time University, Constanta, Romania; Jie Gu, How to Improve Chinese Seafarers Communication Skills in International Maritime World, Proc. of IMEC 23, The 23 rd International Maritime English Conference, 10 Oct-14
Oct 2011, Olena Smorochynska, Developing sociocultural competence as a key for improving cultural awareness
of future seafarers, Proc. of IMEC 23, The 23 rd International Maritime English Conference, 10 Oct-14 Oct 2011,
Jan Horck, Cultural awareness: a pedagogic challenge!, Proc. of IMEC 23, The 23 rd International Maritime English Conference, 10 Oct-14 Oct 2011; Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu, Good Intentions are not Enough: CROSSCULTURAL TRAINING for seafarers, a MUST-HAVE of Intercultural education ALERT!, The International
Maritime Human Element Bulletin, The Nautical Institute under the sponsorship of Lloyd's Register Foundation.,
HE01180, Publish date: 10/10/2013
Katherine J. Klein, Team Mental Models and Team Performance, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, January 2006 , Journal of Organizational Behaviour.
33
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
ping companies, the engineering group and the navigation group are very much at odds. But at
the same time, if you talked about that company vs. another company, the teams are together,
they are more alike than the people at the other company. Teams are sometimes silo mentality
within a company and they think they are competing with each other instead of being incentiv ized to work together.
While teams are hard to create, they are also hard to fix when they dont function properly. So
how does one mend a broken team? You go back to your basics, [11]. Does the team have a
clear goal? Are the right members assigned to the right task? Is the team task focused? Leader ship in a group is very important. The team goals cannot be arbitrary. The task has to be mean ingful in order for people to feel good about doing it, to commit to the task.
Effective leadership, strong communication, and a common core culturethat includes to
some extent a shared organizational identity and assumptions about mission, strategy, and goals
are the building blocks of a successful organization and are necessary if programs in the or ganization are to be implemented successfully. Without those elements, programmatic efforts in
any organizationincluding workforce resilience programswill not succeed [12]. Leadership, communication, and culture are intimately intertwined.
Leadership and Cultural Awareness: Helping Cultures

to Connect
Leadership is not status or position. Leadership is all about achievement of the right results. Leaders
are doers, who take responsibility and make a difference. Peter Drucker
People bring their cultural background with them when they participate in multicultural
teams. To be successful, it is imperative that the members move beyond their cultural prefer ences and seek to understand how their team members see and understand the world around
See House R.J. et al. (eds.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004.
Mueller, J. S. (2012). Why individuals in larger teams perform worse. Organizational Behaviour and Human
Decision Processes, 117(1), 111-124.
Beer M, Eisenstat RA, Spector B. Why change programs don't produce change. Harvard Business Review.1990;68(6):9; Kotter JP. Leading change: Why transformation efforts fail. Harvard Business Review. 2007;
85(1):96.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
them. This is even more important for the person or persons who lead the team. The values held
by leaders as well as members of the team are a major influence on their relationship.
Culture is a major factor in the development of the individual as a person so it is not surpris ing that cultural background heavily influences leadership styles and behaviours. Leadership in volves influence, vision, and motivation to bring people together to focus on a common goal.
Lingenfelter proposes that cultural differences on multicultural teams are a catalyst for conflict
and disagreement [13]. Therefore, a major responsibility of cross-cultural leadership is to help
team members coming from different cultural backgrounds have a common vision and to build
an environment of trust. Merely trying to reduce cross cultural tensions will not be enough to
help people work together effectively. Procedures and practices that help change attitudes and
dissipate apprehension, suspicion and doubt are needed. Trust is not built in a vacuum but re quires intentional effort that incrementally builds understanding, appreciation and confidence.
The leader must provide a vision of trust but it is the responsibility of the team as a whole to
build a community of trust.
Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Effective leaders constantly re-examine their own personality traits, skills, and weaknesses in
order to prepare a successful strategy for becoming a leader. Each situation or work environ ment may vary greatly and rely on a different plan of attack. Several inventories exist that may
help leaders categorize their style. Learning about ones inherent leadership style can help de velop a strategy for improving skills. In addition, a better understanding of how others react to
various situations will help improve communication skills.
Management vs. Leadership

People do not immediately transform into leaders simply by gaining an administrative job title
such as supervisor or manager. Moravec and Manley [14] developed a list of terms that dif ferentiates management and leadership traits. Their list of contrasting terms has been widely
distributed and republished .
Lingenfelter, Sherwood G. Leading Cross-culturally:Covenant Relationships for Effective Christian Leader ship. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008.
Moravec, Milan and Richard Manley, Reinventing Leadership, PM Network, September 1995, pp. 15-18.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
One method of self-analysis begins by comparing personal style to this list of contrasting
terms. For example, the list notes that managers administer while leaders innovate. If these
two terms represent opposite ends of a management-leadership continuum, where do you fall? A
similar analysis may be conducted for each set of terms. Apersonal skills inventory may fluctu ate with changes in career, education, or responsibilities.
Effective leaders take the inventory of their style one step further by understanding the con sequences of their actions. Successful leaders will fluctuate between the manager style and
leadership style in order to ensure the overall success of the organization, project, or situ ation [5]. As a result, successful leaders probably fall in the middle of the scale in most cat egories.
SWOT Analysis
Anyone with experience in strategic planning has probably conducted a SWOT analysis.
SWOT analysis provides a summary of the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats
of an organization, but a person may conduct a similar analysis on herself/himself. Begin by
listing your leadership skills that are strong and that provide a foundation for your leadership
style. Second, list your leadership weaknesses or deficiencies. Opportunities would consist of
two categories: chances to improve weak skills and chances to utilize skills you have been ig noring in leadership situations. Threats can include others perceptions of your skills or your
neglecting to maintain a skill set over time.
In order to be efficient and harness the abilities of participants, a leader must first know
her/his strengths. Leaders must constantly improve and look for educational opportunities that
focus on personal weaknesses that may inhibit their ability to lead. As a result of a personal
SWOT analysis, a leader can develop an educational plan, a personal vision for leadership, and
a toolkit of skills.
SWOT Analysis is an uncomplicated however, helpful structure for analysing life on board a
ship that concentrates on strengths, reduces threats, and takes the utmost possible benefit of op portunities accessible to trainee.
Tony Bush, Theories of Educational Leadership and Management, 3 rd Edition, 2003, SAGE Publication Ltd,
London.
36
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
SWOT analysis can be utilized to beginning plan formulation, or in more refined approach
as a sober policy tool. It can be made use of to gain perception of opponents, which can present
the insights required to come up with a successful and coherent viable position. While doing the
SWOT Analysis, one should be rigorous and realistic. Use it at the correct stage, and comple ment it with other alternative-production tools where fitting. One makes use of SWOT like a
guide and not a recommendation.
Improvement in leadership, communication, and culture on board a ship is an investment in
the organization and the workforce that will fulfil the shipping companys mission. It is import ant to remember that leaders create the culture and that culture drives organizational results.
The complexities of communication are magnified in multicultural team situations. Each
member, including those in leadership, brings their cultural preferences with them to the team.
Cultural differences can create discord among members or provide an opportunity to learn from
each other. Therefore, understanding and participating in the exchange of cultural information
through intercultural communication with those of other cultures is critical for positive team re lationships and effective productivity as a group. Leadership and decision making are affected
by cultural values and practices, which require both leaders and team members to practice flex ibility, patience and a willingness to adapt to new paradigms and actively participate in mean ingful ways in the development of the team.
Team members as well as leaders must strive to be positive in their interactions, work to build
trust, acknowledge cultural influences on leadership and decision making styles, and learn new
skills that will help them to build a team environment that will be satisfying and effective .
References
[1] IMO Model Course 1.39 Leadership and Teamwork (2014 Edition)
[2] Bordas, Juana. Salsa, Soul, and Spirit: Leadership for a Multicultural Age . San Francisco:
Berrett-Koehler, 2007
[3] Mind Tools, 2012. Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions Understanding Workplace Values Around
the
World.
Available
at:
(Accessed August 18, 2015).
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_66.htm
37
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
[4] House R.J. et al. (eds.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62
Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004
[5] Schwartz, S.H., A Theory of Cultural Values and Some Implications for Work. Applied Psy chology, 1999, 48(1), pp. 23-47
[6] Lahey, Patrick, Mary Trant, Rudolph F. Verderber and Kathleen S. Verderber. Communicat ing Across Cultures. Communicate! Nelson Education Ltd. First edition, 2005. Available at:
http://www.communicate!e.nelson.com/chapter09.pdf (Accessed August 18, 2015).
[7] Silzer, Sheryl and Sunny E. Hong. The Biggest Challenge of Multicultural Teams. Tokyo:
2010, May 13, 2010. Available at: http://www.tokyo2010.org/resources/Tokyo2010_Silzer.pdf
(Accessed September 01, 2015).
[8]Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGrawHill; Grove, C., & Torbiorn, I. (1993). A new conceptualization of intercultural adjustment
and the goals of training. In M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 73108). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press,1993
[9] Katherine J. Klein, Team Mental Models and Team Performance, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore, January 2006 , Journal of Organizational Behaviour
[10] House R.J. et al. (eds.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62
Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004.
[11] Mueller, J. S. (2012). Why individuals in larger teams perform worse. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 117(1), pp. 111-124.
[12] Beer M, Eisenstat RA, Spector B. Why change programs don't produce change. Harvard
Business Review.1990;68(6):9; Kotter JP. Leading change: Why transformation efforts fail. Harvard Business Review. 2007; 85(1):96.
[13] Lingenfelter, Sherwood G. Leading Cross-culturally:Covenant Relationships for Effective
Christian Leadership. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008.
[14] Moravec, Milan and Richard Manley, Reinventing Leadership, PM Network, September
1995, pp. 15-18.
[15] Tony Bush, Theories of Educational Leadership and Management, 3 rd Edition, 2003, SAGE
Publication Ltd, London.
***
38
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Carmen
multilingual
Chirea-Ungureanu,
societies
and
Intercultural
a
new
education-a
chllenge
for
response
to
Maritime
contemporary
Education
and
Training(MET)institutions, Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences Journal, Volume 116, 21

February 2014, Pages 42604263, Published by Elsevier B.V Ltd. ISSN: 1877-0428, indexed in
Scopus and ScienceDirect and submitted to Thomson Reuters Conference Proceedings Citation
Index-Science (ISI Web of Science),
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu, Developing English Communication
and Understandimg
Skills on Board Ship, Editura Crizon, Constanta, 2013, ISBN 978-606-8476-09-4

Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu,, P.E. Rosenhave, A Door Opener: Teaching Cross Cultural
Competence to Seafarers,- Human Resources and Crew Management, Part IV: Maritime Education and Training, Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK, 2011, pg. 97-103, ISBN 978-0-41569115-4(PbB), ISBN 979-0-203-15729-9 (eBook), (ISI Web of Science)
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu, Good Intentions are not Enough: CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING for seafarers, a MUST-HAVE of Intercultural education ALERT!, The International
Maritime Human Element Bulletin, The Nautical Institute under the sponsorship of Lloyd's
Register Foundation., HE01180, Publish date: 10/10/2013
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu,, Getting Along at Sea-Some Aspects Related to culture Matters
as Perceived by Romanian Cadets During Their On Board Training , Proc. of IMEC 23, The 23 rd
International Maritime English Conference,
10 Oct-14 Oct 2011, Constanta Maritime Uni -
versity, Constanta, Romania, Pg 150-165, Editura Nautica, Constanta, 2011, ISBN 978-6068105-61-1;
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu,, Good Intentions are not Enough: Cross-Cultural Training for
seafarers, a Must-Have of Intercultural Education, 20 th International Conference on Maritime
Education and Training, IMLA 20 Back to Basics, 1-5 July, 2012, Maritime Institute Willem
Barentsz, West-Terschelling, The Netherlands.
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu Ioana Raluca Visan, Teaching Communication Skills as a
Prerequisite of the Course on Intercultural Communication Onboard Ships , International
Maritime Lecturers Association, International Conference IMLA 19 , Modern Approaches to
Efficient Maritime Education and Training, 28 Septembrie-1 Octombrie 2011, Faculty of Mari time Studies, University of Rijeka, Opatija, Croatia, ISBN 978-953-165-106-6.
39
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Alison Noble, Lieve Vangehuchten, Willy Van Parys, Intercultural competence and effective communication, Proc. of IMEC 23, The 23 rd International Maritime English Conference, 10
Oct-14 Oct 2011, Constanta Maritime University, Constanta, Romania;
Jie Gu, How to Improve Chinese Seafarers Communication Skills in International Mari time World, Proc. of IMEC 23, The 23 rd International Maritime English Conference, 10 Oct-14
Oct 2011
Jan Horck, World Maritime University Diversity Management: A Course for STCW and a
Challenge in Pedagogy , Proc. of IMEC 23, The 23 rd International Maritime English Conference, 10 Oct-14 Oct 2011, Constanta Maritime University, Constanta, Romania;
40
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Lingua Franca Core for Maritime English

Pronounciation Teaching
Seunghee H. Choi Korea Institute of Maritime and Fisheries Technology,
seunghee.choi.1017@gmail.com
Jinsoo S. Park Korea Maritime and Ocean University, jspark@kmou.ac.kr
Abstract
As the IMO model course for Maritime English has been recently revised and updated, the re quirements of current changes to both the 2010 STCW Manila Amendments and English educa tion have been actively reflected on and largely encompassed. In order to provide practical
guidelines for language teaching, a wide range of new pedagogical approaches and their theoret ical backgrounds are also suggested. Considering the current spread of Business English as a
Lingua Franca (BELF) and its critical importance in maritime communication, however, the
pedagogical approaches need to be re-evaluated, specifically in terms of teaching pronunciation
in such a way as to emphasize clear and effective communication among international inter locutors. In this regard, the core pedagogical elements of pronunciation should be clearly set
and provided with consideration for Lingua Franca Core (LFC), which places importance on
mutual intelligibility rather than following the rules of native speakers. In this presentation,
therefore, the current trends of BELF in the maritime industry will be introduced. Following
this, the importance of LFC in maritime communication will be outlined, and its key features
discussed in terms of effectiveness and clarity of international maritime communications. Fi nally, the close comparison between LFC and the pronunciation guidelines suggested by the
IMO Maritime English model course 3.17 will be conducted, and its pedagogical implications
will be suggested.
keywords: IMO English Model Course 3.17, Lingua Franca Core, Business English as a Lin gua Franca, effective and clear communication at sea
41
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Introduction
Successful communication at sea is directly linked to clear and complete delivery and
receipt of the target message between interlocutors. It can be said that speakers effective
delivery of their intended message, and listeners precise decoding and accurate understanding,
are the keys to successful maritime communication. In terms of effective and clear delivery of
the message, therefore, the key communicative features, which are directly linked to
intelligibility, need to be reconceptualized from a practical point of view, considering several
factors in the current international maritime industry, such as that: the distribution of seafarers
from non-native-English regions, such as Asia and Eastern Europe, are considerably high; the
number of crew members belonging to these areas is expected to increase in the future (BIMCO,
2010); and, therefore, those from non-native-English countries will constitute a majority group
within international sea communication.
In order to provide clear guidelines for teaching key communicative features at sea, IMO
English Model Course 3.17 has been published and recently updated by accommodating a wide
range of traditional and up-to-date language teaching and/or training theories and pedagogies. In
terms of teaching speaking, however, more weight still seems to have been put on traditional
views, which focus on nativeness, rather than global intelligibility. From this perspective, the
guidelines included in these sections, such as teaching pronunciation, connected speech, word
stress and stress-/syllable- timed language needs to be re-evaluated under the consideration of
Business English as Lingua Franca (BELF) and Lingua Franca Core (LFC), which are the
current mainstream forms of English communication in the international business context and
focus on mutual intelligibility between international interlocutors, regardless of their language
backgrounds.
In this paper, therefore, these two theories, BELF and LFC, will be briefly introduced,
and their key linguistic features outlined. After that, the theories and practical pedagogical
approaches suggested by IMO English Model Course 3.17 will be closely analyzed and
compared with those of LFC. Following this, the theories will be analyzed in detail in order to
draw pedagogical implications and provide a desirable future direction of teaching speaking in a
way that will meet the practical language needs of the international maritime industry.
42
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
English in a Global Business Context

Business English as a Lingua Franca
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) has been widely accepted as a practical communicative tool
in world communication between speakers who share neither a common native tongue nor a
common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of
communication (Firth, 1996, p.240). When narrowing its focus down specifically to business
interaction in a lingua franca setting, the term Business English as a Lingua Franca (BELF)
can also be used as a similar concept (Louhiala-Salminen, Charles & Kankaanranta, 2005). No
matter which is used, these terms can be seen as representing a functional language system
intended to facilitate effective communication between non-native speakers in multi-cultural
settings. However, (B)ELF is not necessarily confined to non-native speakers communication,
but rather can be expanded to communication between native and non-native speakers
(Seidlhofer, 2009), even though this takes a small portion of (B)ELF interactions considering
that native speakers only account for 25% of the worlds English users (Crystal, 2003). The
distribution of speakers in the BELF environment is very similar to that of the world maritime
industry; as BIMCO (2010) clearly suggests in its BIMCO/ICS manpower report, the supply of
seafarers are largely from non-native-English countries, such as Asia and Eastern Europe, and
this phenomenon is expected to be maintained in the future. Considering the global seafarer
supply by geographical area, therefore, the majority group of English maritime communication
is expected to no longer be native speakers, but rather non-native speakers who speak a wide
range of variations of English (e.g. so-called Konglish, Chinglish and Indoglish).
IMO English Model Course 3.17 also recognizes the BELF nature of the international
maritime shipping industry by emphasizing the importance of the multi-culturalarity and
linguistic variations in real sea communication, as clearly stated below:
It is certainly not necessary to aspire to speak 'the Queen's English'. There are more
people now speaking English as their second language than there are native speakers. We also
have to remember that there are a range of 'Englishes', i.e. accepted variations of English with
particular accents and linguistic styles e.g. Indian English, Sri Lankan English, Malaysian Eng lish, Australian English; this is a very pertinent discussion area in EFL in this era of global
communication.
43
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Considering this arising phenomenon of English communication in the global business

context, accordingly, the future focus should be on effective and clear communication for the
achievement of given communicative goals based on mutual intelligibility in a multicultural
setting, as emphasized by the IMO STCW convention (2010). That is, the traditional paradigm
in language teaching and education whereby the aim is to conform to and follow the norms of
native-English speakers have been greatly challenged, giving rise to the belief that the time has
now come to change this paradigm (Kachru & Nelson, 2001; Bjrkman, 2008; Firth, 2009;
Koester, 2010).
Lingua Franca Core

In order meet the practical needs of global English communication in which a variety of
Englishes are spoken in real business interactions, the concept of LFC was created. The key
value of LFC is a mutual intelligibility between BELF speakers in a verbal communicative
environment. Given that around 90% of miscommunication has been reported as arising from
speakers pronunciation problems, rather than syntactic structures and/or choice of lexis (IMO
Model Course 3.17), the importance of this in English education cannot be underestimated.
However, LFC throws a question to the traditional language teaching methodologies in
speaking, in that the native speakers pronunciation, accents and intonation can be accepted as a
norm of current English education, specifically where mutual intelligibility in cross-cultural
communication should be regarded as a key element to be considered. Research on this has been
actively conducted by many linguists around the world, and has challenged the strong beliefs
and expectations of the past that native speakers are the best listeners and the most intelligible
speakers in global communication. In the early 1990s, Smith (1992) posed a question on this
issue and reported that native speakers phonology was no more intelligible than that of nonnative speakers, and that their understanding of other English varieties was not high enough in
the global context.
From this perspective, the core of communication in the BELF setting was suggested by
Jenkins (2005), wherein the focus is on mutual intelligibility in cross-cultural communication.
The key features of LFC compared to the traditional ELT are suggested in Table 1 (Zoghbor,
2011).
44
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Aspects of pronun- EFL targets
ELF targets
Influence
ciation
1
intelligibility
All sounds
RP non-rhotic /r/
The
consonantal
inventory
GA rhotic /r/
RP intervocalic [t]
All sounds except / /

and //
Yes
but not all
Rhotic /r/ only

Intervocalic [t] only
GA intervocalic [t]
Rarely specified
Aspiration after /p/, /t/,

and /k/
but not all
Phonetic
Appropriate
requirements
Yes
vowel
length before fortis/lenis

consonants
3
All word positions

Consonant cluster
4
5
8
9
1
0
Vowel quantity
Vowel quality
Weak forms
Word initially, word me- Yes

dially
but not all
Long-short contrast
Long-short contrast
Yes
Close to RP or GA
L2 (consistent) regional
No
qualities
Essential
Unhelpful to intelligibil- No
ity
Features of connec- All
Inconsequential or un- No
ted speech
helpful
Stress-time rhythm
Word stress
Nuclear stress
Important
Does not exist
Critical
Unnecessary/
No
can
re- No
duce flexibility
Important
Critical
Yes
on
45
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
When the linguistic features of LFC are carefully examined, their distinctive characteristics
can be summarized as follows (Walker, 2010): Core features and non-core features that are
divided into the categories of no impact and negative impact on ELF intelligibility.
The four core features of LFC are as follows:
- Every consonant sound excluding / / and //
- Consonant cluster (e.g. speed, straight, distress)
- Vowels specifically for long-short differences
- Nuclear stress placement
Non-core features of LFC are as follows:
Group 1) No impact on ELF intelligibility
- Pitch movement (tone)
- Word stress
- Stress-timing
Group 2) Negative impact on ELF intelligibility
- Vowel reduction, schwa and weak forms
- Connected speech
As can be observed from Table 1 and the summary suggested above, the core features of LFC
focus neither on the nativeness nor on a specific variety of native Englishes, or the General
America (GA) or British Received Pronunciation (RP). Regardless of their origins, what LFC
pays attention to is largely which sounds would be more intelligible and which features can be
phonetically more distinguishable from one another in global communication (e.g. /r/ in GA and
/t/ in RP). This could be a reasonable criteria to define the tolerable and acceptable limit of
deviations both segmental and supra-segmental aspects of pronunciation that the IMO
maritime English model course considers (IMO Model Course 3.17, p.265).
In the next section, the guidelines for teaching pronunciation in IMO model course 3.17
will be briefly reviewed and compared with the features of LFC in order to explore practical
implications for teaching and discuss the future direction of designing a pronunciation class
46
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
under the consideration of current geographical distribution of seafarers in the international

shipping industry.
IMO Maritime English Model Course 3.17 Teaching

Speaking
The IMO Maritime English Model Course 3.17 has been recently revised, reflecting the
systematic development of learners English competencies from General Maritime English to
Specialized Maritime English. To aid maritime English instructors with practical classroom
design, a teachers manual has been also provided in Part D, with several sub-categories. Of
these, teaching pronunciation is one of the major sections, together with grammar and
vocabulary, in providing a teaching guideline to English language systems. In the updated
version, the importance of pronunciation and its multi-culturality at sea is highly appreciated,
and its flexibility to incorporate a range of English varieties is also well recognized. In this
regard, it shares quite similar views with those of LFC in terms of situational awareness to
teaching pronunciation in the global context. With regards to the theoretical background from
which to approach this issue, however, the detailed suggestions do not seem to be aligned with
those of LFC detailed in Table 1. The guideline provided by IMO Maritime English Model
Course 3.17 for teaching pronunciation can be largely summarized as follows:
1. Individual sounds
2. Connected speech
- Linking (e.g. The ship is old and unsafe.)
- Contractions (e.g. My name's Ivan, I've got two children)
- The schwa
- Strong vs weak structure words (e.g. Where are you going to?)
- Elision (e.g. What's (h)er name?, Why's (h)e late?)
- Assimilation: (e.g. on Monday (om Monday))
3. Word stress
4. Intonation and pitch
47
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
As listed above, the linguistic features to be taught to language learners according to the
model course seem outdated, as they are highly oriented toward the native speakers side. That
is, even though the model course fully acknowledges the new paradigm of English education in
a global maritime context, the response to enhancing communication through speaking in this
environment seems to move in the opposite direction.
There are several issues to be discussed in this regard. First, the types of individual sounds to
be particularly emphasized to learners for the enhancement of mutual intelligibility need to be
more clearly defined, as in LFC. Even though a wide range of useful pedagogical approaches
(e.g. chain drills and minimal pairs) that can be directly applied to actual classrooms are
suggested in detail, and this could be utilized as a helpful tool for language instructors in
managing their pronunciation classes, guidelines regarding which phonemes (or which means of
pronunciation) can be the most intelligible in an actual international communication scenario
(e.g. /r/ in GA and /t/ in RP) need to be more clearly defined and suggested. These efforts could
be an answer to the following statement specified in the model course (p.265):
Much of the spoken English that seafarers encounter is informal and is spoken in a
range of international and regional accents. As accent forms part of the speaker's
identity and is acceptable so long as it does not prevent the speaker being understood.
In this regard, the following questions could be considered as responses to the above
statement: What are the critical phonological factors to enhance intelligibility in the global
context? How many varieties of accents are tolerable in general? How can the speaker be helped
to be understood regardless of his/her own accent? How this can be achieved through classroom
activities or self-study? When the answers to these questions are more carefully elaborated in
detail like in LFC, this part of the guideline can be evaluated as more practical and useful, and
ultimately leading maritime English instructors to approach English pronunciation teaching in a
more comprehensive and systematic manner.
Secondly, out of four major components suggested in the model course above, the latter three,
such as connected speech, word stress, intonation and pitch have not been regarded as critical or
necessary in terms of mutual intelligibility. Rather, some of these features, such as weak forms,
stress-time rhythm and word stress, have been reported to be unhelpful, as they hinder listeners
understanding of others in a BELF communicative context, and should therefore be avoided.
48
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
The linguistic features regarded as negative in cross-cultural communication but included in the
model course are summarized below.
Aspects of pro-
IMO model
nunciation
course
Features of connected speech
To be taught
ELF targets
Influence on
intelligibility
Inconsequential or unhelpful
Negative
Unnecessary/
2
Word stress
To be taught
No
can reduce flexibility
Nuero-linguistically inaccessible/
Intonation and
pitch
To be taught
pedagogically unreachable/ pos-
No
sibly meaningless (Walker, 2011,

p.39)
As shown above, the most of the pronunciation features suggested by IMO model course
is something that the speakers in BELF environment refrain from adopting, since those are all
directly connected to the negative sides of communication in terms of intelligibility. Walker
(2010) emphasizes that the applying the features of connected speech such as schwa, assimila tion, or coalescence, specifically at maintaining the rapid speech level like native speakers do
decrease and even hamper the ELF intelligibility. This insistence seems to be quite contrary to
the guideline made by IMO model course 3.17, which encourages the instructors to teach con nected speech features to enhance learners competencies in speaking:
Leaners often complain that they find native speakers difficult to understand because
they speak too quickly. This statement often reflects the fact that students are not
accustomed to listening to native speakers and that they have difficulty identifying word
boundaries in connected speech.
Besides this, a large number of discrepancies between the two guidelines, or Lingua Franca
Core and IMO Maritime English model course, still exist in other areas of teaching speaking
such as word stress, intonation and pitch. Each element of these also need to be closely analysed
and compared in order to make a more effective and clearer guideline.
49
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Conclusions and Suggestions

In this paper, in order to provide more practical guidelines for teaching speaking in maritime
English classes, the characteristics of BELF and its pronunciation guide, or LFC, have been
closely examined, and compared with those of the updated Maritime English Model Course
3.17. These two systems share a common ground for teaching English in multi-cultural
environments, and cater to a diversity of English-language users and their different origins.
However, their practical approaches in terms of which elements should be taught to enhance
competencies in speaking differ considerably: LFC reflects the practical considerations of ELF
speakers in the global business community, and absolutely do not emphasize the means used by
native speakers, while focusing on mutual intelligibility as the key of effective communication;
IMO Model Course 3.17, on the other hand, largely focuses on traditional methods of teaching
speaking by focusing on skills that mimic nativeness. Whichever approach is adopted for
teaching speaking in the future, however, the thing that must be kept in mind is that the
environment in which English is used for communication is considerably changing, and the
maritime industry is at the forefront of these changes considering the current and future supply
of seafarers and their geographical distributions. Therefore, new theories and approaches that
fully encompass these on-going phenomena need to be carefully considered and applied in the
future instruction of maritime English and provision of related guidelines.
References
[1] BIMCO, BIMCO/ISF Manpower 2010 Update: the Worldwide Demand for and Supply of
Seafarers, London: BIMCO/ISF, (2010).
[2] Bjrkman, B., 'So where we are?, Spoken Lingua Franca English at a Technical University
in Sweden. English Today, Vol. 94, No. 2, (2008), pp. 35-41.
[3] Firth, A., The Discursive Accomplishment of Normality: On Lingua Franca English and
Conversation Analysis, Journal of Pragmatics, Vol. 26, (1996), pp. 237-259.
[4] Firth, A., The Lingua Franca Factor, Intercultural Pragmatics, Vol. 6, No. 2, (2009), pp.
147-170.
50
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
[5] International Maritime Organization, IMO Model Course 3.17 - Maritime English, Lon don: IMO, (2015).
[6] International Maritime Organization, STCW Convention, London: IMO, (2010).
[7] Jenkins, J. Teaching Pronunciation for English as a Lingua Franca: A Sociopolitical per spective. In Gnutzmann, C. and Intemann, F. (eds.) The Globalization of English and the Eng lish Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press, (2005).
[8] Kachru, B. B. and Nelson, C.L., "World English." In Burns, A. and Coffin, C. (eds) Analys ing English in a Global Context. London: Routledge, (2001), pp. 9-25.
[9] Koester, A., Workplace Discourse, London: Continuum, (2010).
[10] Louhiala-Salminen, L., Charles, M. and Kankaanranta, A. "English as a Lingua Franca in
Nordic Corporate Mergers: Two Case Companies, English for Specific Purposes." In Nickerson,
C. (ed.) Special Issue: English as a Lingua Franca International Business Contexts, Vol. 24,
No.4, (2005), pp. 401-421.
[11] Seidlhofer, B. Common Ground and Different Realities: World Englishes and English as a
Lingua Franca, World Englishes, Vol. 28, No. 2, (2009), pp. 236-245.
[12] Smith, L.E., Spread of English and matters of intelligibility" In Kachru, B.B. (ed.) The
Other Tongue: English across Cultures. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, (1992).
[13] Walker, R., Teaching the Pronunciation of English as a Lingua Franca, Oxford: Oxford
University Press, (2010).
[14] Zoghbor, W. S., Teaching the Pronunciation of English as a Lingua Franca: Reducing
Skepticism and Increasing Practicality, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science,
Vol. 1, No. 8, (2011), pp. 285-288.
51
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Limits and Considerations in

Communicating Effectively on Board Ship
the View of Leadership & Teamwork
Hyun-wook Doo Korea Institute of Maritime & Fisheries Technologies,
dooduck@hanmail.net.
Jane D. Magallon Maritime Academy of Asia and the Pacific (The Philippines),
Janedel54@yahoo.com
Abstract
The Amendments to the STCW Convention, 2010 established a Leadership & Teamwork
Course by amending BRM/ERM to provide the knowledge, skill and understanding of leader ship and teamwork. Particularly, crews on board modern ships consist of different nationalities
and communication skills have played important roles in forming fine teamwork on board ships.
However, the communication among multinational seafarers might not be only interrupted and
weakened by external factors such as an individuals English skills and particular accent but
also by internal factors such as personal attitude, cultural differences and human elements. This
paper reviews the limits in forming the effective communication environment to build proper
teamwork. Also, it suggests further improvments regarding communication effectiveness and
safety culture in the light of leadership & Teamwork.
keywords: leadership & teamwork, STCW 2010, communication, Maritime English
Introduction
The newly adopted Amendment to STCW Convention (International Convention on Standards
of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers) in 2010 introduces a number of im portant changes and new mandatory trainings for seafarers. In the significant changes, the spe cific training issue is Leadership & Teamwork referred to Human element or Human factor,
52
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
which is required for all management level and operational level officers on board. The previous
STCW Convention also required non-skill training such as Bridge Resource Management or En gine-room Resource Management in order to prevent the recurrence of management errors and
maximize the effectiveness of the resources in Bridge and Engine-room. However Leadership &
Teamwork mainly focuses on human to human activities. Communication is playing the core
role in human activities and it could be affected by external and internal environment on board,
also it could affect the environments. Therefore, in terms of Leadership & Teamwork, the identi fication concerning how and what element affect activities on board is the important issue. In
order to find out the influence on each factor and the environment, a questionnaire survey tar geting 105 Korean and Filipino officers was carried out based on the Leadership & Teamwork
specified in the model course1.39.
table 1: Numbers of participants according to Nationality and Level
Nationality
Management level
Operational level
Total
Korean
18
58
76
Filipino
13
16
29
Total
31
74
105
Contents of Model Course

The Model Course is designed to consist with STCW requirement, specific criteria in tables
A-/1, A-/1 and A-/6 for the operational level. Whereas in table A-/2, A-/2 is for management level. However there is no big difference between two courses except in teamwork in
the operational and managerial level. Therefore, the same questionnaires are used for the survey.
They are based on the program on the Model Course.
53
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
table 2: Leadership & Teamwork outline and framework

Knowledge, understanding and proficiency
Hours
1. Introduction and administration
1.0
2. Working Knowledge of shipboard personnel management and
5.0
training
2.1 Organization of crew, authority structure, responsibility
2.2 Cultural awareness, inherent traits attitudes and behaviors, crosscultural communication
2.3 Shipboard situation, informal social structures on board
2.4 Human error, situation awareness, automation, awareness, complacency boredom
2.5 Leadership and teamworking
2.6 Training, structured shipboard training programme
2.7 Knowledge of personal abilities and behavioural characteristics
3. Knowledge of international maritime conventions, recommenda-
1.0
tions and national legislation
International Maritime Convention SOLAS, MARPOL,

STCW, MLC
Recommendations and national legislation
4. Ability to apply task and workload management
Planning and coordination
Personnel assignment
Human limitations
Personal abilities
Time and resource constraints
Prioritization
Workloads, Rest and fatigue
4.0
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Management(leadership) styles
Challenges and responses
5. Knowledge and ability to apply effective resource management
Effective communication on board and ashore
Allocation, assignment and prioritization of resources
Decision making reflecting team experience
Assertiveness and leadership, including motivation
Obtaining and maintaining situational awareness
Appraisal of work performance
Short and long term strategies
6. Knowledge and ability to apply decision making techniques
Situation and risk assessment
Identify and consider generated options
Selecting course of action
Evaluation of outcome effectiveness
Decision making and problem solving techniques
Authority and assertiveness
Judgement
Emergencies and crowd management
7. Conclusion
4.0
4.0
1.0
1. Evaluation of course, individual assessments and advice, certific ate presentations

Total
20
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Analysis and Discussion

Research Question 1: What are the attributing knowledge and
skills in leadership and teamwork?
Management level officers and operational level officers have different views on the know ledge and skills an officer on board should possess in exercising leadership and teamwork.
<Table. 3> below shows the mean scores of the five knowledge and skills identified in the IMO
Model Course 1.39, 2014 Edition. Among the management level officers, they believe that Task
and workload Management (Mean score of 59.65) is the most important knowledge and skill an
officer should have to be a good leader on board. This is followed by Effective Resource Man agement (Mean=53.55). Third is Personnel Management (Mean= 53.37). Then, followed by De cision-making Techniques skill (Mean=46.45), and the least they consider is the Knowledge on
Maritime Conventions and Regulations (Mean=43.97). These views of the management level of ficers can be ascribed to how the respondents perceived the roles that they are performing on
board as management level officers. They consider the sub-skills of the Task and workload
Management such as planning, personnel management, time/resource constraint and prioritiza tion to be the most valuable skills to be a good leader and to exercise teamwork on board. More
so, the sub-skills of Effective Resource Management such as communication, resources, de cision-making, situational awareness and appraisal of work are the second important skills that
are closely connected with the third important skill, Personnel Management (Effective Resource
Management Mean = 53.55; Personnel Management Mean = 53.37). Personnel Management
means authority, cultural awareness, situation, human error, leadership and behavioral character istics.
The management level officers regarded the Decision-making Techniques skill as fourth since
they believe risk assessment, generate options, course of action, outcome effectiveness, prob lem-solving, judgment and emergencies as sub-skills of decision-making can be achieved by the
management level officer with the help of other officers on board including the operational level
officers. And, the least the management officers has considered as important in leadership and
teamwork skill is the Knowledge on maritime conventions and regulations.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
table 3: Knowledge and Skills for Leadership and Teamwork

Professional
Rank
Management
Leadership and Teamwork Knowledge and
Mean
Rank
Personnel Management
53.37
Knowledge on Maritime Conventions and regu-
43.97
59.65
53.55
46.45
Personnel Management
52.84
Knowledge on Maritime Conventions and regu-
56.78
50.22
52.77
55.74
Skills
31
Level
lations
Task and workload Management
Effective Resource Management
Decision-making Techniques
Operational Level
74
lations
Task and workload Management
Effective Resource Management
Decision-making Techniques
On the other hand, the operational level officers have the opposite result. They regarded the
Knowledge on Maritime Conventions and Regulations (Mean score of 56.78) as the most im portant knowledge and skill in leadership and teamwork on board, followed by Decision-making
Techniques skill (Mean=55.74); third is the Personnel Management (Mean=52.84); fourth is Ef fective Resource Management (Mean=52.77) and the least is Task and workload Management
(Mean=50.22). It can be interpreted that the officers personal competencies are put above the
other elements at operational level, since personnel management and knowledge on maritime
conventions to control or oversee a group of ships crew are regarded the most important
factors.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Research Question 2: What is the role of communication in

leadership and teamwork on-board?
The top use of good communication on board among the management level officers is Neces sary in applying task and workload management (M=63.40). It is parallel and consistent with
the skill that they regarded as most important in leadership and teamwork in Table 4. This
means they see a strong connection between language use and the giving of task to the crews.
With very slight difference of the mean score, the second top use is Can promote open commu nication among crews (M=63.24). The management level officers found good communication
useful in promoting openness (among crews that they can express ones thought in the work place. Third is Can communicate about conventions/regulations to crew members (M=55.32).
The management level officers thought they need to communicate to the crew on the maritime
conventions and regulations as to inform the subordinates what should be implemented and
complied. Ranked fourth is Necessary in applying decision-making as a leader' and the last is
Can communicate better with other nationalities . This means that the value of communications
for delivering an important decision regarding operations and for interacting with multi-national
crews is regarded relatively less important.
table 4: Uses of Good Communication On board
Professional
Uses of Good Communication
Mean
Rank
31
Can communicate better with other nationalities
48.76
Can communicate about conventions/regulations
55.32
63.40
63.24
54.94
Can communicate better with other nationalities
54.78
Can communicate about conventions/regulations
52.03
Rank
Management
Level
to crew members
Necessary in applying task and workload management
Can promote open communication among crews
Necessary in applying decision-making as a leader
Operational
Level
74
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
to crew members
Necessary in applying task and workload man-
48.64
48.71
52.19
agement
Can promote open communication among crews
Necessary in applying decision-making as a leader
Research Question 3: What are the human elements that limit the
communication on-board?
table 5: Factors that Limit Communication On board
Factors that limit Communication
Mean
Rank
Software or Procedure
2.27
Hardware or Ships technology
2.35
Environment
2.01
Liveware or People
3.12
Using the SHELL model or Software, Hardware, Environment and Liveware-Liveware of

Hawkins (Swedish Club Academy Maritime Resource Management, 2011), human element in
the study is defined into four components such as the people one is working with, the machine
or technology, the procedures and the environment. As shown in Table 5, the respondents were
asked to rank the factors that may limit or hinder communication on board. They unanimously
answered that Liveware or People (Mean=3.12) interaction is the most common factor. It can be
judged that there are significant communicative restrictions on board in such cases as interact ing with VTS and other adjacent ships. Therefore, an in-depth awareness for this is required be fore commencing the communication.
The next human element that hinders communication on board is the Hardware or ships tech nology (Mean=2.35). The respondents considered it as a problem in communication if one has
less knowledge on the physical elements of the ship such as the controls, surfaces, displays,
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
functional systems, machinery, operator equipment, tools, materials, etc. Therefore, it can be
said that the less experienced crew at operational level or newly boarded crew tend to have the
more restrictions on communications with other members. This kind of situation seems to put
the crew in a disadvantage position or to make them less confident towards their jobs.
The Software or procedures (Mean=2.27) ranked third. Less knowledge on rules, instructions,
policies, norms, laws, orders, safety procedures, customs, conventions, habits, contents of
charts, publications, emergency operating manuals and procedural checklist are job-related com munication that breakdown accidents on board . The situation, when the subordinate and the of ficer have not understood each other well for example in an instruction, limits both to interact
smoothly and freely.
The least respondents believe that the communication is affected by surrounding Environment
onboard (Mean=2.01). Difficulty in the work area, or adjusting to physical factors such as tem perature, noise, vibration, or the weather has no significant impact to communication.
Research Question 4: What are the factors that influence the

crews behavior and performance among crews and ship-shore
personnel interactions?
Respondents ranked accordingly which factor they perceived as the most influential in their
behavior to interact. Interpersonal Relations (M=5.17) ranked first. They need to interact or
communicate for the job and for social reasons. Personality and Attitude Interactions (M=4.5) is
the second. Respondents noted that ones personality plays a role in interaction. Every crew has
the personal choice to mingle or distance from others on board. Next is Leadership (M=4.46).
The ships officers can influence crews attitude to interact with the officers leadership. He can
initiate ships social activities. Fourth is Teamwork (M=4.24). Respondents noted that when
there is teamwork in performing their job on board it encourages the crews to be more sociable
and open beyond work time. Ones Language ability to Communicate (M=4.03) in English or in
their common language influences the crews enthusiasm to interact. Result also suggested that
Crew Cooperation and Coordination is an individual trait or internal influence like the Personal ity Attitude Interactions that has to be influenced with external factor such as teamwork or lead ership so interaction will happen. The least considered as factor of interaction is Cultural Inter actions (M=2.99). It is noted that crews have high tolerance in culture, though, it is inconclusive
in this study.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
table 6: Factors influence crews' interaction on board

Factors influence crews interaction on board
Mean
Rank
Interpersonal Relations
5.17
Leadership
4.46
Crew Cooperation and Coordination
3.85
Teamwork
4.24
Cultural Interactions
2.99
Personality and Attitude Interactions
4.50
Language and Communication
4.03
Conclusion
The findings of this study suggest that task and workload management, knowledge of the
maritime conventions and regulations are regarded highly important in leadership & teamwork
on board. Their functions are likely to be connected with professional or job-related areas.
Moreover, interaction in communication on board among the crews can be enhanced with posit ive leadership which results in teamwork. Further, management and operational level officers
have the different views in organizing optimal leadership & teamwork. Even though Maritime
English ability in terms of a global shipping industry has been identified as a key element for
good communication, other factors such as planning tasks, managing workload and applying the
international and national regulations in the view of safe shipping by seafarers are regarded con siderably more important. Therefore, interpersonal relations influence social interactions on
board. In addition other considerations identified by this study should be fully recognized as
ways of encouraging interpersonal activities on board that enhance communication.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
References
IMO(2011), International Convention on Standards of Training Certification and Watchkeep ing for Seafarers, 1978, as amended.
Model Course 1.39 (2014 Edition). International Maritime Organization. 4 Albert Embank ment, London SE1 7SR
Information to Maritime Administrations and Training Providers Maritime Resource Man agement. (September 2011). The Swedish Club Academy.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
The Design of Maritime Education and Training:

Progression and Integration in Maritime English
Courses, for a Global Maritime Approach
Johan Eliasson Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden), johael@chalmers.se
Annamaria Gabrielli Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden),
annamaria.gabrielli@chalmers.se
Abstract
One of the greatest challenges in teaching good communication skills and what that means for
a marine engineer or any seafarer, is to design content-based language learning activities which
integrate Maritime English along with the requirements of the engineering profession. The
design of such a curriculum supports the development of communicative skills by enabling stu dents to recognize any given communicative dimension of their profession in a natural working
environment. Another yet greater challenge, is to progressively integrate all these activities in
the courses of an established university programme, thereby creating a meaningful whole which
twins [1] content and language in teaching and learning activities. Improved language skills en hance communication and leadership skills and also promote the understanding of multicultural
variations amongst seafarers; all of which are imperative when at sea.
This article presents the latest concerns of IMECs with focus on essential Maritime English
skills. It exemplifies how communicative language learning activities can be integrated in con tent courses, progressively, throughout the recently reformed Marine Engineering programme at
Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden, and it suggests how MET institutions can collab orate to develop a unified model for MET around the world. The article also gives a brief ac count of graduates reflections upon communication and how it is achieved in this content-based
setting.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Introduction
This paper discusses the reform of the Marine Engineering programme at Chalmers University
of Technology, Gothenburg Sweden and aims to explain how learning and learning processes at
a Maritime Education and Training (MET) institution can be designed in a way that students can
identify at graduation and identify in a life-long learning context. As there has been continuous
discussion during the past years about how MET programme graduates can develop good com municative language skills, the Marine Engineering programme at Chalmers has laid focus on
different pedagogies and approaches to learning in the design of its courses so as to embed into
the teaching activities as much as possible the international Maritime English discourse.
Therefore, this paper not only deals with programme/course design, but perhaps more with
learning as a progressive pattern within the programme, giving consideration to teacher and stu dent feedback with regards to learning outcomes and how these are interconnected with profes sional requirements. Having the development of communicative skills at its core, the authors
elaborate on learning activities and learning outcomes at individual course and programmatic
level, and explain how these are interconnected towards the completion of the programme.
The text is divided in three parts: it provides a conceptual understanding of graduate attributes
within the curriculum, by mentioning main topics of the past years IMLA-IMEC discussions;
it describes the Marine Engineering programme at Chalmers which focuses on the progression
of communicative aspects of language learning activities; and concludes with an account of the
overlapping areas previously mentioned by exemplifying how students recognize what they
have learned and how it can be applied in their future professional lives.
Maritime Education and training: an overview from the

last five IMECs
During the past years, a recurrent concern at IMECs has been how to develop a uniform,
worldwide, ready to implement system of Maritime Education and Training. Within this discus sion, aspects of mobility [2,3] with regard to teaching practices, the establishment of English
language competency levels and testing of Maritime English skills have been named in various
International Maritime Lecturers Association International Maritime English Conference
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
ways. To that end, a number of extensive European Union funded projects (MarTEL, SeaTALK,
CAPTAINS) were developed and have tried to converge towards globally established MET
standards.
Maritime English is perhaps the ultimate example of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) as
its specific purposes are naturally and accurately embedding the concepts and contexts of the
maritime industry and its disciplines. At the same time however, Maritime English is not easily
defined as various, more or less accurate definitions exist as a result of regional needs, unique
local skills, and unpredictable requirements of its international users. This hazy nature of
Maritime English is most evident as the international users are summoned to satisfy internation al standards. A number of documents adopted internationally via IMO member states, aim to
regulate and direct MET, and includes Maritime English, as well as STCW, SOLAS, SMCP, and
the IMO model courses. These documents provide a good starting point for all IMECs discus sions, as they represent common ground for
MET institutions around the world. However, in
order to establish an international MET standard; it implies being on the same page as the na tional authorities and the locally determined learning outcomes and graduate requirement in
every corner of the world where MET is organized.
Learners of Maritime English, depending on their background and different nationalities, will
always have different needs and expectations of themselves and their tutors, which in turn de termine course content at local level. In addition, international standards recommended for in clusion in Maritime English courses are always complemented, or altered in some cases, by na tional standards as both regulate the local MET curriculum. This generates a very uncertain situ ation for the Maritime English trainer. One example of how radically different the teaching and
learning activities, the prerequisites and the learning outcomes may be for the Maritime English
learner around the world and not even mentioning conceptual thinking, learning strategies or
motivation is to highlight the difference in approach to teaching between native speakers of
English and non-native speakers. Native speakers of English and non-native speakers of English
will always have a very different initial conception about their need to learn Maritime English
as cadets, which includes the desire not only to learn Maritime English in school, but also to
keep developing it, throughout life.
Consequently, any Maritime English course designed anywhere in the world is conceptually
different to courses given in another part of the world, as it will be conditioned in its design
with the learners particular situatedness, prerequisites, and needs in mind. But as these para -
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
meters are very unlikely to overlap at a global level, and as globalization should be the common
goal of the Maritime Industry, perhaps the discussion about how to design internationally uni fied MET programmes must take a goal-oriented turn. This means that MET worldwide must be
based on the standards that all IMO member countries have ratified, before it can deal with ca dets needs, prerequisites or situatedness.
It has been suggested in several IMEC contexts [2-6] that MET institutions should collaborate
internationally to develop joint aims and objectives which meet the IMO STCW requirements in
a way that the Maritime Industry can agree upon, in addition to meeting national standards.
Maritime English must be taught to the minimum level of proficiency as outlined in the STCW.
If this were the case, locally developed teaching and learning activities, learning outcomes and
assessment methods may not be enough to satisfy the IMO requirements if they do not descend
from the international agreement or are not aligned with the same.
Multiple authors at previous IMECs have discussed that Maritime English needs: globally
aligned assessment procedures [7-9] optimization within the training of communication skills at
sea [5, 6, 10, 11] cross-curricular collaboration among trainers, i.e twinning [5, 8] and intercul tural communication must be given right of way in our 80% multicultural crews [12-17] There fore, a call to action exists for IMEC and IMLA to enable lecturers worldwide to join the round
table which these conferences aim to represent in the maritime discourse, and start working on
making Maritime English evident in IMO documents around the world.
Chalmers University of Technology the Marine

Engineering Programme
The Marine Engineering Programme at Chalmers (Gothenburg, Sweden) starts at a post-sec ondary level, and it is an academic programme ([18] which during the past years has been un dergoing fundamental changes [19, 20] These changes were due firstly to the need for a new
structure of alignment at course level and programme level [21, 22], imposed by the Bologna
(1999) process in Europe and secondly due to the realization that graduates need developed
paths of progression throughout the programme if they are to understand their education from a
broader professional perspective. The structure of the Marine Engineering programme at
Chalmers as it currently operates, is illustrated in the table below:
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
It is important to note from a learner-centred pedagogical perspective that the main skills and
abilities students need to develop during their 4 years of study are aligned conceptually, in the
column to the left. Each area is in turn developed progressively with different courses
throughout the programme. Within each area, new knowledge is initially introduced, then
taught, and lastly applied and reinforced in advanced or specialized courses.
The idea to design the programme like this comes primarily from the Bologna Agreement [23]
which requires all tertiary education within Europe to be aligned conceptually. Moreover this
model lends itself well to pedagogical approaches to learning and also easily integrates the in ternational and national requirements of the maritime industry namely the IMO STCW, SMCP,
and SOLAS. The programme description explains in detail how the STCW code is followed in
each course, and also how it is progressively followed up throughout the programme (The Mar ine Engineering Programme programme description 2013-2 0 V1_ENG).
Another aspect to take into account with regard to the programme structure is that some of the
courses have been deliberately designed to be twinned [10] or perhaps inter-twinned as they
follow up on each other. In other words, the courses are not really integrated but they run in par -
67
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
allel or in tandem with each other. For example in the communication area in the table above,
safety communication, is introduced in year 1 via Marine Engineering (SJO555), taught, integ rated [19] and reinforced in year 2 in parallel classes of Marine English [20] and Steam and Re frigeration Techniques and integrated and reinforced again in year 3 in Maintenance Technology
[20]. For the writing area in the table, note that
students have two other courses in year two,
Leadership on-board ships and Environmental impact of shipping. While they do not run in par allel with Marine English, they do reinforce and follow up on those learning outcomes.
The Marine Engineering Programme at Chalmers leads to an academic degree aiming to
provide engineer officers with the knowledge and skills needed to operate on board internation ally sailing merchant ships. After completion of the programme, the graduates can serve as
second engineers. The programme must therefore be compliant with the requirements defined by
the Swedish Higher Education Authority, the Swedish National Transport Agency's regulations
and the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for
Seafarers (the IMO STCW Convention), as well as the local degree schedule at Chalmers Uni versity of Technology.
The intention of the Marine Engineering Programme is to provide stimulating, world-class,
high quality engineer training on demand, with emphasis on sustainable shipping, encouraging
competitive knowledge not only of the shipboard engine systems of today but also of the mari time industry as a whole.
Discussion
The idea of twinning, or to integrate courses across the curricula, is not foreign to the theory
of learning. Both Problem Based and Project Based Learning aim for the same outcomes, to
make students understand the whole picture of a particular professional context. For example, in
their design, integrated Maritime English courses lend themselves well to cross curricular as sessment for example, which may be a higher form of formative assessment very much pursued
in the maritime industry. This also means that Maritime English, in an obvious way, is invited to
take room in the curricula; that it becomes evident in its natural context.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
In any educational context, one must take into account that student prerequisites may vary
significantly, and directly affect the student workload and the teaching methods. Integrated
courses can therefore help weaker students demonstrate knowledge using skills of different do mains, thus providing reassurance and motivation to the students. In addition, joint assessment
of integrated courses seeks to give students opportunity to demonstrate knowledge and under standing in more than one professional field. Therefore it may become easier for weak students
to pass, but at the same time it will also become clearer for the student what is missing. If we
consider the affective perspectives of learning, this will also facilitate additional training for
weak students, as they will lose neither face nor motivation when given second or different
chances to assimilate essential course content. Course literature, lectures, assessment and inde pendent exercises can be integrated to provide information as a whole, thus generating learning
contexts highly relevant for the learning process.
Following up on this, in the design of internationally matched MET programmes, one can aim
to interrelate graduate attributes firstly with the requirements of the STCW convention,
secondly with national agencies and thirdly, with globally compatible MET programmes. For
this, language and content instructors should align their teaching and learning activities [21] not
only within the local programme and across curricula, but across borders.
This means that contextual learning can be generated, while transforming pedagogical, tech nical and cultural conceptions for the benefit of a strong professional identity specific to the
maritime setting. The currently engaging academic discourse of the past IMECs acknowledges
these aspects and encourages such collaboration.
The Marine Engineering Programme at Chalmers also shows that cross-curricular integration
at programme level is not only possible but also appreciated while fulfilling the conditions of a
contextual teaching and learning perspective. This was identified in students reflections, which
were prompted to reveal what students thought about integrated courses and if joint teaching
and learning activities of different subjects helped them acknowledge their learning process dif ferently.
In 2014, the second year students were asked to reflect upon the learning they thought they
had acquired due to joint teaching, learning and assessment in Marine English and Steam and
Refrigeration techniques (Gabrielii, Gabrielli & Pahlm, 2012). The comments revise life-long
learning aspects of Maritime English in its professional contexts, language learning strategies
69
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
and needs, the importance of language proficiency in a technical context, the importance of lan guage proficiency in a safety context, and also, among other things, the correlations between
language and content and how language determines and is determined by content. A represent ative number of students comments follows:
The way we worked with this text, first translating it from English to Swedish and then
back again is probably the best way to work with a text. If you only rewrite the text in
English you usually steal words and sentences that you do not fully understand. If you
only translate the text from Swedish to English you usually stay within the limits of your
knowledge.(Student A)
One example is that no one in the group could explain what a gland steam condenser
is. After a while we asked Cecilia and we realized that we knew the answer but just
could not link it. Sometimes you know something in Swedish but are unable to link it to
the English language. (Student B)
We also discussed that the text was interesting. Why this text felt more interesting than
other texts we dont really know. It is probably because we need to know the content of
this text in Cecilias steam and refrigeration techniques. It feels good to read something
that we work with in another course; it makes it easier in both courses. Most group
members learned a lot from this exercise. (Student C)
To sum up we think that this text was a good exercise and we all see the connection to
both Steam and Refrigeration Techniques and Marine English. The exercise helps the
student to realize that despite we are all able to speak fluent English, we are unfamiliar
with terms used in mechanical engineering. (Student D)
We feel that the assignment is most relevant to the steam/refrigeration technique
course. The reason for this being that the actual information, what is presented for us to
learn, is information regarding steam & refrigeration technique. English is only a mean
to convey that information to us, and if you understand what is written you do not pay
all too much interest in the actual language. However if the reader is more
knowledgeable in the field of steam-technique and less so in English, he would look
more into the meaning of words and the grammar of the text. (Student E)
Although already a victory with regards to the positive student feedback and the positive
outcomes of learning in both technical and linguistics terms, the Marine Engineering
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
programme at Chalmers does not fill the gap between theory and practice internationally. The
liability of a MET programme lies, unfortunately, not solely in the progressively aligned aims
and objectives of one MET institution, and this has been said before [20]. Instructors must
therefore be given conditions in which they can elaborate on means to balance variation and
facilitate collaboration and support cross borders so that ME pedagogies can be further
developed, as advised by the IMEC steering committee over the years.
Conclusion
As established in the introduction of this paper, the discussion about internationally aligned
teaching and learning activities of Maritime English requires clearly defined parameters of the
same while taking learning processes and the IMO STCW aims and objectives of Maritime
English training into account. Maritime English is also a restricted language defined by its
particular setting. It aims at facilitating communication not solely at sea, therefore the partakers
in the communication processes which take place in this given setting, and in the circumstances
under which they might act in their various professional roles, must be taken into account. For
this, as Maritime English instructors, we may need support and guidance in a twinning manner.
Because of vast international requirements and legislation within this industry, as well as the
national and institutional expectations and demands, the Maritime English tutor is often
depending on the pedagogical environment that is created within each MET institution.
Therefore, the responsibility for Maritime English proficiency as identified within the STCW
code have been laid on the responsible institutions, and not the Maritime English instructors.
Considering the above, we would like to paraphrase Professor Doctor Peter Trenkner, who in
his opening letter for the IMEC22 in Alexandria wrote that we should teach locally but think
globally [24]. This is a call for a more global teaching approach, where we, as Maritime
English instructors, think locally of the particular needs and prerequisites of our students. The
final word of the day must be globalization of MET institutions as we start working towards
internationally unified graduate attributes for our cadets.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
References
[1] Cole C, Trenkner P (2012) Wither Maritime English? IMLA-IMEC24. Proceedings pg 3-18
[2] Borucinsky M, Pritchard P (2010) Maritime English within MET systems some mobility
issues IMLA-IMEC 22, 2010. Proceedings pg 17-28
[3] Pritchard B (2011). On some aspects of mobility teaching Maritime English. Proceedings
International maritime English Conference IMEC23, [5-16]. Constanta: Constanta Maritime
University
[4] Cole C, Pritchard B & Trenkner P (2005) The professional profile of the Maritime English
instructor (PROFS): an interim report. Maritime Security and MET. Proceedings on the International Association of Maritime Universities (IAMU) Sixth Annual General Assembly and Con ference. Pg 65-71 Southampton: WIT Press
[5] Cole C, Trenkner P (2010) Raising the Maritime English Bar: the STCW Manila
Amendments and their impact on maritime English. Proceedings Maritime English Conference
IMEC 22, [3-16]. Alexandria: Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport.
[6] Cole C, Trenkner P (2012) Wither Maritime English? IMLA-IMEC24. Proceedings pg 3-18
[7] Ziarati, Ziarati & Sernikli (2010) Evaluating the MarTEL phase 2. IMLA-IMEC 22, 2010.
Proceedings pg 382-385
[8] Cole C, Pritchard B & Trenkner P (2013) Nice-to-have: Professional Qualification of the
Maritime English lecturer in computer-based assessment and testing.
IMLA-IMEC25.
[9] Borucinsky M, Tomniac S & Pritchard B (2013) Testing Maritime Engish at MET Institu tions Offering BSC and HND Courses IMLA-IMEC 25 Proceedings pg 234-247
[10] Cole C, Pritchard B & Trenkner P (2007) Maritime English instruction ensuring instruct ors competence. IBRICA, Journal of the European Association of Languages for Specific Pur poses pg 123-147 Spain: AELFE
[11] Cole C, Trenkner P (2009) The Yardstick for Maritime English STCA sssessment purposes.
IAMU Journal 6 (1), [13-28]. Tokyo: IAMU.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
[12] Noble, A., Vangehuchten L & Van Parys W (2010) Communication for Maritime Purposes:
A Research Project Focusing on Linguistic and Intercultural Features IMLA-IMEC 22, 2010.
[13] Noble, A, Vangehuchten L & Van Parys W (2011) Intercultural Competence and Effective
Communication at sea: An invitation to Celebrate Diversity On Board. IMLA-IMEC 23, 2011.
Proceedings pg. 131- 149
[14] Ungureanu C, Visan R (2010) Intercultural Education A New Challenge for Maritime
English Lecturers within the Gobalization Era. IMLA-IMEC 22, 2010. Proceedings pg 182-195
[15] Ungureanu C (2011) Getting Along at Sea: Some Aspects related to Culture Matters as Per ceived by Romanian Cadets During their On Board Training IMLA-IMEC 23. Proceedings pg
150-164
[16] Stan L. C. (2011) The importance of the multinational crew in the cadets practice. IMLAIMEC23. Proceedings pg 177-184
[17] Noble, A, Hemming E (2012) INTERMAR: Intercomprehension at sea. IMLA-IMEC24.
[18] Pritchard B (2011). On some aspects of mobility teaching Maritime English. Proceedings
International maritime English Conference IMEC23, [5-16]. Constanta: Constanta Maritime
University
[19] Eliasson J, Gabrielli A (2011). Language taught as language used: integrating Maritime
English in the teaching of Mechanical Engineering. Proceedings International maritime English
Conference IMEC23, [114-119]. Constanta: Constanta Maritime University
[20] Gabrielii C, Gabrielli A & Pahlm H (2012) Engineering ME: A symbiosis between
language, communication and an alligator spanner wrench? IMLA-IMEC24, Proceedings pg 4152
[21] Biggs, J (2009). Teaching for Quality Learning at University: What the Student Does. Open
University Press.
[22] Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., Krathwohl, D.R. (1956).
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David
McKay Co Inc.
[23] Bologna Agreement (the) 1999 European Higher Education Area [www.ehea.info]
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[24] Trenkner, P (2009) Introduction. Proceedings Maritime English Conference IMEC 22, [316]. Alexandria: Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport.
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Rapid-Learning and IT Tools for Teaching and

Learning Maritime English
Alcino Ferreira Ecole Navale (French Naval Academy), alcino.ferreira@ecole-navale.fr
Abstract
Proficiency in Maritime English sits on a substantial lexical basis. Indeed before a mariner
can effectively communicate in maritime English, he/she needs to learn (i.e. memorize) a
significant number of new words, some of which are uncommon even to the native speaker. Ship
parts, standard position indicators, or VHF pro-words, for example, make up a whole new
vocabulary, which must be learnt before being able to re-use it in sentences compliant with the
very specific SMCP grammar.
This paper is two-fold. The first part will present a collection of rapid-learning tools which
learners can use to facilitate the memorization of lexical items. These are digital tools, designed
to ease learning by enabling drilling, and all stem from the concept of flashcards. In the second
part of this article, we have curated a list of e-learning suites and/or authoring tools. These are
programs that allow for the easy creation of automated and/or interactive multimedia learning
documents, particularly in a context of blended learning. Finally, a third part will list utility
programs that all teachers who wish to implement blended learning should know.
keywords: e-learning, gamification, blended learning, digital tools
Introduction
In todays time of economic constraints, class hours are being cut in many MET institutions
and academic staff is required to bring students to the same results as they used to, but in fewer
hours of class. As a consequence, blended learning has recently received major attention from
senior academic staff, and teachers have been encouraged to create e-learning material. The ra tionale behind blended learning is to associate the appeal and flexibility of online resources and
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technology with the personal engagement between faculty and students that only in-classroom
teaching provides [3], [6]. Research has shown improved learning when using this blended mod el [4], [5], [8]. The literature also shows that much of the motivation of learners in blended
learning courses can be attributed to the interactive capabilities of information technology [2],
[7].
In some institutions, this has become part of the job description of lecturers. At Ecole Navale,
the department of Maritime English has pioneered such evolution [1]. Because there is no point
in re-inventing the wheel, we have endeavored to share our knowledge of the topic with fellow
ME teachers. The first part of this article will list a number of rapid-learning tools. These are
easy-to-use programs, suitable for every teacher and learner. The second part of this article will
focus on e-learning authoring tools/suites. These are more powerful programs, at the cost of a
slower learning curve. Finally, a third part will list utility programs (graphics-editing, sound- or
video-editing applications). We have tested each of these tools (and many more) and tried to
briefly present their main features while avoiding publicity. We have no commercial interest of
any kind in the promotion of any of these tools. For each of them, we have mentioned whether
the tool is free, where it can be found on the internet, and tried to describe what the tool allows.
Rapid-learning tools
The tools presented in this section are relatively easy to use, and will be mastered in less than
a day. They are listed in alphabetical order.
Anki [free]
http://ankisrs.net/
Anki is an open-source flashcards program that makes advantage of the principle of spaced
repetition . It is available on all platforms, is highly configurable, and media-rich (allows im ages, audio and video clips to be integrated into cards). Cards are automatically sorted into
decks of well-known and not-yet-known material, so that learners focus what they do not know.
Spaced repetition is a learning technique that incorporates increasing intervals of time between subsequent re view of previously learned material in order to exploit the psychological spacing effect. (Definition from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition).
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Decks can be shared between users, synchronized between several devices, and shared with the
community.
Cleverlize [free]
http://www.cleverlize.com
This web-based tool allows you to create HTML5-compliant apps for smart phones. You can
create lessons (with text and images), flashcards, right/wrong questions, multiple choice
questions, all with pictures. Since the apps generated are in HTML5, they work on any
operating system. Note, however, that they require a live internet connection, and cannot be
downloaded.
Edpuzzle [free]
https://edpuzzle.com/
Edpuzzle is an online tool which lets you create video quizzes from any video online.
Questions can be multiple choice, true/false or short answer, and will be integrated within the
video itself. Teachers can then create classes and assign quizzes to them. Monitoring tools are
provided, to allow for student performance tracking. You can use your Google account to
connect to Edpuzzle.
Educreations [free]
https://www.educreations.com/
Educreations is an app that lets you create flipped lessons right from your iPad. Record your
voice while you draw on the screen or manipulate objects. You can find classroom safe images,
take your own pictures, or draw with your finger. Educreations makes it simple and easy to
create lesson videos and share them with your classes. You can connect with your Google
account.
Basics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KvytBvIJfY0
Advanced: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qyjKUVzxQYA
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gFlash+ [free] / gFlash Pro [3.99$]

http://www.gwhizmobile.com/gWhiz/Apps.php?search=gWhiz
This rapid-learning app allows users to easily create flashcards to learn anything. The cards
can include images or audio. Learners will then either simply use the flashcards to quiz them selves (marking known and not-yet-known cards), or learn from automatically-created quizzes
(multiple-choice). Items to learn are automatically sorted into mastered/not mastered, based on
user performance, thus allowing learners to focus on less-known items. Flashcards and quizzes
can be easily generated from spreadsheets (Google documents, and/or Excel), and shared
with the community. Many nautical and navy quizzes are available. The premium version (with
more features) is available only on iOS, while the free version is available also for Android.
The Mnemosyne Project [free]

http://mnemosyne-proj.org/
Similar to Anki, Mnemosyne is a powerful open-source flashcard program, built on the
principles of spaced repetition. It allows media-rich cards (with images, sound and video
clips), and is available on all platforms (desktop and mobile). It comes with a card browser that
lets user organize their cards into sets, and decide precisely what they want to study. It features
visual statistics to track progress.
Multimedia Learning Object Authoring Tool [free]

http://www.learningtools.arts.ubc.ca/mloat.htm
This web-based tool lets you create a multimedia learning object composed of a video, with a
synchronized slideshow of images and text. Thus you can use the pictures and text areas to dis play important information of spelling tips while your video is playing. Can be used as a webbased tool, or downloaded and installed on your own web server.
Nearpod [free / premium]

http://nearpod.com/
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Nearpod is an online tool that lets you design presentation slideshows, and integrate quizzes
into them. The question types include the usual multiple choice, true/false, short answer, plus a
drawing type, which lets students answer by drawing on a canvas which you provide for them.
Tablet/smartphone apps available for all operating systems.
Quizlet [free]
http://quizlet.com
This is primarily a rapid learning tool to facilitate memorization of lexical items. It is webbased and very easy to use. All that is required from the teacher is to create vocabulary lists
(with the word to learn and its definition, translation or picture) and Quizlet will automatically
generate flashcards (with audio pronunciation), a spelling exercise, two learning games (a
matching game and a speed-typing game). Quizlet will also automatically randomly generate
20-question self-assessment tests in one click. The platform can track user activity and
performance, thus encouraging healthy competition and boosting motivation.
Socrative [free]
http://socrative.com/
Socrative is a web-based real-time questioning tool that boosts student engagement in
classroom activities. It allows teachers to create a virtual classroom in which your students will
have access to all activities you design. These include quick question tools (MCQ, short answer,
true/false), exit tickets and space race (a team-based competitive quiz). Teachers and student
apps are available for iOS and Android, and you can connect using your Google account.
Tutorial: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EGr53IA91MU
Vocabulary Memorization Platform [free]

http://www.learningtools.arts.ubc.ca/vocab.htm
This flashcards tool is designed to help students memorize the spelling of words. On the web,
instructors can quickly set up a dictionary database by entering the new words with correspond ing translation to be learned in a lecture and this database then be instantly plugged into the on -
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line flashcard games for students to play with. Students can also select a set of flashcards to
print on paper.
E-learning authoring tools

The tools presented in this section require more time to master, but are much more powerful.
Some are professional e-learning authoring suites. They are listed in alphabetical order.
Captivate 9 [400 (academic license) or 36/ year]

http://www.adobe.com/fr/products/captivate.html
Captivate is the e-learning creation suite of Adobe. Probabl y the most complete e-learning
suite, it allows for the creation of professional quality e-learning products, with every possible
type of quiz, learning interaction, and learning games one can imagine. Fully compatible with
the vast majority of Learning Management Systems, capable of exporting to Flash, HTML5,
SCORM, or even stand-alone executable files, multi-platform there is nothing it does not
do at the cost of a slow learning curve. The product now comes integrated into Adobes
Creative Cloud.
iSpring Suite 7 [300$-700$]

http://www.ispringsolutions.com/ispring-suite/
iSpring suite 7 is a professional e-learning authoring suite. It integrates into PowerPoint to
convert slideshows into interactive learning objects. It includes tools for animation, for screencasting, many different types of interactions and quizzes, and is fairly easy to learn. iSpring
Suite 7 includes QuizMaker, a very versatile and powerful quiz generator, which can export to
Flash, HTML5, and SCORM format, thus ensuring seamless integration into most Learning
Management Systems, and portability to mobile devices.
SmartBuilder [free]
http://www.smartbuilder.com
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SmartBuilder is a fully-fledged web-based development suite for the creation of online

courses that enables you to create rich Flash e-learning with an easy-to-use interface. It has
advanced animation tools, tons of ready-to-use objects for interactions, a large template library,
and does not require you to write any code. All interactions are set up using drag-and-drop, and
flowcharts. SmartBuilder features branching scenarios, gaming elements and assessment tools.
SoftChalk [495$/year]
http://softchalk.com
Softchalk is an online exercise creator. It lets you create e-learning content with rich text, im ages, video and audio resources. It features a wide variety of question types (sorting, matching,
labelling, multiple choice, short answer, etc.).
Utility programs
Audacity [free]
http://web.audacityteam.org/
Audacity is a free, multi-language, easy-to-use, multi-track audio editor and recorder for all
operating systems. You can use Audacity to record live audio, record computer playback convert
tapes and records into digital recordings, edit many types of sound files (including MP3, and
cut, copy or mix sounds together. Numerous effects and filters are available, including change
speed or pitch and VHF sound.
Explain Everything [free]

http://explaineverything.com/
Explain Everything is an interactive white board and screencasting iPad app that lets you
annotate, animate, narrate, import and export almost any type of media. Probably the easiest
way (if not the prettiest) to create educational screencasts.
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Screencast-o-matic [free/premium]
http://screencast-o-matic.com
Screencast-o-matic is a simple, java-based, screencasting program that runs on any operating
system. It allows you to create instructional screencasts (recordings of what is happening on
your screen) with voice over, and an optional thumbnail video of yourself recorded from your
webcam. The premium edition (15$/year) also adds overlay tools a magnifying glass, and
advanced editing tools. A cheap tool for adding sound (and video) voice over to your
PowerPoint slideshows or Prezi presentations, capturing video, or making tutorials.
References
[1] Ferreira, A. The Maritime English MOOC : Using the MOOC technology to flip the
classroom. Proceedings of IMLA/IMEC26, Maritime Institute Willem Barentsz, Terschelling,
Netherlands, 7-10 July 2014, pp 85-101.
[2] Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. Critical factors in student satisfaction and success:
Facilitating student role adjustment in online communities of inquiry. Invited paper presented
to the Sloan Consortium Asynchronous Learning Network Invitational Workshop, September
2003. Boston, MA.
[3] Garrison, D.R. and Kanuka, H., Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential
in higher education, Internet and Higher Education 7 (2004) pp95105. Retrieved on 21 may
2014 from <http://anitacrawley.net/Articles/GarrisonKanuka2004.pdf>.
[4] Heterick, B., & Twigg, C. The Learning MarketSpace. February 2003. Online, retrieved on
May 15, 2014 from http://www.thencat.org/Newsletters/Feb03.html
[5] Oremus, W., Forget MOOCs. Slate, September 2013, Retrieved on 26 may 2014 from
http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/2013/09/spocs_small_private_online_class
es_may_be_better_than_moocs.html
[6] Osguthorpe, R. T. and Graham, C. R., Blended learning environments: Definitions and dir ections. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 2003. Vol. 4, #3, pp 227-233.
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[7] Swan, K. Virtual interaction: Design factors affecting student satisfaction and perceived
learning in asynchronous online courses, Distance Education, 2001, 22 (2), pp306331.
[8] Twigg, C. A. Improving learning and reducing costs: Lessons learned from round I of the
PEW grant program in course redesign. 2003, Troy, New York: Centre for Academic Trans formation, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Retrieved on May 18 2014 from http://www.then cat.org/PCR/R1Lessons.html
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English as Lingua Franca at Sea

Erik Hemming land University of Applied Sciences (Finland), erik.hemming@ha.ax
Abstract
Learning and training English implies interesting oneself for the hegemony of the Anglo-Sax on cultural sphere and beginning to be a part of it. The hegemony implies the lesser value of
cultural expressions of other languages as they are more peripheral. Individuals who use English
well have more cultural capital than those who do it badly or not at all. Communication onboard
can be improved if this situation is acknowledged and addressed, since English will not be
spoken well anytime soon in very many shipping contexts. Intercomprehension means training
to understand what others mean even though they use other languages than those one has
learned. It is an age-old method which also allows users to learn languages they get exposed to.
Introduction
Using a lingua franca for communication about practical issues is a very good method, used
all over the world. It is cost-effective since many people learn to use just one extra language in stead of many. It is serious and businesslike, often accompanied by non-verbal communication
that underlines the business context and distinguishes from other functions of communication,
such as social functions. (Wikipedia, 2015a)
As English teachers we have the pleasure of helping many young persons to gain a very im portant tool for success in working life. In this essay Id like to discuss a few aspects of lingua
franca pertaining to its symbolic value rather than to its communicative functions.
Mastering a lingua franca is clearly an advantage also because of the higher status with which
the user is endowed. It is a type of cultural capital that we are happy to see growing in our stu dents, hence making us believe that they can be more successful in the professional life. In this
sense it would be because of the power boost by the symbolic value of the English language,
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since it is associated with many positive connotations, such as modern, well-educated, success ful, etc.
But does this success also come with a cost of some kind? If so, would it be a good idea to
prepare our students for dealing with the consequences or even avoiding them if it can be done
readily? In this essay I shall raise a few issues, give a few examples, and discuss a few possible
ways to work around some of the negative aspects of lingue franche (Italian plural, also in Eng lish).
Lingua Franca and Power

Social and cultural capitals
In many languages inserting a word or two in English is fashionable. It is not mainly because
our languages lack expressions to denote the meaning people want to communicate, but rather
because the Englishness is considered to adorn enunciations with a world smart air. Why is this?
It is because the speaker who uses this manoeuvre (mostly subconsciously) poses as well-edu cated or part of an (often imagined) well-connected in-crowd. Very often this trick works fine,
very much so in the shipping context. (Bourdieu, 1984)
Centre periphery
In the centre-periphery theory the centre is seen as the locus of the rich and well-connected. It
is the place people aspire to move towards. Through acquiring symbols people hope to gain
symbolic capital and advantages a type of learning through role models. To (pretend to) mas ter the highly regarded lingua franca can be said to correspond to the feeling of a bundle of bank
notes in ones pocket or a Rolex watch on ones wrist a source of confidence. (Marshall, 1998)
High status needs low status to be seen. Other languages lose status as English gains. Mastery
of Gaelic or Estonian will not be possible to exchange for glamour. It will perhaps be seen as an
oddity something one might as well hide from the public. Likewise cultural expressions of
countries where English is not spoken are much less valued or even understood than those of
the UK and the USA plus a few more countries. (The term is soft power the ability to be no ticed and to exert possible influence in the world without nuclear weapons.)
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If you can't beat them, join them

In fact, cultural expressions such as food, drinks, music, fashion and so on most of the
time need to take the detour through the hegemonic culture to be accepted by inhabitants of a
peripheral country. An example of this is Italian and Mexican food which has spread via the
USA to many other countries. Even more obvious are the paths of musical impulses from odd
and unknown via the US music scene into the mainstream and world fame. It can be noticed that
the world international often means USA in many languages. Likewise it is easy to see that
news from the USA is valued as more important than much more dramatic events in other parts
of the world.
Power in relations onboard

Many studies confirm that seafarers are unlikely to communicate outside their rank and native
language onboard ships. This is due to many things, from outright recommendations to not so cialize with members of other rank to simple going with the flow. Communication between the
us and the them is more difficult. (Ostreng, 2007)
Status is power in communication and in relations. Power will be used there are so many
subtle ways in addition to the less subtle. In the maritime context proficiency in English is of ten compounded with senior positions in the hierarchy. This is obviously because English is part
of the training and required for work as officer. It is also often because English is more similar
to the officers native languages than to those of the crew. The latter is one of the consequences
of European colonialism still lingering on.
It is not enough to have a good level in English to achieve good communication. Power net works use so-called domination techniques to stop outsiders from gaining influence in commu nication situations (Wikipedia, 2015b). This is another good reason to learn English well for
seafarers of lower rank, since it is possible to reveal some dirty tricks if ones linguistic capacity
is good.
In spite of the difficulties many seafarers do build trustful relations across cultural and lin guistic barriers. Intercultural communication skills are learned and play a decisive role for mari time safety worldwide. This is mostly done without any effort on the part of shipping compan ies; instead it is handled by individuals onboard. (Trygg Mnsson, 2014)
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English as Working Language

Low wages
For simple economic reasons crews are hired based on levels of salary. As a consequence
people from poor countries and with lower level of education often get jobs onboard, also in
companies where English is the working language, which is most companies. Seafarers from
poor countries seldom get to leave the ships and ships seldom go into cities, but remain in port
areas far from city centres. Social isolation and ensuing disorders are not uncommon (Brenker,
2014).
Little influence
A crew member whose level of English is low will have very little influence onboard a ship
for two reasons: Obviously because s/he cant express her/himself on complicated matters, but
also because s/he will have low status in the social circles, both as for rank, but also informally.
Their voices will not be heard, even if they have important contributions to make.
It is perhaps excusable that officers will not take time to find out what the crewmembers have
on their mind, as if they really dont have anything to say unless they can say it in English.
Working hours are long and fatigue is ever present (Brenker, 2014).
The Halo effect

People who have acquired a few capitals are thought of as successful also in other areas than
the ones they really are good at (Hindle, 2008). They even have the inner idea of themselves as
more intelligent and/or attractive than what can be seen from the outside. Hence good skills in
English tend to spill over into assumptions of competence in other fields, partly because real
competence can be expressed and made visible for others, but also because language skills
translate into high status in so many situations.
Inversely low competence levels in the working language will make crewmembers more quiet
and unsure of themselves. Both these cases impair good communication for a number of reas ons. In this article the offsetting of equality is what is most interesting.
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Maritime English Skills

Transferable skills
Language training means training in communication. Good communication relies on listening
and feedback systems, not only on vocabulary and grammar. Teachers in Maritime English can
prepare students for the real world by including training in communication with people who do
not have basic skills in English. There are things that officers can do to reduce the unequal rela tions in communication that inevitably lead to bad communication, inviting many undesirable
consequences. (Wikipedia, 2015a)
If language courses train feedback and listening more, and convey more interest in the other
5,000 languages spoken on earth, communication can be improved. There is never enough time
to introduce more content in the language courses, but there is always room for considering new
ideas if they seem valuable. Course materials do exist for practicing Multilingualism and Inter comprehension in a maritime context (Intermar, 2013). One example is the INTERMAR materi als on www.intermar.ax (see Figure 1)
Figure 1. INTERMAR Intercomprehension at sea and ashore (Intermar, 2013)
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Good communication in professional settings

The Danish researchers Metze and Nystrup have identified four dimensions to describe com munication, see Figure 2. All four of them play out in professional communication onboard
(Grech, Horberry, & Koester, 2008). If communication can be more affective, expanded, con fronting, and listening when there is time for that, people will get to know each other better. Ob viously this makes communicating easier and decoding the other party more exact.
Figure 2. Four dimensions in professional communication (Grech, Horberry, & Koester,

2008)
Making other languages visible to students

The lingua franca notion is that other languages are not necessary to learn. This notion takes
away interest in them. Hegemonic ideas from the Anglo-Saxon cultural sphere even sometime
ridicule other languages, spilling over into lack of respect for the people who speak them and
their accents. This leads to stereotyping, which is exactly what is not needed in a team onboard
a ship. There is some truth in the statement that a woman must be twice as good as a man to get
promoted. The same goes for black people and of course for people with non-native skills levels
in English.
Spare time onboard

There will always be opportunities to spend time with crewmembers on a ship, if the attitudes
are positive and the ship culture allows it. By showing interest in the native languages of crew members and even learning a few phrases of them, officers can take steps to better equality in
relations and better self-esteem in fellow seamen. If an officer works for many years with
speakers of a certain language, this language can be learned with very small daily efforts. What
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it takes is a strategy or method to follow and this is basically the same method that was used
when English was learned.
Understanding other cultures

Since our languages are the main vehicles of our cultures, knowledge of other languages of fers inroads to deeper understanding of other people and their different values and behaviour. In
addition, interest shown in other cultures will bring rewards such as invitations to social gather ings and better personal relations, more smiles, etc. If a problem comes up at work, expectations
will be more positive that a solution will be found. This can be of crucial importance, also eco nomically of course.
Conclusion
To have symbolic capital is useful in practical communication. Competence in English is seen
as such thanks to the predominance of the English language in high status contexts internation ally. Hence the Anglo-Saxon cultural sphere has achieved hegemony implying that other cul tural spheres do not have much to offer. The halo effect adds to the advantages of using English
expertly. Good communication today, however, and maybe fortunately, cannot be achieved by
only using English since many do not master that language. Yet it is possible if there is respect
despite the lower status of other languages. Active listening and expanded communication can
take place. Maritime academies can equip their students for the multilingual world by introdu cing Intercomprehension on the curricula. Intercomprehension means practicing understanding
what people mean also when they use other languages than those one has learned previously.
References
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. London : Routledge
& Kegan Paul.
Brenker, M. (2014). Teamwork across cultures - communication in multinational seafaring
crews.
Retrieved
March
28,
2015,
from
Friedrch
Schiller
Universitt
http://www.finka.uni-jena.de/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/IACCP07072014.pdf
Jena:
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Grech, M., Horberry, T., & Koester, T. (2008). Human Factors in the Maritime Domain. Boca
Raton: CRC Press.
Hindle, T. (2008). The Economist Guide to Management Ideas and Gurus. Profile Books.
Intermar. (2013). About Intercomprehension. Retrieved April 2, 2015, from Intermar:
http://www.intermar.ax/?page_id=54
Marshall, G. (1998). Centre-Periphery Model. Retrieved April 2, 2015, from A Dictionary of So ciology: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O88-centreperipherymodel.html
Ostreng, D. (2007). I samme bt. Forholdet mellom sjfolk p multinasjonale skip. Oslo: Uni pub.
Trygg Mnsson, J. (2014). Lingua Franca at Sea. Gteborg: Chalmers University of Technology.
Wikipedia. (2015a). Lingua franca. Retrieved March 11, 2015, from Wikipedia: http://en.wiki pedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca
Wikipedia. (2015b). Master Suppression Techiques. Retrieved March 28, 2015, from Wikipedia:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_suppression_techniques
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The Review of Maritime English Course Syllabus

in DMU A proactive way to the revised Maritime
English Model Course
Zhaoyan Jiang - Navigation College, DMU (China), joyjiang77@163.com
Chunyang Zhao - Navigation College, DMU (China), zhaochunyang79@hotmail.com
Yong Wang - Hua Yang Maritime Service Co. Ltd. (China), wangyong2002@hotmail.com
Abstract
Based on the requirements of STCW Code Manila amendments, the revised Model Course
3.17 Maritime English (2015) will be put into place soon. Compared with the new model course,
this paper will review the current Maritime English course design and syllabus in Dalian Mari time University (DMU), then give a suggestion for its revision so that the education quality can
be improved and the students can fit to the need of their future job as mariners in the shipping
industry.
keywords: Maritime English, IMO Model Course 3.17, course syllabus
Introduction
English for general and special purposes is essential for mariners working on board ships, par ticularly for communication on multinational crewed ships . In order to further improve the students' performance and be in line with the requirements of STCW Convention and IMO Model
Course 3.17, Navigation College of Dalian Maritime University initiates the course reform in cluding Maritime English. Concerning the poor communication skills of Chinese seafarers in
English, it is necessary to review the current course design and course syllabus so that a good
course syllabus can be developed. Besides, referring to the Model course, analysis and sugges tion will be given in this paper on how to build up a scientific Maritime English course system.
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IMO Maritime English Model Course 3.17

Maritime English Model Course is designed to help trainees develop their communicative
competence in English to a level that will enable them to satisfy the competences relating to
English language set out in the STCW Code and further ensure the safe navigation at sea [1].
The methodology of Maritime English (hereafter referred as ME) model course is based on the
principles of the Communicative Approach. Compared with the traditional Grammar translation
method which lays more stress on reading rather than speaking, communicative approach can
effectively improve the seafarers communication skills, and enable them to use and understand
English in a range of situations.
Syllabus Structure
The latest revised version of IMO ME Model Course 3.17 still contains two parts: Core sec tion 1for General Maritime English (hereafter referred to as GME) and Core section 2 for Spe cialized Maritime English (hereafter referred to as SME). However, this version has changed
greatly no matter the structure or the contents. Particularly the Core section 2 on SME has been
emphasized substantially and divided into six parts as per the different seafarer ranks or duties,
of which the corresponding communication competences in English are clearly specified in the
STCW Convention. Compared with the old version, the layout of new version is more concise,
simple and clear. As usual, the GME section is to teach the language for the languages sake
through the application and it is designed for trainees who have an elementary and lower inter mediate or intermediate level of English, while SME focuses on specifically maritime aspects.
Syllabus content of Core Section 2

Core section 2 provides the learning objectives focusing on maritime scenarios and a variety
of topics could be selected by the instructor to suit the needs of the trainees. As stated above, in
spite of six parts being contained in Core section 2, here we will mainly discuss Part 2, SME for
officers in charge of a navigational watch on ships of 500 GT or more, which is particularly rel evant to navigation learners. The syllabus in Part 2.1 consists of two areas and it is more com petence-based and task-oriented. Area one is use English in oral and written form and area
two is use IMO SMCP. Area one includes 5 units relating to a ship officers competence and
area two gives a brief introduction on how to use the IMO SMCP.
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In the detailed syllabus, the 5 units mainly cover the competence requirements of STCW Code
to ship deck officers. The last learning objective of area one is communicate appropriately with
a multi-lingual crew. This objective comes from the competence requirements from the culture
awareness aspects and highlights how important it is to keep a harmonious working relationship
particularly when manning involves a multilingual and multi-ethnic crew. Therefore, as the min imum training standard, the STCW Code requires the seafarers to have an adequate command of
the English language to communicate with the multilingual crew. Furthermore, it also requires
seafarers to identify language problems that can arise and endanger effective communication
aboard, to identify their social responsibilities and to show respect to those of other religion and
culture. From this point of view, the ME model course sets a good example in syllabus to incor porate the relevant study about culture.
As usual, the Model Course provides rich references and recommends a variety of books and
other teaching materials and resources for the users who can access these resources when they
need.
DMU English Course Design

For all enrolled undergraduates in Dalian Maritime University, English courses consist of two
stages: General English stage in the first two years and Subject English stage in the following
two years. It is compulsory for all undergraduates to take these English courses no matter gener al or subject English. In this section, the paper will focus on the English course design for stu dents majoring in marine navigation. Table 1 gives details.
General English
A knowledge of General English is necessary for all the students. As future seafarers, students
who study navigation need to have good command of General English, because General English
is not only a necessary foundation for Maritime English but also helps seafarers deal with all
situations while they work aboard merchant ships, particularly in the multilingual and multina tional crew environment [2]. Practice also proves that it is more helpful to start with a common
core of General English and gradually pass over to Maritime English instead of intermingling
them. In a word, when the students come to the specialized courses including specialized Eng lish, they must have already covered all topics of General English and essential grammar. Fur thermore, studies at Dalian Maritime University comprise a four-year bachelor degree pro -
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gramme. It is a must for the students to finish the college English courses in the first two years
in accordance with the requirements of the Ministry of Education in China.
table 1: English course design in DMU
Class Level
English-emphasized class
Course
Class
Total Class
hours
hours
College English (reading)
270
College English (listening)
162
College English (speaking)
108
College English (writing)
18
Nautical English (reading and writing)
174
Nautical English (listening and speak-
18
558
276
ing)
General Class
Nautical English (CoC license exam)
84
College English (reading)
216
College English (listening)
72
College English (speaking)
36
Nautical English (reading and writing)
64
Nautical English (listening and speak-
324
184
36
ing)
Nautical English (CoC license exam)
84
College English aims to develop the ability of students to use English handily when they ex plore their career under the trend of global economic integration. According to the different
levels of English proficiency, College English course syllabuses are classified into basic re quirements and intermediate requirements. In order to enhance the students' communicative
ability, the course focuses more on cultivating and training language skills in terms of reading,
listening and speaking as well as a good command of vocabulary and grammar.
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As illustrated in table 1, General English stage focuses on the basic language skills improve ment integrated with the four aspects; listening, speaking, reading and writing. The time allotted
in the syllabus is based on the credit rule and proportional to other courses in each semester.
Overall, the two-year General English stage helps students set a solid foundation in English lan guage.
Maritime English
Maritime English is a rather broad and general concept which being used as a device for com munication within the international maritime community contributes to the safety of navigation
and the facilitation of the seaborne business (Trenkner, 2000) [3]. It covers a variety of aspects
and this paper mainly discusses those English syllabuses related to students of navigation. The
specialized subject English course is named as nautical English rather than maritime English in
the table above, while maritime English will be still used hereafter according to the unified
standard, no matter what they are called in this paper, the meaning is the same.
Syllabus of Nautical English Reading and Writing

Nautical English Reading and Writing is a specialized course for nautical students and aims to
develop students reading and writing skills so that they can use various nautical publications
and communicate in written form while working on board merchant ships. This course design is
fully compliant with China M|SA standard and refers to IMO Maritime English Model Course
3.17 as well. Particularly, we realize the importance of writing skills for students especially
when they are promoted to management levels. Moreover, good writing skills can assist in im proving the other three language skills, so writing skills are highlighted in this stage as well.
The main contents and time allotted to this course are described in the course outline of table 2.
table 2: Course outline of Nautical English Reading and Writing
No.
Knowledge system
Knowledge
Class
hours
Nautical Publications
Sailing Direction
Port Entry
Other nautical publications (Light list, astronom-
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ical Almanac, etc.)

Charts and uses
Notices to mariners, Navigational warning
2
Logs, Letters and Fax
Deck logs
Standing orders and night orders

Notices and instruction
Sea protest
Marine accident report
Survey report
3
International
Safety
Management
4
Shipping
Safety Management code
Documents and reports for PSC
law
and
business
Bill of lading
Carriers responsibility and Hague-Visby rule

Charter party
General Average
International
Mari-
time Conventions
STCW
SOLAS
MARPOL
Salvage Convention
Marine
Navigation
Technology
COLREG
Ship handling
Terrestrial navigation
Tides and Currents
Marine Cargo Opera-
Loading and discharging operations
tion
Cargo tallying and measuring
Marine Meteorology
Weather reports
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Weather routing
9
Ship
Structure
and
Equipment
10
Ship structure
Ship equipment
Nautical Instruments
Radar and ARPA
Magnetic and Gyro Compass

AIS, ECDIS, GPS, VDR, etc.
11
Communication
at
GMDSS, VHF, etc.
Deck and hull maintenance
Sea
12
Ship
Repair
and
Maintenance
Rigging and fitting system

Stores and provisions
13
Emergency Response
Search and rescue operations
Fire-fighting
Life-saving and survival at sea
Oil pollution and damage control
EMS and MFAG
Total
64
Syllabus of Nautical English Listening and Speaking

For navigation students, Nautical English Listening and Speaking is the only course in oral
form for a specialized English aspect with the aim to improve students communicative skills.
As table 1 shows, there are only 18 class hours for English-emphasized class and 36 class hours
for general class. The basic contents given in table 3 are in line with the requirements of MSA
Maritime English oral assessment.
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Table 3: Course outline of Nautical English Listening and Speaking

No.
Learning objectives
Detailed syllabus
Class hours
Everyday English
Greeting, shore leave and shopping
Business on Inbound/Outbound
Certificates, forms and documents
Ship
3
Mooring/Unmooring operations
Ship berthing, unberthing and anchoring
Cargo Work
Loading/unloading operations
Navigation at sea
Collision prevention, Narrow channel,
etc.
6
Marine communication
VHF, radiotelephone, GMDSS
Accident Response
Fire-fighting, grounding, damage control
Life-saving and Survival at Sea
Search and rescue operation
Ship Repair and Maintenance
Deck and hull maintenance
10
Port State Control
Port State inspection, documents and re-
ports
11
Ship Security
Ship security measures
Total
2
36
Nautical English (for CoC license exam)

This course mainly helps students prepare for the national seafarer license exam. The students
who hope to work on board merchant ships have to pass this exam and obtain the Certificate of
Competence corresponding to the different level. Therefore, the syllabus of this course is fully
in accordance with the requirements of China MSA standards. Likewise, these standards are es tablished in compliance with STCW convention. However, this course focuses on professional
knowledge and maritime English vocabulary rather than the students communicative skills, be cause it is subject to the form of the license exam. This national exam is a kind of sitting exam
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and the form of exam is multiple -choice questions and reading comprehension for the conveni ence of computer marking.
Issues Analysis and Suggestions

Syllabus design
ESP teaching is rather complicated. To derive a qualified ESP syllabus, several approaches
could be adopted, such as the grammatical approach, situation approach, task-based approach
and learner-centered approach, etc. The ME syllabus is often designed in combination with two
or more approaches, with the learner-centered and tasked-based syllabus in particular becoming
more popular [4].
Moreover, as one of the members of the ESP family, the ME syllabus should consider not
only language knowledge but also professional knowledge, so it is not an easy task to combine
these two aspects uniformly and harmoniously. Since the ESP syllabus is tended to be expressed
in more communicative terms (Brown, 2001) [5], the ME syllabus designer should be an expert
in language skills and professional knowledge. In this regard, IMO can take the advantage to in vite world-wide experts to develop the Model Course, so it is suggested for maritime institutes
and academies to refer to relevant IMO Model Course while designing their own course syl labus.
The ME course syllabuses of DMU are developed by a batch of navigation professors. Al though language experts suggestion and Model Course 3.17 are both consulted, these syllabi
are concerned with more specialized knowledge rather than language, and the lecture is de livered by teacher-centered approach rather than learner-centered communicative approach.
Learning ME through this way, the lecturers focus on the professional maritime knowledge and
the aim of cultivating the students language skills has been ignored. From this point of view,
new version ME Model Course provides a good example on how to integrate the language func tions with professional knowledge system into a whole.
The Consistency of Language Training

As stated in table 1, the time allotment of English course for navigation students is adequate,
while the class-hour of maritime English is just one third of the total English teaching hours
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compared with general English. The proportion of maritime English is therefore a bit of low.
Moreover, the time allotted to maritime English listening and speaking is much lower, just 18
class hours for English-emphasized class and 36 class hours for normal class. Obviously, it is
not very helpful for students to improve their maritime English communication skills at all, and
neither to say their future performance on English language aspect aboard ship. Some English
teachers hold the opinion that good command General English is the basis and more important
than maritime English, the doubt is how the students can well command maritime English skills
in such a little time.
It is understandable that Maritime English stage starts from the third year. Because the first
two-year study only involves foundation courses, and students start to learn the subject courses
in the third year. It is hard to learn the maritime English without any maritime knowledge.
However, according to the DMU syllabuses, the ME courses start in the second semester of the
third academic year. It means that there is one semester time gap between General English and
Maritime English courses, whereas the intensive General English training is conducted during
the first two school years. As we all know that China is not an English-speaking country and has
no English language environment, it is thus very important to maintain a consecutive learning
process until the learners reach a stable level, otherwise it may not only waste time but also in fluence the learning efficiency for the leaners to pick up the language again.
With one exception, the Extensive English Reading course, covering a variety of topics about
oceans, international shipping and transportation as well as world economics and finance, is for
first-year students and can be regarded as Maritime English in scope. However, fluent oral ex pression in English communication is still a big barrier for Chinese students.
In a word, even with a solid foundation of General English, the problem the DMU students
are facing is lack of adequate exercises in oral maritime English communication, this make it
difficult to master Maritime English in the real world. Besides, writing skills also need to be en hanced according to the current situation. In this regard, it is suggested to adjust the maritime
English course and bridge the gap in the first semester with nautical English course in oral and
written form to enhance the students communication skills.
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The methodology and techniques of teaching

In DMU, the course of Nautical English listening and speaking has been taught by language
teachers from Foreign Language College who are proficient in language skills. While the other
subject English courses have been delivered by teachers from technical fields who are good at
professional knowledge, normally they have good command in English skills but may not be a
good language expert particularly in the language teaching aspect.
In consequence, most of the lectures of Maritime English are delivered by Grammar transla tion approach rather than communicative approach. When teaching, the lecturers focus on ex plaining technical knowledge rather than developing the students language skills. The prin ciples of the communicative approach, for example, learner-centered teaching, students active
involvement and communication tool, etc. have not been adopted to cultivate students commu nicative competence. Like the traditional classes dominated by teachers, teamwork and role play
are seldom held in the class, students cannot use and practice the language actively.
In addition, the various teaching techniques in Maritime English stage are not well developed.
Four language skills including listening, speaking, reading and writing are taught separately. It
is suggested to introduce the teaching techniques recommended by Model Course and integrate
the above four language skills together when teaching.
Culture Awareness
A current global trend, whether inside or outside of shipping, is globalization which high lights cross-cultural communication. However, culture difference is an obstacle in the cross-cul tural intercourse particularly aboard a ship manned by a multi-ethnic crew. Rivers [6] believes,
People cannot learn language well if they do not know the mode and standard of the culture,
and people cannot have a well command of English if they do not know the culture back ground. Culture learning is the key issue in language learning and language is closely related
to culture which includes norms, religious beliefs, values, etc. Yet there is no relevant course or
related topics being covered in DMU teaching syllabus. Intercultural awareness cultivating is
undoubtedly a great progress that meets the demand in maritime college or institution and pro motes better understanding in the real world. Therefore, it is necessary to set up new course or
revise the current syllabus to increase the students culture awareness and develop their crosscultural communication skills.
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Conclusion
To sum up, good course design and course syllabus should not only comply with international
training standards and satisfy the requirements of relevant conventions and regulations, but also
provide students with a full and complete knowledge system, fully develop the students poten tial and give them the capability and ability to explore their future career. With the new revised
IMO Maritime English Model Course 3.17 as reference, it is necessary for DMU to take the ini tiative to redesign the Maritime English courses and course syllabus, so that the students com munication competence in Maritime English as well as in General English is substantially im proved.
References
Borodina, N.V. (2000). Better ways to develop standard maritime English syllabus. Proceed ings of globalization and MET. Dalian: Dalian Maritime University Press.
Brown, J.D. (2001). The Elements of language curriculum: A systematic approach to program
development. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
IMO.(2014). MARITIME ENGLISH MODEL COURSE 3.17: Maritime English. International
Maritime Organization, London
Luo, W. H., Bao, J. Z. (1997). The connection of general English and maritime English teach ing. Nautical Education Research, Vol. 4, 29-33.
Rivers, W.M. Teaching Foreign Languages Skills. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1981, P. 315.
Trenkner, P. (2000). Maritime English: An attempt of imperfect definition. Proceedings of
Workshop on Maritime English. Dalian: Dalian Maritime University Press. PP. 1-8.
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English and Non English major Teachers

Assessment of Oral Proficiency: A case of Iranian
Maritime English Learners
Hooshang Khoshsima Chabahar Maritime University (Iran)
Ali Asghar Roostami Abusaeidi Ministry of Science & Technology (Iran)
Abstract
Speaking assessment is still construed as a complicated, under-researched process from the
vantage point of tasks and rater characteristics. The present study aimed at investigating if
and how English Major and non English Major teachers differ in their perception of the
construct of oral proficiency while assessing learners L2 oral proficiency. To this end,
38 male and female non-native EFL teachers were asked to rate 10 monologs on a 4-point rating
scale and provide concurrent verbal reports. Cronbachs alpha coefficient shows that the interrater reliability is relatively high, however; EM teaches are on the whole more reliable while
doing the assessment task. On the other hand MANOVA reveals no significant difference in the
teachers holistic rating of the speech samples (F=1.44, 0.05), and the adopted approach while
doing the assessment task in EM versus NEM teachers modes of assessment.
keywords: assessment, rater, performance-based assessment, holistic rating scale, oral English
proficiency construct, test
Introduction
Preview
To many language learners, the ability to speak in a foreign language is equal to being able to
use a foreign language. Speaking is a productive skill which involves the process of encoding or
creating a message. Like the other skills, speaking is an active skill in which speakers use their
background linguistic knowledge to create a meaningful message to the deliberate audience
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(Chastain, 1988). Speaking skills are an important part of the curriculum in language teaching,
and this makes them an important object of assessment as well (Luoma, 2004, p.1).
Shifts from conventional paper-and-pencil selective response tests to performance-based as sessment of second and foreign language skills, especially in assessment of writing and speak ing, where raters are usually required to carry subjective assessment of a persons language abil ity, over the past decades has accorded pivotal importance to the role of the raters in assessing
students language abilities. While in conventional tests (i.e. multiple choice tests) the obtained
score is the implication of interaction between test task and examinee, in performance-based as sessment rater facet is added to the assessment process which can be a potential source of error,
influencing test score validity and reliability. Variability caused by raters has been found to
manifest itself in a number of ways: raters may differ with regard to the overall internal consist ency, they may display different bias patterns, or they may rely on diverse scoring criteria or
make different interpretation of rating scales.
An increasing number of studies have focused on rater variability in performance-based as sessment of L2 ability. Raters have been proved to differ with regard to the severity of their
evaluation of examinees oral proficiency and can produce a broad range of scores. Raters were
also found assigning the same score to disparate performances or disparate scores to the same
performance (Brown, 1995; Douglas 1994; Merion & Schi, 2000; Orr, 2002). Some researches
revealed that even if high degree of agreement exists between the raters, this does not state by
any means similar judgment, in other words the same score may mean different things to differ ent raters (Ang-Aw & Meng Goh, 2011; Douglas, 1994; Johnson & Lim, 2009; Orr, 2002;
Merion & Schi, 2000). Raters may also differ in their approaches while assessing speaking. To
increase rater consistency and provide a more accurate estimate of examinees scores, some re searchers have recommended rater training sessions. Research findings, however, have shown
that although training is effective, it does not eliminate rater variability and rater inconsistency
exists even after training programs (Hamilton, Reddle & Spratt, 2001; Knoch, 2011; Lumely.
2002; Weigle, 1998). This lends credence to the use of more than one rater to assess each
learners L2 performance. In many assessment contexts, multiple raters rating of examinees
performance are combined to produce a single score. But such multi-rater assessment of L2
speaking ability does not usually result in highly reliable and valid scores. There are occasions
when raters assign completely discrepant scores to the same performance which requires the use
of some method of resolving those differences (Penny & Johnson, 2011).
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Statement of Problem
The expansion in scientific, technical, and economic activity on an international scale
after the World War the Second created an appeal for an international language. For many reas ons, most significantly the economic power of the United States after World War II, this role fell
to English (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). With the growing demand of learning English as a for eign language over the past decade in Iran, we witness an increasing number of English insti tutes which require English teachers more than at any other time. The majority of these insti tutes are private, indicating that they are governed in accordance with their managers policies.
Some institutes just use teachers with English related majors i.e. having a university degree in
one of English majors is essential for teaching there. But for some institutes, it is not the case, it
does not matter what the teachers majors are, if their English knowledge is acceptable for
teaching English they can take the role of teacher. Parallel with changes occurring in language
teaching methods, most of the language institutes focus on communicative ability of the
learners, hence, speaking receives vital importance. Since assessment is a part of any teaching
curriculum, assessing speaking is of crucial importance especially when learners are going to
take part in a placement test the aim of which is to place test takers at an appropriate level in a
program or course (Richards & Schmidt, 2002.p.404). As noted earlier, the involvement of
raters is a source of error influencing the scores obtained by learners, and in language institutes
where the selection of teachers is somehow done without careful consideration, this involve ment may lead to even more severe consequences.
Research Questions
Q1. Is there a significant difference between inter-rater reliability indices in English
Major versus None English Major teachers?
Q2. Is there a significant difference between the holistic ratings of 10 speaking tasks by
English Major versus None English Major teachers?
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Literature review
Rater Variables
A number of studies have focused on those raters characteristics that may introduce a source
of substantial degree of variability in English as a second language (ESL) and English as a for eign language (EFL) performance-based assessment contexts. Of these properties, diverse lin guistic background and professional experience have received the most attention.
Linguistic Background
As regards raters linguistic background which has mostly appeared in contrastive studies of
native speaker (NS) and non-native speaker (NNS) raters, findings have revealed that although
in most cases there are no significance differences between these two groups of raters in the
scores they assign to candidates L2 performance, they differ in their perception of the construct
under question i.e. writing or speaking (Fayer & Krasinski, 1987; Santoes, 1988; Shi, 2001;
Zhang & Elder, 2011). Zhang and Elder (2011), for instance, found no significant differences
between the scores assigned by NS and NNS raters to oral performance of a group of examin ees, however, the two groups were found to differ in the way they weighed various aspects of
oral proficiency construct. As far as linguistic features were concerned, NNS English teachers
demonstrated to be more severe than NS teachers. On the other hand, NS teachers attended more
to communication strategies, demeanor and interaction indicating that they based their judgment
on how well candidates can accomplish a communicative task rather than on candidates lin guistic competence. It should be noted that drawing clear-cut conclusions about the effect of lin guistic background of raters on their rating behavior from extant literature is not safe. Some
studies have been carried out with contradictory results. There has been some research, for ex ample, showing that NS raters are likely to be more severe than NNS raters with regard to lin guistic features (Barnwell, 1989; Brown, 1995). Another group of studies show no difference
between NS and NNS groups with respect to both severity (Johnson& Lim, 2009; Kim, 2009)
and consistency (Kim, 2009). These differences can be attributed to different methodologies em ployed in these studies, small sample size, and diverse native language (Chaulhoub-Deville,
1995; Brown, 1995).
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Rating Experience: Novices vs. Experts

Rating experience that raters bring to the rating process is another variable that has been
found to impact on raters performance. Research on the effect of rater experience on ESL as sessment shows that experienced and novice raters approach the rating task differently (Barka oui, 2010; Cumming, 1990; Schoonen, Verger & Eiting, 1997; Weigle, 1998). Cumming (1990),
for example, found that expert teachers had a fuller mental representation of the task of assess ing their students ESL compositions and used various criteria, self control-strategies and know ledge sources to read and rate the compositions. Novice teachers, on the contrary, employed a
few criteria to assess students compositions and used skills that might derive from their general
reading abilities and other sources of knowledge that they had acquired previously such as edit ing. In a recent study, Barakaoui (2010) also argued that novice and expert raters make differen tial use of the rating scale. Generally, novices relied more heavily on the rating scale for rating
criteria and decision-making because they did not have established criteria and/or they did not
know how to approach the rating task. Experienced raters, by contrast, referred to criteria other
than those in the rating scale more frequently, gave more comments on the compositions, and
were more self-consistent. Taken together, literature on rater experience in ESL assessment
shows that raters expertise is fundamental to their decision-making and does affect their rating
performance.
Teaching Experience: Teachers vs. Non-teachers

Some research have made a comparison between assessments done by ESL teachers and those
raters without teaching experience (Barnwell, 1989; Brown, 1995; Chaulhoub-Deville, 1995;
Hadden, 1991; Shoamy et al 1992). These studies, however, have not provided consistent res ults as to how teacher and non-teachers judgments differ. Hadden (1991) figured out that teach er raters were more severe than non-teachers with respect to linguistic ability in assessing
speaking ability of Chinese students, but the two groups did not differ significantly as far as
comprehensibility, social acceptability and body language were concerned.
These findings,
however, contrasted with Chaulhoub-Devilles (1995) study which found that non-teachers ten ded more on linguistic features in a narration task than teachers who referred to creativity and
adequacy of information more than linguistic aspects. Chaulhoub (1995) attributed the discrep ant findings of the two studies to the different native languages of the participant raters. While
in her study, raters were NSs of modern standard of Arabic (MSA), in Haddens (1991) study
the participants were native English speakers.
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The above studies address rater variability in performance-based assessment in diverse rater
groups. Another line of research, however, has been carried out with the aim of identifying bias
patterns among raters, thereby providing a fuller picture of the rater facet in performance-based
assessment.
Rater Training
From research on rater facet in L2 performance-based assessment, it can be understood that
there is the possibility of a substantial degree of rater variability in assessing L2 writing and
speaking, that raters, consciously and unconsciously, may assess students L2 abilities with bias,
and that raters interpret rating scales differently and draw on a range of non-criterion factors
which they suppose to be important in assessing oral or written performance( Brown, 2000;
Douglas, 1994; May, 2006; Orr, 2002; Wiggleworth, 1993). These among others are reasons that
have pushed researchers and administrators towards planning training programs so as to reduce
systematic errors caused by raters and improve rater consistency and score validity (Lumely et
al., 1995). As such, several studies to date have been carried out investigating whether training
can improve raters` performance (Elder et al., 2007; Shohamy, et al., 1992; Tajeddin & Pashm foroosh, 2011; Weigle, 1998). Shohamy et al. (1992) investigated the effectiveness of rater
training by comparing rating performance of 10 trained and 10 untrained raters of 50 L2 com positions on three scales: holistic, communicative, and accuracy . They observed that inter-rater
reliability was relatively high in both groups, but trained raters were on the whole more reliable
than untrained raters.
While the existing literature shows that, on the whole, training reduces rater variability and
improves rater self-consistency, it does not appear to eliminate random errors caused by raters,
that is, rater inconsistency still exists after regular training session (Lumely et al., 1995,
Lumely, 2002; Ang-Aw et al., 2011; Weigle, 1998; Weigle, 1994), receiving individualized
feedback(Knoch, 2011; Wiggleworth, 1994) or online self-training programs (Hamilton, Reddle,
& Spratt, 2001). In a recent study, Ang-Aw et al. (2011), for instance, investigated rater variab ility among 7 experienced examiners of O level examination (a high-stakes national English
test for secondary students in Singapore (formerly also in the UK, replaced by GCSE). They
found that despite undergoing similar training, raters differed in their perception of oral profi ciency construct, the emphasis they placed on different aspects of oral proficiency, and their in terpretation and approach to assessment. In another study, Knoch (2011) examined the impact of
individualized feedback on rating behavior of 19 raters assessing writing and speaking subsets
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
of occupational English Test (OET) over eight administrations. After each administration, raters
received a performance profile on their rating behavior on the basis of MFRM. The findings
showed that raters rated neither the writing nor the speaking subsets no better after receiving in dividually targeted feedbacks.
The overall impression gleaned from literature on rater facet in L2 assessment, thus, shows
that while rater training which, as stated by Lane and Stone (2006), typically involves "familiar ization activities, practice rating, and feedback and discussion" (cited in Lim, 2011, p. 544) can
attenuate rater variability, improve self-consistency of individual raters, and reduce rater bias in
relation to various aspects of test situations, it does seem to have a temporal effect, usually no
more than a day (Congdon & Mcqueen, 2000; Lumely & McNamara, 1995, Weigle, 1998), and
does not eliminate the extent of rater variability. For this reason some researchers are against
the practice of training raters and conducting judgments on the basis of a single rating by such
trained raters and have advocated the use of double or multiple raters, specially in high stakes
tests (Lumely et al.,1995). Several studies to date have investigated inter-rater reliability and
scoring validity of multi-rater
judgments of students L2 performance ( Douglas, 1994;
Gamaroff, 2000; Meiron et al., 2000), most of them showing that even in cases where highinter rater reliability is achieved , quantitatively similar scores usually reflect qualitatively dif ferent learner performances.
Methodology
Participants
38 Iranian EFL teachers (15 male, 23 female) participated in the study, of whom 19 were EM
and 19 NEM teachers. Of the 19 EM teachers, 9 males and 10 females and of 19 NEM teachers,
6 males and 13 females were currently teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) at Safir
Language Academy and had been teaching English for a minimum of one year and maximum of
15 years. None of the participants had received any rater training programs. They self rated their
English proficiency as either advanced or near native. Table 1 describes a profile of participants demographics.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Instruments
Audio-recording of 10 Iranian EFL learners oral English were used as the motivated materi al. They were an unsystematic subsample of a pool of recordings performed for research pur poses in an earlier study and were based on 5 topic-based one-way speaking tasks, with 2 stu dents speaking 2-3 minutes on each( Tajeddin, Pashmfroosh, 2011). As noted by (Tajeddin,
Pashmfroosh, 2011), the students were adult EFL learners studying English in private institutes.
Participants were also asked to fill an assessment sheet in which they rated speaking samples
holistically on a 4-points scale from 1(novice) to 4 (superior) with the midpoints labeled as in termediate and advanced respectively (half points were allowed). As mentioned in the introduc tion of this chapter no further explanation of the scores was provided to find out how the raters
perceived second language oral proficiency construct and defined the scoring criteria (Orr,
2002; Zhang & Elder, 2011; Kim, 2009; Ang-Aw& Meng Goh, 2011). Teachers employed all the
scale points, with 4 being the least and 2 being the most used scores in both groups.
Procedure
38 participants of both genders were selected randomly. The participants were supposed to as sess 10 speaking tasks chosen from a pool of recordings of an earlier research (Tajeddin, Pash mfroosh, 2011). The assessment took a holistic rating on a 4-point scale from 1 (novice) to 4
(superior) with the midpoints labeled intermediate and advanced respectively. Each rater was
briefed on the rating scale and speaking samples and received instruction on how to produce
think-aloud protocols while rating the recordings. Nothing was said about students name, spe cific age, and level of proficiency, but they were told that the speakers were EFL students who
spoke on a specified topic after giving one minute to think about it. Teachers, then, rated the 10
recordings on the basis of the holistic 4-point rating scale while thinking aloud into a tape re corder. To eliminate researcher effect on their performance and to provide them with sufficient
time, raters were allowed to do the ratings at their convenience. The researcher came up with 38
assessment sheets and 380 sets of verbal protocols.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Data Analysis
Analysis of the First Research Question
The first research question focused on investigating inter-rater reliability indices in EM
versus NEM teachers modes. As noted earlier the 38 participants in the study were asked to
complete an assessment sheet in which they rated each speaking sample holistically on a 4-point
rating scale, labeled as 1= novice, 2= intermediate, 3= advanced, 4= superior (half points were
allowed). Consistency of ratings in both modes - EM teachers vs. NEM teachers was estimated
by means of Cronbachs alpha coefficient.
table 4.1: Inter-rater reliability estimates for EM vs. NEM teachers modes.
95% confidence interval
Modes of assessment
coefficient
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
EM teachers
0.81
0.65
0.91
NEM teachers
0.79.4
0.62
0.90
Inter-rater reliability in the EM teachers mode and in NEM teachers mode were 0.81 and
0.79.4 respectively (table 4.1) which is surprising given the fact that the participant teachers had
not received any training. The high level of inter-rater consistency in both modes can be attrib uted to the fact that raters were allowed to augment integer-level scores by using half points.
Thus permitting such flexibility in the scores assigned by raters can be suggested as a reason for
the high level of consistency between raters in EM and NEM teachers. Although the indices of
agreement between raters for each mode are very similar, it is important to look at the confid ence intervals for the reliability indices in each mode (table 4.1).The confidence intervals show
the range within which the population indices may fall in 95% of samples. For EM teachers
mode, the confidence intervals are 0.65 to 0.91 and for NEM teachers mode 0.62 to 0.90. These
results show narrower confidence intervals for alpha coefficient in the EM teachers mode of as -
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sessment. Although the inter-rater reliability was relatively high in both modes, EM teachers
were on the whole more reliable while doing the assessment task.
Analysis of the Second Research Question

The second research question aimed at investigating the difference between the scores as signed to the 10 speaking tasks by teachers in the two modes of assessment. To achieve this aim
SPSS version 17 was used. Table 4.2 summarizes means and standard deviations for teachers`
assessment of the 10 speaking samples in the two modes.
table 4.2: Descriptive statistics for the 10 speaking samples in EM vs. NEM
Ranking
of
EM mode
NEM mode
samples
NEM
EM
Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
1.83
.38
2.28
.50
Task 1.1
2.27
.46
2.60
.60
Task 1.2
2.01
.36
2.35
.76
Task 2.1
2.82
.68
3.36
.57
Task 2.2
10
10
1.77
.64
1.93
.73
Task 3.1
2.05
.53
2.18
.71
Task 3.2
2.16
.38
2.48
.72
Task 4.1
3.05
.63
3.31
.60
Task 4.2
1.94
.53
2.33
.67
Task 5.1
2.50
.70
2.44
.65
Task 5.2
2.24
.50
2.58
.65
Total
As it is shown in table 4.2 in the EM teachers mode, mean scores for the 10 tasks ranged
from 1.77 to 3.05 and in the NEM teachers mode it ranged from 1.93 to 3.36. The total mean
score of the 10 speaking sample for EM teachers mode is 2.24 and for NEM teachers mode is
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
2.58 which shows teachers assigned slightly higher scores to the 10 tasks in NEM mode while
doing assessment. Moreover, considering standard deviations, a smaller total mean of standard
deviation was found for EM mode (total mean of S.D. of .50 vs. .65). This suggests that scores
awarded by EM teachers to the 10 speaking samples were more homogeneous than those they
gave in the NEM mode. With respect to the rankings, in the NEM mode, Task 2.2 received the
highest score and Task 4.2 the second highest score. In the EM mode, teachers scored Task 4.2
as the best and Task 2.2 as the second best. They agreed in both modes, on the poorest perform ance by assigning the lowest score to Task 3.1. Concerning the rest of the tasks, a difference of
one to two ranks emerged between raters` performance in the two modes.
To find out the differences in the scores assigned by the teachers to 10 speaking tasks in EM
and NEM mode, MANOVA was run. Table 4.3 shows the results of MANOVA comparing the
scores in EM and NEM mode.
table 4.3: Results of MANOVA comparing the scores in EM and NEM
Partial
Eta
Sig.
Error df
.192
43.000
Hypothesis df
Value
Effect
.74
Wilks`
Squared
.252
10.000
1.44
Lambda
The F- observed value is 1.44 and significance level is .192 which is more than 0.05 which
shows no significant difference between the scores assigned by teachers to the 10 speaking tasks
in EM versus NEM mode( F=1.44, p0.05).
Discussion and Conclusion

As indicated in preceding parts and chapters, this study set out to ascertain whether there is
any difference between EM and NEM teachers assessment of L2 oral proficiency of Iranian
EFL learners. Four research questions were addressed in this descriptive research that would be
discussed here. This study examined teacher variability through both qualitative and quantitat ive approaches, focusing on inter-rater reliability indices by EM and NEM teachers, the differ -
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ences between the scores assigned to 10 speaking tasks by them, their perception of oral profi ciency construct, and approaches used by them while assessing L2 oral proficiency.
To answer the first research question Cronbachs alpha coefficient was run. As it was
shown in table 4.1 inter-rater reliability in the EM teachers mode and in NEM teachers mode
were 0.81 and 0.79.4 respectively. . Although the indices of agreement between raters for each
mode are very similar, it is important to look at the confidence intervals for the reliability in dices in each mode (table 4.1). For EM teachers mode, the confidence intervals are 0.65 to 0.91
and for NEM teachers mode 0.62 to 0.90. These results show narrower confidence intervals for
alpha coefficient in the EM teachers mode of assessment. Thus, although inter-rater reliability
was relatively high in both modes, EM teaches were on the whole more reliable while doing the
assessment task. So the null hypothesis assumed for this research question is rejected.
The second research issues under-question in this study was whether EM and NEM teachers
differed in their holistic rating while doing the assessment task. Based on the results stated in
table 4.2 teachers assigned slightly higher scores to the 10 tasks in NEM mode while doing as sessment. Moreover, considering standard deviations, a smaller total mean of standard deviation
was found for EM mode (total mean of S.D. of .50 vs. .65). This suggests that scores awarded
by EM teachers to the 10 speaking samples were more homogeneous than those they gave in the
NEM mode. To discover the differences in the scores assigned by the teachers to 10 speaking
tasks in EM and NEM mode, MANOVA was run. according to table 4.3 the F- observed value
is 1.44 and significance level is .192 which shows no significant difference between the scores
assigned by teachers to the 10 speaking tasks in EM versus NEM mode( F=1.44, p0.05).
Therefore, the null hypothesis supposed for this research question is accepted.
Pedagogical Implication
The overarching aim of the present study was to explore the differences between a group of
EM and NEM teachers in assessing candidates L2 oral proficiency. The findings of the study
have a number of implications for teacher educators as well as for teachers and language insti tutes.
A crucial implication of this study would be a change in the policies of private language insti tutes in choosing English teachers. The owners of these institutes might be more cautious about
recruiting teachers to teach English in their institutes. Another implication concerns educating
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
programs with the aim of making teachers more homogonous in the assessment of subjective
tasks i.e. speaking and writing, in any teaching curriculum including private language institutes.
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Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A Learning-Centered Ap proach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Penny, A. J., Johnson, L. R., & Gordon, B. (2000). The Effect of Rating Augmentation on InterRater Reliability: An Emprical Study of an Holistic Rubric. Assessing Writing, 7, 143-164.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
On-going Maritime English Education Reform in

China
Yan Li Dalian Maritime University (China), zhlxgg@163.com
Weihua Luo Dalian Maritime University (China), weihua.luo@dlmu.edu.cn
Abstract
IMOs call for seafarers effective communicative competence reached its climax in the 2010
Manila amendments to STCW Conventions. In response, China has undertaken a series of re forms in Maritime English education. Under the authority of China MSA, Dalian Maritime Uni versity has taken its lead in the reform, giving full consideration to the revised STCW. Among
all the efforts, College English Teaching for cadets has been reoriented so that there is a natural
transition from EGP to ESP (Maritime English). A series of innovative College English Text books (For Cadets) were released in 2012 and have received much attention; meanwhile, MSA
Examination Guides for Certificates of Competence initiated a new Maritime English
teaching(MET) and examination model that is communication-oriented. At the same time, great
importance has been attached to updating the Maritime English. The first part of the paper gives
a general introduction to Maritime English Teaching and Research in China, and the second part
contributes to Maritime English Education Reform in China with the case of Dalian Maritime
University as an example. It is hoped that the initiatives taken in DMU can shed light on MET
in non-English-speaking countries and further experiments and research on effective MET will
be implemented with the joint effort of all maritime institutions.
keywords: College English Textbooks (For Cadets), Effective Communicative Competence, De velopment of Maritime English Professionals, Maritime English Education
Maritime English Teaching and Research in China

The ability to communicate successfully is one of the most important qualifications for sea farers, and misunderstandings caused by poor communication at sea have been identified fre -
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
quently as a contributory factor to accidents posing a threat to safe operations of ships, even
leading to loss of life and property. Investigations into disasters at sea involving the human ele ment have revealed that one-third of accidents happen as a result of communication problems
primarily to insufficient command of Maritime English. [1] (Trenkner, 2010)
The most crucial points regarding verbal communication is that more than 86% of all SOLAS
vessels are crewed with multilingual personnel who due to diverse reasons, more often do not
master the Maritime English skill required.[2](Trenkner, 2013)
In China, English is a compulsory subject in marine education institutions of different levels.
Many teaching hours are assigned to English courses in maritime schools. But detailed analysis
of Maritime English teaching and training shows that the time devoted is not well rewarded.
Maritime English teaching at marine colleges and universities in China has been substantially
dominated by the exam for Certificate of Competency. The teaching syllabi have been closely
related to the Maritime English exam syllabi which are subject to changes according to the re quirements of maritime international conventions and regulations as well as the development of
marine science and technology plus maritime transportation business progress. The Maritime
English exams before 1997 were written exams consisting of multiple choice questions and
translation, which tested vocabulary, grammar knowledge, reading comprehension and transla tion ability respectively. Maritime English teaching at that time was mainly text-based using
the grammar-translation approach and students were passive learners who listened to the teach ers and wrote down the Chinese meaning and memorized the answers. It was not difficult for
students to pass the ME exam and obtain the competency certificate as long as they memorized
all the answers to the questions, but they ended up with poor communicative competence when
working on multilingual ships.
Since 1997, Maritime English listening and speaking evaluation has been added to test the
candidates listening comprehension ability and speaking ability. The reform is intended to im prove communicative competence of the examinees to make them more competent for future
work on board, which to some extent has made Maritime English teaching move from the gram mar-translation approach to relatively more interactive approaches., with more emphasis on
speaking and listening skill training. However, as the question banks of the exams were pub lished prior to the exam, many candidates chose to memorize the questions to pass the exams,
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
which made maritime English teaching focus more on teaching the students the content of the
exams and the skills to pass the exams.
To sum up, maritime English teaching at school was mainly exam-oriented and students com petence to communicate for meaning and understanding was marginalized.
A large body of research literature has been contributed from the perspectives of educators,
policy makers and business administrators, pointing at strategies to improve Chinese seafarers
communicative ability in English, and five main areas of research are researches on improving
ME classroom teaching, researches on ME testing reform, researches on ME education policy
reform, researches on ME teaching practitioner training and researches on strategies to pass ME
exams. But the articles are more theoretically based, and there is a lack of reports on empirical
study of the ME teaching reform in China.
The Manila Amendments were completed on June 21st , 2010 and entered into force on Janu ary 1st, 2012. Within the 18-month period of grace, which allowed member states and their in stitutions to prepare for the change, China undertook a series of reforms in Maritime English
education for the purpose of improving the English communicative competency of Chinese sea farers. A new teaching and examination system was drafted, full consideration given to practical
English reading, professional writing, listening comprehension and oral expression. Under the
authority and direction of MSA, Dalian Maritime University has been engaging in the revision
of relevant guidebooks, providing a common basis for the elaboration of the exams, textbooks
and guidelines. Aside from that, DMU has been granted the responsibility of directing a national
program Comprehensive Translation of IMO Model Courses, which is scheduled to be com plete in 2016.
Dalian Maritime University (DMU) is the the only key maritime institution under the Ministry
of Communications, Peoples Republic of China, and enjoys a high reputation as a center of
maritime education and training as recognized by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO). Since the amended STCW pays special attention to realizing competency-oriented rather
purely knowledge-based MET and assessment [3] (Trenker, 2000), it is worth noting in this context that DMU has played a key role of setting a higher bar in terms of College English Teach ing which is otherwise arranged for cadets.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Reoriented Teaching Mode

In the maritime world, effective communicative competence is an increasingly paramount
factor for carrying out safe and successful operation. However, several researchers in China
have argued that the lack of communication skills among Chinese seafarers is still a snake in
the grass. Despite the efforts and time students spend in their pursuit of English proficiency,
they often fail to see pleasing results from their study of English. [5] ( Weihua Luo, 2009)
Therefore, this provides the condition for educational administrators, course designers, teachers,
teacher trainers, examining bodies, etc., to reflect on their current practices, with a view to situ ating and co-coordinating their efforts and to ensuring that they meet the real needs of cadets
and seafarers.
The fact is that the soaring status of English has drawn the attention to the importance of Eng lish teaching at undergraduate level in China. According to College English Curriculum Re quirements released by China Ministry of Education and considering the characteristics of its
own navigational majors, many navigational colleges have managed to establish their own Col lege English Syllabus, which are intended to work out scientifically and systematically as a
teaching guideline for College English. Taking the case in DMU, the syllabus stipulates three
teaching modes with the same number of requirement sets.
table 1: Specific teaching requirements in the syllabus
Teaching Mode
Elementary Stage: Teaching
Level of Requirement
for College English
Curriculum Requirements
Processing
Stage:
Teaching
various
selective
courses and professional English through all school

years
General requirements
Intermediate requirements
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Enhancing Stage: Providing Bilingual Education

and English as a minor
Higher requirements
In the syllabus, the cultivation of comprehensive English competence takes priority, in partic ular the listening and speaking ability and navigational English skills; modern English study
techniques are taken into full consideration to cater for the principles of individualized teaching.
In addition, the university has decided to switch their attention to English output skills by in tensifying relative classes.
table 2: Comparison of curriculums before and after the reform
Semester
Before (252periods,
16credits)
36(reading/writing)+18
(Audiovisual) =54
After (432periods, 16credits)
90(reading/writing)+54(Audiovisual
+18Pronunciation=162
108(reading/writing)+72Audiovisu-
(Audiovisual)=72
(Audiovisual)=72
(Audiovisual)=54
al=180
54(reading/writing/Selected Readings of
English Newspapers)
36(Advanced Audiovisual/speaking)
Meanwhile, the autonomous study material on Maritime English is accessible for the students
on the school website, which includes the related audio files repeatedly broadcast in the morning, afternoon and evening. Moreover, the selective inclusion of that content in the final test is
applied to reinforce the effectiveness of autonomous study.
Innovative College English Textbooks (for cadets)

ESP practitioners often find themselves stuck in a situation where they have textbooks or
course books that are de-motivating, boring and inappropriate to a particular group of learners.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Searching the market for Maritime English textbooks, the present course designers found this
process daunting. The reasons for this vary between the lack of Maritime textbooks , the lack
of interest on the part of the publishers and the slow rate of the adjustments to meet advances
in foreign language teaching [4](Pritchard, 2004, P.4). In this context, China has responded to
the implementation of STCW78/10, with the aim of achieving a natural transition from EGP to
ESP (Maritime English) on the basis of the needs analysis. A multitude of experts on both navigational majors and linguistics have been gathered as a think tank for the compilation. Till now,
this series of College English textbooks have already been adopted by more than 10 colleges
and turns out to be a new solution for ESP (Maritime English) learning.
The whole set is constituted by College English (Reading and Writing for cadets) and College
English (Listening, Watching and Speaking for cadets). Either of them consists of four books,
with eight units in each one and one theme in a unit. Topics are introduced by authentic listen ing and speaking materials and are deepened into discussion by reading and further by writing.
This way of editing contributes to a tighter bond of the English language and navigation skills.
Case to be taken below is College English (Reading and Writing for cadets).
table 3: Structure of College English(Reading and Writing)
Name
Content
Theme-related culture input in the form of pictures,
Part I
Pre-reading
forms to encourage students learning initiative before

reading texts.
Key text of the theme, with practices of comprehen-
Part II
Text A
sion, collocation, synonyms, translation, text retelling,

theme discussion.
Part III
Text B
Part IV
Writing
Text of maritime-related theme for reading practice

Practical writing instruction which includes structure
analysis, model essays and practice.
Theme related websites, entertainments such as songs,
Part V
After Class
stories, poetry to further inspire students interest in

learning English.
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With six parts in one unit, the content of each part concentrates on the same theme to ensure
the abundance of vocabulary and background information input; text B is in particular maritimerelated, aiming to enhance students reading comprehension in Maritime English. Most of the
texts are selected from English original books, magazines, newspapers and main-stream web sites. The compilers have tailored some essays and inserted necessary footnotes so as to adapt
the students literacy in English.
College English Textbooks (Listening, Watching and Speaking for cadets), as an indispensable
part of this book set, are complied by the principles of practicality, interactivity, authenticity
and diversity, taking on-board context into account and finally achieving Effective Communica tion Competence. This attempt to combine EGP and ESP (maritime English) in the textbooks of
College English explores a creative approach of MET in China.
table 4: Structure of College English (Listening, Watching and Speaking)
Unit
Content
Unit
Content
Unit 1
Integrity and Honesty
Unit 2
History
Passage A
Honesty in Communication
Passage A
Passage B
Passage C
Passage D
Professional Mistakes Seafarers

Should Never Make Onboard Ships
Trustworthiness and integrity: What It
Takes and Why Its So Hard
Communication and Teamwork
Passage B
A Chinese Empire to Rival

Rome
Life at Sea in the Royal
Navy of the 18th Century
Passage C
Australias First Colony
Passage D
The Human Footprint
Development of Maritime English Professionals

China Ministry of Education has consistently underlined the importance of teachers stability,
integrity and high quality long since the beginning of College English Reform in 2002. Mari time English teachers in China are taking the opportunity with this reform to switch outdated
pedagogical ideas to new channels and pursue their professional development. On the one hand,
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priority in class is partially given to students under teachers guidance, a way quite different
from the teacher-centered mode; the role of teachers shifts from an imparter of knowledge to a
promoter. On the other hand, the Department of Maritime English is involved in a multitude of
teaching-related trainings and activities; visits on board training ship take place every semester
so as to refresh their knowledge about ships; the senior teachers take turns to present classes and
remain open to evaluation while the young take the initiative to attend school teaching competi tions, forming a virtuous circle within the teaching staff; scores of senior teachers have been en gaged in the compilation of CoCs (Certificates of Competence) Syllabus and relevant guide books under the authority of MSA (Maritime Safety Administration), China.
With the support of MSA, China, the Training Program of Maritime English Teachers has
been held three times on board M/V Yukun (DMU training ship), a real target context for the use
of Maritime English. The program is intended to help teachers enhance their level of proficiency
in terms of maritime knowledge, sea culture and on-board drills. Till now, more than 100 parti cipants from different colleges are involved, and their advice also contributes in return to the
on-going reforms of Maritime English education.
Conclusion
The amended STCW conventions have been in force for more than 4 years. During this peri od, there has been a real intention and desire in China to make a sustainable and valid contribu tion to the implementation of the new provisions. DMU plays the key role along the way by ad apting Curricula of College English courses (for Cadets), reorienting teaching materials, re freshing teachers professional skills and developing new assessment tools. There is no doubt
that all these endeavors will finally contribute to not only China but towards a more prosperous
and safer shipping industry at international level.
References
[1] Trenker, P. (2010). Raising the Maritime English Bar: The STCW Manila Amendments and
Their Impact on Maritime English, Proceedings of The International Maritime English Conference IMEC 22(P.5). Alexanderia: Arab Academy for Science, Technology & Maritime Trans port.
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[2] Trenker, P. (2013). Are we all on the same page? Telegraph | nautilusint.org
[3] Trenkner, P. (2000). Maritime English: An attempt of an imperfect definition, Proceedings of
Workshop Maritime English. Dalian: Dalian Maritime University.
[4] Pritchard, B. (2004). A survey of maritime English materials-State of the art in Maritime
English, IAMU, Tokyo.
[5] Weihua, L. 2009 .ESP Teaching Approaches and Research MethodologyTake the Case
of Maritime English. Foreign Language World, 1, 86-89.
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The IMO SMCP 15 years on: current perceptions

and realistic recommendations
Alison Noble - Antwerp Maritime Academy (Belgium), alison.noble@hzs.be
I would like to dedicate this paper to Peter Trenkner , Chairman of IMLA-International
Maritime English Conference (IMEC) and key author of the IMO Standard Marine Communica tion Phrases (SMCP).
Abstract
Recent amendments to the STCW (Table A-II/1, Manila Amendments 2010) stipulate that of ficers shall use the IMO SMCP and use English in oral and written form. However, despite
efforts to locate the SMCP at the forefront of on-board communication, the literature confirms
that authentic maritime communication does not display high SMCP content [1] [2]. Within the
framework of ongoing doctoral research, the author discusses survey-based data gathered from a
questionnaire distributed within the Belgian fleet about the use of the IMO SMCP. A range of
findings offer information about the training and assessment of the SMCP, the circumstances
under which the phrases are used on board, the frequency of their use and the perceived role of
the phrases as a linguistic asset. Approximately 15 years following the IMOs adoption of the
SMCP, the paper concludes with a review of current practices and perceptions and some realist ic recommendations for the future of the SMCP.
keywords: SMCP perceptions, SMCP training and assessment, authentic maritime communica tion, SMCP survey-based data, Belgian fleet
Prof. Peter Trenkner was Chairman of the IMLA group of experts and IMO-NAV drafting group for the estab lishment of the IMO SMCP. The SMCP were approved by the IMO Sub-Committee on Safety of Navigation at its
46th Session which took place from 10-14 July, 2000.
Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping
International Maritime Organization http://www.imo.org
Standard Marine Communication Phrases
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Introduction
Since this paper is destined, initially, for an audience in the know, I will refrain from offering
either definitions of Maritime English or from embarking on a preamble about the IMO Stand ard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP). Those wishing to explore such definitions will
find numerous examples in the literature [3] [4] [5], if not in these very conference proceedings.
I will simply reiterate that the SMCP were adopted by the IMO in 2001, following a long period
of development, in the hope of enhancing on-board communication, thereby improving safety
and thus reducing communication-related accidents at sea.
In his opening speech to delegates of IMEC26 in Terschelling, The Netherlands, Milhar
Fuazudeen, current Head of the IMO Maritime Training and Human Element Section, Maritime
Safety Division, stated the following:
There is a misconception among some seafarers (and some training providers) that an ability
to speak and understand general English and the ability to use the IMO Standard Marine Com munication Phrases (SMCP) are adequate for discharging their functions on board. However,
proficiency in General English and the necessarily restricted language of SMCP are not suffi cient to ensure effective two-way communication on board ships. SMCP is only one among
many tools, but it is considered by many as the key tool for communication on board. They
might not know how far from the truth this is until it is too late [6].
From the context of the quote within Fuazudeens paper, two-way communication on board
ships seems to refer to internal communication, namely within the ship, on the bridge and
between the bridge team. It might, however, include two-way external communication, in other
words ship-to-ship or ship-to shore/shore-to-ship.
In the light of Fuazudeens comments, this paper draws on survey-based findings gathered
during research as part of the authors doctoral thesis and, almost 15 years after the adoption of
the SMCP, reflects on their status, perceived by many as the key tool for communication on
board. Using the data gathered, the paper attempts to rate their use on board, thus gauging their
success in terms of their original objectives.
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Methodology
As part of the authors doctoral research, a questionnaire relating to the role and use of the
IMO SMCP on board was sent out to the Belgian fleet. The questionnaire, which was made
available both online and as a text document, was distributed to the fleet in February 2014 by
way of the major Belgian shipping companies (Exmar, Ahlers, Deme, Jan De Nul) and the Royal
Belgian Shipowners Association. In addition, the questionnaire was sent to members of the Ant werp Maritime Academy Alumnus Association. The manner of distribution meant that the
sample group included both currently navigating officers and respondents who were no longer
navigating. It should be noted that the network of respondents at one stage expanded to include
an online group of mainly French merchant marine officers. Many of the latter had graduated
from MET institutions in France and, contrary to the Belgian officers, had thus trained as dualpurpose officers.
The first section of the questionnaire was designed to gather general information about the re spondents. Respondents were asked to give details of their employer, shipping experience (num ber of years of experience, vessel type, trade type and geographical area), current on-board
function (captain, chief officer, second officer, third officer, fourth officer, apprentice officer)
or, if the latter were no longer applicable, current employment and last on-board function. The
second part of the questionnaire focused on the SMCP, eliciting information about the respond ents knowledge and perceived command of the SMCP; the observed frequency of their use on
board in specific situations; the formal teaching and learning of SMCP; the perceived effective ness and usefulness of the SMCP; and their advantages and disadvantages.
The survey contained 13 questions, excluding the initial questions designed to gather respond ents metadata. However, many of these 13 questions were composed of numerous statements
which the respondents were asked to rate. Open-ended questions were excluded on the grounds
that these were more than likely to generate a non-response. Nevertheless, respondents were
given the opportunity to add additional comments to their answer where appropriate. A Likert
type scale was chosen as offering a suitable method of measuring levels of agreement or dis agreement, thus allowing the author to gauge respondents perception of a particular aspect. The
decision was taken to use an even number of categories, in this case six, thus preventing re -
The Likert scale was invented by Rensis Likert, an American administrator and organisational phsycologist.
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spondents from opting for the neutral option, namely the option occupying the middle ground,
thus reducing so-called acquiescence.
According to the type of statement employed, a range of forced choice scale response cat egories were selected. Table 1 below provides the categories.
table 1
0
No answer
Very effect-
Effective
Rather ef-
Rather inef-
Ineffective
Totally inef-
fective
fective
ive
fective
No answer
Very often
Often
Rather often
Not often
Rarely
Never
No answer
Very import-
Important
Rather im-
Rather un-
Unimportant
Totally un-
portant
important
Fairly good
Fairly poor
ant
No answer
Excellent
Good
important
Poor
Non-existent
Focus group discussions, which took place prior to developing the survey, had indicated the
importance of recognising the respondents knowledge when compiling the questionnaire [7].
Thus, where the ability to respond to a question was judged as falling outside the respondents
justifiable domain of knowledge an additional response, namely dont know, was inserted as
an additional option. Following receipt of the completed questionnaires, the data was analysed
using software means available in the commonly available Excel programme.
Respondent profile
The total number of respondents who completed the questionnaire was 92. Table 2 below
provides details of the respondent sample. It can be seen that there is a high number of respond ents represented by top management functions on board, in other words captains and chief of ficers: 69 of 92 respondents hold or held the function of captain or chief officer. This particular
top management profile was deemed liable to generate sufficiently knowledgeable answers [7],
thus validating survey findings.
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table 2: number of respondents and their current or former function on board.

SMCP survey: respondent profile
Total respondents
92
% of total
respondents
% of total
respondents
currently
navigating
Total respondents currently navigating
55
60%
Captains & chief officers
34
37%
62%
Second, third, fourth and apprentice deck officers
16
17%
29%
Chief engineers
4%
5%
Second, third, fourth, etc. & apprentice engineer

officers
2%
4%
Dual purpose function
3
% of total
respondents
% of total
respondents
no longer
navigating
Total respondents no longer navigating
37
40%
Captains & chief officers
25
27%
67%
Second, third, fourth and apprentice deck officers
4%
11%
Chief engineers
8%
19%
Second, third, fourth, etc. & apprentice engineer

officers
1%
2%
Dual purpose function
Analysis of the data

It would take many pages to detail or even to summarise all the data gathered from the survey.
For example, a number of the survey questions are aimed at gathering information about meth ods of teaching and evaluating the IMO SMCP. The data related to these particular questions
have been only briefly noted. Thus this paper will attempt to select and address the findings
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considered most interesting for the audience in question and to consider these in the light of dis cussion introduced at the start of the paper.
We should remind ourselves here that the SMCP document [8] contains, first, a brief Fore word which is followed by sections entitled General and Glossary. Then come the standard
phrases themselves. These are divided into Part A ( phrases applicable in external communications) and Part B (on-board communication phrases). The Foreword clearly states that
Part A covers phrases applicable in external communications from ship to shore, shore to ship
and ship to ship as required by STCW 1978, as revised, Table A-II/1, as well as phrases applic able on board vessels in conversations between pilots and bridge teams as required by regula tion 14(4) of chapter V of SOLAS 1974, as revised. The references to the requirements established in both STCW and SOLAS leave no doubt as to the mandatory nature of these phrases for
external communications. Part B may assist mariners in meeting other basic on-board commu nication requirements and may be regarded useful for maritime English instruction , suggesting
that these phrases, although not mandatory, come highly recommended!
The first question of the SMCP survey asked respondents to state whether use of the IMO
SMCP for external communications, namely Part A of the SMCP document, is mandatory, optional or recommended. The same question was repeated for Part B of the SMCP, namely onboard communication.
As regards the standard phrases for external communication (Part A), findings reveal that the
majority (48%) of respondents who answered this question have an understanding that these
phrases are recommended, with only 24 % believing them to be mandatory. A rather high 28%
perceive them as being optional! Thus the majority of respondents have apparently failed to ap preciate the intended status of the SMCP in STCW/SOLAS training. The STCW 1978, as
amended, stipulates that officers shall use the SMCP. The competence is described in detail as
the ability to communicate with other ships, coast stations and VTS centres and to perform the
officers duties also with a multilingual crew, including the ability to use and understand the
IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP). At this and at other levels the STCW
curiously refuses to progress from a broad, and therefore somewhat vague ( shall use, the ability
to use and understand), definition of acceptable standards of (Maritime) English on board, stat ing elsewhere only that English shall be used in written and oral form. Perhaps by dint of the
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fact that the SMCP constitute the only official IMO document for use in Maritime English
training they often come to be placed at the forefront of on-board communication. This is pos sibly why both Maritime English learners and trainers tend to perceive the SMCP as the key
tool for communication on board. Additional comments received from a number of respondents
shed light on this apparent misconception. These are discussed in the authors presentation of
this paper.
In reply to the question about the use of the IMO SMCP for on-board communication,
namely Part B of the standard phrases, only 11% reply that the use of these phrases is mandatory, 41% that it is recommended and 48% that it is optional. Figure 2 illustrates the results.
figure 2
Regardless of this apparent misconception regarding the mandatory, or otherwise, nature of

the phrases, the data gathered from questions 2 and 3 of the survey reveals that the majority of
respondents certainly received formal instruction (classroom tuition) in SMCP in their corres ponding MET institution. Of 75 respondents providing a reply to question 2, almost 60% reply
in the affirmative, confirming that they received some kind of formal instruction in the IMO
SMCP. 41% reply that they received no instruction or, depending on their year of graduation, re -
I write this advisedly, aware that Model Course 3.17 Maritime English also comprises an official IMO docu ment. However, as Fuazudeen (2014) points out the Model Course 3.17 is a non-prescriptive document intended
only to provide guidance to trainers.
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ceived instruction in the former SMNV , which pre-dated the SMCP. With one exception, all re spondents who replied negatively to the question had graduated before 2002, the year in which
the SMCP officially came into force.
When asked to indicate the type of instruction, the majority of respondents who had received
tuition reported undertaking a combination of learning methods (rote learning, translation from
English to native language and/or vice versa, learning specific SMCP vocabulary, using online
tools and/or CD-ROMs, performing role-play, using SMCP in full mission bridge simulator). On
a positive note, the communicative approach to learning is reflected in the data, with 24 re spondents stating that role-play played a part in their learning of the standard phrases.
Moreover, 19 cited full mission bridge simulation as a method, with 13 of these respondents
experiencing both methods. It is worth noting that all of the 13 graduated within the last decade,
perhaps reflecting recent pedagogical developments where a more authentic approach to training
the SMCP has been employed. On a less positive note, distinctly non-dynamic methods still play
a role with 79% and 76% of respondents reporting rote-learning and the assimilation of specific
SMCP vocabulary respectively as the means of instruction.
The question designed to elicit information about evaluation methods (written, oral, oral in
the full bridge mission simulator or other) reveals that the most common way of testing know ledge of the SMCP involves a combination of both written and oral evaluation. A combined 81%
of respondents reported being tested by some form of oral means. As stated above, however, the
scope of this paper does not allow for a deeper analysis of training and evaluation of the IMO
SMCP and thus additional details will be reserved for a separate study.
The data also shows confidence levels regarding use of the SMCP to be high. 89% of respond ents consider themselves to have a fairly good to excellent active command of the SMCP, whilst
a stunning 99% feel they are fairly good to excellent when it come to a passive command of the
phrases! Clearly, without further research, it is impossible to say whether respondents selfassessment reflects reality.
Respondents were asked about the frequency of use of the IMO SMCP for external commu nications as opposed to on-board communications, respectively those phrases contained in Part
A of the IMO document compared with those contained in Part B. This revealed (Figure 3) that,
Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary
All except one of the 13 respondents were graduates of Antwerp Maritime Academy, Belgium.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
in general, the SMCP are more widely used for external communications than for on-board com munications. 56% of respondents reported using the IMO SMCP rather often to very often for
external communications. This may be compared to a lower total of 45% in the same categories
for on-board communications. The actual difference (11%) is, nevertheless, not particularly
large.
figure 3
Figures 4 and 5 offer a breakdown according to the categories of response received.

figure 4
figure 5
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Acting on the knowledge that Part A of the SMCP is mandatory, it would be straightforward to
comment that the findings merely confirm that the SMCP are being used as intended and de sired. However, 56%, corresponding to only slightly over half of the respondent group, may ac tually be construed as low when the issue in question involves mandatory industry compliance
with STCW requirements. It is perhaps to be expected that almost a quarter of respondents
(24%) say that they never use the phrases for on-board communication. In comparison however,
it is surprising that 9 of 63 respondents (14%) state that they never use the standard phrases in
external communication!
Looking in more detail at both the on-board and the external communication phrases, the sur vey moved on to ask how often respondents believed they used these phrases under specific
maritime circumstances.
Of the 12 specific on-board circumstances offered (e.g. on the bridge, standard wheel or en gine orders, with the pilot on the bridge, with the engine rom, during drills, etc.) only 6 returned
a percentage of 50% or more respondents who reported using SMCP rather often to very often
for this type of communication. The on-board situation where use of the SMCP was rated as
highest was for communication during standard wheel or engine orders. Just over half of the re spondents (31 of 61) who answered question 7 stated that they very often (the highest category)
use SMCP when giving standard wheel or engine orders, with a total of 73% (45 of 61 respond ents) saying that they rather often to very often make use of the SMCP in this particular situation. It would appear from the data that, certainly during communication on board, seafarers
have a greater tendency to use the SMCP in situations that traditionally employ long-established
items of maritime communication, for example wheel and/or engine orders. At the other end of
the scale, almost 70% of respondents reported that they never, rarely or not often used the
SMCP in communication with passengers.
Findings related to the use of SMCP external communication phrases under specific maritime
circumstances produced a different picture. Figure 6 below provides the details.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
figure 6
It can be observed that in all cases with the exception of one ( requesting medical assistance)
over 50% of respondents reported that they used the phrases rather often to very often. Circumstances which return particularly high percentages for the categories very often to rather often
are communication with VTS stations (43 of 60 respondents or 71%), followed by general ex change of information ship-to-shore (66%) and ship-to-ship (64%), and communication using
standard GMDSS messages (62%). Use of SMCP for communication with VTS stations and for
GMDSS messages is reported as being very often used by approximately 30% of respondents,
the highest percentage in this category. The relatively high usage of the phrases might promote
the view that respondents are aware of the mandatory nature of these phrases. However, data
gathered at the first question of the survey shows this not to be the case. It might therefore be
justified to suggest that seafarers are aware of the communicative value of the SMCP in specific
situations, as shown in the graph (Figure 6).
The next section of the questionnaire was designed to gauge the effectiveness of the SMCP at
fulfilling its role as a standardised communication system for the maritime world. Respondents
were asked to rate the effectiveness of the existing SMCP under certain circumstances system
according to a scale of six descriptors (very effective, effective, rather effective, rather ineffect ive, ineffective, totally ineffective).
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
In general positive ratings are given to the effectiveness of the SMCP. A high number of re spondents, 40 of 59 (68%), find the SMCP very effective to rather effective in all circumstances
as opposed to 19 respondents (32%) who state that the phrases are totally ineffective (7 or 12%)
to rather ineffective in all circumstances. Of all the circumstances listed, the effectiveness of the
SMCP for on-board communication phrases in general reflect the least positive rating, with less
than half of respondents (47%) stating that the existing SMCP is very effective to rather effective for this type of communication. This result is perhaps not surprising given the data collected
from a previous question which confirms that the standard phrases are less widely employed for
on-board communications than for external communications (see p 6). Figure 7 offers details of
the findings.
figure 7
Additional data collected generates findings related to whether a standardised communication

system, not necessarily the SMCP, is an asset in specific external and on-board communication
circumstances. With regard to on-board communication at least 70% of respondents were in fa vour of a standardised communication system in all the on-board circumstances listed. The data
corresponding to external communication circumstances offers a much higher percentage with at
least 90% of respondents agreeing that a standardised communication system is an advantage.
The overriding message seems to be that a standardised communication system, although not
necessarily the IMO SMCP, for use during external communication circumstances is a must
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
have. Details of this data will be provided in the conference presentation accompanying this
paper.
To move on I wish to address the findings of the last questions contained in the survey. This
offered the respondents a series of statements both critical of the IMO SMCP and supportive of
the standard phrases. Respondents were presented first with a range of critical statements and
asked to what extent they agreed with them. Using a negative (critical) approach, the questions
attempt to gauge perception about issues such as the size of the IMO SMCP (the actual number
of phrases), the content, the type of English used (vocabulary and syntax) and whether there
should be a revision of or amendments to the current IMO SMCP.
One of the statements, often debated, suggested to respondents that a standardised system for
external communication might be considered superfluous if all crew were to have a sufficient
command of (Maritime) English; in other words, if all crew had a sufficient level of English
would it be necessary to implement a standardised communication system? It might simply be
enough to say that all crew should speak good English. The same statement was produced in
relation to on-board communication.
With the critical statement in mind, it is relevant to gauge whether respondents perceive a dif ference between on-board as opposed to external communication. The bar chart below (Figure
8) illustrates the difference in respondent opinion. As regards internal or on-board communica tion, a large number of respondents (45 of 63 or 71%) agree that a standardised communication
system would be superfluous if all crewmembers had a sufficient command of English. This
statistic changes, however, for external communication where numbers are more evenly distrib uted. 48% of respondents agree and 52% disagree with the statement. The highest percentage
(21%) corresponds to the category rather agree. Of course, in an ideal maritime world, either
every seafarer would be fluent in a common language (English) or s/he would understand the
others languages. This, although highly unrealistic, would exclude the need for a standardised
language. However, the data from the survey suggest that other considerations are at play since
almost half of respondents would retain a standardised form of language for external communic ation, even if the crews command of (Maritime) English were of a high standard. It is an inter esting result which lends itself to further research.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
figure 8
Another of the statements gauged response as to whether the IMO SMCP should be revised
and amended or replaced by a completely new system. Clearly respondents were in favour
(71%) of the current SMCP being revised and amended. Figure 9 below illustrates the results.
figure 9
In the light of this result, it is logical to consider why respondents feel that revision or amend ment might be desirable. Data gathered from some of the other critical statements provide as sistance. To draw on just three examples, 60% of respondents feel that the number of standard
phrases is too large and 66% are dissatisfied with the actual language itself, finding that the
SMCP present an over-simplified version of English (pidgin English). 70% of respondents
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
feel that the SMCP limit communication fluency due to their strict/rigorous patterns. The SMCP
constitutes, in other words, a restricted and therefore restrictive language. Figures 10 and 11
below illustrate some of these statistics.
figure 10
figure 11
The implication of these findings might be that the unwieldy nature of the document renders
the whole less attractive as an effective system for communication. In the light of the data,
Gustaffson (2004) [9] offers some relevant comment. She notes that following trials of the
SMCP in 1997 the size of the original draft provoked concern, especially from the ISF , whose
respresentatives commented that the organisation was particularly concerned about the enormous length of the SMCP, thus rendering it too large to be of practical use for non-native speak ers. Also according the Gustaffson, the ISF drew attention to the poor quality of English used in
the phrases and suggested that the entire SMCP be subjected to a detailed review on a line-byline basis. In the subsequent revision prior to IMO approval, the total number of words appear ing in the SMCP was effectively reduced. However the number of content words which appear
only once in the text (almost 900) remained in place, thus, as Gustaffson postulates, contribut ing to the documents cumbersome nature and offering no support from repetition in learning
tasks. As a footnote on the aforementioned learning task, it will perhaps not surprise the reader
The International Shipping Federation (ISF) was one of a number of maritime organisations and IMO member
states who were asked to comment on the draft version of the SMCP.
Content words are represented by major classes of nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
to learn that a huge 76% of respondents agreed with the statement that current teaching and
studying methods for the SMCP tend to be boring and monotonous!
To turn to respondents reactions to the statements supportive of the current IMO SMCP, it is
fair to say that the data reflect the findings of other aspects of the questionnaire. Thus, for ex ample, a relatively high percentage of responses (67% or 41 of 61 respondents) indicate some
extent of disagreement with the statement that the SMCP is an effective (standardised) commu nication system and requires no revision or amendment. A high 25% of respondents reply that
they totally disagree with this statement. This would appear to support the data which indicates
that respondents feel that the SMCP would benefit from amendment.
Despite this, respondents tended to agree with the statement that the SMCP system is an ad equate and effective standardised system for external communication. 75% (or 49 of 66 respondents) supported this statement. In addition almost half of the respondents (48%) completely to rather agree with the statement that the SMCP should always be compulsory for all
professional communication on board (see Figures 12 and 13 below). This data was further
broken down into specific circumstances and revealed, for example, that 72% (49 of 68) of re spondents agree that the SMCP should be compulsory for external communication between
ships and 78% (53 of 68) that the SMCP should be compulsory for external communication with
VTS stations. In addition over half of respondents agree that the SMCP should be compulsory
for communication with other services ashore.
figure 12
figure 13
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
In addition, and finally, respondents were slightly more evenly split over the statement that
SMCP should always be compulsory for internal communication within the ship, with just under
half (44% or 29 or 66 respondents) agreeing with the statement and just over half (56% or 37 of
66) disagreeing. It should be noted, however, that an overwhelming percentage (86%) of re spondents agreed with the statement that the SMCP should be compulsory for standard wheel
and engine orders, given on the bridge, and 69% agreed that the phrases should be compulsory
for communication on the bridge. These findings correspond to the analysis given on page 8.
Conclusions
As stated, the findings presented in this paper represent only a small part of the more detailed
analysis carried out as part of the authors doctoral research. It is hoped, nevertheless, that the
aspects of the survey discussed will provoke thought and generate discussion.
Several conclusions may be drawn from this representative sample comprised of officers from
the Belgian fleet. All the respondent officers graduating after 2001 reported that they had re ceived formal instruction in the IMO SMCP although the teaching and study of the phrases are
considered boring and monotonous. There is, nevertheless, a high feel good factor about using
the SMCP, with respondents feeling confident! There is widespread confusion about the status
(mandatory, recommended or optional) of the standard phrases within the framework of the
STCW or, indeed, their status during communication at sea.
In terms of current perception, respondents to the survey agree that under all external communication circumstances, no matter how good the level of English, a standardised communication
system (not necessarily the current IMO SMCP) is an advantage. Correspondingly respondents
report using the standard phrases more for external communication than for on-board commu nication, which appears to be in line with IMO SMCP requirements. However, given that Part A
(phrases for external communication) of the SMCP is mandatory, it is of some concern to note
that the actual percentage of respondents reporting use of these phrases is relatively low,
amounting to just over 50%.
Respondents rate use of the SMCP for internal or on-board communication to be less than for
external communication. Nevertheless, use of the SMCP for communication relating to standard
wheel and engine orders and for communication with the pilot on the bridge was deemed ex -
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
tremely important, with respondents even indicating that use under these circumstances should
be compulsory.
The IMO SMCP in their present form are considered unwieldy, in terms of language, and
cumbersome in that they contain too many phrases. These factors hinder the learning process for
young cadets. A completely new system is not an option but the majority of respondents feel
that, almost 15 years on from their adoption, the SMCP should be revised and amended. A revi sion of the IMO SMCP to follow the recent revision of Model Course 3.17 Maritime English re mains in the future. However, a current increase in SMCP-related research [10] [11] combined
with moves to instigate standard phrases for communication with tug pilots and for communica tion on inland waterways might prompt the IMO, sooner or later, to turn its attention to the
SMCP.
Thus the IMO SMCP may not be the key tool for communication at sea but, in accordance
with these findings, they certainly fulfil a specific and central role. In general, the data produces
statistics that conform to certain expectations about the mandatory and/or recommended nature
of the standard phrases. In other words, the sections of the IMO SMCP Part A, which seafarers
are required to use and understand according to the terms of the STCW, are those which, ac cording to the data, tend to be used most. The phrases contained in Part B are employed less.
Less comforting, however, are the data that show that the percentage of respondents who appear
rarely to use the mandatory external communication phrases hovers around the 40% mark. This
must surely give grounds for concern and consequently prompt additional cross-questionnaire
analysis at a later stage.
References
[1] Schriever, U. (2009). Acceptance of, opposition to and competency levels in Maritime Eng lish as seen by seafarers. In: Proceedings of International Maritime English Conference
(IMEC21), Maritime University of Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland, 6-9 October 2009. 159-164.
[2] Khataria, A. (2011). Maritime English and the VTS. In: Proceedings of International Maritime English Conference (IMEC23), Constanta Maritime University, Constanta, Romania, 10-14
October 2011. 25-33.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
[3] Trenkner, P. (2000) Maritime English. An Attempt at an Imperfect Definition . In: Proceedings of the 2nd IMLA Workshop on Maritime English in Asia (WOME 2A), Dalian China, Dali an Maritime University. 18.
[4] The MARCOM Project final report: the Impact of Multicultural and Multilingual Crews on
MARitime COMmunication (1999) by European Commission Directorate General VII Trans port-Transport Policy Development-Research and Development; World Maritime University
(WMU)
[5] Lecture notes WMU MET Masters Degree course Management Issues in MET Institutions
(WMU-MET255) Cole, C. World Maritime University (last used April 2014)
[6] Fuazudeen, M. (2014). Keynote address to International Maritime English Conference
(IMEC26), Maritime Institute Willem Barentsz, Terschelling, the Netherlands, 7-10 July 2014.
Available at http://www.imla.co/imec/
[7] Kumar, N., Stern L. and Anderson, J. (1993). Conducting interorganisational research using
key informants, Academy of Management Journal 36 /6: 1633-1651.
[8] IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases. (2002). International Maritime Organization,
London, U.K.
[9] Gustaffson, M. (2004). Simplification of special language: a case study on Standard Marine
Communication Phrases. Approaches to style and discourse in English, Hiltunen, R. &
Shinichiro, W. (eds). Osaka University Press, Osaka, Japan. 165-181
[10] John, P., Noble, A. & Bjrkroth, P. (2013). Making SMCP count! In Proceedings of International Maritime English Conference (IMEC25), Piri Reis University, Istanbul, Turkey. 23-26
September, 2013. 136-151.
[11] Noble, A., Bjrkroth, P. & John, P. (2014). Exploiting the didactic possibilities of low-fi
simulation in virtual bridge-team communication exercises In Proceedings of International
Maritime English Conference (IMEC26), Maritime Institute Willem Barentsz, Terschelling, the
Netherlands. 7-10 July 2014. 159-174.
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Construct-Shift of Marine Engineering Cadets in

Maritime English via On-Board Training
Mjgan Ozenir Istanbul Technical University (Turkey), mujganozenir@hotmail.com
Erdogan Bada Cukurova University (Turkey), erdoganbada@gmail.com
Abstract
Language is a basic medium to expressing oneself and defining the world via coding and de coding systems; and, the way we realize the world is reflected through it. Personal constructs
determine the way we perceive and conceptualize the whole world. Construct building takes
place long before the process of language acquisition and/or learning occur(s). Attaining consid erable competence and performance in the second language is highly related to how personal
constructs in the language are shaped, reshaped, formed and reformed through learning and ex periencing. Based on this premise, this study aims to highlight constructs shift of marine engin eering cadets.
In accordance with the Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW), each
seafarer is to undergo a specified period of on-board training in other words sea training. There fore, with this piece of research, we endeavor to observe what exactly happens, how marine en gineering cadets constructs of Maritime English shifted following sea training period. Marine
engineering cadets from Istanbul Technical University responded to questionnaires and ex pressed views on their English learning and utilization experiences during sessions before and
after on- board training experience. The study reveals significant issues related to shift in con structs of language problems as well as profession.
keywords: marine engineering cadets, Maritime English, pre & post constructs, construct shift,
on-board training
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Introduction
As verified by various research carried out with engineering students, English is apparently a
binding medium among people belonging to different cultures and countries. Thus, capability in
English makes an individual independent, self-confident and self-esteemed in a global world
(Batrkmen [3]; Pendergrass et al [11]; Pritchard & Nasr [12]; Joseba [8 ] ).
English is accepted as the most commonly used language all over the world as well as being
the lingua franca of most professions. Understanding and being understood efficiently is pre requisite for a global world regardless of nationality and country. It has also been considered to
be a compulsory medium for conducting successful businesses and at workplace in multi-nation al companies (Davies, Forey, and Hyatt [6]; Forey and Nunan, [7] ).
Constructs constitute an important factor in understanding the world for each individual.
George Kelly [9], the founder of the theory of personal constructs, summarizes the whole theory
with his outstanding verbatim sentence as:
Every man is a scientist!
He explains that every person is a scientist as s/he comes up with hypotheses or predictions
about the world, including everyday events and social interactions, based on her/his own system
of constructs.
Interpretations of occurrences have strong impacts on our lives; they even govern our whole
lives; they diverge from one individual to another as each has different variables in terms of
backgrounds, beliefs, past experiences, etc. Cherry [5] points out that even if we are all living in
the same world, the way we experience it differs from individual to individual.
As obviously seen, in fact, we are all surrounded by constructs throughout our lives; this issue
does not merely entail linguistic perspective but some other aspects of life.
Kelly [9] believes that we realize the world via the lens of our constructs. These constructs,
based on our experiences and observations, are to anticipate and predict the events which in turn
determine our behaviors, feelings and thoughts, and can be defined verbally or non-verbally in
the form of feelings such as anger, anxiety, worry, etc. (Cited in Cherry [5], and zkan [13]). In
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his theory, Kelly [10] basically assumes that our present constructs or interpretations of the uni verse are to be revised or replaced.
Breen (2001) observes that students bring perceptions, beliefs, attitudes and meta cognitive
knowledge together with them to a learning situation, and this has been recognized as a contrib utory factor in the learning process and ultimate success in a classroom context. Identification
of such beliefs and reflection on potential impact on language learning and teaching can lead fu ture syllabus designers and teachers alike to pursue effective strategies in determining course
content as well as instruction delivery.
Learning is significantly related to which underlying variables a learner has been exposed to;
how the language is perceived, whether the learner has positive/negative attitudes, any biases,
and any motivation. From this point, personal construct formation is observed to have a determ ining factor in the accomplishment process of Maritime English.
Having attained intermediate level at the School of Foreign Languages of Istanbul Technical
University (ITU), students in marine engineering faculty, namely, cadets, have two hours of ME
lectures weekly for three semesters; which means total ME lecture are limited within only six
hours per week within the whole four year round.
The course period seems to be far from meeting the needs of cadets who are expected to start
training in the second semester of the third academic year. Sea training is a highly crucial period
for the cadets considering how specific and demanding the profession they chose is. Besides In ternational Maritime Organization (IMO) stipulates on-board training as a mandatory require ment to work as a professional seafarer. During their stay and work on board cadets are to find
responses to questions such as:
Am I suitable for this profession (as seafaring is significantly different in nature)?
Which part of the sector is suitable for me?
To what extent should I rely on my professional knowledge?
To what extent can I handle communication efficiently with multinational crew and oth ers at shore?
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Thus, the study explores how and to what extent sea training affects marine engineering ca dets personal constructs towards maritime English; whether there is a significant change con cerning pre and post on-board training; whether engine cadets of maritime faculty confront pro fessional problems related to ME when they are on-board training; and whether ME causes any
problems related to self-efficacy, self-confidence, efficiency of machinery systems and opera tions.
Here, we focus on how cadets reformed and reshaped their constructs of Maritime English in
terms of experience, and individual corollaries. Therefore, answers to the following questions
were sought within the framework of this research:
1. What constructs do engine cadets have prior to starting on-board training at sea regard ing ME?
2. Were there any changes in cadets constructs following a period of six months on board?
If so, how are these changes perceived?
3. Should there be any observed construct shift, what could the underlying reasons for the
shift be?
4. Do marine engineering cadets have difficulty with ME?
5. Does/Did ME cause any problems related to self-efficacy, self-confidence, efficiency of
machinery systems and operations?
Data Collection
This qualitative study was conducted by means of collecting two types of data: questionnaires
and interviews. Pre and post constructs were unveiled via questionnaires and interviews held
with marine engineering students during the periods of pre and post on-board training. Ques tionnaires were made up of open-ended and semi-structured questions in order to elicit themes
concerning constructs.
Participants
The participants involved in this study are third-year cadets (all male; n=50; age range: 21-25
years) attending the Marine Engineering Department of Maritime Faculty at Istanbul Technical
University (ITUMF). Upon having taken a standardized university entrance exam, students are
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exposed to a two-semester English program at the Preparatory School of Foreign Languages of

ITU until they attain intermediate level. Once they are cadets at Maritime Faculty, they take
only two hours of Maritime English (ME) weekly during three semesters.
Procedure
Participants were handed out questionnaires and taken into interviews in both pre (PreT) and
post (PostT) on board training. The questionnaire and interviews were designed by the research er focusing on research questions and in line with the aims of the study.
The questionnaires and the interviews consisted of seven items; interviews lasted approxim ately 5-7 minutes per cadet. Each participant was interviewed in order to observe whether what
was stated in the questionnaires did match the voiced views. The same questionnaire was again
utilized right after the cadets came back to the faculty to complete their fourth year of education
at the faculty. Both the questionnaires and the interviews were conducted in the mother tongue,
i.e. Turkish, in order to avoid any misinterpretation.
Data Analysis
The obtained data was analyzed in terms of common emerging themes categorized as pre and
post on-board training constructs. The findings were analyzed regarding frequency of occur rence and valid percentages. A chi-square test was run to detect any significant differences in
the dispersion of overall items using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) v.16.0.
Several themes emerged via the seven-itemed data collection tools. The themes considered in
this study were listed in terms of frequency - time of mention (ToM, term coined by Bada, [2]).
The values indicating ToMs obtained in pre and post on-board training are listed below. Fre quencies and percentages were shown in the related tables together with chi-square results.
Table 1 was designed to illustrate the overall emerged themes from the questionnaires and inter views.
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table 1: Emerged Themes

Themes
Pre ToM
Post ToM
Importance of English
If so why
Work after graduation
Willing to work with foreign crew
Why Turkish crew
50
58
50
49
36
50
12
48
50
27
Why foreign crew

Difficulty due to lack of English
If so which skills
Expected situations necessitating English
Belief in self expression in English
17
50
37
125
50
45
50
12
153
47
Expected skills leading communicational
61
33
problems
Eleven themes emerged in total
Considering the overwhelming importance of English, the question do you think English is
beneficial was asked. All responses indicated that English is definitely beneficial due to its im portance. The theme Importance of English appeared with one of the highest among the other
twelve themes (see Table 1). The item is it beneficial, if so why was asked to see whether ca dets were aware of the benefits and reasons.
table 2: Importance of English
Importance of Eng-
PRE ToM
lish
POST
ToM
%
Yes
48
96.0
4.0
50
100
No
Chi square result
P=.000
---
-----
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As can be seen from Table 2, the importance of English was agreed on by almost all parti cipants (96.0 % p=.000) in PreT; only 2 out of 50 did not believe that English was not important
for the profession. While, importance of English in profession was commonly agreed on in
PreT, the whole population was in consensus on the importance of English in PostT. This could
be interpreted that cadets had no hesitation on the solid importance of English even if they did
not complete their on-board training period. It is quite pleasing to obtain positive construct on
the importance of English. Upon getting confirmation responses, the cadets were asked about
the reasons for importance of English in their prospective profession-seafaring. The responses
would also show to what extent they were really aware of the importance of English while
pointing out their rationales. PreT and PostT themes, identified together with percentages and
chi-square results, are shown in Table 3.
table 3: Reasons for the Importance of English
Reasons for the
Importance of
English
Seafaring as an
international job
PRE ToM
PRE %
Reasons for
the importance
of English
Seafaring as an
international job
POST
ToM
POST %
26
21.7
20
34.5
Most resources
in English
17
29.3
Most resources in
English
15
12.5
Lingua franca of
seafarers
10
17.2
Helps with
professional
development
20
16.7
Beneficial
6.9
Beneficial
10
8.5
Helps with
communication
4.6
Makes me
privileged on/off
board
33
27.5
Facilitates social
life
16
13.3
Chi-square result
P=.002
Chi-square
result
p=.004
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The first theme seafaring is an international job was observed to have the highest ToM of 20
(34.5 %), most resources are in English with the ToM of 17 (29.3 %), lingua franca of seafar ing 10 ToM (17.2 %) , English is beneficial having 4 ToM (6.9 %), English helps with com munication 7 ToM (4.6 %). All these themes illustrate that cadets had already the construct on
the overwhelming importance of English in their profession with rationales. Surprisingly, only 7
ToM (4.6 %) emerged citing that English helped them with communication. This could be inter preted that cadets might have the idea of working on Turkish-crewed vessels, thus they would
not have to communicate with foreign crew mates; besides, engine crew were to deal with only
internal communication rather than external communication as set out by the International Mari time Organization (IMO). It was also presumed that they were urged to make use of English on
board only while dealing with manuals and PreTaring some documents, which was outlined by
the IMO. The value for English helps with communication would have been different if the
participants had been deck cadets as they would have to deal with both internal and external
communication. A remarkable construct expansion emerged with the themes of seafaring as an
international job and English is beneficial. The former construct illustrated expansion from 20
participants to 26, and the latter from 4 to 10.
A meaningful construct shift was observed in English helps with communication to be re shaped namely helps with professional development, makes them privileged on/off board
life, facilitating social life with significantly high ToM values. Cadets credited that English
helps with professional development appeared with ToM value of 20 (16.7 %). English makes
cadets privileged on and off board life supporters emerged with ToM value of 33 (27.5 %).
ToM value of 16 (13.3 %) belonged to theme facilitating factor of English in social life. The
theme English helps with communication emerged with the value of 7 ToM (4.6 %) which was
observed with a surprisingly low percentage seemed to have vanished; however, in the post onboard training period this theme reemerged in specific verbatim as: English makes me priv ileged on and off board life, English facilitates my social life, unless I have sufficient Eng lish, I cannot be successful and respectful in the engine room.
These extracts clearly reflect a significant shift in ME constructs of cadets since English was
experienced and confirmed as a medium for privileged status both professionally and socially.
This transformation in construct unveiled that it is just a myth among seafarers from bottom to
top i.e. cadets, lecturers, syllabus designers, institutions and organizations Engine room (E/r)
crew necessitate knowledge of English in some certain parts; do not have to bother for more.
Besides, IMOs requirements of English for marine engineers might have made them predict so.
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Having to comprehend the training book in English can be a determining factor. E/r crew star ted to think that they also needed communication. New themes were most likely to emerge via
their personal experiences and exposures during on-board training period, which certainly
seemed to be a leading factor in reshaping and transforming acquired constructs apart from
gaining professional awareness. Cadets did not realize how English would impede or accelerate
their prestige on board for they had no expression on this issue in PreT. Besides, they seemed to
be unaware of how English would ease and comfort their social life in the pre on-board training
period, which would be expressed in PostT.
PreT themes in Table 4 illustrated that the cadets seemed to have some awareness of English.
When we took into account PostT themes, cadets spotted English as a scaffolding factor to con duct their profession in an efficient, effective and privileged way, since seafaring has the qualit ies of being global, international, multi-cultural in nature. Furthermore, on-board training period
had an undeniable impact on transforming, developing and changing the constructs about Eng lish.
table 4: English is Useful
English is
useful
Pre ToM
Yes
48
96.0
No
4.0
Chi-square
P=0.000
Post ToM
50
_
100
_
Here, this item aimed to find out the service receivers (SR) perception of English in terms of
their profession. The responses reflected whether and to what extent they were aware of the use fulness of having language competency on board.
The ToMs of Theme 1 indicates that English is useful with a frequency value of 48 (96.0 %)
in PreT; however, this value reaches a certainty of usefulness with a frequency value of 50 (100
%) in the PostT period.
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table 5: Willingness to Work with Multinational Crew

Willingness to Work with Multinational
Crew
PreToM
Post-ToM
Prefer Turkish Crew
27
55.1
22
44.0
Prefer Foreign Crew
16
32.7
28
56.0
12.2
0.0
Not Sure
Chi square results
P=0.002
P=0.396
When participants were asked if they were willing to work with multinational-crewed vessels,
27 (55.0 %) expressed their preference on Turkish-crewed vessels, which dropped to 22 (44.0
%) in PostT. Still 6 participants (22.0 %) were not yet sure as to what they preferred exactly.
Prior to the on-board training period, 16 (32.7 %) would like to work on multinational-crewed
vessels; this number remarkably increased to 28 (56.0 %) this is more than half of the whole
population. It is most probable that both 6 (12.2 %) unsure cadets in PreT and some of those
who previously were willing to work on Turkish-crewed vessels shifted their constructs. They
most likely gained self confidence in expressing themselves in English. As can be seen from
Table 5, on-board training enabled cadets to become more specific and determinant on their
preference.
table 6: Any Difficulty Resulting from Lack of English?
Any Difficulty Resulting from Lack of
English?
Pre- ToM
Post-ToM
Yes
30
60.0
16.0
No
20
40.0
42
84.0
Chi square results
P=0.157
P=0.000
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From Table 6, we can observe that of the participants, 30 (60.0 %) anticipated they would
have difficulty resulting from lack of English and 20 (40.0 %) had no prediction of having diffi culty for the same reason prior to on-board training. On having completed on-board training,
they were asked again if they had any difficulty related to lack of competence in English, the
figures depicted that 42 participants (84.0 %) had no difficulty; only 8 (16.8 %) had languagebased problems. The change in figures emphasizes the issue of lack of confidence and efficacy
of participants in terms of English. The estimation that they might not be aware of how well
they were competent in English is worth considering here.
table 7: If so, in What Skills
If so, in What Skills
Speaking
Cultural literacy
ME terminology
Chi square results
Pre- ToM
Post-ToM
19
51.4
66.7
10
27.0
33.3
20
40.0
42
84.0
P=0.062
P=0.248
Table 7 reflects the participants views on problematic issues; three constructs emerged as
speaking, cultural literacy and Maritime English terminology. Of the participants, 19 (51.4
%) assessed themselves as not quite competent in speaking. Following on-board training, sur prisingly, the figure had a sharp drop to 8 (66.7 %).
The second theme concerns difficulty resulting from cultural literacy which was cited by 10
(27.0 %) participants, then dropped to 4 participants (33.3 %). Those who had originally
thought that they would face hardship due to insufficient Maritime English terminology
numbered 20 (40.0 %), and quite rightly, in line with this expectation, this number soared to 42
(84.0 %) in PostT.
From above, it could be concluded that cadets had not felt comfortable and confident in
speaking English until they experienced the real environment. They expressed themselves satis factorily even if they had not thought so beforehand.
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table 8: Expected Situations Necessitating English

Expected Situations Necessitating
English
Pre- ToM
Manual Comprehension
50
Docs. Completion
Post-ToM
40.0
48
31.4
26
20.8
37
24.2
34
27.2
37
24.2
15
12.0
31
20.3
Reporting
On/off board comm.
Chi square results
P=0.000
P=0.268
Cadets were asked to cite potential situations necessitating English; four specific items ap peared: manual comprehension, document completion, reporting and on and off board
communication (See Table 8).
Manual comprehension emerged as a dominating situation with 50 ToMs (40.0 %) in PreT,
and 42 ToMs (31.4 %) in PostT. Document completion had been mentioned as an expected situ ation by 26 ToMs (20.8 %), but gradually increased to 37 ToMs (24.2 %) in PostT. Reporting
skill had been expected to appear with 34 ToMs (27.2 %), and displayed a small rise up to 37
ToMs (24.2 %). The last theme, on/off board communication, dramatically rocketed from 15
ToMs (12.0 %) up to 31 ToMs (20.3 %). The on-board training period could be seen as an activ ating factor to make cadets rethink/remodel their constructs and as a tool to understand and
visualize the real side of their seafaring profession.
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table 9: Belief in Expressing Oneself in English

Belief in Expressing Oneself in English
Pre- ToM
Post-ToM
Yes
No
16.0
32
68.1
19
38.0
15
31.9
23
46.0
0.0
Not sure
Chi square results
P=0.027
P=0.013
Belief in expressing oneself in English led to the emergence of three themes: the believers,
non-believers and the unsure. Of the participants, 8 (16.0 %) highlighted positive beliefs in their
capability to express themselves in English in PreT whilst this figure quadrupled with 32 parti cipants (68.1 %) in PostT period. Nineteen cadets (38.0 %) had reflected that they were not cap able enough to express themselves in English. In the PostT, this figure showed a slight drop to
15 (31.9 %). The participants who were not sure of their competency should not be underestim ated as they were 23 (46.0 %), almost half of the population. Upon completing on-board train ing, this theme fortunately vanished. The unsure participants were most likely among those who
cited they were capable of expressing themselves in English thanks to on-board training.
The item, expected skills leading to problems in communication, offered four skills of Eng lish: speaking, listening, vocabulary and translation. Prior to on-board training, 28 participants
(45.9 % regarded the skill of speaking to be problematic, whereas this figure dropped to 15
(45.5 %) in PostT.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
table 10: Expected Skills Leading to Problems in Communication
Expected Skills Leading to Problems in

Communication
PreToM
PostToM
Speaking
28
45.9
15
45.5
Listening
15
24.6
10
30.3
10
16.4
12.1
13.1
12.1
Vocabulary
Translation
Chi square results
P=0.01
P=0.06
Here, the percentage should not be regarded as a key factor as it may be misleading due to
participation. The listening skill appeared second in frequency with 15 (24.6 %) which had a fall
to 10 (30.3 %) in PostT. Of the participants, 10 had thought that vocabulary was a troublesome
skill in PreT; somehow, the figure decreased to 4 in PostT 12.1 %). Prior to on-board training, 8
cadets (13.1 %) had thought that communication could be hindered due to lack of translation;
this figure showed a drop down to 4 (12.1 %) participants.
Discussion and implementations

In this study, impacts of training on shifted constructs were sought presuming that on-board
training would have a direct effect on cadets professional perceptions regarding their English
education.
On-board training period seems to have had a major role in the overall shift of constructs in
the form of expansion or reduction/disappearance. Cadets, during prior and post on-board train ing, have had the same construct regarding the importance and usefulness of English. They had
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worries about their language competence and performance when they were in charge. Having
gained self-efficacy and competence on board, they shifted constructs regarding English after
the on-board training. Most of the participants agreed that English was important and useful for
their profession regardless of training exposure, since they expressed that English granted them
a privileged status on board as well as self-confidence. The majority of participants had had the
construct of difficulty in self-expression via English, whereas they expressed that they did not
have such a difficulty whilst training. This construct may have developed due to a lack of speak ing practice in the faculty as the class consisted of more than 35 cadets. Although Turkish sea farers graduating from Turkish faculties somehow cannot work on multinational vessels, work ing on Turkish-crewed vessels does not mean that they will never come across English and lan guage-related problems. E/r crew is to deal with the instructions in manuals moreover, only
English verbatim copies are available. Most vessels are automated which means that manuals
are most essential for crew members, and misunderstanding any key word is likely to result in a
disaster at sea. Additionally, two groups of crew members engine and deck - are to cope with
the expression in SMCP, and communication with inspectors, coast guard authorities to board
vessels at certain intervals.
Considering these vital circumstances at sea, a contradictory status is observed. Credits of
maritime English classes in marine engineering departments are absolutely far from being suffi cient. In the very first year of the faculty, cadets undergo only one semester a two hour- mari time English lectures. Success in maritime English is prerequisite for a proficiency exam for
seafarers. Having no maritime English classes in the curriculum of second year, they have one
semester of two lessons a week in the 3rd year. This success will determine whether they are
able to register for highly strategic lessons such as - ERS-Engine Room Simulator, which is a
prerequisite for on-board training. In the 4th year, they are to get another two hours of ME
classes; totally six hours of ME exposure on weekly basis within a four-year period. This study
has significant implications for program designers, instructors and Maritime English students.
First and foremost, on-board training opportunity provided an atmosphere of self-assessment re garding language proficiency and competence. Most constructs which were somehow hidden or
not developed at all prior to on-board training were surfaced and/or formed following this peri od. Therefore, designers who wish to make such programs more effective may thus gain signi ficant insight relying on this experience of cadets. Similarly, instructors may shape their teach ing styles to become compatible with a more ESP nature, and finally, students, relying on peer
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experiences, may grasp the true value of being competent in English at rather early stages, much
before they are to work, say, on an internationally-crewed vessel.
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(Eds.), Writing business: genres, methods and language (pp 293-312). London: Addison Wesley
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[7] Forey, G. & Nunan, D. (2002). The role of language and culture in the workplace. In Barron,
C., Bruce, N. &Nunan, D. (Eds.), Knowledge and discourse: Language ecology in theory and
practice (pp. 204-220). Singapore: Longman.
[8] Joseba, M. (2005). Student engineers, ESP courses, and testing with cloze tests. ESP world.
2 (10).
[9] Kelly, G. A. (1955). The Psychology of Personal Constructs. Volumes 1 &2 New York:
Norton.
[10] Kelly, G. A. (1963). A Theory of Personality. Norton, New York.
[11] Pendergrass.N., Kowalczyk,R., David,J., & Laulache,R. (2001). Improving first year engin eering education. Journal of Engineering Education, 90(1), pp33-41.
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[12] Pritchard, M., Nasr,A. (2004) Improving reading performance among Egyptian engineering
students: principles and practices. English for specific purposes. 23 (4), 425-445.
[13] zkan, Y. (2011). Construct shift of trainee teachers in English language after practicum
experience. Social Behaviour and Personality-an International Journal, 39(5), 607-614.
[14] www.changingminds.org (Retrieved in May, 12,2014).
Annex 1. Items in pre questionnaire and interview
1. Do you think knowing English will be beneficial in your profession, if so point
out the reasons why?
2. At what part of the sector would you like to work after graduation; why?
3. Do you mind if you work on Turkish /multinational crewed vessels in the future?
Explain.
4. Do you think English is of importance in terms of marine engineering profes sion?
5. Do you think you are likely to have any communicational problems based on
language with the senior officers and other crew members on training?
6. In what form of English do you think you will come across during on board
training (i.e. reading, speech, orders, reporting, orders, etc.)
7. Do you expect to be able to communicate in English effectively and actively
(oral /written) with the crew members on board?
Annex 2. Items in post-questionnaire and interview
1. Have you observed that knowing English was beneficial on board training? If so
explain.
2. Which part of the sector have you been attracted to after having completed on
board training regarding your prospective career?
3. Would it make any difference if you were to work on Turkish /foreign-crewed
vessels after graduation? Explain.
4. Have you observed that English is important after the completion of on board
training? If so, explain in a few sentences.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
5. Have you experienced any communicational problems based on language with

senior officers and other crew members on training?
6. In what form of English have you come across during on board training (i.e.
reading, speech, orders, reporting, orders, etc.)
7. Did you take part in communication in English effectively and actively (orally
/in writing) with the crew members on board? If you did so, write about your im pressions regarding your profession, yourself and the English language.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Aligning Occupational, National and Global

Standards in Maritime English Competency: A
Preliminary Study on Standard Marine
Communication Phrases (SMCP)
Shamsul Rizal bin Mohd Rosedi, Malaysia Maritime Academy (ALAM),
shamsulrizal@alam.edu.my
Mohd Asri bin Md. Sap, Malaysia Maritime Academy (ALAM), asrisap@alam.edu.my
P. George Oommen, Malaysia Maritime Academy (ALAM), georgeoomen@alam.edu.my
Abstract
The English language is the lingua franca of the maritime industry. On board of merchant
ships, the Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) are used primarily for safe naviga tion and standardization of communication in ship to ship and ship to shore communication.
Hence, it is paramount to enhance standards of training among key players in the industry: mari time education and training institutions (METs), international merchant shipping companies and
the Marine Department of Malaysia. One of the effective solutions is to evaluate and align train ing standards of the SMCP for navigation cadets. This paper highlights a preliminary study on
the SMCP which involves 110 navigation cadets from the Malaysia Maritime Academy
(ALAM). The results of this study will assist relevant parties especially METs to further im prove training in the SMCP so as to comply with regulations set by the STCW Codes.
keywords: Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP), Maritime English, safe naviga tion, global standards, STCW (Standards of Training and Certification for Watchkeeping), IMO
(International Maritime Organisation), TARB (Training and Record Book)
Introduction
Much has been said about the standardization of English language at sea, which is why the
Maritime English especially matters concerning safety of navigation, ships operations and most
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
importantly, seafarers themselves. Maritime English covers all aspects of navigation, ships
operations and even the training of seafarers as clearly outlined by the STCW 1978 which was
completely revised in 1995 and 2010. To date, all institutions involved in the training of
seafarers comply with the standards of training as ratified by the IMO via the STCW Codes, so
as to produce seafarers (officers and ratings) who are proficient in the English language.
At sea, the STCW has set uniform standards for the attainment of competencies in various
maritime skills required to qualify as an officer in charge of navigational watch. Therefore,
authorities such as the Marine Departments of Malaysia have developed and integrated these
standard assessments based on the STCW Codes. The Training Record Book (TARB) is a
comprehensive record of deck and engine cadet officers demonstrating competence to undertake
functions in accordance with the STCW Codes [1] which is under direct responsibility of the
Marine Department of Malaysia. The synergistic link between education received at the ALAM
and on board practical training as being evidenced in the TARB must be explored in order to
align theory with practice and to further improve trainings on the SMCP. The evaluation
standards focused on in this study are the IMO SMCPs communicative competence assessments
as part of overall English language competency as prescribed in the TARB for Deck Watchkeeping Officer Cadets during their 12 months of sea service.
Background of Study
Cole and Trenkner [2] reported that communicative competence of deck and engineering officers
has been further emphasized especially by the 2010 Manila Amendments in the STCW as a means to
promote safety at sea and contribute to cleaner oceans. As the main regulatory body, the IMO has
adopted the Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) in 2001 and has complemented this
regulation by developing the Maritime English Model Course 3.17 in 1999, amended 2009.
Accordingly, the STCW Codes prescribe the use of English in both oral and written communication
and thus further recommend the use of the IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases for all
navigation and engineering officers as well as all the crew members onboard [3]. These are further
emphasized and assessed in the TARB as part of a comprehensive record of deck cadet officers
demonstrating competence to undertake functions in accordance with the STCW Codes.
Demydenko [4] asserted that the practice of deck and engineering crew training in Maritime
English is carried out in close connection with development of national and international standards.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Furthermore, the word standard refers to a sample which is established by professional bodies and
reflects a level of quality or achievement used for evaluating someone or something.
Ziarati [5] and Ziarati et al [6] stated that communication failure on board merchant ships is one of
the major factors in incidents and accidents. Hence, there is a need to promote a high level of
working Maritime English language skills and they must be seriously taught [7]. In accordance
with this, Jieyang & Wei [8] emphasized the need to objectively measure and evaluate the IMO SMCP
in their forms of Knowledge, Understanding and Proficiency (KUP). From these KUPs, all the target
achievable verbs have been devised in line with the Manila Amendments to the STCW Convention
and Codes. Verbs such as to communicate with other ships, coast stations and VTS centers and use
English in written and oral form are therefore included and integrated in the TARB assessments.
Statement of Problem
But to date, there have been fewer studies focusing on the evaluation of the IMO SMCP on
board merchant ships especially as evidenced in the TARB. Moreover, there are also few studies
that focus on classroom facilitations of the SMCP in order to gain more insights into the synergy
between classroom teaching and practical trainings and assessments on board merchant ships.
Hence, it is timely to embark on a preliminary study to obtain feedback on the assessments and
trainings of the IMO SMCP as included in the TARB assessments for Deck Watch-keeping
Officer Cadets during their 12 months of sea service.
This paper serves as a preliminary study on Maritime English language proficiency, especially
on the SMCP concerning navigation cadet officers trained in the Malaysia Maritime Academy
(Akademi Laut Malaysia @ ALAM). It aims to obtain respondents feedback on the training of
the SMCP at the academy, practical training of the SMCP on board merchant ships and
compliance with international standards as outlined in the TARB. Future enhancements in
teaching, learning and assessments of the SMCP shall be made be based on the findings of this
study.
Research Questions
The research questions of this study are formulated as follows:
1. What are the areas which need improvements in the training of the SMCP at the ALAM?
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
2. What are the methods used by the DTOs (Designated Training Officers) to facilitate the
SMCP trainings on board merchant ships?
3. Which areas need more focus in the training of the SMCP on board merchant ships?
4. Which areas should be further described in the TARB concerning the training of the
SMCP on board merchant ships?
5. Are trainings on the SMCP received at the ALAM sufficient for shipboard training?
Methodology
This study used self-constructed questionnaire to obtain quantitative data from the target sur vey population. The respondents comprised of 110 students enrolled in the 5th and 6th semester
of undergraduate Nautical Studies at the ALAM who have just completed their 12 months of sea
service (shipboard training) on board various merchant ships as recorded in their respective
TARBs. This shipboard training is part of the mandatory requirements as outlined by the STCW
and is enforced by the Marine Department of Malaysia for 3rd Class Certificate of Competency
for Officer in Charge of Navigational Watch on Ships of 500GT or more On Unlimited Voyage.
All respondents were male and female navigation cadet officers who have completed their les sons in the SMCP in both classroom and on board training. Reliability test on all self-construct
questions was done by using Cronbach's Alpha on the SPSS software. The results show that all
questions in the questionnaire have a value of 0.716 of Cronbach Alpha which falls in the high
reliability level of 0.50-0.90. Hence, it can be summarized that there is a high level of reliability
in all self-constructed questions.
The questionnaire consists of 30 questions and is divided into 3 sections namely A, B and C.
Section A used multiple choice format for obtaining demographic data from respondents through
6 questions. Section B (12 questions) and C (12 questions) were used to gather respondents
feedback on the teaching of the SMCP at the ALAM and further training of the SMCP on board
merchant ships through 5 point Likert Scale. The 5 point Likert Scale ranges from Strongly
Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree and Strongly Disagree.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
figure 1: Cronbach Alpha values of all questions in questionnaire
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha Based on
Cronbach's
Standardized
Alpha
Items
.716
.909
N of Items
30
Demographic Data
Fig. 2 shows that male respondents were the majority of the research population with 93
persons (84.5%). There were only 17 female respondents which contribute to 15.5% of the
overall population. Majority of respondents were in the age range of 21-23 years old with 76.4%
(84 persons). 25 respondents belonged to the age group of 24-26 years with 22.7% and there
was a respondent who belonged to the age group of 18-20 years with 0.9%. 69 respondents were
Semester 5 students (62.7%) while there were 41 respondents (37.3%) in Semester 6.
There were 5 categories of main sponsors of navigation cadet officers in Malaysia Maritime
Academy. They are Malaysia International Shipping Corporation (MISC Berhad), AET Tanker
Holdings Pt. Ltd (AET), Majlis Amanah Rakyat or Peoples Trust Council (MARA), Federal
Land and Development Authority (FELDA), Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam (JPA) or Public
Service Department and other shipping companies who are mainly made up by Bumi Armada,
Global Maritime Ventures (GMV), Jasa Merin, and EA Technique (Petronas subsidiary).
From the survey, there were two types of ships that received the highest frequency in
shipboard training. The first type was Crude Tanker with 37 respondents (33.6%). The second
type was the Other types of ships with 37 respondents (33.6%). This category mostly covers
ships with specialised functions such as OSV (Offshore Supply Vessel), Dredger, Cable Laying
Ships, RoRo ship, Bulk Carrier, General Cargo Ship and other coastal ships. LNG/LPG ships
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
were ranked third together with Product Tankers with 14 respondents respectively (12.7% for
each). The least common ship was Containership with only 8 respondents (7.3%).
figure 2: Demographic data of respondents
Demographic information
Gender
Male
Female
93
17
110
Percentage
(%)
84.5%
15.5%
100%
18-20 years
21-23 years
24-26 years
1
84
25
110
0.9%
76.4%
22.7%
100%
Semester 5
Semester 6
69
41
110
62.7%
37.3%
100%
MISC Berhad
AET Holdings Pt. Ltd
MARA & JPA
FELDA
Others
19
33
34
13
11
110
17.3%
30%
30.9%
11.8%
10%
100%
LNG/LPG
Product Tankers
Crude Tankers
Containership
Other types
14
14
37
8
37
110
12.7%
12.7%
33.6%
7.3%
33.6%
100%
Domestic & Near

Coastal
Asia
Africa
Europe
North & South
America
46
41.8%
34
3
4
23
30.9%
2.7%
3.6%
20.9%
110
100%
Total
Age
Total
Level of Studies
Total
Sponsors
Total
Types of Ships
Total
Frequent Route
Total
The survey also reports that the most frequent route taken by respondents was Domestic and
Near Coastal with 46 respondents (41.8%). Asia was ranked second with 34 respondents
(30.9%) and the North and South America was in the third place with 23 respondents (20.9%).
Lastly, a small number of respondents chose Europe and Africa route with 4 (3.6%) and 3
(2.7%) respondents respectively.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Research
Question
One:
What
are
the
areas
which
need
improvements in the training of the SMCP at the ALAM?

Figure 3 shows the mean and standard deviation of statements in Section B of the
questionnaire which evaluate respondents opinion and feedback on further improvements in the
training of the SMCP at the ALAM.
figure 3: Means and SD of Further Improvements
No.
Statement
Mean
SD
3.91
.786
15
During classes, the SMCP are taught via lecture, modelling,

drills and simulations.
I am confident with my knowledge in the SMCP.
3.60
.708
16
I do not require more training in the SMCP.
2.80
.994
17
There are sufficient resources on the SMCP given by my

lecturer.
3.88
.745
3.84
.765
14
18
I received appropriate exposure and practice on the SMCP.
From the survey, statement which received the lowest mean score is Item 16: I do not require
more training in the SMCP (mean=2.80). The other 3 statements received medium-high mean
scores between 3.60 and 3.91. They are Item 14: During classes, the SMCP are taught via
lecture, modelling, drills and simulations (mean=3.91), Item 15: I am confident with my
knowledge in the SMCP (mean=3.60), Item 17: There are sufficient resources on the SMCP
given by my lecturer (mean=3.88) and Item 18: I received appropriate exposure and practice on
the SMCP (mean=3.84).
Research Question Two: What are the methods used by the DTO
(Designated Training Officer) to facilitate the SMCP trainings on
board merchant ships?
Figure 4 shows the mean and standard deviation of statements in Section C of the
Questionnaire which evaluate respondents opinion and feedback on methods used by their
respective DTOs (Designated Training Officers) in facilitating the trainings and practical
evaluations of the SMCP on board merchant ships.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
figure 4: Means and SD of Methods by DTO in training SMCP
No
.
Statement
Mean
SD
23
I was exposed to real life situations of the SMCP on board.
3.70
.994
24
My trainer used drills and practice to further enhance my competency in

the SMCP.
3.50
.827
4.14
.817
3.47
1.07
25
My trainer allowed me to use the ships radio to familiarize myself with
real life situations at sea.
26
My trainer also used CBT (Computer Based Teaching) in facilitating the
trainings of the SMCP.
Four statements in this section were further analyzed to address the research question. They
are Item no 23: I was exposed to real life situations of the SMCP on board (mean=3.70), Item
24: My trainer used drills and practice to further enhance my competency in the SMCP
(mean=3.50), Item 25: My trainer allowed me to use the ships radio to familiarize myself with
real life situations at sea (mean=4.14) and Item 26: My trainer also used CBT (Computer Based
Teaching) in facilitating the trainings of the SMCP (mean=3.47). The statements and scores
indicate the general four methods being used on board to further train deck cadets on the SMCP
by the DTOs (Designated Training Officers) who were also the Chief Officers of the ship. Three
statements obtained medium scores from respondents (mean = 3.47 to 3.70) and 1 statement,
Item 25 received high mean score in the survey (mean=4.14).
Research Question Three: Which areas need more focus in the

training of the SMCP on board merchant ships?
Figure 5 shows the mean and standard deviation of statements in Section C of the
questionnaire which evaluate respondents opinion and feedback on areas which need more
focus in the training of the SMCP on board merchant ships.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
figure: 5 Means and SD of Areas of Improvement
No
.
Statement
Mean
SD
19
I am satisfied with the amount of time spent on training the SMCP on

board.
3.33
.855
20
I am satisfied with the practical exposure on the SMCP on board.
3.30
.826
21
I am more confident with my competency in the SMCP after being trained

by sea professionals on board merchant ships.
3.57
.867
22
I receive sufficient exposure and training on the SMCP on board merchant

ships.
3.32
.883
3.65
.786
3.22
.860
27
My trainer knows the job well in the facilitating the training of the SMCP.
28
My trainer goes the extra length in teaching me the SMCP .
The analyzed statements above received low and medium ratings ranging from 3.22 to 3.65 in
mean scores. The statements are Item 19: I am satisfied with the amount of time spent on
training the SMCP on board (mean=3.33), Item 20: I am satisfied with the practical exposure on
the SMCP on board (mean=3.30), Item 21: I am more confident with my competency in the
SMCP after being trained by sea professionals on board merchant ships (mean=3.57), Item 22: I
receive sufficient exposure and training on the SMCP on board merchant ships (mean=3.32),
Item 27: My trainer knows the job well in the facilitating the training of the SMCP (mean=3.65)
and Item 28: My trainer goes the extra length in teaching me the SMCP (mean=3.22). Further
discussion on this will be presented in the Summary of Findings section.
Research
Question
Four:
Which
areas
should
be
further
described in the TARB concerning the training of the SMCP on

board?
Figure 6 shows the mean scores and standard deviations of statements in Section C of the
questionnaire which indicate the need to expand the columns and assessments in the TARB on
the SMCP. These expansions are recommended as they provide more comprehensive and
descriptive explanation of assessments and scales for future enhancement and actions.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
All fours statements obtained low mean scores from 3.22 to 3.33. This requires more attention
and improvements as the low mean scores denote immediate actions must be taken to alleviate
the situation. For the SMCP, the TARB only spells out the Use of the IMO SMCP with other
ships and coast stations (p. 47). It does not specify the standard frequency of tasks to be
conducted so as to reach the acceptable exposure and trainings when communicating with other
ships and coast stations. Moreover, it does not state the approaches and methods to carry out the
training, evaluation and facilitation. It is recommended that the TARB should be more specific
in delivering the training of the SMCP on board. The low mean scores obtained by the four
statements in Section C indicated that there should be more efforts taken in those particular
areas and to clarify those areas in training.
figure: 6 Means and SD of Areas that need to be expanded in the TARB
No
.
Statement
Mean
SD
19
I am satisfied with the amount of time spent on training the SMCP on

board.
3.33
.855
20
I am satisfied with the practical exposure on the SMCP on board.
3.30
.826
22
I receive sufficient exposure and training on the SMCP on board

merchant ships.
3.32
.883
3.22
.860
28
My trainer goes the extra length in teaching me the SMCP.
Research Question Five: Are trainings on the SMCP received at

the ALAM sufficient for shipboard training?
Figure 7 shows the mean scores and standard deviations of the last two statements in the
Section C of the questionnaire. They indicate the synergy between the teachings of the SMCP at
the Malaysia Maritime Academy and further exposure and training on board merchant ships.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
figure 6: Means and SD of statements which indicate the link between theory and practice
No
.
Statement
Mean
SD
29
The SMCP training received at the ALAM connects well to the real
situations of the SMCP on board merchant ships.
3.85
.815
30
The training received on board complements the knowledge received

at the ALAM.
3.63
.879
Both statements received mean scores in the medium-high range, which is between 3.50 and
4.00. This data shows that there is a possible high link between classroom practice and practical
training on board merchant ships on the SMCP.
Summary of findings
In terms of areas which need more focus in the teaching of the SMCP on campus, findings of
this study reveal that respondents require more time and exposure to the SMCP in theory classes
before they embark on their shipboard training. Furthermore, the results show that more
facilitation hours should be allocated to the SMCP. Other areas of improvement in the teaching
of the SMCP within the academy are syllabus content, more involvement in role-plays, drills
and simulations for navigational situations with the SMCP, comprehensive and updated teaching
and learning resources and more practical tests on the SMCP to increase students level of
confidence and knowledge.
The results of study also highlight the three common methods used by the DTO to further
teach, facilitate and evaluate the SMCP on board merchant ships. These methods are drills and
practice based on navigational situations, computer software (CBT) and most importantly, the
ships VHF radio. From the study, it was also reported that most respondents had been exposed
to the practical side of the SMCP when their respective DTOs authorized them to use the ships
VHF radio to further complement the theory of the SMCP learned on campus.
Majority of respondents believed that the amount of time, the type of exposure received,
quality of training and facilitation and also the DTOs dedication in training must be further
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
improved. Therefore, further recommendations and actions should be taken to improve the
quality of training in the SMCP on board of merchants ships.
This study also indicates that future improvements in the TARB should be proposed so that
the training of the SMCP could be more descriptive and objective. These suggestions include
frequency of communication with other ships and coast stations (1-5 ships/stations), written
record of the ships and coast stations contacted, total hours spent in communication with other
ships and coast stations (0-10 hours), types of methods/approaches used by the DTOs to deliver
the training, other related topics in the SMCP to be emphasized during VHF communication
with other ships and coast stations (for example, Message Markers and etc.) and written record
of marks or scores received by cadets indicating their level of achievement in each task.
The findings of this study also suggest that the link between theory emphasised on campus
and practical on board training is in the category of medium-high (mean score = 3.63 and 3.85).
This concludes that the trainings of the SMCP received on campus are sufficient for shipboard
training. Moreover, this initial finding also indicates that there is a synergistic link between the
theory and practice concerning the SMCP.
Conclusion
There have been weaknesses in both classroom facilitations and on board practical trainings
concerning the SMCP according to this study. However, it is too early to make any judgement at
this point. This is because this research serves as a preliminary study on the SMCP, especially
when aligning occupational requirements as required by the Officer in Charge of Navigational
Watch on Ships of 500GT or more and national requirements as outlined by the TARB and
international standards as stated by the STCW Codes.
On the other hand, this study could initiate more related research and studies on the SMCP,
especially on the practical applications of the SMCP in ships VHF communication during the
12 months of shipboard training for cadets training to become navigating officers. This must be
done in line with the need to further improve the standards of communication at sea. Hopefully
in the near future, the Maritime English Trainers community could be presented with clearer
portrayal of the events that take place on board merchant ships worldwide. Only then we could
objectively summarize the issues and offer conclusions pertaining to the implementation of the
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
SMCP in all types of communications at sea with a consistent focus on ship to ship and ship to
coast stations as amended in the STCW 2010 Manila Amendment.
References
[1] Training and record book. Port Klang, Selangor. Marine Department of Malaysia, (2010).
[2] Cole, C. & Trenkner, P., Whither Maritime English?, Proceedings of International
Maritime English Conference, IMEC 24: Yangon, Myanmar, (2012), pp 3-18.
[3] Magallon, J.D, Assessing Maritime English in outcome-based framework: measuring
students competence as per STCW 2010 as amended, Proceedings of the International
Maritime English Conference, IMEC 26: Terschelling, The Netherlands, (2014), pp 114-127.
[4] Demydenko, N., International standards of Maritime English as a means to improve safety
at sea, Proceedings of IMEC 22, (2010).
[5] Ziarati, M., Safety at sea applying parent analysis, Proceedings of World Maritime
Technology Conference (WMTC06), Queen Elizabeth Conference Centre, (2006).
[6] Ziarati et al, Developing standards for Maritime English, Bridge Conference, Finland,
(2009).
[7] Loginovsky, V.A., Verbal communication failures and safety at sea, Vol. 2, No. 2, (2002).
[8] Xie, J. & Ruan, W., Orienting the model course on Maritime English toward a specific
field-a report on the revision progress of model course 3.17, Proceedings Proceedings of the
International Maritime English Conference, IMEC 26: Terschelling, The Netherlands, (2014), pp
248-256.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Communications between Ships Pilots, Masters,

and Tug Operators Some Suggestions for the
IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases
Roy Stall Freelance Consultant, Maritime English (Australia), rstall@hotmail.com
Abstract
Effective pilot-master communication can, to state the obvious, be critical when entering and
leaving harbour. Currently the IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases or SMCP appear
to cover some of the master-pilot communications necessary when these operations are under way, but in this mix there needs to be factored in effective pilot-tug communications, with the
master being also able to understand also what is being conveyed between the pilot and tug
skippers. Some essential and basic 'tug operation' phrases are therefore recommended for seri ous consideration by those involved in drafting any revision to the SMCP.
keywords: SMCP, pilot-tug communications, bridge resource management.
Introduction
Given the discussions early in 2015 in Germany and Holland about the problems encountered
with pilot-tug communications I decided to review the status quo in Australia (and in particu lar, Western Australia) regarding this issue. I also decided to attempt to find out what the situ ation was in the United Kingdom, the United States of America, as well as getting some feed back from Singapore, China, and Japan.
This is very much a descriptive as opposed to an analytical paper and one that concentrates on
the practical, rather than the theoretical aspects of pilot-tug communications.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
I am aware of the publication in February 2015 of the Guidelines for safe harbor towage op erations by the European Tugowners Association (http://www.eurotugowners.com) although I
have not quoted from this document. This is an excellent starting point for any deliberations
concerning pilot-tug communications for possible inclusion in the SMCP. I am hopeful that the
phrases used in pilot-tug communications in countries other than Europe will also be considered
when the IMO is reviewing any additions and/or amendments to the SMCP. Given that world
seaborne trade is dominated by the Asian region (for both loaded and unloaded goods) it would
be appropriate to acknowledge, and be aware of, the language practices of mariners in that part
of the world.
With this in mind I communicated with the following institutions in an endeavor to get some
idea of the phrases used when pilots are communicating with tugs:
Fremantle Pilots
United Kingdom Maritime Pilots Association
International Maritime Pilots Association
American Pilots Association
Jimei Navigation Institute, Xiamen, China
Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology
Marine and Port Authority of Singapore
The responses varied greatly in sophistication, details, and comprehensibility. I have attemp ted to summarize some of them towards the end of this paper.
I also communicated with two former ex Navy colleagues who had worked as ships pilots for
many years after their time in the Royal Australian Navy. One had been employed at the port of
Fremantle, the other at Dampier, 1,500 kilometers north of Fremantle. I asked them to summar ise the pilot-tug commands that they personally used and preferred, and these are appendices
to this paper. One is a Suggested set of tug orders for the Port of Fremantle and the other is
headed 2015 Tug orders, and relates to the orders used in the port of Dampier in the northwest
of Western Australia.
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In the course of researching this paper I became aware of additional maritime phrases, such
as azimuth stern drives, voith water tractors, tractor command language, tonnage com mands, powered indirect, transverse arrests, and indirect braking. These do not, however,
need to be included in the SMCP!
Western Australia some background to pilots duties

Fremantle Port is the principal cargo port for Western Australia (known as WA) and is a
sheltered, all weather port situated on the west coast about 20 kilometers from the State capital,
Perth.
Fremantle Port comprises two harbours an inner and outer harbour. The inner harbour is
located at the mouth of the Swan River and the outer harbour is about 20km south at Kwinana, a
major industrial area. The inner harbour handles almost all of the container trade for WA but it
also provides facilities for livestock exports, motor vehicle imports, other general cargo, cruise
ships and occasional visiting naval vessels. The outer harbour is one of Australias major bulk
cargo ports handling grain, petroleum, liquid petroleum gas, alumina, mineral sands, fertilisers,
coal, sulphur, and other bulk commodities. The state of WA also has two other major ports, Port
Hedland and Dampier. These two ports mainly handle iron ore, LNG and LPG exports in
large quantities. In 2013-2014 almost 150 million tonnes of iron was exported, constituting
about 82% of total exports. Needless to say, the vessels handling these quantities of ore are
very large.
Of Australias five major general cargo ports, Fremantle is the closest to Singapore, which is
about four and half days journey away. The ports of Port Hedland and Dampier, in the States
northwest are also very busy iron ore exporting locations, where the tides can range up to seven
metres, whereas in Fremantle the tidal range is usually about one metre. The tides can obvi ously and significantly - affect shipping and tug operations.
The vast majority of traffic into Fremantle comes from Asia and the Middle East. East Asia
accounts for 29%, Southeast Asia 25%, and the Middle East 17%. Only 4% of the traffic comes
from Europe and the United Kingdom. Consequently ships pilots in Fremantle find themselves
communicating with ships masters from China, Korea, Indonesia, India, and Malaysia, among
others.
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Services such as towage, pilotage, line boats, and bunkering are provided by the private sec tor. For the pilotage, a company called (unsurprisingly) Fremantle Pilots provides the marine
pilotage service to the port of Fremantle and has been doing so for 170 years. To quote from
their website, our mission is to navigate vessels in and out of Fremantle safely and on sched ule. The company provides continuous professional development for their pilots, which in cludes bridge resource management.
Via some networking the author of this paper was able, with the managing directors per mission (as well as obtaining the permission of the duty pilot) to accompany a pilot from the
above company on more than one occasion, when he was providing the pilotage for arriving as
well as departing vessels. These vessels included
a training vessel from Japan
a cruise liner
a diesel tanker from an Asian refinery.
In Fremantle visiting vessels are usually boarded by pilots in Gage Roads1 , several kilometers off the coast.
On all but one of the occasions when I accompanied a pilot I observed the multinational
make-up of the crew, and in particular, the bridge team. For example, on the day I was on the
diesel tanker, the captain was Korean, the First Officer was Chinese, and the helmsman was
from Myanmar. The vessel was headed for the outer harbour, some 20 kilometres south of the
main port of Fremantle, where petroleum, grain, fertilizers, alumina, sulphur and Liquid Petro leum Gas are the main cargoes.
Access to the outer harbour for large ships is via several channels which have a maintained
depth of about 15 metres. Most large cargo ships visiting Fremantle have drafts between 10
and 13 metres. The channels are only about 150 metres wide and can be difficult for vessels
with a large wind profile and high ratio of freeboard/draft as it is exposed to winds and seas.
Gage Roads is named after Rear-Admiral Sir William Hall Gage who was Commander-in-Chief of the Royal
Navys East India Station when James Stirling was surveying the Swan River in 1826.
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As such, the ships masters and duty ships pilots have to maintain the highest levels of dili gence, as these waterways are used 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
To add to the ship handling challenges, there is more often than not - a strong sea breeze
(usually south-westerly) blowing in this area, often up to 25 knots, or 46 kilometers per hour.
Furthermore, at the southern end of the channels there is one of the Royal Australian Navys
largest bases where half of the Navys surface fleet are located, as well as all of Australias sub marine fleet, so extra traffic results when the Navy is on the move, or when there are visiting
vessels from other navies. And added to this already busy mix are the recreational sailors from
nearby yacht clubs, fishermen, and other users of the relatively protected waters of Cockburn
Sound.
As is the practice in other ports, a duty pilot on a departing vessel may transfer to an incom ing vessel that is approaching the port, once his vessel has reached a designated point offshore.
So while he could - at one stage - be duty pilot on a departing cruise liner he could find himself
on the bridge of a pure car carrier or container ship in the space of less than two hours. The co ordination of the pilots duties is done by a land-based administration officer in the office of the
Fremantle Pilots.
On the occasion the author was accompanying the pilot on the diesel tanker, at any one time
he could be talking to any one of seven parties:
vessel traffic services
the ships master
the helmsman
the wharf gang of line handlers
the line boat
deck crew
tug operators.
Needless to say, the main challenges to the Fremantle pilots (and pilots in other Australian
ports) are communicating with ships masters, helmsmen, and very occasionally the deck
crew.
In the port of Fremantle the international company Svitzer presently manages the tug fleet.
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Feedback from overseas regarding tug operations

As mentioned earlier, comments were sought from a variety of overseas tug associations or
organisations regarding standard phrases that were in common use.
One of the pilots with
whom I communicated kindly forwarded to me details of some exchanges that recently took
place on LinkedIn and the range of contributions was substantial.
One of the contributors
stated that he was soliciting opinions and/or other practices that my fellow international col leagues use your comments are most welcome. The anonymity of the contributors has been
respected and some of their comments are included below.
Responding to the invitation to contribute, some pilots from the following countries and loca tions offered their views about pilots instructions to tugs:
Denmark
The United Kingdom
Trinidad and Tobago
Germany
Barrow Island, Western Australia
South Africa
Gibraltar
Singapore
United States of America
Morocco
Algeria
The Russian Federation
It can be seen that there was a geographically very wide spread of views and comments.
The exchange started with a suggestion that, to eliminate the possibility of errors, the fol lowing tug instructions were mooted:
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Pilot to tug: Tug (name) push/pull back , , , FULL

In the situation pictured, this instruction should be straightforward.
The vessels bow is swinging to starboard in Fremantle harbour as the ship rotates within its
own length, before proceeding to the harbour mouth. Normal procedure for the tugs (after the
turn) is for them to remain on station one on the bow and one on the quarter, with lines still
secured on the ship, but with no tension.This is a safety measure in case of engine or steering
failure on the departing vessel. Once clear of the harbour entrance the lines are let go and the
tugs return to their base.
In the photograph below, the vessel has left the berth and is about to head for the harbour en trance. Being lightly loaded it only needed a tug after to assist with the turning procedure. (The
water from the hawsepipe is from the washing of the anchor before it is brought hard up. On
some occasions moored vessels are required to lower one anchor to the harbour floor to reduce
the chances of a runaway ship in case it breaks its mooring ropes.
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It would be worthwhile here to provide a selection of just a few of the suggestions for instruc tions to tugs. Care has been taken not to embellish the phrases of the many practising pilots
who contributed to the discussion. Comments other than my own are in inverted commas.
Pilot order
Comments
(Name) - pull 10%

(Name) - pull half
(Tug name) pull port bow, 75%, seven
Some pilots liked using percentage power,
five
others did not. One made the comment,

We have found no issue at all with the
interpretation, application, or effectiveness
(of
using
percentages)
Number 2 (tug) easy weight to
The advantage is that you do not need to
starboard
remember the name of each tug during the

tense part of a manoeuvre and the orders
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Number 3 (tug) half weight to port
are easy to understand. Perhaps more

useful is the fact that they are distinct
from the orders you give to the master for
his engines.
Naming tugs with a number could be
potentially confusing if the tug named 1
is stationed aft and the tug named 2 is
stationed ford
This is enough as you will always be

adjusting the tugs power settings based on
Push in/lift off - easy/more/full
the results you want and get
Number one, lie back

Rather than include too much detail and comments here the author will discuss the transcript
of the extensive interchange of views with those interested at the IMEC or via email.
Conclusion
Pilot-tug communications are a critical part of the pilots duties when assisting ships and other
vessels berthing or unberthing. The SMCP are designed to facilitate clear, concise, and unam biguous communications at sea and any amendments or additions to these phrases which ad dress pilot-tug communications should obviously meet these criteria.
Perhaps cognizance
should also be given to pilot-tug phrases currently used in Asian waters where there are thirteen
out of twenty of the worlds busiest ports.
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References:
IMO, IMPA A960 January 2004, Recommendations on training and certification and opera tional
procedures
for
maritime
pilots
other
than
deep-sea
pilots
http://www.impahq.org/admin/resources/a960en-1.pdf
Brooks,
Capt.
G.V.
and
Schisler,
Capt.
V.J.,
Suggested
tractor
command
languagehttp://www.towingsolutionsinc.com/technology-suggested_tractor_command_lan guage.html
European Tugowners Association, Guidelines for safe harbour towage operations, First Edi tion, February 2015
Appendix 1
Suggested set of tug orders for the Port of Fremantle
1.
Tug Power Settings:
'Stop'
'Minimum'
'Quarter'
'Half'
'Three quarters'
'Full'
'Maximum' (Emergency only)
2.
Square Up/Come Square
Tug will work itself at right angles to hull.
3.
Lift Off/Back
Tug will lift off or pull, whether on a tow line or bow to

bow.
4.
a) Pull Back Alongside
Tug will lie flat alongside and pull back against the
headway of the ship
5.
b) Pull Back Right Aft
For an Aft Tug on C/L, or on or near the transom
Push
Tug will push at right angles to the ship, or as near as

possible if the ship has some head/sternway.
6.
Pushing at an angle
Indicate the angle e.g., Push at 45 degrees
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
7.
Heading Directions
For any direction other than 2, 3, 4 and 5, alternative

headings may be given, e.g. 'Head 4 points on the port
bow', or 'Head 2 points abaft the beam, or 'Head towards
White Landing', etc. Tow Towards can also be used
8.
Inform Intentions
Prior to using main engine(s), or letting go anchor.
9.
Stand By
Inform the tugs of an impending change in its manoeuvre.

If tug is pushing - 'Stop, stand by to lift off', or if the tug
is pulling back - 'Stop, stand by to let go'.
10.
Running with the ship
When running free, indicate the standby position(s).
11.
Ambiguous Terms
Avoid ambiguous terms , such as 'Push up gently' or 'Lift

off just a little more' or 'Back easy'.
12
Communications
If other communications are needed, avoid uncertainty.

Keep the message short & concise, with no rapid speech.
13
Other phrases
'Backflip' - Swing the ship stern to the wharf.

'Slack Line'
'Push/Lift off Bare(st) Minimum '
No Weight
Nose Off the Hull
Take her around on .. Power
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Appendix 2
Northwest ports in Western Australia
DOCKING THE SHIP: PART 1 - SIDEWAY
PILOT ORDER
TUG ACTION
Square up
Position the tug square (ie 90 degrees) to the hull
Push up, bare weight
Apply sufficient tug power to keep the tug square with the
(minimum weight)
ship
Push up slow
Push on the hull with about 10% to15% of the tugs available
tug power, say, 10 tonnes
Push up half
Push on the hull with about 25% to 35% of the tugs available
Push up Strong
Push on the hull with about 50% to 60% of the tugs available
Push up full
This is an emergency, and the tugmaster will provide maxim um available power
Leave the hull, stretch
The tug moves off the hull, keeping square with the ship and
line (s)
prepares to lay back to arrest the sideway
Lay back (slow) (half)
The tug pulls back on the towline with about (10) (20) (40)
(strong) (full)
(50+) tonnes.
(the plan is to stop the

ship aligned parallel with
the wharf and displaced
laterally 5 to 10 metres)
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DOCKING THE SHIP: PART 2 - THE SET DOWN
PILOT
ORDER
TUG ACTION
(GIVEN TO)
(centre tug) push up slow
The centre tug will push up with about 10 tonnes
(the plan is to resume side

way but only very slowly until the ship settles on the
fenders)
(end tugs) slack lines or
The end tugs will keep slack or stretch lines with minimum
stretch lines
weight while the ship settles on the fenders
(centre tug) bare weight
The centre tug will push on the hull with minimum power
as the ship settles on to the fenders
(centre tug) push up half,
The centre tug will push up with about 30 tonnes
hold her on (the plan is to

hold the ship on the fenders)
(end tugs) Come on to the
the end tugs will come on to the hull and prepare to hold the
hull and hold her on
ship in position with about 30 tonnes
(tug or tugs) push on two
the selected tug will push on with the required power at an
points forward push on
angle two points forward or aft to adjust the longitudinal
two points aft
position of the ship (safer than using engines)
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SAILING
PILOT
ORDER
TUG ACTION
(GIVEN TO)
Pilot on board
The tugs will report to the ship in the usual way and will be
directed to their positions. in this example, one tug will be
positioned on the shoulder, another under the bridge. both
tugs will supply a single towline to the ship (ships lines are
rarely used); and the third tug will push up in the midships
position to hold the ship in position while the mooring lines
are recovered.
when the ship is ready to sail
(end tugs) stretch lines and prepare to tow the ship away
(end tugs) stretch lines
from the wharf. (centre tug) moves forward and around the
(centre tug) assist forward
bow and prepares to assist by pushing the bow away from

the wharf.
lay back half and tow her
(end tugs) lay back with about 20 tonnes of bollard pull and
away
tow the ship clear of the wharf until it is safe to use the
ships engines.
engines
(end tugs) the tugs move back on to the hull and recover
have fired the tugs will be
their tow lines. Occasionally the third tug might escort the
ordered to stop towing and
ship some of the way if the ships engines are defective or
recover tug lines
for some other reason.
When
the
ships
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
ComPic Communication by Using PictographyEnhancing Safety for Navigation by using

Pictography
Patrick de Jong, Max de Vette, Montijn van Rossem, Jurian La Roche Students at Rotterdam
Mainport University of Applied Sciences
Peter van Kluijven Rotterdam Mainport University of Applied Sciences , kluijven@caiway.nl
Preface
This research about enhancing safety for navigation by using pictography was commissioned
by the Rotterdam Mainport University. In our main phase of the bachelor study Maritime Of ficer, we had to do a research with an innovative objective. Our desk research and field research
has resulted in a report, a product and a presentation.
We would like to thank mr. van Kluijven, mrs. van Der Drift, mrs. van den Berk, mr. Sprong,
mr. Griffioen and mr. Gommans for their support in our research. Finally we want to thank
everyone from all over the world for filling in our survey.
Introduction
One third of all maritime accidents happen primarily due to insufficient command of Maritime
English. (Professor Peter Trenkner, Principal author IMO SMCP). In response to this conclu sion, the idea of this research is to enhance safety for navigation by using pictography. It is not
the intention to replace any forms of the current communication, but to support it.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Problem description
Maritime communication is inefficient due to language barriers, pronunciation issues or lack
of training. This poor communication is often the main cause of dangerous situations for naviga tion. Safety of vessel and crew is at risk due to this issue.
For example, a sailor is navigating in Dover Strait. He is intending to overtake a vessel ahead
of him and he is trying to communicate by VHF with the officer of the watch of the vessel he
wants to overtake. In the worst case scenario that person does not understand him and does not
respond.
Another example of poor communication is when a vessel is in distress. The officer on watch
is so panicked he forgets the safety-, urgency- and distress Standard Marine Communications
Phrases. So he or she cannot send a clear message through VHF which other vessels or coastal
stations can understand. In this case there will be no assistance from other vessels.
Problem definition
Communication between vessels and coastal stations is inefficient.
Objective
The objective is: enhancing quality of maritime communication and safety for navigation by
using pictography.
This research will produce a report with all the designed pictures and conclusions.
The main question of our research is:
How can pictography be used to improve intership communication?
The following sub questions are used for answering the main question:
What forms of maritime communication are there? Desk research
Why using pictograms to enhance communication and to support oral communication?

Desk research
What are the advantages and disadvantages of oral maritime communication?
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of pictography?
How are the Standard Marine Communication Phrases going to be translated into pic tures? Desk research
What types of messages are eligible with pictography?
What are the requirements regarding clarity, safety and efficiency for the pictograms?
Desk research
What are the colours?
What are the sizes?
How can pictograms be transmitted? Field- and desk research
For which situations can pictograms be used beside oral communication? Field- and
desk research
Project borders
What has not been investigated :
the financial aspects.
intraship communication.
proceedings and regulations regarding maritime communication.
educational, cultural differences and pronunciation matters.
Communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emo tions through speech, signals, writing or behaviour. There are three types of communication:
verbal, non-verbal and written.
Intership maritime communication is the communication
between vessels and between vessels and VTS stations. Intraship maritime communication the
communication on board of the vessels.
Verbal communication refers to the use of sounds and language to relay a message. Verbal
communication is further divided into oral communication and written communication (Tracii
Hanes, 2013).
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Oral communication
By oral communication, spoken words are used to relay a message. There are two forms of
maritime communication: oral communication and written communication. Oral maritime com munication uses the Very High Frequency, Medium Frequency and the High Frequency bands of
the VHF.
VHF
VHF is the abbreviation of Very High Frequency. The wavelength is between 1 and 10 metres
and the frequency between 30 MHz and 300MHz. The VHF signals are used for radio transmis sion. In maritime communication, VHF channels are used for communication between vessels
and between vessels and coastal stations, in a short range. The range of the VHF signal is about
30 nautical miles. With the VHF it is possible to transmit an oral message to other vessels or
coastal stations in a short range. The language that is used in VHF communication is the Stand ard Maritime Communication Phrases.
MF
MF or Medium Frequency is also used to transmit oral communication. The difference
between VHF and MF is that VHF has a shorter range than the MF. MF has a range of about 200
nautical miles. It has a frequency of between 300 kHz and 3 MHz.
HF
HF (High Frequency) is also used to transmit an oral message. The HF has a range up to 1000
nautical miles. It has a frequency of between 3 MHz and 30 MHz.
Written communication
In written communication signs and symbols, such as images of toilets in public areas, are
used to communicate. In maritime communication, written communication can be transmitted
by using DSC, NAVTEX, AIS, SART, ECDIS.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
DSC
With Digital Selective Calling (DSC) vessels and coastal stations can communicate by using
written messages. DSC is used to establish initial contact between stations. The written mes sages are transmitted by VHF, MF and HF channels. The DSC system supports the following
categories:
Distress
Urgency
Safety
Routine
The MF/HF channels are only for distress, urgency and safety messages. Because of the relat ively low speeds of transmission, the channels of MF/HF would quickly become overloaded if it
was permitted to send routine messages on these frequencies.
Every vessel that uses DSC has its own identification number. This is a Maritime Mobile Ser vice Identification number, or MMSI-number.
NAVTEX
NAVTEX is an international automatic radio telex service. With NAVTEX it is possible to re ceive navigational and meteorological warnings for a restricted area, called NAVAREA.
AIS
Automatic Identification System, also known as AIS. More information about AIS is in
chapter 6.2.
Using pictograms to improve communication

There have been many accidents due to ineffective use of oral communication. This is the
main reason why pictograms could be used to enhance and to support oral marine communica tion. The pictograms will not replace the oral maritime communication, it will only be used as
an additional tool to make sure that the information has come across effectively and correctly.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Advantages and disadvantages of oral maritime communication

Advantages of oral maritime communication
The advantage of oral Maritime communication is the direct and personal transmission of all
types of information, for example information regarding weather forecast, storm warnings, gen eral safety and routine information regarding sailing areas etc..
Disadvantages of oral maritime communication
In VTS (Vessel Traffic Services) controlled areas communicatively relevant factors contribute
up to 40% of collisions (The Nautical Institute, 2007) involving the human element; most of
them caused by failures in radio communication, even in routine conversations.
Port State Control inspectors often encounter problems in getting elementary information
from ship officers due to their substandard English. Pilots frequently voice their concern in this
respect, too.
The disadvantage of oral maritime communication is the multi-ethnic officer staffs that occa sionally fail to communicate effectively when managing panicking crowds on board distressed
vessels due to the lack of dominance of the English language. This disadvantage is a result of
poor elementary English education. Some countries have English as a second- or foreign lan guage and those natives will not come into contact with the English language until they have to
study the Marine Communication Language. And to control a language effectively it must be
trained or used for a good amount of time.
More than 86% (The Nautical Institute, 2007) of all SOLAS vessels are presently crewed
with multilingual personnel who, for diverse reasons, are frequently unable to render the Mari time English skills required, risking and even causing damage to lives, property and the envir onment.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Advantages and disadvantages of the use of images (pictography)

Advantages of pictography
The biggest advantage of using pictography in maritime communication is that there will be
fewer problems with understanding each other through the VHF. By using pictography the icon
will appear on the ECDIS (see chapter 6.4) and can be interpreted without using oral communic ation. In this way the intention of other ships cannot be easily mistaken for something else.
Another advantage of pictography is that there is no problem with too much noise through the
VHF. In crowded areas it will become almost impossible to follow or track all the messages that
are sent.
Disadvantages of pictography
The disadvantage of communication by pictography is its transmission. Most ships are
equipped with AIS, (see chapter 6.2) but there is still a small amount of ships that do not operate
this system. So there might be a situation where a pictogram is sent but is not delivered to all
ships in the vicinity because the receiving ship does not have the proper installations.
Translating standard marine communication phrases

into pictograms
For the translation of the Standard Marine Communication Phrases into pictograms the de cision has been made to only refer to the intership communication phrases. Intership communic ation is ship-to-shore and ship-to-ship communication. The use of intraship communication, the
communication between crew on board, is required but using pictograms for intraship commu nication would be unnecessary.
Types of messages that are eligible for pictography

Selected situations that can constitute a danger for the surrounding navigation have been
translated into pictograms. When there is no clear communication between vessels the risk of
incidents will increase. The Standard Marine Communication Phrases that causes a lot of
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
danger, like distress, urgency and safety phrases, when not successfully transferred to another
station will be translated into pictograms to decrease accidents.
A number of pictograms do not relate to the Standard Marine communication Phrases but re late to traffic situations and manoeuvres that are not covered by the phrases. The pictograms
(see product) used in this report only reflect a small portion of the total amount of phrases and
traffic situations a vessel may encounter.
The following phrases and situations have been translated into pictograms:
I am a pilot
I am flooding below waterline
This is motor vessel [name]
My port side is blocked, pass on star-
I am aground
I am at anchor
I am constrained by a draft
I am engaged in fishing
I am engaged in trawling
I am engaged in fishing, non trawling
I am not under command
I have a restricted manoeuvrability
I am towing
I am under sail and power driven
I am under attack by pirates
I am on fire
I am carrying dangerous goods of IMO-
board side
port side
I will overtake you on port side
I will overtake you on starboard side
I will pass you green-to-green
I will pass you red-to-red
I am going out to port side
I am going out to starboard side
I am crossing the Traffic Separation

Scheme
I am carrying dangerous goods of IMO-
I have lost person overboard
I am leaving and crossing the Traffic

Separation Scheme
I am leaving the Traffic Separation

Scheme
Class 4
I am entering the Traffic Separation

Scheme
Class 2
My starboard side is blocked, pass on
I am going round
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
The requirements regarding clarity, safety and

efficiency for the pictograms
Colors, sizes and general shapes of the pictograms
The pictograms are used to enhance safety in navigation, this means the pictograms need a
clear design to make them easy to understand for everyone.
The colours that have been used for the pictograms have to be clearly distinguishable from
each other and from the other colours on the ECDIS display (see chapter 6.3). One way to make
the message stand out on the ECDIS is by using a flashing exclamation mark which can be
clicked and will then open a new tab that shows the pictogram. By separating the pictograms
form the main screen the ECDIS will be free of disturbing clutter.
The size of the pictograms are not fixed, as every ship uses different sized ECDIS displays.
For the sake of clarity there is the possibility to zoom in, therefor the pictograms have to be
made in high resolution. This way the pictogram will be sharp at any zoom level.
The general outline is same for every pictogram to create a series of images that follow the
navigation rules and fit the general style of the ECDIS. For the shapes of vessels and other ob jects used on in the pictograms the same style has been used.
Concepts
Out of three concept drawings (Appendix I), Number two has been chosen because this
concept has the clearest style and is easiest to adapt in multiple situations. The other two con cepts were closer to reality in terms of shape. This meant that the design deviated from the basic
intention of the whole project, to enhance safety. This is achieved by keeping the pictograms as
simple as possible without using too much redundant information that could distract from the
message.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Transmission of pictograms
For sending pictograms from station A to station B, pictograms have to be transmitted wire lessly. Transmission can be done point-to-point and point-to-multipoint, this means transmitting
to one station or to several stations at once.
Weather satellites
Weather satellites can send pictures from space to stations across the earth by using Automatic
Picture Transmission. This is an image transmission system. This system sends data with in formation to a radio receiver and a decoder so the pictures can be displayed. Some dedicated
software can be used for displaying pictures. Because of the long distances the signals have to
travel it can take 8 to 15 minutes before the radio receiver receives the complete signal and can
display a complete picture (Wikipedia, Automatic Picture Transmission, 2015).
Automatic Identification System

The Automatic Identification System, also known as AIS, is intended to provide overview and
information through interaction between ships and with the authorities ashore. The transponders
send information via a Very High Frequency (VHF) channel regarding speed, position and voy age related vessel data. This information comes from sensors. Other information like the name
of the vessel and the VHF call sign was already programmed during the commissioning of the
equipment aboard. Other stations can receive the radio signals with the information by transpon ders. The received information can be displayed on the radar display and the Electronic Chart
Display Information System (ECDIS).
a= the antenna height station A (metres)

S= 4
2 a2 +b2
b= the antenna height station B (metres)

S= the range (kilometers)
The range of the radio signals depends on the antenna height of station A and station B. This
can be determined by using the following formula:
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The solution
The idea is to transmit pictograms by the AIS. By sending a code from station A to station B,
the received code will be translated into a picture at station B. By sending a code instead of a
whole pictogram the required data that has to be transmitted will not be as much compared with
sending the actual pictogram. A computer program can translate the code into the right picto gram, now the right pictogram will be displayed on the ECDIS. The Weather satellites system
could also be used but does not match the requirements since transmitting a picture to another
station takes quite long. Also the AIS can be connected to the ECDIS which helps displaying the
pictograms from another station. There are a lot of codes for the AIS, each code meaning
something else. So it is possible to implement the idea in the AIS (Eric S. Raymond's, 2015). It
is recommended that further research on this part has to be done for acknowledgement and to
find out the ifs and buts.
When a vessel chooses to send a COMPIC, a red exclamation mark will flash above that ves sel on the ECDIS so other stations will know that the vessel has sent a COMPIC. Now the other
stations have to click on the vessel and on the tab "COMPIC" to see what pictogram the vessel
has sent to clarify what his means are.
It is necessary for the user to select the right COMPIC fast and easy in a program when in a
difficult situation. This program gives the user the choice about what COMPIC to use by select ing distress, urgency, safety or routine. After selecting one of these four, all COMPICs of the se lected type will appear. This way the user can select the right COMPIC for the right situation in
a fast and easy way.
Example
For example, the vessel Flinterforest is going to overtake the vessel Ambassadeur.
Vessel Flinterforest clicks the overtake pictogram (COMPIC). (A code will be sent to all
stations around)
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Now other stations around will see a red exclamation mark blinking above Flinterforest.
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When the stations click on Flinterforest they can see its ARPA-A, ARPA-B, AIS and
COMPIC information by clicking on the right tab.
When clicked on the COMPIC tab the pictogram sent by Flinterforest will show.
Pictograms beside oral communication

This chapter is about question 10 in the survey, which can be found in appendix II. This ques tion refers to situations where pictograms could be used beside oral communication. There were
a lot of answers to this question, so the best and most common answers on this question were
chosen and can be found in this chapter. The COMPICs are based on these answers.
Situations
The following is a list of situations where pictograms could be used beside oral communica tion; the COMPICs are based on these situations:
Safety operations
Manoeuvring vessel
Emergency situations
Anchoring
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Carrying/ handling dangerous goods
Hampered vessel
At which side a ship can pass a survey
Sinking
Chemical/oil/LNG tanker
Passing (red on red or green on green)
Identification of Platforms
Working vessel
Constrained by draft
Navigational warnings
Military vessel
Head-on situations
ship or a dredger
Tug
Toxic smoke
Person overboard
Fire
Crossings
Vessel not under command
Fishing
Overtaking
Areas
The areas where pictograms could be used beside oral communication are:
Port entry
Traffic separation zones
The pictograms have been chosen for these areas because pictograms (COMPICS) can be used
to reduce unnecessary oral communication in these areas. Also pictograms are only possible in
these areas because to transmit and receive a COMPIC a vessel has to be in the VHF range of
another vessel. In open sea areas, with a distance between vessels over 30 nautical miles, it is
not possible to transmit or receive COMPICS.
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Conclusion
Subquestions
What forms of maritime communication are there?
There are two forms of maritime communication: oral communication and written communic ation. By oral communication is meant the communication by using the Very High Frequency,
Medium Frequency and the High Frequency. By written communication is meant the communic ation by using the Digital Selective Calling, NAVTEX and Automatic Identification System.
Why using pictograms to enhance communication and to support oral communication?
By using pictograms most of the disadvantages of oral communication, like the substandard
English of some officers on watch, the failure of sending a distress message in a distress situ ation and the lack of English Maritime Communication can be avoided.
How are the Standard Marine Communication Phrases going to be translated into pic tures?
The translation of the Standard Maritime Communication Phrases into pictures is done by se lecting the phrases of the most important situations based on the survey, from the Standard Mar ine Communication Phrases. For the translation the decision has been made to only translate the
intership communication phrases, focussing on the distress, urgency and safety situations. These
phrases come from the Standard Maritime Communication Phrases.
What are the requirements regarding clarity, safety and efficiency for the pictograms?
For the requirements the decision has been made to look at the colours, sizes and general
shapes of the pictograms. To enhance the safety in navigation the pictograms need a clear design
so that everyone can understand them. Three concept pictograms were made with each having
its own shape. Out of three concept drawings (Appendix I), number two has been selected be cause this concept has the clearest style and is the easiest to adapt in multiple situations. The
other two concepts were closer to reality in terms of shape.
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How can pictograms be transmitted?

The transmission of pictograms can be done by sending a code, with Very High Frequency us ing the Automatic Identification System, from station A to station B. The received code will be
translated into a picture at station B. With each code meaning a different picture all COMPICs
can be transmitted.
For which situations can pictograms be used beside oral communication?
The situations in which pictograms can be used beside oral communication are listed in
chapter 7.1. These situations have been obtained by doing field research by means of a survey.
In this survey 120 maritime affiliated professionals have contributed by giving their opinions
and by answering 10 questions.
Main question
How can pictography be used to improve intership communication?
Pictography can be used to improve intership communication in every possible situations ex cept when the distance between two stations is above 30 nautical miles. Some situations cause
an increased risk of safety which can be decreased. This has to be done by transmitting
COMPICs in a proper way and by having a clear COMPIC that anyone can understand. In case
someone does not understand the COMPIC, a booklet has been made. This booklet shows and
explains all made COMPICs. A number of COMPICs do not relate to the Standard Marine com munication Phrases but relate to traffic situations and manoeuvres that are not covered by the
phrases.
Recommendations
The recommendations are:
More research should be done about the possibility to integrate the pictograms into
the ECDIS.
About 30 pictograms have been made as examples; there should be a pictogram for
every standard maritime communication phrase.
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Testing the use of pictograms with a number of vessels would give a clearer answer
about enhancing safety for navigation.
To realise this project, more research should be done about the expenses.
References
Britannica, (z.d.), VHF, seen on 24 October 2014, from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/627147/VHF
Dunstan and Associates Pty Ltd. (z.d.), The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System, seen
on 24 October 2014, from
http://www.gmdss.com.au/dsc.html
Eric S. Raymond, 13 February 2015, AIVDM protocol decoding, seen on 5 January 2015, from
http://catb.org/gpsd/AIVDM.html#AIS
Notes desk, 8 March 2009, Types of Communication, seen on 24 October 2014, from
http://www.notesdesk.com/notes/business-communications/types-of-communication/
Peter Anker, 2014, Marifoon, seen on 10 December, from http://www.frequentieland.nl/mar itiem/marifoon.htm
STC, (2014), MARCOM A: algemene maritime radio communicatie. STC-Eduport.
The Nautical Institute, 14 May 2007, The International Maritime Human Element Bulletin, Seen
on 12 March 2015, from:
http://www.he-alert.org/objects_store/alert_14.pdf
Tracii Hanes, 16 Aug 2013, What is verbal Communication?, seen on 24 October 2014, from
http://www.livestrong.com/article/150573-what-is-verbal-communication/
Trenkner, P. 14 May 2007, The international Maritime Human Element Bulletin, seen on 2
March 2015, from: http://www.he-alert.org/objects_store/alert_14.pdf
Wikipedia, 17 January 2015, Automatic picture transmission, seen on 15 November 2014, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_Picture_Transmission
Wikipedia, 10 November 2014, ECDIS, seen on 3 December 2014, from
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECDIS
Wikipedia, 10 January 2015, High resolution picture transmission, seen on 3 December 2014,
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_resolution_picture_transmission
Wikipedia, 21 april 2014, Radiofax & redirect, seen on 4 December 2014, from http://en.wikipe dia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiofax&redirect=no
Wikipedia, 13 february 2015, Transmission, seen on 6 December 2014, from http://en.wikipedi a.org/wiki/Transmission_(telecommunications)
Wikipedia, 12 January 2015, Analoog, seen on 6 December 2014, from
http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analoog
Wikipedia,
14
February
2015,
AIS,
seen
on
December
2014,
from
10
December
2014,
from
http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_Identification_System
Wikipedia,
December
2014,
VHF,
seen
on
http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequency
Appendix
Communication by using Pictography
A. The white area is used to show the daymark(s) of the vessel.

B. The textbox is used for the name, MMSI number and callsign of the vessel. Addition al text to indicate that the vessel is in distress or not under command can also be dis played here.
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C. This area is meant for additional information applicable to the vessel, like the car riage of dangerous goods or specific distress situations.
Final product
The following pages contain examples of ComPics divided into four categories: general, day marks, distress and dangerous goods, and manoeuvres. Above each image a phrase related to the
Standard Maritime Communication Phrases is displayed. A number of ComPics do not relate to
the Standard Marine Communication Phrases, but relate to traffic situations and manoeuvres
that are not covered by the Phrases.
The general category demonstrates the options with different types of vessels. The pilot vessel
is easily distinguishable from the cruise ship by the pilot flag it carries. The daymark category
shows most of the daymarks applied in ComPics. When in distress or when carrying dangerous
goods, ComPics of the third category can be used. The last category shows various manoeuvres
in which the use of ComPics may be beneficial.
The following images do not reflect the full possibilities of this idea and there may be many
more situations in which ComPics can be used. This product has been made to give an example
of the possibilities of this idea. The ComPics used in this report only reflect a small portion of
the total amount of phrases and traffic situations a vessel may encounter.
I am aground
A am at anchor
I am constrained by draft
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I am engaged in fishing
I am not under command
I am manoeuvring with difficulty
I am towing
I am under attack of pirates
I am on fire
Obstruction located on my
I will overtake you on
I will pass you
port side
your starboard side
green to green
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I will alter my course
I am crossing the traffic
I am entering the traffic
to port side
separation scheme
separation scheme
I am going round
I am leaving the traffic
I am crossing and leaving the
separation scheme
traffic separation scheme
Etc. etc..
For more information, and to read the entire paper, see
http://www.maritimesymposium-rotterdam.nl/
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Blended Learning Will Be Applicable in MET

Haiyan Yu Shanghai Maritime University (China), yuhy@shmtu.edu.cn,
blanche2007@126.com
Abstract
With the revision work of the IMO Model Course 6.09, the trainee-centered methodology is
greatly highlighted, together with the newly-merging technology for education, especially for
language learning. This paper will consider blended learning, for instance. Blended learning is
adorable for many educators in recent years, which demonstrates the principle of studentcentered as well as alternates the role of the teachers from the traditional way. MOOC (Massive
Online Open Course) is initiated in most schools as well, for the purpose of mutual share of the
best education in the world. Within the framework of blended learning, the MOOC can also be
the essential section in a whole circle. With some successful examples for the application of
blended learning in elementary and middle schools, the author is suddenly inspired to make as sumptions for better MET (maritime education and training): the blended learning is applicable
in MET to stimulate the students initiatives.
keywords: blended learning, MOOC, MET
Some Realistic Problems About MET and Realization of

Competency-Based Goals
Different from the previous years, the salary for seafarers has greatly declined under the effect
of currency devaluation and rising-up salary ashore. A great amount of young people reject to
work onboard ship. However, the senior officers still possess a higher income as well as a high er social status. Firstly, the traditional means of the seafarers certification training and examin ation is always confined to a fixed time each year, which can be overlapped with the trainees
sea voyage. More significantly, the seafarers competency is a vital factor for their employment.
In order to conform to the requirements of STCW 2010 manila amendments, the IMO Model
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Course 3.17 was revised according to the KUP (Knowledge, Understanding and Proficiency) by
the STCW conventions. It is obvious that proficiency-based or competency-based study is the
optimal objective for maritime English education and training. But the criteria of competency is
inadequately and difficultly evaluated and assessed only in terms of the mid-term examinations,
final examinations, and regular assignments. With the assistance of blended learning, Sturgis [4]
held the opinion that students are empowered to progress at their own pace, becoming active,
engaged, and more independent learners .
The Current Situation of Blended Learning at Schools

and/or Universities
MOOC (Massive Online Open Course) is quite popular and utilized in many top universities
for the benefit of sharing accessible high-quality courses of variable subjects. However, these
online courses can only be the supplemented materials for the students better understanding of
their learned or learning knowledge. For the realization of competence, there is still a gap,
which cannot be narrowed or diminished only depending on MOOC. With the available worldclass online systematic courses updating hour by hour, how to make full use of these optimal re sources for better education is a question to be considered. The new innovative teaching and
learning approach-blended learning is on the way to make a more successful education for the
next generation.
Bonks [2] defined that BL [blended learning] is the combination of instruction from two his torically separate models of teaching and learning: traditional face-to-face learning systems and
distributed learning systems. It is prevalent for a decade in both K-12 education schools as
well as higher education institutes. The traditional classroom education has been overturned.
Traditionally, the teachers will deliver their lectures in front of their students with a planned
teaching syllabus, some selective teaching aids like hard version textbooks, projectors, com puters, etc, some selective classroom activities like Question&Answers, group discussion,
presentation, etc. The whole process of teaching seems having no weak link, but the outcomes
are not satisfactory. No clear sign of progress has been made. Differently, the blended learning
has an innovative perspective to organize a course. Reversely, under the light of blended learn ing, the students will complete their assignment in the classroom assisted by their teacher and
learn the lessons after class. Within the framework of blended learning, the students will be in volved in three rotations: individual online learning; teachers lectures; and small group project.
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That means the students can learn the courses online at home, in the library or in the computeraided room ahead of time with accessible wireless connection. With some questions and as signed project in hand, they come to the teachers.
For K-12 education, take the Public Summit School as an example, some learners will be
equipped with a Pad to learn their online courses, some of them will have small group projectnormally their assignment, and some of them will be selected to attend a mini course with the
instructor explaining the learned knowledge. All the above mentioned procedure is conducted
simultaneously and all the students will be immersed into these three rotations on each course.
For higher education, take MIT for instance, the students can select their courses on will, and
they do not have to attend their classes. They can learn the subject courses online and take the
quizzes and exams online, if the result is satisfactory. They will pass the course with no attend ance in classrooms. The whole process of learning can be monitored and tracked by their subject
lecturers, the assessment means is also multiple except for the quiz and exams, some assigned
project have to be completed within a small group face-to-face. If the students have any ques tions and confusions about the online learning and group project work, they can choose to at tend the lecturers for consultation.
Convincing Benefits from Blended Learning

Review from the above two models, the convincing benefits the educator can extract from
blended learning can be summarized as below:
1. Students can access the online courses at any time, at any place, at any pace, which
stimulates the students initiatives to study instead of receiving the lectures passively
under a seat-time based system.
2. The students data is recorded into the information system, and the subject lecturers are
able to assign them the project work according to their different background knowledge,
which increases the chances for the students-to-students and students-to-teachers faceto-face interaction as well as their knowledge diversity.
3. The traditional education cannot meet all the students need but teach them with unified
criteria, which turns to be that the top students cannot be fed fully with deeper and com plicated knowledge while the fall-behind students move ahead with more difficulty even
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want to quit. With the blended learning scheme, all the individual students can be as sessed into individualized rank, and then all of them will acquire the competence with
individualized tailored teaching syllabus.
4. With the data assessment including the students learning results from the online
courses, project performance, and others, the students competence can be told quickly
and continuously with effective way to replace the burdensome way to assign many
teachers spend one or two days to grade hundreds of exam papers.
The Application of Blended Learning to MET

When it comes to the MET (Maritime Education and Training), the blended learning will also
blossom in this field. Take maritime English as an example, the IMO Model Course 6.09 can
function as a guideline for instructors to plan, organize and deliver a course. As for the detailed
teaching syllabus, the IMO Model Course 3.17 can be referred for the seafarers training from
all rank-engineers from engine departments, officers from deck department, and Electric Techni cian Officers.
Alike with other subjects, the preparation work is time-consuming and tiresome for the imple mentation of these three rotations of blended learning. Accordingly, the curricular also needs
consideration including the tangible online courses, selective project themes, and others.
Individual Online Learning Rotation:

The online courses of maritime English should be produced in compliance with the IMO
Model Course 3.17 as well as each state members national standards for seafarers training.
With the establishment of maritime English learning online platform, theses online courses can
be imbedded into this platform together with various types of quiz, tests to evaluate their learn ing. Also the students online learning process and results can be notified by the instructors.
Teachers Lectures Rotation:

The professors will deliver their lectures aligned with syllabus of the online courses. Also
the most frequency occurrence of the mistakes and difficulty points can be easily nominated
from the database of the online learning platforms. The more detailed and emphasized explana tion will clear the students mind and face-to-face mentoring inspires the students motivation to
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learn more. The teacher functions more like a facilitator other than a lecture producer. As Liu
Siyang [3] stated:it is of great importance for teachers to stimulate students to participate in
classroom activities with the model of question-inquiry and give full play to their dominant
position.
Small Group Project Rotation:

The learned knowledge will be valuable only when it is applicable into the learners future
study and job. After learning the courses online, the students will be assigned to complete their
project starting from small group work: discussion, making plans, implementation of the pro ject. According to the statement from Au Thien Wan [1]: The course has a mix of students from
various backgrounds, varying levels of work experience and maturity, and, possibly, different
globally cultural backgrounds. Obviously, this contributes to student diversity, and consequently
to their interests, expectations, and approaches to study.
The above stated three rotations will be implemented circularly. Ideally, a big classroom
equipped with computers in section one for individual online learning rotation, round tables in
section two for small group project rotation, projectors, blackboard and other teaching aids in
section three for teachers lecture rotation. Each section will be manned with assistance as well.
The placement of the students will be determined by the teachers with the feedbacks of the stu dents performance from the online platform.
All the work cannot be conducted by a single teacher. All the teaching staff can be utilized
more economic-friendly. The staff specialized in making teaching plans, they will work together
to conduct the teaching syllabus; the experienced professors will deliver their lectures with the
assistance of the colleagues with skillful computer knowledge to record and make the online
lectures. The experienced laboratory assistances and instructors will assist in conducting a stu dents information management system to process the data of students learning outcomes, and
also provide the feedback to the teachers.
In terms of the blended learning, the students competence can be monitored and updated con tingently, each student share the equality of being educated with the acquisition of the specific
competence. For the maritime English learners, immersed into these three rotations, their draw backs will emerge at a quicker time and also be corrected afterwards. Meanwhile, the team work
is also highlighted, as well.
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Discussions and Conclusion

With some successful examples of the application of blended learning in schools and uni versities, the applicability of blended learning in MET should not be doubted either. The follow ing advantages will be envisaged:
Firstly, one of the constituent sections of blended learning-individual online learning rotation
will facilitate the seafarer learners studying the relevant high-quality courses at any time, at any
pace anywhere with available wireless connections. And also, the continuous tracking and ana lytic system will record the learners learning process and efficiency including their drawbacks
and difficulties in specific subjects or tasks, which will assist the learners as well as the teachers
emphasizing on improving their understanding and accomplishing the specific tasks for the real ization of competency.
Secondly, another section of blended learning-teachers lecturers rotation will fill up the gap
where the learners still have confusion about the specific tasks after the completion or nearcompletion of the online courses. Attending to the teachers lectures will help the learners re view the learned online lessons as well as understand the difficult points since the teachers also
attain a feedback indicating the difficult points and exercises the learners of majority have en countered.
Thirdly, the next section of blended learning-small group project rotation will make all the
learned knowledge practical and related to the future jobs. To test the learners capability of us ing the learned knowledge, this section will be an ideal way with other additional abilities to be
acquired. With a selective topic the teachers have assigned, the small group with different back grounds and personal skills will work together to make specific strategic plans for the comple tion of their project. In the process of conducting their project, their roles will be allotted natur ally. In general, the concept of team work has been highlighted which is helpful in their future
jobs without any doubt.
Although the benefits of blended learning are evident, the obstacles are also of clear
ground. The fund of establishing a computer-based classroom with installation of a welldesigned software and assessment system, the technical instructors to analyze the learners data
continuously, etc.
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Hopefully, with the continuously revised and updated conventions and IMO Model Courses
and all the experienced shipping industry educators and experts worldwide, all the obstacles will
be removed and MET will move in a newer and more successful direction within a blended
learning framework.
References
[1]. Au Thien Wan, How can learners learn from experience? A case study in blended learning
at higher education, International Journal Of Information And Education Technology, Vol.5,
No. 8,( 2015),p615-619.
[2]. Bonks C. J. and Graham C. R., The handbook of blended learning: global perspectives,
local design, Pfreiffer Publishing, (2005).
[3]. Liu Siyang, Wed 2.0-based blended learning in college English teaching, Proceedings of
International Conference on Information, Business and Education Technology, Atlantis Press,
(2013), p156-159.
[4]. Sturgis C. and Patrick S., When success is the only option: designing competency-based
pathways for next generation learning, Nellie Mae Education Foundation, (2010).
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On the Linguistic Qualifications of Maritime

English Teachers
Yang Jin-qiu, Qingdao University (China)
Liu Xiao-pei, Qingdao Ocean Shipping Mariners College (China), liuxp@coscoqmc.com.cn
Abstract
Maritime English falls into the scope of English for special purposes and is a theoretical
and practical course based on language. On account of its nature, this article tries to dwell upon
how maritime English teachers should understand and have command of the nature of language
from the point of view of conventional, structural and social linguistics and the teaching ap proaches derived herein to know what and know how and become qualified in linguistics and
capable of bringing linguistic theories and the teaching methodologies into the practice of mari time English teaching.
keywords: conventional linguistics, structural linguistics, sociolinguistics, maritime English
teaching
Conventional linguistics and grammar-translation

teaching method
Studies of language can be traced back to times of ancient Greece, when Socrates, Plato, Aris totle and Stoics rendered researches into the nature of language. They made discussions on the
classification of phonetics, meanings of words and the components of sentences from the point
of view of the sources of language and the form and meaning of language. Their theory of the
language symbols laid a basis for the birth of structural linguistics. They made sure of the arbit rary nature of the meaning of words, which is still used to explain the relationship between the
form and meaning for vocabulary and they isolated five types of words, namely nouns, verbs,
conjunctions, articles and relative pronouns, which are still in use today.
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Ancient Roman linguist Marcus Varro successfully distinguished the tense and voice of lan guage in his book On Latin and put forth the meanings of past, present and future tenses, the
forms of active and passive voices and the concept of perfective and imperfective forms, which
basically determined the structures of modern grammar.
The historical comparative linguistics that came into being in the beginning of the 19th cen tury started linguistics studies in the real sense [1]. Its achievements are, (1) establishing the
genealogy of Asian and European languages and investigating the relationship between the
Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan and Slavic language families; (2) helping language teachers in un derstanding the manifestation and application of the languages; (3) giving birth to the grammartranslation method of language teaching.
The model of grammar-translation teaching method is, (1) reading-explanation- analysistranslation-recitation [2], emphasizing the cultivation of reading ability and application of
grammatical rules. Its characteristics are, (1) conducting analysis and studies on language phe nomena and grammatical structures, emphasizing the systematic education of vocabulary and
grammatical knowledge; (2) having complete and systematic sets of grammar and treating gram mar as the key point of language learning; (3) placing emphasis on the importance of mother
tongue and translation ability, with the learning contents placed in sentence-making and transla tion practice in the examination items of translation between the mother tongue and target lan guage; (4) emphasizing reading and writing with negligence of the teaching of listening and
speaking; (5) attaching importance to the accuracy of language, treating the text as the material
for vocabulary learning and grammatical analysis, using the mother tongue as the language of
classroom teaching.
On account that the method reflects the combination of structuralism to functionalism and
achieves the combination between language ability and language use [3], the grammar-transla tion method especially suits the teaching of vocabulary and structure, the leading components of
maritime English. The maritime English teaching syllabuses of various maritime institutions
show that the objects and requirements aim at educating and improving the reading ability of the
students, enabling them to have command of understanding and translation of maritime termino logies and have the ability to read maritime English originals and translate English materials.
The grammar-translation method is one to teach basic language knowledge and educate abilities
in understanding, translation and writing. In the present practice of maritime English teaching,
the leading method is explanation, to enable the students to learn the extensive maritime sci -
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entific and technological knowledge, have command of vocabulary, learn to make sentences and
write articles and improve the ability in understanding of long and difficult sentences and trans lation of articles. But these cannot be achieved without the training and practice of grammar and
translation. In fact, most maritime English teachers unconsciously and substantially use the
grammar- translation method in the teaching of maritime English. They require the students to
read the text aloud, explain the meaning and use of the vocabulary, conduct analysis on the lan guage structure, teach the special sentence patterns, translate the paragraphs and discourses,
give translation of the phrases and sentences, require the students to recite the texts, prepare the
examination papers of blank filling, reading comprehension, translation and writing, with em phasis paid on accuracy and correction of mistakes of all forms.
This is because, maritime English pays greater attention to the accuracy of language in com parison with other specific forms, requiring the standardization of the language, precision of the
comprehension, explicitness of concepts, strengthening of logics and strictness of wording, to
perform objective description of facts and theories with accuracy and philosophical language
that meets the standards [4], to prevent the severe results caused by failure of language com munication. The Manila Amendments to STCW Convention has put forth clear requirements for
the English level of oceangoing seafarers, Section A-II/1 requires Adequate knowledge of the
English language to enable the officer to use charts and other nautical publications to understand meteorological information and messages concerning ships safety and operation to
communicate with other ships, coast stations and VTS centers, Table A-VI/1-4 requires the sea farer to understand the principles of and barriers toeffective communication between individuals and teams within the ship,and to have theability to establish and maintain effective
communications and the ability of correspondence writing of seafarers of various ranks [5].
What calls for clear understanding is that the grammar-translation teaching method is not op posed to the nature of communication of a language. From the view point of application, trans lation and writing are the important contents for business communication; from the viewpoint of
vocabulary, maritime English requires the students to have command of a large amount of spe cial words that are different to general English; from the viewpoint of grammar, language com munication requires the students to communicate with correct structures and tenses. When the
students have a good command of words, they have the most basic ability for communication;
when they can correctly use the structures, they can communicate with accuracy and fluency
and when they have the ability in translation and writing, they are able to communicate in vari -
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ous levels, these meeting the requirements of qualification education. In addition, as the most
conspicuous characteristics, English vocabulary carries the external marks for the parts of
words, convenient for memory and use and English sentence patterns stress on the spacious
scaffolds in that they closely combine the elements of the sentences to form a cluster with the
relation words [6]. Therefore, it is incorrect to neglect the teaching of vocabulary and gram mar. Unfortunately, modern maritime English teaching does neglect the teaching and practice of
vocabulary and grammar while emphasizing that of listening and speaking. This will no doubt
undermine the basic language abilities of the students and reduce their activeness in language
learning.
The work that needs to be done is, we need to earnestly and systematically learn the essence
of traditional linguistics, study the environment and conditions for the practice of grammartranslation method and achieve flexible use of the method in the teaching of maritime English.
H. D. Brown, American expert in applied linguistics, concludes that, in the practice of gram mar-translation method, the precise grammar rules and extensive vocabulary knowledge make
the language input easier for understanding, enabling the foreign language learners to systemize
the language phenomena that contact with and manipulate the language in various levels; the
grammar-translation method can help the foreign language learners to affirm or negate their
conscious or unconscious hypothesis that they make in the process of learning and distinguish
the differences between the mother tongue and target language; and the grammar-translation
method can help them to internalize the structures of the target language so as to improve their
expression of the foreign language they are learning.
Maritime English teaching certainly is not a matter of adhering to one sole method through to
the end, because the grammar-translation method has its limitations and is not the solution to
teaching. For example, it is of less help in improving the listening and speaking of the maritime
English learners. In this case, we need to resort to structural linguistics theories and the audiolingual method derived here.
Structural linguistics and audio-lingual teaching

method
Structural linguistics has inherited and developed the semiotics theories of Ferdinand de Saus sure and conducted structural studies and analysis to make it better understood, commanded and
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applied. It classifies the body of language into various levels for analysis and studies and ob serves the overall change of the language. In its three divisions, the Prague School emphasizes
the functional studies of language structure, stresses synchronic language studies, recognizes
language as a value system for studies, analysis and achieving the functions and conducts re search into the forms from the functions of a language. The Copenhagen School regards the lan guage as a social system, performs synchronic studies on the language structure and holds that a
language is a structural system formed by the relationship of the components, while American
structural linguistics lays stress on the description of structural forms and recognize language as
a structure whose components include phonemes, morphemes, vocabularies, phrases and sen tences which are regulated by a fixed system and therefore the learning of a language is that of
the various structural components within the system to constitute a language integrity and have
command of the rules that regulate the structural system [7].
Structural linguistics enhanced and developed language teaching and play an important role in
guiding the practice of language teaching by stressing that teaching should be student-centered
to get the student into learning and thinking and emphasizes the guiding role of teachers to get
the teachers into learning to teach and introspections. Structural linguistics are extensively used
in language teaching and bring forth the audio-lingual teaching method by stressing the prin ciple of the priority of speaking in the description of language and the practice of language
teaching.
Structural linguistics regard language as a hierarchical and complete system composed of
phonetics, vocabularies, phrases and sentences, etc and categorize language skills into listening,
speaking, reading, writing and translation. The teaching characteristics of structural linguistics
include, (1) the English language skills are listening, speaking, reading, writing and translation
with the priority of listening and speaking and the assistance of reading and writing; (2) sen tence patterns are the basic components of language and the purpose of language learning is to
command and use various sentence patterns; (3) language teaching is a process of habit forming
via stimulus-response and the practical activities of imitation, practice, repetition and sen tence making should be stressed in the process of teaching; (4) the aim of language teaching is
to improve the language ability of the students not the teaching of language knowledge; (5) the
target language should be used and visual means and language environment should be created.
The audio-lingual teaching method stems from linguistic and psychological theories and suits
the learning psychology and habits of the students in that it categorizes the language system into
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various levels and structures, which is convenient for the command by the students and its prin ciple of speaking priority is useful in solving the problem of dumb English. It emphasizes im itation and practice, which is convenient for the students to turn the knowledge into habits to
achieve the goal of familiarization. The learning of sentence patterns is focused on vocabulary,
which suits the learning pattern of the students and it creates a good language environment in
that it uses the target language in the process of teaching and learning. Therefore crash course
textbooks such as Lado English Series, English 900 and English for Today, etc, compiled
following the guidance of structural linguistic theories were extensively used and widely accep ted.
Maritime English is composed of daily and professional communication and STCW and
SOLAS Conventions stipulate that the English level of the duty officers should enable them to
conduct communication with seafarers and staff members from other ships, land stations with
different language backgrounds, with adequate capabilities in language and communication.
ISM regulations place stress on the importance of using English in shipboard operations and
maritime safety. Therefore, teachers should learn and study, under the guidance of structural lin guistic theories, to compile oral English textbooks that suit the learning of the students, in ac cordance with the maritime practice, reflect the authentic target, situation, language and task
[8], and conduct rational course design to reflect that the course design suits the special seafar ing needs, the teaching contents will be related to the maritime profession and activities and the
phonetics, vocabulary, discourse and style will fit the special activities at sea [9]. Teachers
should use teaching methods that are different from the general English, study and practice dis placement and bilingual teaching and reform the teaching methods to reflect the principles of,
needs analysis of course design, relativity of course contents, practicality of objective, adjusta bility of teaching methods, systematization of teaching process, periodicity of teaching imple mentation, three dimension of textbook compilation and research-base of students learning, in
maritime English teaching [10].
The audio-lingual teaching method, however, is by no means all perfect, in that, the process
of stimulus-reaction can only reflect limited and mechanical language patterns and the stu dents will not be able to find the complete equivalence in practical life; the lack of grammatical
rules in sentence patterns and semantic analysis in vocabulary teaching result in the students in complete understanding of the language system; the repeated practice and memory do not give
full play to the students creativity and do not improve the students integrated cultural qualifica tions; the method is teacher centered, which will not arouse the student participation and the
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language practice is removed from the real environment and background will not create the
natural language communication competence [11] of the students.
Most teachers find in the process that the teaching of oral maritime English should reflect the
actual situation of onboard communication and that the accurate expression and fluent oral Eng lish is merely the basis for successful communication. What is of greater importance is to teach
the students to produce correct utterances in the correct place at the correct time. This needs to
put the cultivation of students communicative competence in relative situations, take reference
from the communicative approach derived from the sociolinguistic theories and conduct study
and practice in the interaction between language and situation.
Sociolinguistics and communicative approach

Sociolinguistics is a science to study the relationship between language and society, with its
core placed on that between the language use and users and it observes the language from the
points of various social sciences [12] (including sociology, anthropology, ethnology, psycho logy, geography and history, etc), sees the language as a social phenomenon and studies the lan guage against the background of society.
Sociolinguistics has four main branches, social dialectology, represented by Labov and
Trudgill, makes studies into the variation of language; linguistic sociology, represented by Fish man, makes studies into the phenomenon of bilingualism; ethnography of communication, rep resented by Hymes, describes the use of language from the point of culture and social psycho logy of language, represented by Lambert, Giles and Smith, that makes studies into the adaptab ility of language.
The birth of sociolinguistics represents the further development of language studies. By the
60s, population migration and national amalgamation caused the attention in the aspects of
politics, culture and society and the social and cultural entities of language became the emphasis
of linguists. The self-evolution of language enhanced the appearance of new theories. Mean while, transformational and generative linguistics attracted the interest of linguists, while the re search results of psychology began to be applied to language teaching and studies. Against a
background like this, sociolinguistics came into being and gave birth to the communicative
teaching approach in the field of language teaching.
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Traditional and structural linguistics conduct static studies on language, giving emphasis to
the form of language but ignoring the situation in which the language is used, while sociolin guistics studies the language and the rules of language acquisition from the points of the inter action between language and society, which opens a more practical and wider horizon for lan guage teaching. When the research results of sociolinguistics are put to use in language teach ing, people begin to realize, (1) the learning of English is inseparable from the core vocabulary
and structure of the language, which in turn, produces the concept of language core and res ults in the appearance of the theories and practice of College Core English Band-4 and Band6 examinations (the most popular and standardized official examination to judge university
graduates English level in China), exerting great influence for nearly 30 years and making con tributions to the improvement of English levels in China; (2) the extension of English language
common core is English for Special Purposes, concerning the actual industries and including
Legal English, Medical English and Maritime English, etc. These are not to be replaced by
College Core English. ESP is an approach of teaching and it tells us that any language has its
scope and purpose of application and the clearer the scope and purpose are, the more practical
the teaching is; (3) although the English teaching practice in the past used to emphasize the
code and structure, yet failed to go further into the situation in which the language is used, caus ing the mechanical and unsuitable use of English and the students were at a loss for what kind
of the language forms and structures were to be used in different situations; (4) the purpose of
language teaching is the use of the target language to train the students to have a command of
the rules of speaking so that they can make correct responses in various situations; (5) the ac quisition of a language is not to be separated from its culture and in the process of teaching
English as a foreign language, cross-cultural communication is indispensible.
The communicative approach lays emphasis on the learning of English in the communication
between teachers and students and the teaching effect depends on the interaction between teach ing and learning. Its essence is that students will participate in the actual situation of communic ation after they have acquired the basis of language knowledge and improve their expression in
the process.
Maritime English has all the characteristics of ESP and the shipping industry has provided the
natural situation for the use of maritime English. Therefore, in the teaching of maritime English,
the study and use of the communicative approach bears special meaning. Importance should be
attached to the improvement of communicative competence in the teaching of maritime English
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Sociolinguist Dell Hymes believes that, the communicative competence includes the integra tion of the knowledge in the function of actual communication using the basic grammatical rules
and the language and the guidance on the principles for speech and communicative functions.
The final purpose of maritime English teaching is business communication and the students
communicative competence includes not only the grammatical entity of English, i.e. the correct ness of their grammar, but also the acceptability of their English, the feasibility in culture and
appropriateness in situation [13]. This falls in the coincidence of the present dilemma, in that,
teachers find, after a period of teaching, that the problem lies not in cannot say, but unable to
say. This is the center for the studies of sociolinguistics and sociolinguists believe that, lan guage learning can not be separated from the situation of social culture and language teaching
should aim at improving the students communicative competence, including, (1) knowledge
competence, the ability in the correct use of phonetics, grammar and vocabulary; (2) language
competence, the ability in the correct use of varieties and functions of the language; (3) speech
competence, the ability in the expression of the thoughts by using the target language and (4)
strategy competence, the ability in starting, maintaining and ending the talk by using the com municative techniques.
Therefore, in the teaching of maritime English, the teachers should, (1) make adequate invest igation and research of that typical part of English used in the practical operation of the ship ping industry, provide and summarize the vocabulary and structure with practical value for the
students. SMCP and IMO Model Course 3.17 Maritime English are useful materials for
compiling maritime English textbooks, with great reference value; (2) combine the language
function and notions in the use of textbooks and process of teaching to cultivate the competence
of doing by using the language of the students, such as contacting the pilot, organizing fire
drills and writing accident reports, etc; (3) create situations in which English is used and organ ize teaching materials in accordance with realistic shipping operations, so that the students will
practice their language communication in the situation, such as the vocabulary and structure
used in life saving exercises, the fixed use in mooring and unmooring, etc; (4) teach and take
the students to practice the expression of connected thoughts using the communicative means,
such as complete discourse of introduction, discussion and summarizing, etc; (5) teach the stu dents to influence others via the means of language, for example intervening in a conversation,
changing the topic, etc.
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2. Importance should be attached to the influence of society and culture in the teaching of
maritime English
Language is an important component of the social culture of a certain nation and it reflects the
cultural characteristics of the nation. The social culture of maritime English reflects not only the
culture of English nationality but also nautical culture. Therefore, the teaching of maritime Eng lish should include not only the teaching of language knowledge but also the teaching of mari time culture closely related to the target language and working environment to improve the ap plication of the language and the appropriateness of communication. As Fishman puts it, socio linguistics investigates who talks to whom in what situation and using what language[14], be cause the teaching content of social culture mainly includes, the world view, sense of worth, the
social characteristics of language behavior, non-verbal means of communication and acceptable
communicative rules. Hymes believes that, to exercise effective communication, the students
should command, in addition to language forms and rules, who, what, how, when and where and
how long to talk (to) and any breaches will result in failure or conflict of cross-cultural commu nication[15], such as, difference in social life, address and greetings, etc; difference in sense of
worth, privacy and taboos, etc; difference in cultural content, humbleness and civilities, etc; dif ference in daily communication, hand-shaking and posture, etc; difference in body language,
eye contact and distance, etc.
3. Importance should be attached to the use of discourse in the teaching of maritime English
The expression of a language is the vocabulary and sentences, but sociolinguistics believes
that the conveyance of the complete meaning is through the discourse in certain contexts.
A discourse sees the text as a complete entity, starts from the levels of the discourse composed
of complete meaning and expression, combines the expressed communicative function and no tion and centers round the details and layout of the main idea, paragraph meaning and plot de velopment, etc, so that the students are able to have hierarchical command of the basic language
phenomena of vocabulary, sentence patterns and grammar points, etc to further their understand ing of the communicative function of the language and explore their communicative competence
via the use of the language.
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The purpose of maritime English teaching is to train the students competence in business
communication and this determines that the classroom teaching of maritime English should be
organized in the discourse level, from the entirety of the text to the detail of language.
Harmer believes that teachers practicing the discourse method should conduct the design as
follows, (1) infer the contents, teach the students to infer the contents of the discourse on basis
of the known information and compare the results in the process of teaching; (2) extract the de tails, teach the students to organize the structure of the discourse in accordance with the inform ation provided; (3) summarize the main idea, teach the students to summarize the main idea in
accordance with the title and topic sentences of the paragraphs; (4) infer the viewpoints, teach
the students to infer the viewpoints and attitude of the author in accordance with the understand ing of the style and meaning; (5) guess the word meaning, teach the students to guess the mean ing and function of the new words in accordance with the context; (6) recognize the functions,
teach the students to learn the development means of the paragraphs and recognize the marks of
the discourse and context in accordance with the model and wording of the discourse[16].
Hence, the course design of a text on marine diesel engines can be conducted in accordance
with the following idea, (1) discuss the function of the diesel engines; (2) study the classifica tion of diesel engines; (3) compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of various
diesel engines; (4) study the repair and maintenance of various diesel engines; (5) guess and
learn the relevant vocabulary.
The advantage of the teaching model with the discourse as the center is that, the teaching us ing the macroscopic semantic analysis helps in overcoming the abuse of isolated explanation of
language form and benefits the students in effective and appropriate use of the language [17].
The students are immersed in the major context of diesel engines and their thinking is closely
tied with the learning contents. They no longer merely care about the meaning of words and are
limited in the partial understanding, but focus their attention on the overall description of the
diesel engines from their subjective angle. The teachers and students cooperatively develop their
thinking as well and create a synchronized classroom atmosphere. The students focus more on
the learning contents instead of the language form and they will not be jammed in the meanings
of individual words; actually the words learned in this situation are more impressive. The situ ation is more helpful in establishing the students sensitiveness to the language form related to
the contents of learning, i.e. the sense of language.
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The teaching of discourse using the communicative approach helps to build up the communic ative competence of the students, stimulates the activeness and initiative of the students in lan guage learning which will gradually develop into a student-centered classroom, benefits in im proving their reading habits, improves their ability to think independently, cultivates their abil ity in analyzing, inferring and integrating the learning materials, enhancing the overall level of
language learning and helps to create the communicative situation in which language is learned
and practiced.
Conclusion
The above analysis shows that linguistic studies expounded the nature of language, explained
the common views towards language, developed the theories of language teaching methods,
opened up the practice of language teaching and improved the effect of English teaching.
One of the important purposes of studying linguistic theories is to reveal the regulations of
maritime English teaching and construct the teaching models characterized in maritime English.
Therefore, the teachers engaged in maritime English teaching, either language teachers or nav igational teachers, need to learn the linguistic theories and practice the language teaching meth ods and take reference from linguistics and teaching methodology to establish the peculiar mod els of maritime English teaching.
References
[1] Yao Xiao-ping, History of Western Linguistics, [M], Beijing, Foreign Language Teaching
and Research Press, 2011
[2] Zhang Zheng-dong, Theories and Schools of Foreign Language Teaching in China, [M],
Beijing, Science Press, 2000
[3] Xu Zhi-min, Brief History of European and American Linguistics, [M], Shanghai, Aca demia Press, 2005
[4] CookV. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching, [M], Beijing, Beijing, For eign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000
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[5] China Maritime Safety Administration, The Manila Amendments to the International Con vention on Standards of Training Certification and Watch-keeping for Seafarers, 1978, [M],
Dalian, Dalian Maritime University Press, 2010
[6] Tian Shi-guo, English Teaching Theories and Practice, [M], Beijing, Higher Educational
Press, 2001
[7] Jolio, C, Prisky, General Concept of Structural Linguistics, [M], Beijing, China Social
Science Press, 1986
[8] TomlinsonB. Materials Development in Language Teaching, [M], Cambridge University
Press, 1989
[9] Stevens, P. ESP after Twenty Years: A reappraisal, [M], Singapore, SEAMEO, Regional
Language Center, 1988
[10] Canningsworth, A. Choosing Your Course-book, [M], Oxford, Heinemann, 1995
[11] Richards,J. C & Rodgers, S, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching,[M], Cam bridge University Press, 1986
[12] China Encyclopedia, Vol 74-Language, Beijing, China Encyclopedia Press, 1988
[13] Feng Zong-xin, Introduction of Modern Linguistics Schools, [M], Beijing University
Press, 2006
[14] Fishman, J.A. The Sociology of Language, [A]. Language and Social Context: Selected
Readings, [C]. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972. 46
[15] Hymes, D. Foundations in Sociolinguistics, an Ethnographic Approach, [M]. Phil adelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1974
[16] Harmer, J. How to Teach English, [M] Posts & Telecom Press, Beijing China, 2011
[17] H. D. Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, [M], New Jersey, PrenticeHall, Inc. 1980
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Turning Salted into Needed:

the New Model Course 3.17
Xian Wang Shanghai Maritime University (China), naixw@126.com
Abstract
This paper reviews the acceptance of the 3.17 Model Course in IMO and discusses the ap proach to integrate maritime knowledge into general English and especially on how to make the
task-based 3.17 course more relevant to the competence requirement as set by MARPOL 2010.
It attempts to explain why inserting more specialized maritime knowledge into the old version
of 3.17 is a great step forward to turning the already salty ME (Maritime) into a needy ME.
The new 3.17 echoes the call by the globalized shipping industry for a more precise problemsolution communication competence.
keywords: technical communication; Maritime English; ESP
Introduction
The call for crew on board to use English effectively in communication is surging as an in creasing number of shipping companies find that crews are multi-lingual globally, a trend that
has changed the picture of crews belonging to one nationality. Furthermore, the general secret ary of the IMO pointed out several times that human elements are the key factor to safety and
security. Failure to communicate effectively is one of the direct causes of accidents, particularly
when the ship is to moor, dock, be towed or load, which poignantly points at the time when
communication is made over board, that is, communication exchanged outside the ship where
the crew is on. This finding puts the issue of receiving standardized ME (maritime English) at
the core.
After almost one years innovative planning and revision, the new version of Model Course
3.17 presented to the IMO was successfully passed in the HTW 94 conference in 2015. This new
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version, structurally divided into two parts, GME (general Maritime English) and SME (Special
Maritime English) definitely takes several factors into consideration. Firstly, the high demand
for competent seafarers in using English to communicate, more than that, to solve specific prob lems through communication. Secondly, in the context of this industry demand, seafarers can
feel improved and upgraded via a well-designed system that can ease their concerns and worries
about incompetence, and eventually lead them to the destination. Thirdly, all seafarers are sup posed to move from GME to SME. Fourthly, seafarers can reinforce their maritime knowledge
systematically in the immersion of English communication.
By this modification and arrangement, the new version corresponds well to the new require ment of STCW 1978, which is to meet the requirements of the STCW Convention, 1978, as
amended, and the minimum standards in the STCW Code.
Literature review
Though several papers discuss the importance of adapting ME to industry needs, few of them
explore how to present ME in an appropriate manner that can cover future industry needs for
qualified seafarers. Cole etc. (2007) describes the various types of Maritime English instructors
presently employed at higher Maritime Education and Training institutions worldwide, ESP and
social demand. In A Basic Study on Maritime English Education and the Need for Raising the
Instructor Profile, James (2010) studies what type of English instructor is best suited to help
cadets have at least a basic grasp of Maritime English communication. Zhiyi Fu (2008) dis cusses the possibilities of using translation in ME education. Teaching Maritime English: A
Linguistic Approach focuses on how new learners can adapt to the maritime academic career
linguistically. (Demydenko, 2012).
These papers made pioneer research on the relations of ESP and ME, and it is truly significant
for them to arrive at the conclusion that ME should be classified into ESP. Methods of ESP edu cation should be referred to when ME wants to be further developed. Yet regrettably these pa pers rarely explore how to implement the integration of ESP to ME.
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Increased or squeezed Personal language in Multilingualism?

According to the latest Maritime Review 2015 by UNCTAD, 85% of world commodities are
traded with the aid of maritime transportation, down from 92%. The drop is a sign that other
transportation modes begin to reduce the share of the shipping industry. This drop forces the
shipping industry to cut costs, including labor costs to maintain their profit or even survive on a
market plagued by overcapacity. As a consequence, low cost labor resources came into the mar ket and the labor market is becoming multi-nationalized. A report by the Seafarers International
Research Centre of 2001 is most self-evident.
table 1
Ship
Number of nationalities
Number of native
speakers
7/36
14/37
1/7
14/29
4/25
10
2/34
11
12
1/7
13
14
14
source: Seafarers International Research Centre (SIRC) Cardiff, UK 2001.
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Though the data was collected almost a decade ago, the situation seems to be clear with the
development of globalization. It should be noted that this data is not as conclusive as its subject
are native speakers of English on one ship. Multi-lingualism is more complicated than the iden tification of using English by crews of different nations who are on one ship. It should include
communication between ships, between ship and on-shore staff, and etc.
We conducted a research on the content of crew communication on several ships of different
nationalities (a survey using questionnaires). We found that the content bears on certain topics,
like nation, love, emotions, religion, food, culture of one nation, accommodation etc. We made
these topics into two groups:
Physical------food, accommodation, personal identification, daily necessities etc
Spiritual------culture, religion, feelings.
The communication of each crew in terms of language is indicative of strong personal attrib utes. A crew members may choose to use English that is characteristic of his nation despite it is
right or wrong. But except these personal attributes, he is likely to choose the standardized
structure or word to express his needs and wants. For example, African crew members tend to
answer no problem before he seriously considers whether there is a problem waiting for him.
Interestingly the report shows that those who consider themselves incompetent in English are
more willing to communicate with others superior to them, of course in their minds, but fre quently waiting for others to break the ice. They are poised to learn by using Maritime English,
a common phenomenon of passiveness on board. But amazingly it does not affect much the
smooth operation of the ship as most of them strictly observe the key words in their exchange of
information concerning technical knowledge. So in general, the use of Maritime English turns to
be more technical information-focused (TI-focused). See table 2.
This survey shows that seafarers caution rate increases when their duties become more tech nically serious and professional. No one likes to commit mistakes caused by communication.
Therefore the best approach to crews on board is to minimize the risks of making a mess by ob serving the universally acknowledged language or reducing the possibility of misunderstanding.
In other words, personal language is a kind of barrier to effective technical communication.
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table 2: Use of personal language at different levels

Use of personal lan-
General topics
guage
English
Technical ex-
Orders
change
strong
strong
few
GME
medium
few
slight
SME
slight
rare
rare
Notes:strong means the user almost uses personal language in every sentence.
medium means the user uses personal language half of his speech.
slight means the user only uses personal language when he is forced to do so.
few means the user uses personal language no more than 1/5 of his speech.
rare means the user uses personal language no more than 1/10 of his speech.
As mentioned, seafarers consciously stay away from using personal language in technical
communication to avoid potential mistakes beyond their control, sometimes generated by too
much personal language, sometimes by their inability to use technical communication flexibly.
This self-consciousness is accompanied with deep worries of incompetence in times of crucial
decisions, which are a risk to ship safety and security and should be overcome. Increasing the
technical communication competence is more pressing against the de facto multi-lingualism,
and it is challenging as well when industry demand actually increases.
Salted to needed
It is definitely sharp that ME is tagged with salted to indicate its marine or maritime charac teristics, but we are not so sure who actually first used this tag. ME, by its very name is bound
to be salted or marinated. Almost everyone will hail this intelligent inventive word when they
come across the shipping industry for the first time. It seems that marinated is such a perfect
simile that leaves no room for a second thought about any possible deeper exploration. But this
term is hazy and vague, given its range and depth. Will the use of a few marine or maritime re lated words or phrases turn general English into salted? Or will the salted ME be the same
as the English used by todays shipping industry? These questions deserves careful study.
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It can be seen that these questions are not intended to deny the distinct feature of ME--salted, but rather to draw attention to its connotation, the extent, range, quantity, users etc.
From the perspective of diachronic linguistics, salted also evolved from the 15th century. For
example, galleon used to be a very salted term but not many people use it any longer now.
This example shows that salted is just not enough for ME; it must keep pace with the develop ment and need of the time.
As mentioned in 3, personal language is squeezed out of technical communication as a res ult of industry demand. This fact clearly symbolizes that the old salted ME, which deals much
with the non-technical situation is falling behind the actual demand. The shipping industry re quires seafarers and officers to cope with technique-related issues so as to avoid the risks of ac cidents. But the multi-linguistic situation on ships just complicates the matter because of the in volvement of personal language. On one side, multi-lingualism sees the rise of diverse personal
languages. On the other side, technical communication squeezes the personal language out of
the duty performance. These two contradictory forces dampen the whole situation in the surge
of multi-lingualism and higher technical demand. Therefore it is concluded that a slightly
salted ME is not sufficient to solve the contradiction. The old salted ME has to be expan ded, upgraded and re-marinated to incorporate the need from the industry. In one word, ME
has to add needed to salted.
The new model course 3.17

The new model course 3.17 is framed out upon the previous findings. To reflect the term
needed, the new version added SME (navigation, engine and electrics) as a fairly professional
part. Almost all the working procedures concerned are listed in detail in the syllabus so that sea farers can have a systematic practice and knowledge in the immersion of English. This demandoriented design, though heavy-loaded for trainees, provides much confidence in and flexibility
for seafarers to their competence as the subjects are of a holistic nature.
In terms of pedagogy, it uses mode or typology methods to simulate/motivate the trainees
competence. To precisely upgrade the requirement level, careful consideration is given to the
different levels of trainees. Tasks are classified not only according to content, but also to the in tensity of expected practice. As a result, a table of verb choices in the model course revision is
worked out. See table 3.
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More importantly, the new model course 3.17 adds oral and listening parts to each task. This
is because most seafarers find listening and oral practice is what they need most. Listening and
oral communication is the tool to break the ice and the most effective way to cope with emer gent situations.
This immense supplementation of holistic technical SME mirrors of industry deeds, consolid ates the technical communication which are scattered in different areas and textbooks, and
provides shield from failed acts caused partly incompetent technical communication.
Conclusion
The revision of Model Course 3.17 is a huge project that has taken almost one year and a
half. As it is intended to echo the industry needs, it supplements and deletes some parts of the
old version. This paper, through detailed analysis of the structure and content from the perspect ive of ME, proposes that technical communication plays an increasing part in the successful im plementation of seafarers and officers duties while personal language is reduced. It also finds
out that multi-lingualism is a trend that has a twofold impact. One is that multi-lingualism goes
against the efficient and effective communication in the context of industry demand. The other
is that multi-lingualism is a de facto, which can be solved by adding the weight of SME instead
of GME, GE, because any change has to follow the tide of industry needs. This paper concludes
that the new model course 3.17 fulfills this task on the whole.
References
1.
Model course 3.17. IMO
2.
Clive Cole, Boris Pritchard & Peter Trenkner. Maritime English instruction ensuring instructorscompetence. IBRICA14, 2007
3.
James G. Davy. A Basic Study on Maritime English Education and the Need for Raising the
Instructor Profile. Journal of Navigation and Port Research International Edition, 2010.
4.
Zhiyi Fu. On the Applications of Modern Educational Technology in Translation Teaching

of Maritime English from the Perspective of Constructivism.
5.
Nadiya Demydenko. Teaching Maritime English: A Linguistic Approach. Journal of Ship ping and Ocean Engineering 2 (2012)
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
table 3: word list for verbs

NO.
Capabilities required
by model course 3.17
Understanding
Obtaining
describe
Interaction (no)
Basic requirements
understand
Listen
pronounce
do
1 passive
Follow
instructions
2 simple
2
comprehend
read
describe
Repeat
share
Refer to
express
Locate the
information
memorize
recite
learn by heart
Practice
++
Intermediate
Understanding--
Obtain
describe--
Action
(basic ability
+knowledge)
explanation
--specific info
Role play (one--more)
-interaction/resp
onse
interpret
Listen to
Describe
coordinate
explain
find
demonstrate
respond to
Illustrate
react to
draw
Reformulate
1 convey
1
2 understand
2
3 demonstrate
Ask for
4 ask
recognize
Construct
+
consult
Simulate ()
Perform...as
instructed
by ...//
Inform...of...
++
Scan read
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Advanced
Understand
Obtain
Describe
Act
Free communication
--brainstorm
--specific info
(fast)
--interactive describe
--judge/decide
brainstorm
Obtain ...from...
Exercise role-play with
Judge
Acquire...from...
Respond to
Evaluate
Skim read
Process information
Assess
Team
1
Question
judge
Pool
information
Consult verbally
about
Request for ...
2
debate
Select
negotiate
advise
Pick out
3
negotiate
Single out
...pertinent to...as
required
Identify...from...on
scene
determine
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Intercomprehension workshop: understanding

unknown languages (workshop)
Erik Hemming: land University of Applied Sciences (Finland), ehe@ha.ax
Alison Noble: Antwerp Maritime Academy (Belgium), alison.noble@hzs.be
Abstract
Understanding a text is a special case of understanding the world (de Beaugrande, 1989).
Understanding other peoples communications, whether spoken (discourse) or written (text), im plies listening carefully or reading attentively whilst actively using the most important ingredi ent of our communicative competences, namely cognitive recognition, i.e. that which we
already know. An underlying assumption is that our native languages are the true homes of our
respective cultures and hence that we become more culturally tolerant and enriched if we appre ciate other languages. The complicated multi-ethnic, multilingual makeup of current merchant
marine crew requires the professional seafaring officer to have advanced and specific linguistic
and (inter)cultural skills when dealing with the multilingual crew. In a community where Eng lish dominates and competence in Maritime English serves professional purposes, thus ensuring
safety on board, the ability to accept that colleagues use their own languages where it is practic al to do so can only serve to accrue linguistic and cultural capital.
This workshop aims at clarifying the various dimensions of understanding by using intercom prehension. Participants in the workshop will try to understand languages they have never stud ied before in practical situations where language is used in different contexts, some maritime.
With reference to the EU-funded INTERMAR project (www.intermar.ax), the activities are of an
icebreaker type, meaning that they can be used for teambuilding purposes in international
working environments.
keywords: cognitive recognition, intercomprehension, INTERMAR, icebreaker, communicative
competences, cultural capital
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It is a fact that English remains the professional maritime language, but in many situ ations, good communication fails due to a single-minded belief that anything that is not
English is incomprehensible. (INTERMAR, 2013)
Introduction
For a football team to excel it is essential that each player communicates well with every oth er player. This is called talking, but it involves much more than verbal communication, mainly
body language, position and direction of movement. Talking is mutually understood because
the overall intention is shared by everyone in the team. The opponents might not understand all
the details because they are not familiar with the personalities of individual players and are
hence unable to decode them efficiently (INTERMAR, 2013).
Obviously some players will assume a more central and verbal role in the communication and
some will be quieter, but a match is a very complex phenomenon and even the latter need to in form co-players now and then of their intentions or warn others of the opponents objectives.
Today most high level football teams include players from several different countries with dif ferent native languages. So do ship crews.
Purpose and rationale

The purpose of this intercomprehension workshop is to allow participants to see for them selves how communication works in practical situations if English is not used all the time. The
idea is that it is not necessary to require a high (or sufficient) level of competence in English for
crew members to communicate in INFORMAL situations, because communication is redundant
and rich, allowing people to understand intentions and even details of utterances in languages
they have never studied.
This is important because many crewmembers do not have the sufficient English skills postu lated by the IMO and company policy documents - yet they are employed to work on ships in
international trade (Trygg Mnsson, 2014). It may not be realistic to hope for a major improve ment in English language skills in the near (or distant) future, especially when it comes to form al language training. Yet it is possible to work for substantial improvements in communication
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on board. Intercomprehension is a way to remove some of the inhibitions related to insufficient

proficiency in English.
Indeed, intercomprehension changes what is often described as the problem of multilingual ism into a world of opportunities for learning languages and accessing competences amongst coworkers from very different backgrounds. Not only do crewmembers come from many different
countries, but also from many different socioeconomic groups. This plays out as different learn ing styles and varying levels of difficulty to benefit from formal language training. Intercompre hension helps to raise awareness of less cognitive and more natural ways of learning languages.
(Hutchison, 2015)
What stops people from trying to understand foreign languages is many times a learned con ception of how languages are trained. This conception is related to conventional school methods
and a single-minded belief that anything that is not English is incomprehensible (Intermar,
2015).
Intuitive comprehension and reasoning

Jumping to conclusions is efficient if the conclusions are likely to be correct and the costs of
an occasional mistake acceptable, and if the jump saves much time and effort (Kahneman,
2012).
Our mind has two ways of understanding. Intuition works effortlessly and is based on famili arity with situations and phenomena. Reasoning takes much effort and is slow, but can handle
new (combinations of) phenomena (Kahneman, 2012). This simple fact is too often disregarded
in foreign language training. In addition it is likely that students from families that are not ex posed to higher education rely more on the intuitive understanding than on deduction, at least
this is indicated by studies of the linguistic codes of the working class. The way language is
used within a particular societal class affects the way people assign significance and meaning to
the things about which they are speaking (Bernstein, 1971)
The effortlessness in intuitive understanding mentioned here is what this workshop aims to
exploit. If the languages used are of the same family or contain numerous loan words it is ex pected that understanding takes place more easily. Nonverbal communication and context
provide the rest of the cues.
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Workshop activities
In the following a number of simple intercomprehension activities are described. The purpose
of these is to allow participants to experience first-hand what it is like to try to understand the
meaning of utterances in languages they have never learned. This experience will lead to an im proved idea of the potential of intercomprehension and of how languages can be learned.
Lost in the fog

One participant is blindfolded and another one is given the task to guide the first across the
classroom floor past a number of obstacles so that none of them is touched. The obstacles can
be anything that is at hand, such as papers, shoes, cups, pieces of string, etc. The participants
are encouraged to communicate a lot and give a lot of feedback - in their native languages. What
typically happens is that the blindfolded person understands some cues and others not.
When about to make a mistake the guide needs to prevent the accident by calling out. In the
end the blindfolded person will have somehow managed to walk through the trail. Clearly the
oral interactions with the guide will have played a crucial role. This is obviously due to the fact
that there is a lot of information other than the purely verbal in voice utterances. It is also be cause it is fairly clear what the utterances could possibly mean in this type of limited context.
The following activities build on the same principles.
My family and friends

Each participant brings a photograph of her/his family and/or friends. In small groups the in dividuals are pointed out and described (in a language other than English) as to basic informa tion such as name, age, domicile, profession and interests. Other group members are supposed
to ask simple questions in their own language regarding the persons in the picture.
The information is recorded by one group member as a list of keywords. In order to enhance
the intensity of the communication and to promote the acquisition of a few words in a new lan guage, participants are encouraged to repeat keywords uttered by the person describing the pho tograph.
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A map of my country
A map can be used very much in the same way as the photograph in 3.2. The main features of
the map will be natural phenomena and names of places. These are to be described a little using
adjectives such as high, wide, or big. The person who describes and points out things can also
say something about what s/he thinks about the places and if s/he has been there or not. Other
participants should ask simple things about the places in her/his own language.
Ones own country is an interesting thing to talk about for most people since we all seem to
enjoy sharing information about our own country if there are people around who want to listen.
Even quite shy people tend to forget their shyness if others show interest in what they have to
say.
A normal day
A dial of a clock or a list of the hours of the day is used here as the physical object of discus sion. In small groups participants ask each other what they normally do at certain hours of the
day. One good thing here is that the verb tense will be the present which is the easiest in most
languages. As in the other activities it is recommended that the others repeat what is said and
that one person records what is understood in the form of a list of keywords with one entry for
each hour.
This way participants will get to know each other better and will notice differences in habits,
some of which are cultural.
Small talk
Participants write up the equivalents of Hello, How are you? Fine thanks, and See you later in
their own language (if necessary transcribed into Latin letters). They show each other the words
and teach each other how to say them, including the correct intonation. Then everyone is sup posed to use these phrases as they greet each other. One language is dealt with at a time.
As our mother tongues are keys to our hearts (deeper layers of our identities) participants
are going to find hearing these simple greetings in their own languages pleasant. The pleasure in
itself is a powerful motivator for continued communication and hence learning, both about the
other person and her/his language.
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Bad English
Participants are asked to give an example of a phrase in English with a typical mistake made
by native-speakers of her/his language. The other participants are asked to imitate the phrase
many times until they sound like a native.
The idea is that there is a lot of information about the native language inherent in the mis takes. This is supposed to be discussed in the group. A few pieces of information about the rules
of the native languages can facilitate the understanding of so-called bad English.
Conclusion
This workshop is very practical and aims at strengthening awareness of nonverbal aspects of
communication such as background knowledge and cognitive referencing in the decoding pro cess of verbal utterances. Silence among group members can be due to many reasons. It is docu mented in the literature that bridge team communication can be compromised by an officer
electing to remain silent (Pyne & Koester 2005). On occasion this has been due to uncertainty
about use of the language, namely English. Promoting interaction in more languages than just
English is one way of increasing communicative awareness and reducing the risk that silence is
involuntary. By celebrating the presence of multilingualism in todays shipping, social cohesion
is strengthened on board ships. This will reduce misunderstanding due to lack of knowledge of
the other crewmembers cultures and personalities.
References
Bernstein, B. (1971). Class, Codes and Control. London: Routledge
Hutchison, J. (2015). Speak like Tarzan, dont be embarrassed and aim to make 200 mistakes
a day: Irish polyglot reveals how ANYONE can learn a language in just three months . Retrieved
3rd June 2015 from Mail Online http://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/travel_news/article3106032/Speak-like-Tarzan-don-t-embarrassed-aim-make-200-mistakes-day-Irish-polyglotreveals-learn-language-just-three-months.html
INTERMAR. (2013). About Intercomprehension. Retrieved 2nd April 2015 from INTERMAR: http://www.intermar.ax/?page_id=54
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Kahneman, D. (2012). Thinking, Fast and Slow. London: Penguin Books.
Pyne, R. and Koester, T. (2005). Methods and means for analysis of crew communication in
the maritime domain. The Archives of Transport, Vol XVII, No. 3-4, 2005.
Trygg Mnsson, J. (2014). Lingua Franca at Sea. Gteborg: Chalmers University of Technology
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Creating a Maritime English Board Game

(workshop)
Alcino Ferreira Ecole Navale (French Naval Academy), alcino.ferreira@ecole-navale.fr
Jean-Franois Jaouen Ecole Navale (French Naval Academy), jean-francois.jaouen@ecolenavale.fr
Abstract
Proficiency in Maritime English sits on a substantial lexical basis. Indeed before a mariner
can even begin to act through communication by use of the English language, he/she needs to
learn (i.e. memorize) a significant number of new words, some of which are uncommon even to
the native speaker. Ship parts, standard position indicators, or VHF pro-words, to name only a
few make up a whole new vocabulary, which the ME learner must master first, before being able
to re-use it in sentences compliant with the very specific SMCP grammar. Research has shown
that repeated quizzing may be a key factor in remembering lexical items. However, repeated
quizzing may be tedious to learners and is therefore difficult to implement. One possible solu tion to overcome this difficulty may be the creation of a board game which would allow fre quent repetition of key lexical items while maintaining learner attention and motivation. This
paper will first shortly explain the reasons which led us to create such a learning instrument and
what the benefits of game-based learning are, before describing the board game currently being
designed at Ecole Navale.
keywords: game-based learning, playification, gamification, activity theory, feedback, memory
Introduction
Research has shown (Roediger & Karpicke [9], Larsen, Butler & Roediger [7]) that frequent
quizzing of learners tends to both slow down and reduce forgetfulness and may therefore be one
of the best guarantees of success in an exam. Therefore, we have sought to increase the amount
of time devoted to quizzing within the first year Maritime English Basics course of the French
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naval officer curriculum. However, as class hours are limited and not all learners like to spend
time studying, we have sought to create tools for revision. Some of these tools are computerbased and have been described in previous IMEC papers (Ferreira, [4]). However, these seldom
allow for collective revision. Thus we have endeavored to create a learning tool that would
allow students to quiz each other while still being enjoyable. We decided to create a board
game. This article will first shortly explain the reasons which led us to create such a learning
instrument and what the benefits of game-based learning are, before describing the board game
itself.
Games and learning: why play?

Game-based learning has recently been restricted to the use of computer games in
education, the games used being either off-the-shelf commercial games (also known as serious
gaming) or purpose-built products (known as serious games). However, non-digital games
can also be used for learning, including board games, card games, role-playing games, etc.
Game-based learning is constructivist (even socio-constructivist) learning. It is built on
theories such as situated learning, experiential learning and activity theory. In situated learning,
games provide information in a relevant context or setting. Learning takes place alongside
social interaction and collaboration (Anderson et. al., [1]). Experiential learning advocates
learning by doing (Kolb, [6]). Similarly, activity theory describes learners as part of a system
which must take into account interactions with objects and other learners, to attain a desired
outcome, and posits that games allow learners to participate and experiment in non-threatening
scenarios (Bedny & Meister, [2]; Verenikina & Gould, [10]).
While game-based learning may not work in every situation, the potential benefits are
significant. (Mann et al. [8]) shows that they appeal to learners, create a better learning
atmosphere and keep learners more focused (see also Heinich, et al. [5]). As to the measurable
learning effect in tests, we have not had an opportunity to test them yet, since the game is
currently only being created, and has only reached pre-artwork prototyping, but plan to do so as
soon as the game is ready.
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The game
The game board
The game is played on a board picturing a map of the world. Other game material includes
ship cards, destination cards (Fig.1), and question cards, as well a six-sided die. A smart phone
can be used to listen to audio questions.
The game map is divided into hexagon tiles, each of them being numbered for easy location
of a particular tile. On some of these tiles, harbors are marked. Their position is of course
consistent with that of the corresponding harbor, even though we sometimes had to make minor
adjustments for the sake of readability. We chose the 50 largest commercial harbors, in terms of
tonnage (World Shipping Council, [11]) to which we added a dozen extra ports (either because
they were famous ports, or large military harbors like Norfolk, which our officer cadets are
likely to call at). We only kept one port when two happened to be on the same tile, and we also
ensured that ports were spread out through the whole world, for playability.
figure 1: Destination cards
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Playing the game

The goal of the game is to earn victory points, by travelling from one port to another. The
player with the most victory points at the end of the game is the winner. However, in order to be
able to move on the board, players must answer maritime English-related questions.
In the beginning of the game, each player draws a ship card (Fig. 2). These are 10 x 15 cm
cards which list the data about a vessel. We have chosen both commercial and military vessels,
one of the goals being to revise ship types. Each vessel has a name and identification
information (IMO number, MMSI number, call sign) as well as an assigned port of registry and
a port of departure (sometimes different). Each card also mentions the physical characteristics
for each vessel (LOA, beam, draft, summer deadweight or displacement), as well as other
information which may be needed in game (number of people onboard, etc.). Also, some of the
vessels have restrictions such as being too large for the Panama or Suez canals. This will have
an impact on the possible routes for those vessels. All data has been based on existing vessels ,
to ensure consistency.
figure 2: Ship Cards
All data from http://www.marinetraffic.com
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When the game begins, each player also draws a destination card, which he/she places on the
table, before him/herself, visible to everyone. These are 6 x 10 cm cards which show one of the
ports of destination (with its name and a picture), and its position on the map, as well as a digit
representing the number of victory points which the player gets for reaching his/her
destination. There are 3 cards for each destination, each paying between 1 and 7 points. For
each destination, there is one yellow card which pays the base rate for that destination, as well
as a green card which pays the base rate +1 and a red card which pays -1. The number of points
for each port has been set based on the geographic location of the ports. Thus, a port that is very
central on the playing board (such as Marseilles, France) will yield fewer points, while a port
that is far on the outside edges of the board (Vancouver, Canada) will yield more points
(because it will take more time to get there, thus being realistic: in real life the cost of maritime
transportation is based primarily on the distance to cross). If a player is lucky he/she will draw
destination cards of nearby ports, but if not, they may have to cross the whole board several
times (thus boosting fun, thanks to unpredictability).
When it is a players turn to play, he/she rolls the dice and moves forward a number of tiles
equal to the dice roll, in the direction of his/her destination. Then, the player sitting to their
right must draw a question card. They will ask the question on the card, and if answered
correctly, the player will roll again, and move forward a number of tiles equal to the dice roll.
After which, it is the next players turn to play. In other words, when it is your turn to play, you
always move once, and may move twice if you answer correctly. However, each player only gets
to answer one question, because we wanted the game to be fast-paced, and avoid inactive
players getting bored while a knowledgeable player successfully answered every question. This
also ensures that all (good) players remain within a few points from each other in order not to
discourage them and preserve their hopes of winning. When a players ship comes into the
destination port, he/she discards the destination card and draws another one. The game ends
either after a set amount of time, after a number of turns, or when a player reaches a target
score.
The questions:
Questions are of several types:
multiple choice questions
open-ended questions
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
visual questions
pro-words
find the odd one
say it in maritime English
audio (comprehension)
dialogue
Each type of question is described below, with an example question.

1. multiple choice: this is the most basic type of question. They are used to check the
knowledge of lexical items.
e.g: What is a ship steered with?
a) the rudder
b) the radar
c) the propeller
d) the steering wheel
2. open-ended questions: in open-ended questions, no proposed answers are given.
e.g: What is sea 4 on the Douglas sea state scale? (moderate)
3. visual questions: there is always a picture in visual questions. The player asking the
question will read it out loud, then put his/her finger on the answer and show the card to the
quizzed player.
e.g: What kind of ship is this? (showing a LNG tanker).
4. pro-words: pro-word questions may be of two types: either a pro-word is given and a
definition is expected, or a paraphrase is given and the correct pro-word must be given.
Only one attempt is allowed.
e.g: please repeat what you said (say again)
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
e.g: I require (I need and cannot do without).

5. Find the odd one: in this type of question, a list of 4 is given and the player must say which
the odd one is, and why.
e.g: roll, pitch, yaw, heave (heave: not a rotation around an axis)
e.g: say again, read back, verify, repeat (repeat: not a verb)
6. Say it in maritime English: this type of question requires the player to translate a sentence
or phrase from standard English to maritime English.
e.g: I will not turn; come closer on my left side (I intend to maintain my course.
Close me on port side).
7. Audio (comprehension): The cards for these questions have a QR code printed on them. By
scanning the code (Fig. 3), players will hear an audio file. After which they must answer a
question about the conversation or message.
e.g: securite_ushant.mp3: what is the danger being signaled? (safe water buoy unlit)
figure 3: QR Code example
8. dialogue questions: On some tiles (Bermuda triangle, west of Africa, Indian ocean, strait of
Malacca, Cape horn) players must always stop. They will be handed a scenario and will
have to act it out, as if they were speaking on the VHF of a vessel. When they are done, the
rest of the players decide whether they did well enough and they get 5 extra points if they
did.
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e.g: Imagine the conversation between Croix du Sud and St Mathieu Signal Station.
Play it with a partner. Begin with the distress message. (Note the vocabulary is in the
players local language French in order not to give them the solution).
Infos :
Scenario :
Longueur
51,50 m
Matre-bau
8,96 m
Tirant d'eau
3,60 m
Tirant d'air
18,50 m
Dplacement 560 t
Feu dans salle des machines origine inconnue,
navire brle,
quipage (44 PAX) vacue dans radeau
1 brul grave : demande medvac par

hlico
The importance of feedback

Research (Fazio, et al. [3]) has shown that in the case of multiple-choice questions, no feed back or simple right/wrong feedback may hinder learning or facilitate memorization of wrong
information. It is therefore of utmost importance that players get proper feedback when they
give a wrong answer. Thus, a short feedback text is included on each question card.
Copyright and license

The game was designed for educational purposes and is published under a Creative commons
license (CC BY ND NC). All media will be freely downloadable from (http://www.alcinoferreira.com).
The workshop
The goal of the IMEC workshop is to invite participants to create questions of their own
which will then be included in the final distribution kit for the game. Participants will be given
an opportunity to collaboratively create questions of each type, and test them with the
conferences attendees. Contact information will also be given for later participation to the
project.
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References
[1]
Anderson, J., Reder, L., and Simon, H., Situated learning and education. in
Educational researcher 25.4 (1996): 5-11
[2]
Bedny, G. Z. & Meister, D. The Russian Theory of Activity: Current Applications to

Design and Learning, Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, (1997).
[3]
Fazio, L., Huelser, B., Johnson, A. & Marsh, E., Receiving right/wrong feedback:
consequences
for
learning.
In
Memory.
2010
Apr;18(3):335-50.
doi:
10.1080/09658211003652491. (2010).
[4]
Ferreira, A. The Maritime English MOOC : Using the MOOC technology to flip the
classroom. Proceedings of IMLA/IMEC26, Maritime Institute Willem Barentsz,
Terschelling, Netherlands, 7-10 July 2014, pp 85-101.
[5]
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J. & Smaldino, S. Chapter 1, Media, Technology,
and Learning. In Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning, 7th ed.
Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall. (2002).
[6]
Kolb, D. Experiential Learning as the Science of Learning and Development.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, (1984).
[7]
Larsen, DP., Butler, AC. & Roediger, HL. Test-enhanced learning in medical
education, in Medical Education. 2008 Oct;42(10):959-66. doi: 10.1111/j.13652923.2008.03124.x. (2008).
[8]
Mann, BD., Eidelson, BM., Fukuchi, SG., Nissman, SA., Robertson, S., & Jardines, L.,
The development of an interactive game-based tool for learning surgical management
algorithms via computer in The American Journal of Surgery, 183(3), 305308. (2002).
[9]
Roediger, HL., & Karpicke, JD., Test-Enhanced Learning - Taking Memory Tests
Improves Long-Term Retention, in Psychological Science, volume 17, number 3.
(2006).
[10]
Verenikina, I. & Gould, E. Cultural-historical Psychology & Activity Theory. In

Hasan, H., Gould., E. & Hyland, P. (Eds.) Activity Theory and Information Systems (718), Vol. 1.Wollongong: UOW Press, (1998).
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[11]
World
Shipping
Council,
Top-50
world
container
ports,
retrieved
from
<http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/global-trade/top-50-world-containerports> on 20 august 2015.
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Using Computer Dialogue Systems for Providing a

Student-Centred Teaching Approach in SMCPBased Maritime Communication (workshop)
Peter John, Jade University of Applied Sciences (Germany), peter.john@jade-hs.de
Alison Noble, Antwerp Maritime Academy (Belgium), Alison.Noble@hzs.be
Naoyuki Takagi, Tokyo University of Marine Science & Technology (Japan),
takagi@kaiyodai.ac.jp
Peter Bjrkroth, Novia University of Applied Sciences (Finland), peter.bjorkroth@novia.fi
Abstract
The workshop focuses on training SMCP-based maritime communication with the help of
computer dialogue systems (aka ChatBots). The communication competencies put forth in the
STCW code (chapter II, table A-II/1) are acquired by practising relevant maritime communica tion at the student's own individual learning pace thus catering for a student-centred education
approach. On the one hand, the exercises presented in the workshop will target the compulsory
part A of the SMCP in their use in communication on VHF. On the other hand, a simulated
phone call challenges participants to develop an efficient communication strategy in order to ob tain relevant details on a navigational accident. Response from conference participants will be
used to further improve the developed exercises. In addition participants will be trained to use
the ChatBot technology and exercises as teaching material in the classroom once the computer
dialogues are freely available on the Internet.
keywords: computer-assisted learning, Maritime ChatBot, SMCP training
Workshop Rationale and Outline

In recent years, language teaching has experienced a major qualitative shift. The massive ad vance of computer technology has enabled teachers to take a step back from the classroom's
centre stage and leave it to a newly structured didactic design which assigns more central roles
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to learners. By handing over protagonism to students, the teachers role changes into that of a
promotor or scaffolder of learning who assists the students in a personalised, constructivist
learning environment which extensively applies new media technology.
Academic research has reported this highly significant trend away from a teacher-centred or
behaviouristic learning environment and towards a student-centred, constructivist didactic
design . A learner-oriented environment supports students in constructing skills and knowledge
in an experimental setting, instead of being assigned a rather passive role as listeners of lectures
which are centred around the teacher's presentation of the topics to be studied. While position ing the learners in the foreground, the new design simultaneously reduces the teachers' speaking
time in class which allows them to attend to slow-progression students who are most in need of
help in their learning process.
Maritime English teaching has widely adopted computer-assisted learning trends, mostly by
integrating multi-media content [1] [2] [3] and e-learning exercises [4]. Other innovative teach ing methods involve the use of full-mission simulators for collaborative teaching or twinning
with navigational instructors [5] [6], and the use of web conferencing software in low-fi simula tion exercises [7] [8].
The revised version of the IMO Model Course 3.17 for Maritime English recognises the
need for a student-centred learning approach by recommending active student involvement and
suggesting an Individual Learning Plan (ILP) which "should contain the learner's long-term
goals in terms of items to be learned and communicative abilities the learner wishes to
achieve"[9]. In order to accomplish required communicative abilities, the Model Course makes
reference to videos, e-learning and Internet resources, among other learning material.
Another educational aspect highlighted by the revised Model Course 3.17 is the requirement
for a communicative approach in Maritime English teaching. For this reason, it provides "ex planations and suggestions for practical, communicative classroom activities to assist the in structor to implement this model course effectively"[9].
A Google scholar search for the term "student-centred" revealed over 2,400 occurrences in the first semester
of 2015 alone.
Model Course 3.17 Maritime English has undergone extensive revision over the last twelve months (20143015). The revised version was validated by the IMO HTW (Human Element, Training & Watchkeeping) in Febru ary 2015 and is due to be published at the end of October 2015.
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The outlined communicative approach is easily attainable in a classroom environment.

However, it poses serious challenges for self-study activities by means of e-learning, video ma terial, etc. While the new media enable learners to practise relevant maritime terminology, fixed
expressions, grammar and so on, to the author's knowledge they do not cater yet for a truly com municative approach where relevant communication skills be applied in simulated discourse ex ercises which resemble the communicative situation future nautical officers will encounter on
board their ship.
Maritime Communication exercises using ChatBot

technology
At this workshop, a computer technology known as ChatterBot or ChatBot is presented. Chat Bots are computer dialogue systems which build on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They allow
users to interact with computers in a natural discursive manner by providing realistic dialogues.
ChatBots are widely used on the Internet, for example to assist on-line customers in selecting
products (e.g. Ikea's Anna ChatBot) and to help library users . They are also programmed to
function as virtual communication partners in chatrooms .
However, very few attempts have been made so far to use this fascinating technology for
teaching purposes in general, and no project is known to have been undertaken yet to deploy
ChatBot computer dialogues in Maritime Education and Training (MET). This challenge has
been taken on by the VTS-Bot research project supported by the International Asssociation of
Maritime Universities and funded by the Nippon Foundation of Japan . The project's aim is to
develop a series of computer dialogue exercises which provide realistic scenarios of maritime
communication in which students can practise their communication skills individually and at
their own pace. Maritime ChatBots close the gap between communicative classroom acitivities
on the one hand and non-communicative, computer-assisted learning activities on the other
Chapter 1 of Library Technology Reports (vol. 49, no. 8), Streamlining Information Services Using Chat bots, makes for interesting reading. It presents a brief history of chatbots, computer programs that use natural lan guage to interact with users. They have existed for nearly fifty years and have been used in libraries since the mid2000s; chatbots from ELIZA (1966) to Pixel (2010) are introduced.
See https://www.chatbots.org
Nippon Foundation research grant. http://www.nippon-foundation.or.jp/en/
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hand. They cater for a constructivist learning environment while providing students with an in stant feedback on their learning progress.
Exercises presented at the IMEC workshop

At the time of this workshop, two exercises have been implemented which are intended to dis play the functionality maritime ChatBot dialogues are capable to offer. The first exercise deals
with the routine task of learning and retaining the compulsory Standard Marine Communication
Phrases (SMCP). It is understood that learning the SMCP involves the time-consuming process
of memorising a considerable amount of fixed phraseology while at the same time understand ing the underlying system the SMCP employs. The SMCP ChatBot exercise focuses on the use
of message markers, the spelling of ship names using the international spelling alphabet and
correcting phrases which include one or more incorrect terms.
The second ChatBot exercise allows students to practise General Maritime English (GME) in
a simulated phone call. Here, participants enter a discourse with a crew member on board a ship
which has been involved in a navigational accident. The objective is to enquire all relevant in formation necessary to prepare an incident report. As the communication partner is not very
forthcoming, different communication strategies have to be tried out to achieve the required in formation.
While the SMCP exercise shows the possibility of using ChatBots for simple memorisation
and drilling purposes, the phone call simulation includes a number of highly complex commu nication patterns, such as questions and answers, user input as variables the system remembers,
provocative dialogue, and others. Suggestions will be given for a possible integration of the ex ercises into classroom teaching.
Response from conference participants

The workshop will provide an on-line questionnaire to seek the feedback from conference par ticipants upon completion of the two ChatBot exercises. It is expected that this response will
provide valuable hints at improving the computer dialogues as well as outline further areas for
the development of exercises.
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The conference feedback will be included into the IAMU Research Final Report which will be
published after the project's completion in May 2016.
After May 2016, all exercises will be freely available on the Internet at www.smcpexamples. com.
This research is within the framework of the IAMU 2015 Research Project 20150104 "VTSBot: analysis and implementation of a student-centred learning approach by using a ChatBot
computer programme to provide for an outcome-based maritime communication training" which
is funded by The Nippon Foundation of Japan. The VTS-Bot research partners are the authors
of this paper and, in addition, Dr. Benjamin Brooks (Australian Maritime College, University of
Tasmania (Australia)) and Sylvia Besher Fahkry Besher Farag (Jade University of Applied
Sciences (Germany)).
References
[1] Noble, A. (2007). Ports of CALL: computer-assisted language learning (CALL) as a means
of focussing language goals within the maritime sector. The MarEng Project . In Proceedings of
International Maritime English Conference (IMEC19), Shipping & Transport College, Rotter dam, the Netherlands. 9-12 October 2007. 52-63. Available at http://www.pfri.uniri.hr/
%7Ebopri/IMEC_Proceedings/index.html
[2] Ferreira, A. (2014). The Maritime English MOOC: Using MOOC Technology to flip the
Classroom. In Proceedings of International Maritime English Conference (IMEC26), Maritime
Institute Willem Barentsz, Terchelling, the Netherlands. 7-10 July 2014. 85-101. Available at
[3] de Wet, M. (2013). Implementing a blended learning approach to Maritime English. In
Proceedings of International Maritime English Conference (IMEC25), Piri Reis University,
Istanbul, Turkey. 23-26 September 2013. 108-117. Available at http://www.pfri.uniri.hr/
[4] Garcia de la Maza, C. (2009) Multimedia Maritime English learning tools: an experience in
the classroom. In Proceedings of International Maritime English Conference (IMEC21), Szcze cin Maritime University, Szczecin, Poland. 6-9 October 2009. 129-138.
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[5] Eliasson, J. and Gabrielli, A. (2011). Language taught as language used, integrating Mari time English in the teaching of Mechanical Engineering. In Proceedings of International Maritime English Conference (IMEC23), Constanta Maritime University, Constanta, Romania. 10-14
October 2011. 114-119.
[6] Sihmantepe, A., Sernikli, S. and Ziarati, Z. (2011). Building Maritime English by event
simulation. In Proceedings of International Maritime English Conference (IMEC23), Constanta
Maritime University, Constanta, Romania. 10-14 October 2011. 102-113. Available at
[7] John, P., Noble, A. and Bjrkroth, P. (2013). Making SMCP count! In Proceedings of International Maritime English Conference (IMEC25), Piri Reis University, Istanbul, Turkey. 2326
September
2013.
40-49.
Available
at
http://www.pfri.uniri.hr/
[8] Noble, A., Bjrkroth, P. and John, P. (2014). Exploiting the didactic possibilities of low-fi
simulation in virtual bridge-team communication exercises. In Proceedings of International
Maritime English Conference (IMEC26), Maritime Institute Willem Barentsz, Terchelling, the
Netherlands.
7-10
July
2014.
159-174.
Available
at
http://www.pfri.uniri.hr/
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Language Learning Strategies for Continuous

Language Improvement (workshop)
Christine Holland Portland State University, lillian3@pdx.edu
Annamaria Gabrielli Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden),
annamaria.gabrielli@chalmers.se
Abstract
Language learning does not stop at the door of the classroom. Indeed, when students exit the
academic environment, some may argue that only then does real learning take place. The theoretical, scripted, and repetitive grammar drills often used in the classroom are forgotten or
quickly abandoned, as the learner is thrust into an unpredictable, noisy and confusing environ ment in which they are expected to function and perform their duties using English. In the
maritime environment, this language is not limited to the Standard Marine Communication
Phrases, but includes day to day living discussions related to meals, laundry, time-off, as well as
interaction with shore-based personnel such as Customs and Immigration officials, Coast Guard
personnel, ship and cargo inspectors, as well as personnel conducting environmental inspections
and other officials. Time allotted for English language instruction in cadet programs at mari time universities is limited and no curriculum could possibly identify or prepare students for
every scenario in which they will use English. Therefore, we suggest that it is equally important to not only teach grammar and vocabulary, but life-time language learning strategies to ca dets. This workshop seeks to identify language learning strategies which mariners have
used/may use to continuously improve their English language skills upon entering the maritime
workforce. Additionally, participants in the workshop will be given the opportunity to share
their own life-long language learning techniques, as well as how those are incorporated into the
classroom.
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Introduction
At IMEC21, in Szczecin, 2009, the chair of IMEC, Prof. Dr. Peter Trenkner [1] elaborated on
the provisions of the STCW Manila Amendments, then still to come, expressing concern upon
the Codes tacit and not explicit requirement of sound command of Maritime English. The
same year, Prof. Trenkner and the vice chair of IMEC, Prof. Clive Cole, published The Yard stick for Maritime English STCW Assessment Purposes [2] in which they state that Maritime
English is a well-established research topic that no longer requires a definition to be understood
in an academic context. At IMLA23, in Durban 2015, however, a number of prominent METteachers and researchers [3] explain that () over the past 25 years Maritime English has ac cumulated fourteen different definitions, with no consensus on content and scope. (idem. 220)
and that it is a mixture of nautical and communication English and there is controversy as to
whether it is for specific purposes or simply a terminology (idem. 220).
The same article [2] finds that 80% of nations worldwide use English as a second language in
industry, and that we have multinational crews on 80% of our merchant vessels, whereas there
are less than 9% English first language speakers worldwide. From this, one can perhaps draw
two conclusions; that Maritime English, albeit a well-established research topic, and subject at
MET institutions, needs as most comprehensive and significant academic topics do continu ous discussion to be determined and understood in order to be applied in all its various contexts,
and that Maritime English, due to its specific purpose/s, does not belong, with its definition whatever that may be - to one nationality or one vessel or one classroom, but all its internation al contexts must be considered and translated according to the situatedness of a specific context.
This being said we would like to agree that the teaching and learning activities of Maritime
English will be expressively different, depending on the student's nationality, background,
needs, skills and goals. This workshop aims to clarify and elaborate on the circumstances of non
English speaking students, and the contexts in which they develop language learning strategies
(LLS) to acquire English as a second (or foreign) language, a process which MET institutions
must deal with many times before their cadets can be trained in the more specific purpose of
Maritime English. Having second LLS at its core, the workshop focuses on four main questions,
aimed to generate discussion about classroom activities designed to raise student understanding
of learning as a constantly ongoing process, throughout life. This, of course, implicitly requires
a look at student prerequisites, cognition and metacognition, self-regulated learning, incidental
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learning, affective aspects of learning, and cultural/national contexts of learning, and how Mari time English trainers integrate all of this in their comprehensively diverse classrooms.
It may be so that in the discussion, the Maritime English trainer competence will rightly be
brought up. Becoming a Maritime English trainer does not require internationally certified com petences [2, 4] but according to STCW (Manila, 2010) each MET institution is to take respons ibility for MET tutor competence, as recommended by IMO. Therefore, as Maritime English
trainers we are depending on the internationally outreaching dialogue which IMEC facilitates, in
our trials to converge towards common IMO standards.
Instructions
Language learning strategies [5] can be summed up as techniques used by learners to increase
their knowledge, understanding, and use of a second or foreign language. The use of LLS by
learners increases their independence in the learning process. Oxford [5] categorized LLS into
six components, namely memory strategies, compensation strategies, cognitive strategies, meta cognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. Memory strategies assist students
with remembering language for long-term memory. Affective strategies deal with becoming
aware of feelings and attitudes in the language learning process. Compensation strategies allow
learners to identify gaps in their language knowledge and find work-arounds in the language.
Social strategies involve interaction with others in the language learning process. Cognitive
strategies refer to the mental processes used while sending and receiving messages in a foreign
language. Metacognitive strategies indicate an emphasis on planning, preparing, and structuring
the learning process.
All learners encounter limitations in their learning process, and develop different strategies to
overcome those limitations. Much like a person may use a step-ladder to change a light bulb
which is too high to reach, students learning a foreign/second language employ different tools to
assist them in the learning process. The six categories established by Oxford [5] were studied in
greater detail by Griffiths and Parr [6] who arrived at the conclusion that teacher and student
conception about suitable LLS may differ; see the tables below.
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Based on the above, we have divided this workshop in four different topics described below,
each followed by questions to discuss. Participants, in groups of three or four people, are asked
to discuss the topics, based on the questions. One topic is to be assigned to each group.
Questions:
(it is recommended that each group first brain-storm about the topic, as to bring everyone on
the same page, conceptually)
Metacognitive second language learning strategies

Metacognition in learning processes has been long researched and conceptually elaborated on.
Flavell and Wellman and Wenden [7, 18]] described the concept as metamemory, or ones
awareness of knowledge and memory. Throughout the preceding decades, the concept evolved
to metacognition [8,9] can be defined as that information that one knows about ones own
cognitive processes. Metacognitive second LLS [9, 19] can be taught and having an idea about
cognitive processes in order to develop individually suitable learning strategies is essential in
all learning, not only for second language learners [20].
Keeping this in mind try to exemplify the following:
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Which language learning activities may help students become aware of the cognitive
processes in which they are involved?
How do students become aware of their language learning process and their progress in
the language?
Which learning activities are aimed to scaffold the learning process: what do students
need to know, and prepare for?
Identify learning activities aimed to help students utilize different learning strategies.
What kinds of learning activities enable students to conceptualize learning as a process

which may involve various strategies?
Incidental learning (Compensation Learning)

As it sounds, incidental learning suggests that students, without certain preparation or expect ation, acquire new knowledge [10). Some may argue that incidental learning is actually learning
from experience [11] and that it is not structured, nor does it take place in a classroom or an in stitution. Nevertheless, incidental learning can be triggered in a classroom, albeit unplanned. It
may be highly dependent on student ability to associate, relate to and assimilate new know ledge, and it also may have strong connection to student metacognitive skills. Incidental learn ing can, or is likely to occur in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) [12] contexts,
or Twinning [4] when students are focused on learning about a particular topic but in a second
language.
1. How do you define incidental learning? How might incidental learning take place, in
your classroom, in your courses or in cross-curricular teaching and learning settings?
2. Discuss classroom situations/learning activities when students incidentally have ac quired knowledge which was not planned. How did the instructor/students capitalize on
the situation?
3. Identify situations when incidental second language learning may or has taken place due
to twinning, or CLIL contexts? Elaborate on possibilities that language teachers may
have to trigger incidental learning due to twinned or CLIL environments?
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Self-regulating/Self-evaluation
Becoming a self-regulated learner is, in essence, becoming a life-long learner. Zimmerman
and Schunk [13] used the term self-regulated learning to define those who became masters of
their own learning. A self-regulated learner is one who uses deliberate strategies to acquire
knowledge, self-evaluates the effectiveness of their learning, and finally has a motivation to
learn, [14] In the maritime environment, it is critical that students develop the confidence, dili gence and resourcefulness to continue to develop and advance their skills and knowledge. As
technology advances bringing with it updated communication, navigation, and engineering sys tems and multinational crews are the norm aboard vessels, the mariners of today must embrace
continuous learning and define for themselves methodical, systematic and controllable ways of
acquiring the knowledge they need after they leave the classroom. They must be able to selfevaluate and reflect upon what they do not know, and devise a strategy to acquire the knowledge
needed. In terms of language use, this is certainly the case as classrooms are no substitute for
the real-world use of language and our students will encounter situations aboard vessels in
which they are at a loss for vocabulary and grammatical constructions.
As language educators:
How might we promote our students to become self-regulated learners?
What techniques for acquiring knowledge do you use, and how might they be adap ted to the language classroom?
Motivation for learning is at the core of being a self-regulated learner, what is our
role as language educators in developing motivation within our students to become
life-long learners?
Reflecting upon students who have mastered English, what techniques have they
used to study, and continue to study the language?
Affective domain
The affective domain of learning centers on feelings and emotions towards learning in gener al. A taxonomy of the affective domain was characterized by Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia [15]
as:
Receiving - a willingness and openness to receiving new information
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Responding - demonstrating some new thinking or behavior due to the information re ceived
Valuing - finding worth or value in the subject
Organizing - integrating new information into one's own value set and Value concept.
Factors contributing to the affective domain include self-esteem, empathy, anxiety, and motiv ation. Each of these factors may have debilitating effects on students and impede their growth as
language learners, however, factors such as anxiety can prove to motivate or drive students, [16]
While many studies have been conducted on not only the affective domain but the contributing
factors as well, we only scratch the surface of this topic. That said, understanding the affective
domain of our students will provide a means by which we can prompt students to become aware
of factors which may unwittingly hinder their language achievement.
With this in mind, discuss the following:
How, as teachers, can we assist learners to recognize and overcome elements within
the affective domain such as anxiety, motivation and self-efficacy so that they can
learn language more effectively?
What learning strategies might assist students in so that the affective factors are be neficial to language learning?
How might those strategies be taught in a classroom given consideration to time as

well as student and management expectations of an English language class?
Nationality and culture in the process of foreign language acquisition

The multicultural environment we have on 80% of our vessels can be considered to be the ex ceptional research setting for the study of language learning, in any context. Due to this setting,
the idea of globalization [17] and the importance of globalization for the maritime industry,
must come very close to mariners in particular with regard to language learning strategies and
opportunities. Keeping this in mind, and based on your own professional experience, please
elaborate on the following questions:
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
How can we design learning activities which include or at least relate to the cultural
diversity found on-board?
To what extent can we create international learning environments for peer-learning,

to help cadets learn how to interact with and adapt to the multi-cultural environment
on board ships? What is the conception of peer-groups in a cross-cultural learning
environment amongst our cadets?
Discuss cross-cultural aspects in the learning of Maritime English, which you may
have encountered in your own teaching environment, and try to identify language
learning strategies to help cadets become aware of the different needs of different
learners, depending on nationality and background.
What are our respective strengths and weaknesses as Maritime English tutors, from
an international perspective, considering national and international requirements and
standards? What can we do to prepare cadets for their future international working
environment?
Summary
As indicated above, we scarcely scratch the surface of this realm of pedagogy related to learn ing strategies and particularly foreign language learning strategies but we do aim to trigger an
ongoing discussion about learning strategies which students need to master before they leave
MET, if they are to continue learning in their professional lives. With regards to our students,
we are positioned as instructors to assist them in the realization of strategies which best suit
their language learning needs and interests, not only for the moment, but throughout their lives.
Further, it is in our best interest to ensure they have strategies which will compel them to be
continuous, autonomous learners, not only of language, but of culture and the world in which
they live, as language is, indeed, the key to communication, hence understanding of the world.
It is our sincere desire that through this workshop, we are able to collaborate further with Mari time English instructors and mariners to identify within our specialized field of English, those
learning strategies that assist our students after they leave our classrooms.
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References
[1] Trenkner, P (2009). International Maritime English Conference. Szczecin, Poland. Proceed ings
[2] Cole C. & Trenkner P. (2009). The yardstick for maritime English STCW assessment pur poses. IAMU Journal, 6(1), (pp 13-28). Tokyo: IAMU.
[3] Anstey, F., Drown, D. , Mercer, R., Jeffrey, G., Cross, S. (2015). Different measures: Stand ards of education and examinations towards STCW competency. In Proceedings from IMLA-23
The 23rd International Maritime Lecturers Association Conference. Durban, South Africa.
[4] Cole, C., Pritchard, B., & Trenkner, P. (2007). Maritime English instruction, ensuring in structors, competence. Ibrica: Revista de la Asociacin Europea de Lenguas para Fines Es pecficos (AELFE), (14), 123-148.
[5] Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New
York: Newbury House Publisher.
[6] Griffiths, C., & Parr, J. M. (2001). Language-learning strategies: Theory and perception.
ELT Journal, 55(3), 247-254.
[7] Flavell, J. H., & Wellman, H. M. (1975). Metamemory.
[8] Flavell, J. H.(1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitivede velopmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906.
[9] Andersson, Neil J. (2002). The Role of Metacognition in Second Language Teaching and
Learning. ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics Washington DC. ERIC Digest
[www.eric.ed.gov]
[10] van Zeeland, H., & Schmitt, N. (2013). Incidental vocabulary acquisition through L2 listen ing: A dimensions approach. System, 41(3), 609-624.
[11] Marsick, V. J., & Watkins, K. E. (2001). Informal and Incidental Learning. New directions
for adult & continuing education, 2001(89), 25.
[12] Marsh, D., & Frigols Martn, M. J. (2012). Content and language integrated learning. The
Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics.
[13] Zimmerman, B., & Schunk, D. (1989). Self-regulated learning and academic: Theory, re search, and practice. New York: Springer-Verlag.
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[14] Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview.

Educational psychologist, 25(1), 3-17.
[15] Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1964). II: handbook II: affective domain.
David McKay, New York.
[16] Oxford, R. L., (2003). Language learning styles and strategies: Concepts and relationships.
IRAL: International Review Of Applied Linguistics In Language Teaching, 41(4), 271.
[17] Ryan, Stephen (2006). Language Learning Motivation within the Context of Globalization:
An L2 Self within an Imagined Global Community, Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 3:1,
23-45, DOI
[18] Wenden, A. L., (1996, November). Learner representations in language learning: relevance
and function. In Proceedings of the international conference 'AUTONOMY 2000': The develop ment of learning independence in language learning, (pp. 234-253).
[19] Wenden, A. L. (1998). Metacognitive knowledge and language learning. Applied linguist ics, 19(4), 515-537.\
[20] Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, D. A. (1987). Enhancing instructional time through attention to
metacognition. Journal of learning disabilities, 20(2), 66-75.
[21] Bloom, B. S.; Engelhart, M. D.; Furst, E. J.; Hill, W. H.; Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Tax onomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive
domain. New York: David McKay Company.
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List of authors
Mohd Asri teaches Project Paper, Academic Writing, Humanities and Islamic Studies at the
Malaysia Maritime Academy (ALAM). He holds a degree in Islamic Studies from University
Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) and has more than 15 years of teaching experience. To date, he
has supervised more than 100 final year projects in Maritime and Nautical Studies at the under graduate level.
Erdogan Bada received his Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics from the University of Exeter, UK, in
1993. He is currently a Professor at the ELT Department, Faculty of Education, Cukurova Uni versity. His interest areas are EFL, Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching Train ing.
Peter Bjrkroth has been a Maritime English teacher since 1996. He wrote his Masters
thesis on the STCW-95 convention and its implications for MET. He has participated in several
IMLA-conferences and also presented papers. A few of the authors favorites are mentioned be low. Bjrkroth has taught a variety of actors within the maritime sector, such as icebreaker of ficers, VTS-operators, pilots, brokers, maritime engineering teachers, Masters degree students
(Nordic Master in Maritime Management - in co-operation with e.g. Chalmers) and of course
deck- and engine officers. Bjrkroth participated in the first MarEng project and is currently
working with the Chatbot-project. Lately he has translated maritime related reports for the
Finnish Safety Investigation Authority (accident investigation) and some manuals for MPP ves sels in the offshore trade. Bjrkroth is also a PhD candidate at bo Akademi University, in Or ganization and Management
Carmen Chirea-Ungureanu was born in Romania. She holds a BA in English and Romanian,
a MA in Theory of Literature and Comparative Literature, and a PhD in Philology. She is
Associate Professor in Maritime English, English Language, and Developing English Language
Competencies
and Intercultural Communication
on Board Ship at Constanta Maritime
University. Her primary current interests are the developing methods for improving
communication skills, and cultural awareness, and teaching materials on maritime intercultural
competence at management level.
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IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
S.H. Choi is a Lecturer at the Korea Institute of Maritime and Fisheries Technology. PhD in
English Applied Linguistcs, *University of Birmingham,* United Kingdom, MA in English
Applied Linguistcs, *University of Birmingham,* United Kingdom
Hyun-wook Doo received his MSC from the World Maritime University in 2005 and received
his Ph.D, Maritime Law and Policy, Korea Maritime & Ocean University in 2011. He is cur rently Associate Professor in the Dept. of Education and Research at Korea Institute of Maritime
and Fisheries Technology in Busan, Republic of Korea. He is interested in International Envir onmental Law and Maritime English, etc.
Alcino E. Ferreira has taught English for almost twenty years. He is an Adjunct Professor of
Naval English at Ecole Navale, the French Naval Academy (located in Brittany), where he is in
charge of innovative teaching and IT. Alcino holds a Masters of Arts in Anglo-American studies,
and a post-graduate degree in Education (equiv. M.Ed). After teaching in secondary education,
Alcino moved into higher education, and has been teaching naval English and scientific English
for ten years. Alcino's area of research is didactics through the use ot IT in general, C.A.L.L,
simulations and serious games (gamification, ludology) in particular. Alcino is a Knight in the
Order of Academic Palms. He is married and has a son.
Annamaria Gabrielli's main research interests are teaching and learning aspects in tertiary
education, and she studies solutions for synchronising and coordinating education worldwide, to
assure quality in graduate competence. Annamaria is a part of the Division for Language and
Communication at Chalmers since 2009, and she collaborates extensively ever since with the
Division for Shipping and Marine Technology, teaching and developing courses and progression
within the programmes. She is also a member of the Marine Engineering program committee.
Erik G. Hemming is a senior Lecturer in Languages and Communication at the land Islands
University of Applied Sciences in Finland. Having lived and worked in more than ten countries
I have a passion for communication across languages and cultures (national, regional, profes sional, generation, gender, etc.). The poem was written when watching students sit an exam.
Jean-Franois Jaouen is an Adjunct professor in English at the French Ecole Navale since
2008. Before entering the academic career, Jean-Franois was a Naval Officer for 10 years
(1997-2007) in the French Navy, Marine Nationale, serving aboard a helicopter carrier, a des troyer and a frigate. He was also posted in Naval Training Centers participating in the training
276
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
of officers and petty officers. Today, he is a Naval Officer in the reserve component, serving as
a liaison officer (LNO) for foreign ships making port visits in Brest Naval Station, France.
Yang Jin-qiu is an associate professor. She received her masters degree in Applied Linguist ics in Shanghai Jiaotong University in 1990. Her research interests include English language
teaching, classroom pedagogic and teaching methodology. She is presently tutor of masters and
vice dean of the English Department, Teachers College, Qingdao University.
Peter John is a senior lecturer of English and Spanish at the Maritime Faculty of Jade Uni versity of Applied Sciences with nearly 20 years of experience. He holds a degree in Translation
and Interpretation Studies. His research interests are in the field of quantitative linguistics and
maritime communication. He is a member of the Paper and Activities Committee of the Interna tional Maritime English Conference (IMEC).
Yan Li is an associate professor of English, Dalian Maritime University. Her area of interests
include: Maritime English, ESL, ESP.
Xiao-pei Liu is a professor. He received his masters degree in Applied Linguistics in Shang hai Jiaotong University in 1990. He used to work in the English departments of Liaocheng Uni versity and Qingdao University of Science and Technology. His research interests include ap plied linguistics, translation, teaching methodology and maritime English teaching. He was the
dean of the English Department and is presently dean of the Navigation Department of Qingdao
Ocean Shipping Mariners College.
Dr. Weihua Luo, professor of English, Dean of School of Foreign Languages, Dalian Mari time University. His area of interests includes: Maritime English, corpus linguistics, language
and culture. Appointed by China MSA to lead a national group revising the CoCs maritime Eng lish examination as well as compiling guidelines for CoCs .
Jane D. Magallon s a lecturer of English courses and a full-time assessor in the Maritime
Academy of Asia and the Pacific (MAAP) who specializes Maritime English for the Navigation
Department in the undergraduate studies or in the advanced course. She conducts Maritime
English trainings for lecturers and maritime professionals participated by 5 countries such as Ja pan, Myanmar, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam sponsored by the Ministry of Land, Infrastruc ture, Tourism and Transport of Japan. Currently, she is conducting series of lectures for students
in the Maritime Colleges of Japan sponsored by Kaiji Jinzai Ikusei. She has developed or au -
277
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
thored some modules, training programs and books in maritime purposes. Her inclinations in clude forums in maritime education and training, studies on maritime communications, women
in the maritime and applied linguistics, and advocacies in the youth and environment. A recipi ent of the IMTT Postgraduate certificate in Maritime Education and Training Program in
Warsash Maritime Academy Solent Southamptom University, United Kingdom, finishing her Ph.
D. in Applied Linguistics, a trainer, a scholar, a researcher, a teacher, a life-long learnerMiss
Jane D. Magallon.
Alison Noble is Senior Lecturer in Maritime English and co-ordinator of the Department of
Social Sciences and Languages at the Antwerp Maritime Academy, Belgium. She previously lec tured in the Department of International Business Communication, in the Faculty of Applied
Economics, University of Antwerp. In addition to her experience as a lecturer in English for
Specific Purposes, she has participated in many EU-funded maritime projects, namely MarENG,
MarENG Plus, MarTEL Plus (external evaluator), INTERMAR and SeaTALK (2013-2015). She
is a member of the IMLA-IMEC (International Maritime English Conference) Steering Commit tee and head of the conferences Papers and Activities Committee. She is currently undertaking
doctoral research into communication, on board ships of the Merchant Marine. Publications in clude Noble, A., Vangehuchten, L., Van Parys, W. (2011) Communication for Maritime Pur poses: Some Exploratory Results of a Survey-Based Study on Intercultural and Linguistic Fea tures
International Journal
of Applied Linguistics.
vol: 162 pp.
111-133 DOI:
10.2143/ITL.162.0.2959684
Capt. P. George Oommen is the Head of Pre-Sea Nautical Studies Dept. at the Malaysia Mari time Academy (ALAM). He teaches meteorology and cargo operation courses to cadet officers
and future ship captains. He holds a 1st Class Certificate of Competency (CoC) and has more
than 12 years of sailing experience.
Mujgan Ozenir received her M.A. in English Language Teaching from Cukurova University.
She has been teaching Maritime English for marine engineering cadets at Istanbul Technical
University. She has been integrated with ESP as a lecturer at different state universities for more
than twenty years.
Shamsul Rizal teaches English and Maritime English courses at the Malaysia Maritime
Academy (ALAM) to future ship officers and engineers. He holds a degree in TESL, a masters
degree in TESOL and two professional certificates in Maritime English Teaching from TUM -
278
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
SAT (Tokyo University of Marine Science & Technology) and IMO (International Maritime Or ganization). To date, he has supervised more than 200 final year projects in Maritime and Naut ical Studies at the undergraduate level and has also assisted in the completion of more than 100
final year projects at postgraduate level.
Roy Stall is a freelance Maritime English teacher who lives in Perth, Western Australia. At
the age of 16 he joined the Royal Australian Navy, trained as an Electrical Mechanic (Electron ics) before being recommended for officer training at the Royal Australian Naval College in Jer vis Bay, New South Wales. While in the Navy he served in variety of ships, including a frigate,
several destroyers and an aircraft carrier. After his service in the Defence force he completed a
degree in Asian Studies at the Australian National University in Canberra, worked in various
government departments, and later qualified for the Certificate in English Language Teaching to
Adults (CELTA). In recent years he has been a visiting teacher at maritime universities in
China (DMU, SMU) and also at TUMSAT in Tokyo. He has also taught English to ships engin eers at HOSCO in Qinhuangdo, China. On three voyages he assisted with the teaching of mari time English on Umitaka Maru, the Japanese training ship.
Now in semi retirement, he
gives tours on the replica ship Duyfken and the former RAN submarine, HMAS OVENS,
both vessels being located in the port of Fremantle.
He is a member of the Naval Officers
Club (WA) and the Naval Association of Australia, and an occasional recreational sailor.
Peter van Kluijven has been a lecturer of maritime English for 40 years now. He is the author
of The International Maritime Language Programme IMLP, as well as a number of other pub lications, among which the International Multi Lingual Dictionary, which covers 10 internation al maritime languages. He is also the assessor and supervisor of researches (theses, minor re searches and projects) at the Maritime Officers department of the RMU. Patrick de Jong, Max
de Vette, Montijn van Rossum and Jurian la Roche are students at the Rotterdam Mainport
University. They have performed research into the use of images in VHF communication
(COMPICS) when they were 2nd year students. Now they are third year students doing their
first apprenticeship.
Xian Wang, male, PhD associate Professor, work at Shanghai Maritime University, and spe cializes in Maritime English Translation and Logistics, during 2012-2013 studied at Texas
A&M at Galveston for one year scholar visit. In 2014 he taught at Regional Maritime University
in Ghana, West Africa. He is a member of IMLA 3.17 model course revision committee and
Model course 6.09 revision committee. Compiled Logistics English by Higher Education
279
IMEC 27 (12 - 15 October 2015)
Press in 2010; papers include leveling the ground in Maritime English Journal (2013) and oth er shipping/logistics related articles in recent years.

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LOCALORGANIZINGCOMMITTEEMEMBERS

ZAFIRAH BINTI AB RAHIM

The Netherlands Maritime Institute of Technology, the first maritime institute to be

Thank you and terima kasih.

SWOT Analysis on Cultural Awareness Training for Seafarers

Lingua Franca Core for Maritime English Pronounciation Teaching

Limits and Considerations in Communicating Effectively on Board Ship

The Design of Maritime Education and Training: Progression and Integration in

Rapid-Learning and IT Tools for Teaching and Learning Maritime English

English as Lingua Franca at Sea (Erik Hemming)

On-going Maritime English Education Reform in China

Construct-Shift of Marine Engineering Cadets in Maritime English via On-Board

Aligning Occupational, National and Global Standards in Maritime English

ComPic Communication by Using Pictography- Enhancing Safety for Navigation by

Blended Learning Will Be Applicable in MET (Haiyan Yu)

On the Linguistic Qualifications of Maritime English Teachers

Turning Salted into Needed: the New Model Course 3.17

Creating a Maritime English Board Game (workshop)

Using Computer Dialogue Systems for Providing a Student-Centred Teaching Approach

Language Learning Strategies for Continuous Language Improvement (workshop)

Piloting Pilots in a Full Mission Simulator

The pilots, communication and training

Theory and practice

After the lecture on briefings followed computer-based training on communication in a

Figure 6. The second simulation: more traffic and rougher sea.

Experiences, observations and difficulties

Conclusions and recommendations

marine accident investigation / 2011 / c12011m_tutkintaselostus / c12011m_tutkintaselostus.pdf

SWOT Analysis on Cultural Awareness Training for

Cognitive Concepts and Cross-Cultural Awareness

Smorochynska Olena, Developing socio-cultural competence as a key for

pg. 87-99, ISBN: 978-90-3370-041-85; Carmen

Intercultural Communication on Board a Ship Course , I tried a different approach to discuss

Flexibility and Adaptability

Brainstorming & SWOT Analysis

Strengths and Weaknesses

Opportunities and Threats

International Maritime English Conference

Internal positive aspects that are under

Internal negative aspects that are under your

Negative personal characteristics (e.g., poor

Positive external conditions that you do

Negative external conditions that you do not

SWOT Analysis of Developing English Language

The activities of the Developing English Language Competencies

Communication on Board Ship Course were:

Small group discussion

Study of cases & discussion

Personal surveys and questionnaires

Large group discussion

Mid-Term test (short answers)

It helped me get used to this style of participation

It helped me practice my communication skills.

It helped me practice my note-taking skills

It helped me understand what I would be expected to do when I went abroad

It did not help me with my study abroad /onboard experience.

Diversity: Bad for Cohesion?

Leadership and Cultural Awareness: Helping Cultures

Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Management vs. Leadership