390gat - 23 Chapter 6

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CHAPTER- 6 (ANGLE MODULATION ) : COMMUNICATION ENGG .

CHAPTER-6 : ANGLE (i.e. FREQUENCY OR PHASE)
MODULATION
,
Frequency Modulation (FM) is the type of modulation in which , the

instantaneous frequency of the carrier signal is varied according to
the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
Figure shows FM signal produced by a single tone modulating signal.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Ex. In frequency modulation, the

instantaneous
(a)Amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied with the
instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal
(b)Amplitude of the carrier
instantaneous frequency of the
message signal
Carrier
wave
(c)Frequency of the carrier

instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal
(d)Frequency of the carrier
instantaneous frequency of the
message signal
Frequency
Modulated
Signal
(ISRO-EC-2008)
Sol.(c) In frequency modulation, the
instantaneous frequency of
the carrier signal is varied
with the instantaneous
amplitude of the message
signal.
Angle Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Important Differences Between AM and FM/PM
S.No
(1)
(2)
Property
Linearity
Carrier
power after
modulation
AM
Linear
Modulation does not
affect the carrier. In fact
2/3rd power of total in the
carrier and only 1/3rd is
in the side-band
(3)
Can carrier
be removed
and only
sidebands
transmitted
It is possible with carrier

removed it becomes
DSB-SC, SSB-SC. These
systems have their use in
data, telemetry and radio
telephony.
Phase Modulation
FM/PM
Non-linear
Carrier power depends on
.Thus carrier power varies
with modulation index and at
higher depth of modulation (),
carrier power falls and sideband
power goes high.
It is not possible. Since FM has
constant power O/P with or
without modulation, because
power is in the amplitude which
remains constant.
Angle modulation is the process of varying the total phase angle of

a carrier wave in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating (baseband) signal, keeping amplitude of the carrier wave
constant.
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,
Let us consider an unmodulated carrier wave is given by

c(t) = A cos (t) = A cos
PERSONAL REMARK :
....(A)
[c t + (t)]
Tolal phase angle
Where, (t) = ct + (t)

Instantaneous phase
Instantaneous phase Deviation
The maximum change in total phase angle from the centre phase is
known as phase deviation i.e. ( t) c t | (t) |m ax =Phase deviation
and
d (t)
+
dt
d(t) = c
dt
Ex. An angle-modulated signal is

expressed by
f a t cos 2 10 8 t 75 sin 2 10 3 t
The peak frequency deviation of

the carrier is then (IES-EC-2001)
(a) 1 kHz
(b) 7.5 kHz
(c) 75 kHz
(d) 100 kHz
Sol.(c) Given signal
fa (t) cos(2 108 t 75sin 2 103 t)
Instantaneous phase
i (t) 2 108 t 75sin 2 103 t
Instantaneous frequency
fi
1 d i
108 75 103 cos 2 103 t
2 dt
Peak frequency deviation

f max f i f c 75 10 3 75 kHz
i = instantaneous
frequency
(t)= instantaneous phase deviation.
Time dependent angular velocity or angular frequency is known

as instantaneous frequency i i.e. i =
i c | |
d (t)
dt
d
( t ) , called maximum or peak frequency
dt
deviation of angle modulated system.

In other words, maximum change in the instantaneous
frequency ( i ) from the average ( c ) is known as frequency
deviation.
,
The frequency deviation denoted by will be either positive or

negative depending on sign of Kf m(t). But the amount of deviation
in both cases is decided by the maximum magnitude i.e.
|Kf m(t)|max .Thus , = |Kf m(t)|max.
The frequency deviation is useful parameter for determining the

bandwidth of the FM signals.
Peak frequency deviation ( ) for commercial FM is 75 kH z

(or peak to peak 150 kHz)
Phase Modulation
Phase modulation is form of angle modulation in which the angular

argument (t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t), as
shown by (t) = 2 fct + kp m(t)
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Changing of phase according to the amplitude of message signal
is called phase modulation.
PERSONAL REMARK :
S(t) = Ac cos [2fc t + Kp m (t)]

Where,(t) = Kp m(t) or (t) = (t) C t
and, the term C t = 2fct represents the angular argument of the
unmodulated carrier.
K p = Phase sensitivity of the modulator (radian/volt)
For single tone modulation

Kp m(t) = Kp Am cos 2fm t
maxKp Am = Phase deviation
Frequency Modulation
Changing the frequency of the carrier according to the

amplitude of message signal is called frequency modulation.
FM is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous

frequency fi(t) or i(t) is varied linearly with the message
signal m(t), as given by , fi (t) = fc + Kf m(t)
Where, the term, fc is the frequency of unmodulated carrier

and K f = frequency sensitivity (hertz/volt)
For single tone modulation , fi (t) = fc + Kf Am cos 2fm t

or fi (.max.) = fc + Kf Am
Where, f
K f A m Frequency deviation
also, f = fi fc
Carrier swing or total variation of carrier frequency = 2 f

We know that , i t
or
(t) = 2 fi t
or
d (t)
= fi
dt
or
(t) = 2
f (t) dt
or
(t) = 2
[f
or
(t) = 2 fc t + 2Kf m (t)] dt
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d (t)/dt = 2 fi = i
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Now, frequency and phase modulated equations are given below.
s(t) = AC cos [2fc t + 2 Kf
m(t) dt] [for FM]
s(t) = AC cos [2fc t + Kp m(t)] [for PM]
.....(A)
FM(t) = 2fct + 2Kf
i(FM) = 2fc + Kf m(t)
i(PM) = 2fc + Kp
fM (m)
d
m(t)
dt
1
2 2
, the rms
frequency deviation is(a) k

(b) 2k
Distinguishing feature of PM is that the deviation in the carrier

frequency c in the phase modulated signal is linear by
(c)
k
2
proportional to the modulating frequency m. However in FM
if m(t) has a probability

density function
PM(t) = 2fct + Kp m(t)
For the frequency modulated

signal
v(t) cos 2 f c t k m ( ) d ,
m(t) dt
Ex.
.....(B)
Note:
PERSONAL REMARK :
the frequency deviation is independent of the modulating

frequency .
In PM phase angle is varied directly to m(t) [i.e. (t) m(t)] while
in FM phase angle is varied as the integral of m(t),
(d)
(ISRO-EC-2008)
Sol.(d)
i.e., (t) m (t) dt

,
,
In FM instantaneous frequency ( i ) varies linearly with m(t) while

for PM it varies linearly with time derivative of m(t)
For a single tone modulation the, frequency modulated
equation may be written as
Let , m(t) = Am cos 2fmt
2 K f Am
s(t) = Ac cos f c t
sin 2 f m t
2 f m
K A
or s(t) = Ac cos f c t f m sin 2 f m t

fm
Modulation Index of Angle Modulation is given by
K f Am
fm
Note :
fm
m
K f Am
m
for FM and = Kp Am for PM
Now, sFM(t) = Ac cos 2fC t sin 2fm t where,
K f Am
m
and sPM(t) = Ac cos 2fC t cos 2fm t where, = Kp Am

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,
Transmitted bandwidth of FM signal as well as PM signal
PERSONAL REMARK :
i.e. 98 % Bandwidth of FM or PM signal is given by expression.

BT = 2 (+ 1) fm = 2 (f + fm) called Carsons rule
FM bandwidth can be varied by adjusting f.
Note : For general m(t) the Bandwidth is given by BT = 2 (D + 1) fm, where
D = deviation ratio or modulation index is given by
Peak Frequency deviation corresponding to the maximum possible
amplitude of m(t)
D=
The maximum frequency component present in the modulating
signal m(t)
Note : For FM FM and PM for PM signal, i.e. FM bandwidth is

twice the sum of maximum frequency deviation and the bandwidth of
the modulating signal.
Note: of PM is independent of modulating frequency
(i.e. fm ) since K p A m ( for PM )
Ex. A carrier A cos ct is modulated by a signal m(t) = 3 cos 104. 2t +
cos 103. 2t + 5 cos 104 4t. Find the bandwidth of the FM signal by
using carson's rule. Assume kf = 20 103 Hz/volt. Also find the
modulation index .
Sol. The maximum frequency component in m(t) is 20 103 Hz. The second
tone
in
m(t)
has
the
maximum
amplitude
i.e.
Am = 8 V. Now, the frequency deviation f is given by
f = Kf |Am|max = 20 103 8 = 160 KHz

and modulation index or Deviation ratio is given by
D =
f
fm(max)
160 KHz
=8
20 KHz
Ans.
Now, Bandwidth, BW = 2 (+ 1) fm
= 2 (8 + 1) 20 103 = 360 KHz
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SOLVED EXAMPLES
PERSONAL REMARK :
Ex.1 Calculate the instantaneous frequency components of FM having

carrier frequency of 100 MHz.The constants Kp and Kf are 10
and 2 105 respectively.
m(t)
210
Sol. Given, m(t)max = 2 and m(t)min = 2 and fc = 100 MHz =108 Hz

For FM :i(t) = c + k f m(t) or fi (t) = fc + kf
[fi (t)]max = fc + kf
[m (t)]max
2
or [fi (t)]max = 108 + 2 105
[fi (t)]min = fc + kf
m(t)
2
2
= 100.2 MHz
2
and
(2)
[m (t)]min
= 108 + 2 105
= 99.8 MHz
2
2
For PM : PM(t) = ct + kp m(t) [called instantaneous phase angle)
d PM (t)
dm (t)
c k p
dt
dt
f (t) = fc + kp
1 dm (t)
2 dt
[ since ,
Now, from the curve of m(t), slope =
d (t)
= fi ]
dt
40
dm (t)
=
= 40000
dt
1104
40,000
d m(t)
[fi (t)max = fc + kp
= 100.2 MHz
= 108 +
dt
also [fi (t)min] = 108
40000
= 99.8 MHz
Ex.2 A single-tone FM is represented by the voltage equation as :

v(t) = 12 cos (6 108 t + 5 sin 1250 t) . Determine the following :
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(i)
carrier frequency
(ii)
modulating frequency
(iii)
the modulation index
(iv)
maximum deviation
(v)
what power will that FM wave dissipate in 10 resistors.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Sol. We know that the standard expression for a single-tone FM wave is

given as
v(t) = A cos (c t + f sin m t)
....(i)
The given expression is (i) , we get

(i) carrier frequency, c = 6 108 rad/sec.
108
= 95.5 MHz
2
or
fc =
(ii)
modulating frequency, m = 1250 rad/sec.
or
fm =
(iii)
f = 5
(iv)
maximum frequency deviation is given as

f =
= 199 Hz
f
=
fm
m
or
f = f fm = = .5 199 = 995 Hz
(v)
The power dissipated is

2
Vrms
(12 2 ) 2
P=
=
= 7.2 watts
R
10
Ex.3 A 107.6 MHz carrier signal is frequency modulated by a 7 kHz sine

wave. The resultant FM signal has a frequency deviation of 50 kHz.
Determine the following :
(i)
the carrier swing of the FM signal.
(ii)
the highest and the lowest frequencies attained by the

modulated signal.
(iii)
the modulation index of the FM wave.
Sol. Given that, f c = 107.6 MHz
and
f m = 7 kHz
and f = 50 kHz
(i)
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Carrier swing = 2 frequency deviation = 2 50 = 100 kHz

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(ii)
The higher frequency attained by the modulated signal is equal
PERSONAL REMARK :
to the carrier frequency plus the frequency deviation, i.e.

fH = fc + f = 107.6 106 + 50 103 = (107600 103) + (50 103)
fH = 107650 103 Hz = 107.65 MHz
or
Similarly the lowest frequency attained by the modulated signal is

equal to the carrier frequency minus the frequency deviation i.e.
fL = fc f = 107.6 106 50 103 = (107600 103) (50 103)
fL = 107550 103 Hz = 107.55 MHz
or
(iii)
f =
Ex.4
An
The modulation index is given as

f
frequency deviation
103
=
=
= 7.143
fm
modulating frequency
7 103
FM
transmission
has
frequency
deviation
of 20 kHz
(i)
determine the percent modulation of this signal if it is

broadcasted in the 88108 MHz band.
(ii)
Calculate the percent modulation if this signal is broadcasted

as the audio portion of a television broadcast.
Sol. Given that, f = 20 kHz

(i)
Percent modulation for an FM wave is defined as

=
f actual
f max
100
f actual is given = 20 kHz
The maximum frequency deviation f max permitted in the FM

broadcast band is 75 kHz.
Thus, Percentage Modulation =
(ii)
Percentage Modulation =
20 103
75 103
f actual
f max
100 = 26.67%
100
f actual = 20 kHz

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Note : The maximum frequency deviation f max permitted the
PERSONAL REMARK :
FM audio portion of a TV broadcast is 25 kHz.

Thus Percentage Modulation =
20 103
25 103
100 = 80%
Ex.5 Determine the permissible range in maximum modulation index for

(i)
Commercial FM which has 30 Hz to 15 kHz modulating

frequencies.
(ii)
narrowband FM system which allows maximum deviation of

10 kHz and 100 Hz to 3 kHz modulating frequencies.
So. (i) The maximum deviation in commercial FM is given as

f = 75 kHz
Modulation index in FM is, f
f
fm
Modulation index for commercial FM at fm = 30 Hz is

f =
f
75 103
=
= 2500
30
fm
Modulation index for commercial FM at fm = 15 kHz is

f =
75 103
f
=
=5
fm
15 103
Hence, the modulation index for commerical FM varies between

2500 and 5.
(ii)
For a given Narrowband FM system, the maximum frequency
deviation is given as f = 10 kHz.

Hence, modulation index for a given NBFM system varies between
f =
f
f
10 103
10 103
=
= 100 and f =
=
= 3.33
10
fm
fm
3 1
Ex.6 A carrier wave of frequency 1 GHz and amplitude 3 volts is frequency

modulated (FM) by a sinusoidal modulating signal frequency of 500
Hz and of peak amplitude 1 volt. The frequency deviation f is 1
kHz. The level of the modulating waveform (signal) is changed to 5
volt
peak
and
the
modulating
frequency
is
changed to 2 kHz. Obtain the expression for the new modulated

waveform (FM).
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Sol. We know that the FM wave is given by the expression
PERSONAL REMARK :
s(t) = A cos [2fc t + f sin (2fm t)]

where f = Modulation index of FM wave =
and
f
fm
f = frequency deviation = kf Am
kf = Sensitivity of frequency modulator
Am = Amplitude of the modulating signal
Given that ; fc = 1 MHz = 1 106 Hz,
A = 3 volt,
Am = 1 volt
f = 1 kHz
Therefore, kf can be found as, kf =
f
103
=
= 103 Hz/volt
fm
1
Now, for the second case, we have when, Am = 5 volt and fm = 2 kHz
Modulation Index will be, f =
103 5
f
=
= 2.5
fm
2 1
The desired FM signal can be expressed by

s(t) = A cos [2fc t + f sin (2 fm t)]
Substituting all the values, we get
s(t) = 3 cos [2 106 t + 2.5 sin (2 2 103 t)]
or
s(t) = 3 cos [2 106 t + 2.5 sin (4 103 t)]
SPECIAL CASES : TYPES OF FM

(i)
,
1, narrow band FM
(ii)
> 1, wide band FM
Narrow band FM
sNBFM (t) Ac cos (2fc t sin 2fm t )
A c [ cos 2 f c t cos (sin 2 f m t )
sin 2 f c t sin (sin 2 f m t )]
NOTE : cos 1 and sin when is very small

or sNBFM(t) A c cos 2 f c t A c sin 2 f c t sin 2 f m t
or sNBFM(t) A c cos 2f c t
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A C
[ cos2( fc fm )t cos2( fc fm )t ]
2


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,
Spectrum of NBFM
sNBFM (t) A c cos 2f c t
PERSONAL REMARK :
A c
cos 2( f c fm )t
2
Ac
cos 2 ( f c f m ) t
2
S NBFM ( )
fc fm
0
fc
fc + fm
AC /4
Note : From spectrum of NBFM we conclude that this spectrum is identical

to the AM spectrum except that the spectrum component at frequency
fcfm is 180o out of phase.
,
Transmitted power in NBFM is given by

2
PT = PC 1
The parameter is defined only for single tone modulation and it

represents the maximum phase deviation produced by the modulating
tone.
INTERNATIONAL REGULATION FOR FREQUENCY
MODULATION
The following values are prescribed by CCIR (Consultive Committee
for International Radio ) which must be followed by commercial FM
broadcast stations in order to avoid interference.
Broadcast range 88-108 MHz.
FM
Intermediate frequency 10.7 MHz.
Which one of the following

statements is NOT true
(a) A frequency modulated
signal is produced when
a modulating signal m(t)
is integrated and applied
to a phase modulator
(b) For a sinusoidally
modulated FM carrier, it
is possible that for
particular values of the
modulation index , all
the power lies in the side
frequencies and no
power in the carrier
(c) When carrier to noise
ratio is high, an increase
in the transmission
bandwidth decreases the
figure of merit of an FM
system.
(d) A phase modulated
signal is produced when
a modulating signal m(t)
is differentiated and
applied to a frequency
modulator
(JTO-EC-2006)
Sol.(b)
Ex.
WBFM used in FM radio.
Maximum Frequency Deviation 75 kHz
Frequency stability of the carrier 2 kHz
Allowable bandwidth per channel = 200 kHz
From standard equations of FM and PM [refer page 120 ,eq. (A)

and (B)] it is clear that PM and FM are not only similar but also
inseparable. It means by looking at an angle modulated wave, it is
impossible to say whether it is FM or PM wave.
FM by using PM is shown
PM by using FM is shown
m(t)
m(t)
d
dt
Ac cos c t
Accos c t
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Performance Comparison of FM and PM Systems
S.N.
1.
2.
3.
FM
PERSONAL REMARK :
PM
s(t) A c sin[ c t f sin m t] s(t) A c sin[ c t p sin m t]

Frequency deviation is
proportional to modulating
voltage.
Associated with the change in
fe, there is some phase change.
Phase deviation is proportional to

the modulating voltage.
Associated with the changes in

phase, there is some change in
fc.
4. f is proportional to the modulating p is proportional only to the
voltage as well as the modulating modulating Voltage
frequency fm.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
k f Am
f
KpAm
It is possible to receive FM on
a PM receiver.
Noise immunity is better than
AM and PM.
Amplitude of the FM wave
is constant.
Signal to noise ratio is better
than that of PM.
FM is widely used.
It is possible to receive PM on a
FM receiver.
Noise immunity is better than
AM but worse than FM.
Amplitude of the PM wave is
constant.
Signal to noise ratio is inferior to
that in FM.
PM is used in some mobile
systems.
PERFORMANCE COMARISON OF FREQUENCY

MODULATION AND AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Advantages of FM over AM*
The frequency modulation (FM) has the following advantages over
AM.
FM receivers may be fitted with amplitude limiters to remeve the
amplitude variations caused by noise. This makes FM reception a
good deal more immune to noise than AM reception.
It is possible to reduce noise still further y increasing the frequency
-deviation. This is a feature which AM does not have because it is
not possible to exceed 100 percent modulation without causing severe
distortion.
Standard frequency allocations provide a guard band between
commercial FM stations. Due to this, there is less adjacent-channel
interference than in AM.
Another benefit of FM over AM is the capture effect that allows the
strongest signal on a frequency to dominate without interference
from the other signal.
FM broadcasts operate in the upper VHF and UHF frequency ranges
at which there happens to be less noise than in the MF and HF
ranges occupied by AM broadcasts.

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6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The amplitude of the FM wave is constant. It is thus independent of

the modulation depth, whereas in AM, modulation depth governs the
transmitted power. Thus permits the use of low-level modulation in
FM transmitter and use of efficient class C amplifiers in all stages
following the modulator. Further since all amplifiers handle constant
power, the average ower handled equals the peak power. In Am
transmitter the maximum power is four times the average power.
Finally in FM, all the transmitted power is usefull where as in AM,
most of the power is carrier power which does not contain nay
information.
Disadvantages of FM over AM
Following are the disadvantages of FM overe AM
A much wider channel typically 200 kHz is required in FM as against
only 10 kHz in AM broadcast. This forms serious limitation of FM.
FM transmitting and receiving equipments particularly used for
modulation and demodulation tend to be more complex and hence
more costly.
Another benefit of FM over AM is greater transmitter efficiency
since class C amplifiers may be used.
A major disadvatage of FM is that its bandwidth is wider than the
bandwidth of AM.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Performance Comparison of FM and AM System in tabular

form in shown S. No.
FM
AM
1.
Amplitude of FM wave is
Amplitude of AM wave will change
constant. It is independent
with themodulating voltage.
of the modulation index.
2.
Hence, transmitted power
Transmitted power is dependent on
remains constant, It is
the modulation index.
independent of
3.
All the transmitted power is
Carrier power and one sideband
useful.
power are useless.
4.
FM receivers are immune to AM receivers are not immune to
noise.
noise.
5.
It is possible to decrease noise This feature is absent in AM.
further by increasing deviation.
6.
Bandwidth = 2[f + fm]. The
BW = 2fm. It is not dependent on
bandwidth depends on
the modulation index.
modulation index.
7.
BW is large. Hence, wide
BW is much less than FM.
channel is required.
8.
9.
FM transmission & reception AM equipments are less complex

equipment are more complex.
The number of sidebands
Number of sidebands in AM will
having significant amplitudes be constant and equal to 2.
depends on modulation index
.
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FM GENERATION
PERSONAL REMARK :
FM generation
NOTE : We never use FM in

picture transmission, because there
is frequency deviation in FM wave.
Direct method
Indirect method
used to produced WBFM
used to produced NBFM
used a devices called VCO

(voltage controlled oscillator)
whose oscillation frequency
depends linearly on the
modulation index
In order to produce WBFM first

produce NBFM then by
using frequency
multiplication we
get WBFM
GENERATION OF WBFM USING DIRECT METHOD

,
Physical device that generate WBFM is VCO.
The circuit arrangement of FM modulation using varactor diode is

shown.
R
+
+
m(t)
VB
vd
Cd
C0
Varactor
Diode
L0
Oscillator tank
circuit
The varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction

capacitance changes with d.c. bias voltage, VB.
The capacitance Cd of a diode is given by the relation

Cd = K (vd)1/2 = K [VB + m(t)] 1/2
Where, vd is the instantaneous voltage across the diode and K is a
constant of proportionality
L0 (C0 Cd )
Now, i =
or
fi =
L 0 (C 0 C d )

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K VD1/2
L 0 C 0
C
0


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This frequency fi is dependent on vd which in turn depends on the
PERSONAL REMARK :
modulationg signal m(t). Therefore the oscillator frequency fi is

dependent on the modulating signal m(t), thus FM is generated.
,
Frequency deviation due to modulating signal,

m(t) = Am sin mt is where , =
[L 0 K VB 3/2 ]1/2
Frequency modulating index, () is given by
Am
Am
m
m [L 0 K VB3/2 ]1/2
The modulation index not only depends on modulating voltage

Am but also on the polarizing voltage VB.
Direct method of FM generation is a straight forward requires nothing

more than a VCO, whose oscillation frequency has a linear
dependence on applied voltage.
Advantage of direct FM is that large frequency deviation is possible

without additional operations.
Drawback of Direct Method
Difficult to obtain a high order stability in carrier frequency, this is

because the carrier generation is directly affected by the modulating
signal.A remedy of this problem is the indirect method (Armstrong
method) of FM generation. In this method, the carrier oscillator is
not required to respond to the modulating signal directly, rather, the
carrier generation is isolated from other parts of the circuit.
The nonlinearity produces a frequency variation due to the harmonics

of the modulating signal, hence the FM signal is distorted.
In indirect method, NBFM signal is converted into WBFM

signal, by using frequency multiplier.
Accos 2 fc t
The BPF (Band Pass Filter) not only maintains the constant amplitude
of the angle-modulated carrier but also partially suppresses the
channel noise when the noise is small.
Difference Between Multiplier and Mixer
Multiplier : It multiplies the carrier frequency (c), frequency

deviation ( f) and modulation index () by the same amount.
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Mixer : Mixer is a non-linear device which generates sum

and difference of two frequencies but the passband of the
mixture passes only intermediate frequency whereas it does

not effect frequency deviation ( f) and modulation index ().
PRACTICAL ARMSTRONG METHOD FOR WBFM

GENERATION
Figure shows a simplified block diagram of a commercial or practical

FM generation system using Armstrong Method. The multiplication
process is performed in several stages in order to increase the carrier
frequency as well as frequency deviation to the assigned value. The
desired multiplication factors for carrier frequency and frequency
deviation are not the same. If the multiplication is done in one shot,
the carrier frequency as well as the frequency deviation is multiplied
stages.
Mixing the FM wave with a local

oscillator frequency will produce
sum and difference frequency
components at the output of the
mixer. We can select either the sum
component or the difference
frequency component fC will change.
Thus, mixing is used to increase or
decrease the center frequency fC,
keeping the deviation constant.
Because of constant deviation the
modulation index remains unchanged
in the process of mixing.
Mixer
( fC + fL)
fL
Local
oscillator
We know that in commercial use we require to transmit audio signal

consisting frequencies in the range of 50 Hz to 15 kHz and the value
of f = 75 kHz. Let us assume that the final carrier frequency of the
FM required is fc = 90 MHz.
Effect of Mixing
FM
wave
fC
by same factor which is not desired. Hence, multiplication is done in
PERSONAL REMARK :
No change in
Fig.Effect of mixing on FM wave
Antenna
fC1 Narrow-band
Crystal
Phase
oscillator
Modulator
fC=200KHz
f = 25Hz
y(t) = m(t) dt
Integrator
m(t)
Modulating signal
Frequency
multiplier
Xn
1
Effect
fC =12.8MHz
Frequency
multiplier
n2
=1.56 KHz
Mixer
fc
n 1 = 64
Radio
Freq.(RF)
Amplifier
n 2 = 48
Crystal
oscillator
fc =10.925 MHz
2
Let us begin with narrowband FM having a carrier frequency

fc1 = 200 kHz generated by a crystal oscillator. i.e. f C1 200 KHz
and f 25 Hz.
If FM wave with the center

frequency fc and deviation f are
applied to a frequency multiplier then
the center frequency and deviation
both are mulitplied equally. Because
of this the modulation index (mf) of
the FM wave will also get multiplied
in the process of multiplication.
The effect of mixing and
multiplication can be clearly
understood by solving the following
example.
(N)
Let us assume f 1 = 0.5. The lowest modulation frequency of 50 Hz

produces a frequency deviation of f 1 = 0.5 50 = 25 Hz
of Multiplication
The final carrier frequency and frequency deviation desired
Frequency
FM
multiplier
wave
(fC + f )
FM wave with
center frequency = NfC
(f ' =Nf & ' = N)
at the transmitter is fc = 90 MHz and f = 75 KHz.

Fig. Effect of multiplication on FM
wave
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To produce a frequency deviation of f = 75 kHz at the output, a
PERSONAL REMARK :
frequency multiplication is required. As an example f 1 = 25 Hz and

the required deviation is f = 75 kHz. We thus require a total
frequency multiplication by a factor
n=
= 3000
.... (A)
Whereas, the multiplication factor needed to achieve the desired

carrier frequency is =
,
90 MHz
= 450 only..
20 KHz
Let us assume that n1 and n2 are the frequency multiplication factors

for the two multipliers, so that n = n1 . n2 = 3000
.... (B)
The carrier frequency at the output of first multiplier is

translated (shifted) downwards to frequency (n f C1 f C2 ) by
mixing it with a carrier wave of frequency f C2 which is
produced by another oscillator. The shifted frequency is
increased n2 times by second multiplier to get the assigned carrier
frequency fC = 90 MHz.
The carrier frequency at the input of the second multiplier is
n2 (n1 f C1 f C2 ) = fC
fc
.
n2
.... (C)
From equation (B) and (C), we get n1 = 64.3 and n2 = 46.7. For
convenience in the design of the multiplier circuits, the values are
rounded off, so that the multiplication may be done by factors
of 2 and 3 i.e. n1 = 64 = 26 and n2 = 48 = 3 24.
Wideband FM (WBFM)
Sideband Terms Produces in frequency Modulation
Let us consider the expansion of a single tone FM signal given
by SWBFM (t) AC cos[c t sin m t] . This expression can be
expressed in term of exponential phasor is
FM (t) AC Re[e j(c t sin mt) ] AC Re[e jc t e jsin mt ]
....(1)
The second exponential in (i) is a periodic function of period 1/fm and

can be expanded in the form of a complex fourier series as
e j sin m t
F ejn
n
t,
1
1
t
2 fm
2 fm
....(2)
where the Fouier coefficient Fn is defined by,

1
2 fm
Fn f m
1
2 fm
f ( t ) e jn m t dt f m
2 fm
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2 fm
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Putting m t p we get
1
2
Fn
PERSONAL REMARK :
e j( sin p n p ) d p
The integral on the right hand side is recognized as the nth order
Bessel function of the first kind and argument This function is
denoted by Jn().Hence , Fn = Jn ()
....(4)
Substituting Eq. (4) in equation (3) we get
e j sin m t
()e jn m t
....(5)
Next, substituting equation (5) in equation (3) we get
SWBFM (t) A C Re[e jc t
J n ()e jnm t ] A C Re[ J n ()e j( c nm )t ]

n
The generalized equation of WBFM is given by

n
SWBFM(t) = Ac
() cos (c + nm) t
n
n
or
SWBFM(t) = Ac Re
J
n
()
e j2 (f c nf m )t
Where, n = 0, 1 2, ......
and, Jn() is the Bessel function of order n and is given by
Jn ()
1
2
j ( sinp np)
. dp
Properties of Bessel function
Jn() = J-n () for n = even
Jn()
= J-n () for n = odd
For a small value

J0
() = 1
Jn
() = 0, | n | > 1
= I1 (
2
J1 () =
Jn () 1
Jn1
() + Jn+1 () =
2n
J (). This property is known as
n
Recursive property
Using the above properties, we get
SWBFM(t) = Ac J0() cosct + AcJ1() [cos (c+m)t cos (c m)t]
+ AcJ2() [cos (c+ 2m)t + cos (c 2m)t]
+ AcJ3() [cos (c+ 3m)t cos(c 3m)t]
+.................+.............
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....(A)
Interview Guidance
180

,
Some important conclusion from equation (A)
PERSONAL REMARK :
Maximum value of J0() is unity when =0 which is equivalent

to no modulation
Theoretically infinite number of sidebands are produced and

the amplitude of each sidebands is decided by the corresponding
Bessel function Jn(). The presence of infinite number of
sidebands makes the ideal bandwidth of FM signal infinite.
The sidebands having considerable amplitudes with respect

to the carrier amplitude are known as significant sidebands.
Since the amplitude of FM remains unchanged, the

power of the FM signal is same as that of unmodulated
n
A C2
2
2
carrier i.e. SFM
(t) =
J 2n () =
n
A C2
2
The number of significant sidebands produced in an FM

signal depends on the value of which, in turn, depends
on maximum frequency deviation ( f) and modulating
frequency fm.
Spectrum of WBFM is shown below.
2
fc
fc fm
fc
fc + fm
fc+2fm
,
,
Theoretical bandwidth of a WBFM is .

Spectral Properties
Carrier + Infinite no. of sidebands.

Relative amplitudes and number of significant spectral
components depends upon .
For << 1 (in NBFM) only J0 and J1 are significant i.e.
spectral is similar to AM except for phase reversal of

LSB component.
Characteristics of a WBFM signal
(i)
WBFM spectrum consist of carrier and infinite number of
sidebands each separated by
frequency fm.
S(t)
Magnitude
(ii) The amplitudes of the
spectrum
spectrum components depend
on the bessel function
coefficients. Jn ( ) decreases
f -f f f +f
f
as n increases. So the
amplitudes of the spectral
components also decreases on both sides of the carrier.
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(iii)
In WBFM spectrum carrier component depend on modulation
PERSONAL REMARK :
index or J0( ).
J0 ()
1
8.6
2.4
5.5
11.8
The Bessel function coefficient J0 () where = 2.4, 5.5, 8.6,

11.8........... for these values of , the amplitude of the carrier
component in the spectrum is zero and the modulation efficiency is 1.

,
Practically FM has the efficiency between AM and AM-SC.

(iv)
A c2 J 02 ()
(b) Sideband power,
2
(a) Pc = Pcarrier =
Pf f
c
m
st
P1
A c2 J12 ()
&
Pfc
fm
A c2J12 ()
2
order sideband A c2 J12 ( )
2 2
nd
P2 order sideband A c J 2 ( )
th
2 ()
Pn order sideband A c2 Jn
power
Total power
or
A2
A2c 2
A2
A2
J0 ( ) c J12 ( ) c J22 ( ) c J2 2 ( ) .....
2
2
2
2
Total power =
A c2
2
J 2n ()
n
2
C
A
= Unmodulated carrier power
2
Note : Thus, the total power is independent of modulation index

( ), while AM takes more power compared to FM for the same
message and carrier.
Effect of variation in on the spectrum of FM wave
The number of sidebands produced in FM increases with increase
in . The modulation index is given by
Kf Am
fm
Therefore can be increased either,

(i)
by reducing m (i.e. fm). But keeping amplitude of modulating

signal Am fixed or
(ii)
by increasing Am, but keeping fm fixed.

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Interview Guidance
182

FM DEMODULATORS/DETECTORS
,
PERSONAL REMARK :
Electronic circuit that performs the demodulation process is called

FM detectors. The detector performs the extraction in two steps.
(i)
It performs the frequency modulated signals into a

corresponding amplitude modulated signals (AM) by using
frequency depending circuits.
Circuits whose output voltage depends on input frequency. Such

circuit are called as frequency discriminators.
(ii)
The originial modulating signal m(t) is recovered from the AM

signal by using a linear diode envelop detector.
Note :
FM discriminators suffers from the threshold effect in the

presence of excessive noise.
The threshold can be improved by pre-emphasis and deemphasis circuit.
yD (t)
,
d (t)
d (t)
or yD(t) = Ka Kf m(t)
or yD (t) Kd
dt
dt
Type of FM discriminators
FM Discriminators
Slope
Discriminators
Balanced slope
Discriminators
Simple slope
Discriminators
(i)
(ii)
Phase Difference
Discriminators
Foster seeley
Discriminators
Ratio
Detector
Slope Detectors : The principle of operation depends on the

slope of the frequency response characteristics of a frequency
selective network. The types of FM discriminators are (a)
Simple slope or single tuned discriminator circuit
(b)
Balanced slope or stagger-tuned discriminator circuit.
Phase difference discriminators : Two types

(a)
Foster - Seeley Discriminator
(b)
Ratio Detector
Simple slope Detector
Simple slope or single tuned discriminator circuit converts the FM

signal into an AM signal. The AM signal is then detected by a linear
diode detector (i.e. envelop detector).Circuit is simple and inexpensive.
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However it possesses some disadvantages (i)
The circuit's non-linear characteristic causes a harmonic

distortion. The non-linearity is obvious from the fact that the
slope is not the same at every point of the characteristics.
The problems of non-linearity is removed by using a staggers
tuned LC circuits (balanced slope detector)
(ii)
It does not eliminate the amplitude variations and the output is

sensitive to any amplitude variations in the input FM signal.
Balanced slope or stagger tuned Discriminator
Balanced slope or stagger-tuned discriminator circuit uses two tuned

circuits, where one is tuned above the carrier frequency c and other
is tuned below carrier frequency, c. Here no harmonic distortion is
caused when the operation is restricted to the linear region.
Drawbacks of the Balanced Slope-Discriminator
PERSONAL REMARK :
(i)
,
,
,
,
The linear characteristic is limited to a small frequency

deviation (f).
(ii) The tuned circuit output is not purely bandlimited and , hence
the low pass RC filter of the envelop detector introduces
distortion.
(iii) The discriminator characteristics depend critically on the
amount of detuning of the resonant circuits.
Foster-Seeley (Centre-Tuned) Discriminator
This type of discriminator is very widely used. The circuit comprises
of an inductively coupled double-tuned circuit in which in both primary
and secondary are tuned to same frequency (i.e. intermediate
frequency fIF)
PLL (phase locked loops) approach is usually used for a feedback
system.
Feedback demodulators perform better than discriminators in
the presence of noise.
PLL can be used to track the phase and frequency of the carrier
component of the incoming signal.
PLL has three basic components namely
(i)
VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator)
(ii)
A multiplier (serving as a phase detector or a phase

comparator)
(iii)
A loop filter.
A PLL can track the incoming frequency only over a finite range of
frequency shift. This range is called hold-in or lock range.
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,
The frequency range over which the input will cause the loop to lock
is the pull-in or capture range.
PERSONAL REMARK :
CONCEPT OF PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS

,
Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis method, simple RC networks are

used to improve the threshold.
In AM any increase in the received power directly increases the

signal power at the output of the receiver. This is due to basically the
fact that the message in the amplitude of the transmitted signal and
an increase in the transmitted power directly affects the demodulated
signal power. However, in an Angle Modulation the message is in
the phase of the modulated signal and consequently increasing the
transmitted power does not increase the demodulated message
power.
In FM the effect of noise is higher at higher frequencies. This means

the signal component at higher frequencies will suffer more from
noise than the lower frequency components.
At higher audio frequencies the effect of noise is more pronounced

as compared to low frequencies because N0 =
K2 3m
also at the
3 A2
same time higher audio frequencies carries minimum signal power.
S
So, ratio at higher frequency is small.
N
,
Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM broadcasting is used to reduce

Threshold effect.
The objective of Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis filtering is to design

a system which behaves like an ordinary frequency modulator and
demodulator pair in the low frequency band of the message signal
and like a phase modulator and demodulator pair in the high frequency
band of a message signal.
Since a phase modulator is nothing but cascade connection of

differentiator and a frequency modulator we need a filter in cascade
with the modulator that at low frequencies does not effect the signal
and at high frequencies acts as a differentiator. A simple high pass
filter is a very good approximation to such a system.
The modulator filter which emphasizes high frequencies is called the

pre-emphasis filter and the demodulator filter which is the inverse of
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the modulator filter is called de-emphasis filter.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Pre-emphasis uses HPF (high pass filter) while de-emphasis uses

LPF (lower pass filter).
Pre-emphasis uses before modulation while de-emphasis after

modulation.
PRE-EMPHASIS
,
The technique which is used to increase the signal power at high

audio frequencies is called Pre-Emphasis.
Figure shows the pre-emphasis circuit

R1
Acts as a HPF
Vi(t)
R2
Behaves like a differentiator
V0(t)
Uses Before modulation
R C 20 dB/decade
V0 (s)
1

, Transfer function H(s) =
Vi (s)
R R2
s 1
R 1 R 2 C 20 dB/decade
Gain (dB)
|Hp()|
1
R1C
(R1+ R2)
R1R2 C
log
DE-EMPHASIS
,
It is just the reverse action of pre-emphasis.
Figure shows the De-emphasis circuit

Acts as a LPF
R
C
Vi(t)
V0(t)
Behaves like Integrator

Uses after demoduation
Note : The process of Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis leaves

the desired signal untoched but reduces the effect of
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noise.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Both pre emphasis and De-emphasis circuit must satisfy

| HP(f) | | Hd(f) | = 1
Graphical representation of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in angle

modulated system is shown:
From figure it is clear that

FM has smaller interference
than PM at low modulating
frequencies its opposite is
true. This is based on the
fact
that
for
FM
Interference
frequency, while for higher
t
ou
th
i
w DE
FM P
PM
FM with PDE
K f Am
1
i.e.
f
fm
2 m
fm
while for PM = Kf Am i.e. independent of modulating frequency.

Note : For small fm or fi FM is superiour
For
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TECHGURU CLASSES for ENGINEERS (Your Dedication + Our Guidance = Sure Success)

CHAPTER- 6 (ANGLE MODULATION ) : COMMUNICATION ENGG .

Frequency Modulation (FM) is the type of modulation in which , the

Figure shows FM signal produced by a single tone modulating signal.

Ex. In frequency modulation, the

(c)Frequency of the carrier

Important Differences Between AM and FM/PM

It is possible with carrier

Angle modulation is the process of varying the total phase angle of

TECHGURU PUBLICATIONS (A Unit of TECHGURU EDUCATIONALS Pvt. Ltd.)

Let us consider an unmodulated carrier wave is given by

Tolal phase angle

Where, (t) = ct + (t)

Instantaneous phase Deviation

Ex. An angle-modulated signal is

The peak frequency deviation of

Peak frequency deviation

Time dependent angular velocity or angular frequency is known

deviation of angle modulated system.

The frequency deviation denoted by will be either positive or

The frequency deviation is useful parameter for determining the

Peak frequency deviation ( ) for commercial FM is 75 kH z

Phase modulation is form of angle modulation in which the angular

Classroom & Online Test Series

Regular & Weekend Batches

CHAPTER- 6 (ANGLE MODULATION ) : COMMUNICATION ENGG .

S(t) = Ac cos [2fc t + Kp m (t)]

For single tone modulation

Changing the frequency of the carrier according to the

FM is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous

Where, the term, fc is the frequency of unmodulated carrier

For single tone modulation , fi (t) = fc + Kf Am cos 2fm t

Carrier swing or total variation of carrier frequency = 2 f

(t) = 2 fc t + 2Kf m (t)] dt

TECHGURU PUBLICATIONS (A Unit of TECHGURU EDUCATIONALS Pvt. Ltd.)

m(t) dt] [for FM]

s(t) = AC cos [2fc t + Kp m(t)] [for PM]

FM(t) = 2fct + 2Kf

i(FM) = 2fc + Kf m(t)

frequency deviation is(a) k

Distinguishing feature of PM is that the deviation in the carrier

proportional to the modulating frequency m. However in FM

if m(t) has a probability

PM(t) = 2fct + Kp m(t)

For the frequency modulated

the frequency deviation is independent of the modulating

i.e., (t) m (t) dt

In FM instantaneous frequency ( i ) varies linearly with m(t) while

or s(t) = Ac cos f c t f m sin 2 f m t

Modulation Index of Angle Modulation is given by

for FM and = Kp Am for PM

Now, sFM(t) = Ac cos 2fC t sin 2fm t where,

and sPM(t) = Ac cos 2fC t cos 2fm t where, = Kp Am

Classroom & Online Test Series

Regular & Weekend Batches

CHAPTER- 6 (ANGLE MODULATION ) : COMMUNICATION ENGG .

Transmitted bandwidth of FM signal as well as PM signal

i.e. 98 % Bandwidth of FM or PM signal is given by expression.