EEE 3223

Pulse Modulation
 Digital Modulation
• Advantages :
– Error correction detection can be utilized
– Regeneration
– Immunity to noise
– Easy storage and processing: MP, DSP, RAM, ROM, Computer
– Easy to measure
– Enables encryption
– Data from several sources can be integrated and transmitted using
the same digital communication system

• Disadvantages :
– Requires a bigger bandwidth
– Analog signal need to be changed to digital first
– Not compatible to analog system Voice : Analog : 4 kHz
– Need synchronization Digit : 2 x 4 kHz x 8 bit = 64 kb/s
BWmin  32 kHz

Pemodulatan Digit
 TRANSMISSION METHOD FOR
ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS
Analog Analog channel Analog
input Baseband output
Analog Analog De Analog
input Modulator
channel modulator output

Digital Digital decoder Digital

encoder
input channel output

Digital Analog Digital

Modem Modem
input channel output

Analog ADC & Digital Decoder Analog

input encoder channel & DAC output

Analog ADC & ADC & Analog

Modem Analog Modem output
input encoder channel decoder
 Pulse Modulation
Pulse Modulation consists of:

• PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) =>   Vm

• PPM (Pulse Position Modulation) => d (pulse delay)  Vm
• PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) => VPAM  Vm
• PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

Less susceptible to
noise

Less susceptible to
noise compared to
PAM
Easily effected by
noise
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Method used to represent an analog signal in terms of digital form:
Constitutes 3 process:
1. Sampling the analog signal
2. Quantization of the amplitude of the sampled signal
3. Coding of the quantized sample into digital signal

Sampling Quantization Coding

PCM process:
S/H : Sample and hold
circuit

Analog
signal LPF S/H ADC PCM

Anti aliasing
filter ADC : analog to digital converter
fs
SAMPLING
 QUANTIZATION & CODING

• Process of estimating the sampled amplitude into a value

suitable for coding (ADC).
• A fixed number of levels including the maximum and minimum
value of the analog signal
• Number of levels is determined by the number of bits used for
coding
3 terms that are commonly used in the quantization
process:
• Quantization level, L = 2n
Quantization level depends on the number of binary bits, n used to
represent each sample.
For example:For = 3; Quantization level, L = 23 = 8 level.
In this example, first level (level 0) is represented by 000, whereas bit
111 represents the eigth level
• Quantization Interval
Represent the voltage value for each quantized level
For example: For a sampled signal that has 5V amplitude, Vpp = 10 V
divide by the quantized level, L = 8 level,
Therefore, quantized interval ,

10 V
V   1.25 V
8
• Quantization value, Vk
The middle voltage for each quantized level
For example: for n = 3, quantized level, L = 8 and a sampled sinusoidal
signal with +5 V ,
The middle quantized value for level 0,

1.25 V
V0  5 V   4.375 V
2

In this example, for a sample that is in level 0 segment will be

represented by bit 000 with a voltage value of –4.375 V. The difference
between the sampled value and the quantized value results in
quantization noise.

For voice communication 256 levels

are commonly used (i.e n = 8)
UNIFORM QUANTIZATION
Uniform quantization is a quantization process with a uniform (fixed)
quantization interval.

Example : n = 3 , L = 8 , signal +5 V ; => Vk = 1.25 V .

Quantization level & Quantized Sampled signal
binary representation value

+5.0V
Leve l 7 : 111 4.375V 4.3V

Level 6 : 110 3.125V

1.9V
Level 5 : 101 1.875V 1.9V

Level 4 : 100 0.625V

t
Level 3 : 011 -0.625V

Level 2 : 010 -1.875V

Level 1 : 001 -3.125V -3.2V

Level 0 : 000 -4.375V -4.5V

-5.0V
 Uniform Quantization using Folded Binary Code (sign bit)
The same code representing several
+mp samples with different amplitudes
0 11
0 10
∆ 0 01 Quantization error
Step size Qe
0 00
0 t
1 00
1 01
1 10

-mp 1 11

Sign bit
value
PCM code 000 001 011 011 011 010 001 100 110 111 111 110 100 001 010 010 010 000

Pemodulatan Digit
 Quantization error
Quantization error (Qe) is also called Quantization noise (Qn) . And its
maximum magnitude is one half of the voltage of the minimum step
size .

May add to or substract from the

actual signal
Pemodulatan Digit
Quantization error
Example : Uniform Quantization error
Binary Input voltage Input voltage range: –14 mV
number range (mV) to +14 mV
1 11 10 to 14
Qn = LSB voltage /2 = /2
1 10 6 to 10
1 01 2 to 6  14 mV = 28 mV with 8 steps and 8 codes.
1 00 0 to 2 Therefore  = 28/8 = 3.5 mV.
0 00 -2 to 0
Therefore : Qn = 3.5 mV / 2 = 1.75 mV
0 01 -6 to -2
0 10 -10 to -6 Noise from quantization error can be
reduced by increasing the quantization
0 11 -14 to -10 level i.e increase n.
THE QUANTIZATION SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO

Uniform quantization
SNRq = [1.76 + 6.02n] dB

Nonuniform quantization

3
SNRq  10 log  6.02n dB
ln 1   2
Example :

Vpp = 31.5 V PCM 6 bit code (5 bits for

system magnitude and 1 bit
for sign

(a) No of levels: 26 = 64
(b) LSB voltage,  : 31.5/64 = 0.492 V
(c) Qe, /2 = 0.25 V
(d) Voltage value for 001101 ; +(13 x 0.492) = +6.4 V
(e) Voltage value for 111001 ; –(25 x 0.492) = -12.3 V
(f) Code for input +13.62 V
= 13.62/0.492 = 27.68  28 => 011100
(g)Code for input –9.37 V
= 9.37/0.492 = 19.04  19 => 110011
 Non uniform quantization
nonuniform: to improve SNR (SQR)

 More levels is available for low level amplitudes compared to high

amplitude
 Increase SNR for low level amplitude and decrease SNR for higher
amplitudes

analog compression is done to the input signal before sampling and

quantization at the transmitter
i.e can use A-law or µ-Law.
Expansion is done at the receiver
COMPANDING (compression and expanding)
Non Uniform Quantization
example : Non-Linear
Quantization

Pemodulatan Digit
 COMPANDING
Compression-Expanding

In telecommunication and signal processing companding is a method of

mitigating the detrimental effects of a channel with limited dynamic range.

The use of companding allows signals with a large dynamic range to be

transmitted over facilities that have a smaller dynamic range capability.

Companding is employed in telephony and other audio applications such as

professional wireless microphones and analog recording.

This method is also used in digital file formats for better signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) at lower bit rates. For example, a linearly encoded 16-bit PCM signal
can be converted to an 8-bit WAV or AU file while maintaining a decent
SNR by compressing before the transition to 8-bit and expanding after a
conversion back to 16-bit.
i.e A method used to produce a uniform SNR for all input signal range.
Input signal is compressed at the transmitter and expanded at the
receiver
COMPANDING IN PCM
 TYPES OF COMPANDING

1. Analog Companding (Early PCM Systems)

a.  - Law
b. A - Law

2. Digital Companding (Modern systems)

29
The popular companding systems (standardized by ITU)
• EUROPE => A - Law

1  log( Ax ) 1
 1  log A for  x1
y A
Ax 1
 for 0 x
 1  log A A

A - compressor paramater. Usually

the value of A is 87.6.

Ei Eo
x y
Ei (mak ) Eo (mak )
USA/NORTH AMERICA =>  - Law

 Law is a standard compress-

expand that is used in America
and Japan. The value of  used
is 255 (8 bit).

log( 1  x)
y
log 1   

For both laws, the values of x and

y refers to the equation below:

Ei Eo
x y
Ei (mak ) Eo (mak )

Pemodulatan Digit
 DIGITAL COMPANDING
µ-255 Compression Characteristic

Digitally, the 12-bit values are encoded into 8-bit compressed code
Companding => Compress - Expanding
=> Analog – Compression process is done on the input signal
before sampling and coding
=> Digital – compression process is done after the signal is
sampled
analog signal To digital channel
analog ADC
(input) compressor

Analog Analog signal

DAC (output)
expander

PCM with analog compress-expand

analog signal To digital channel

ADC Digital
(input) compressor

Digital Analog signal

DAC
expander (output)

PCM with digital compress-expand

PCM SYSTEM WITH ANALOG COMPANDING
DIGITALLY COMPOUNDED PCM SYSTEM
 Example 4.3 :
A compress-expand system using  Law ( = 255) is used for a signal with
range 0 to 10V. Determine the output of the system if the input is 0 and 7.5V.

Solution :
Given  = 255 and Ei(mak)= 10 V
For Ei = 7.5 V
For Ei = 0 V Ei 7.5
x ; x  0.75
Ei 0 Ei (mak ) 10
x ; x 0
Ei (mak ) 10 Output :
Output : log( 1  x)
y
log( 1  x) log( 1  255(0)) log 1   
y ;y
log 1    log 1  255 y
log( 1  255(0.75))
log 1  255
y0
y  0.948
Example 4.4 :
A random signal has gone through a 256 level quantization process.
Determine the quantization signal to noise ratio for uniform quantization
system.
Solution :
From the above statement, the number of sampling bits is not known.
But, given L=256
L = 2n
therefore, n = 8

Given SNRq

SNRq  1.76  6.02n dB

SNRq  1.76  6.02(8)  50 dB
Delta Modulation (DM)
 Slope Overload
To overcome , increase the magnitude of the step size.

Granular Noise
To overcome , decrease the magnitude of the step size
Line Coding
 Line Coding
• Binary 1 and 0 in PCM signal can be represented by several formats
known as line coding.

information Line channel

PCM
coder

Reasons for line coding:

1. Synchronization
2. Error detection
3. Error correction
Line code format A. NRZ (Non Return to Zero)
- Popular method
- easy
- Data does not return to 0 in one
clock interval
- No synchronization. Can use ‘start
bit’ for synchronization purposes

1. NRZ-L (NRZ-Level)
1 => High level
0 => Low level
2. NRZ-M (NRZ-Mark)
1 => transition at the starting
interval
0 => no transition
3. NRZ-S (NRZ-Space)
1 => no transition
0 => transition at the starting interval
Digital Signal Encoding Formats
 B. RZ (Return to Zero)
• Return to 0 at the half bit interval
• The same
advantages/disadvantages with
NRZ
• Overcome by using bipolar signal
and alternating pulse for
synchronization

4. RZ (Unipolar)
1 => High level
0 => Low level
5. RZ (Bipolar)
1 => Alternately +ve
0 => Alternately –ve
6. RZ (AMI – Alternately Mark Inversion)
1 => Alternately +ve and -ve
Digital Signal Encoding Formats
0 => Low level
 C. Bi phase
• Used in optical communication
system, satellite and video
recorder
• Self synchronizing
7. Bi phase M
1 => transition at the middle of the
interval
0 => no transition at the middle of the
interval
8. Bi phase L (Manchester Coding)
1 => transition from HI to LO at the
middle of the interval
0 => transition from LO to HI at the
middle of the interval
used in Ethernet IEEE 802.3 standard
in LAN
9. Bi phase S – inverse of Bi phase M
Digital Signal Encoding Formats
1 => no transition in the middle of the
interval
0 => transition in the middle of the