Ecosystem

An Ecosystem Is A System Which Is Formed When A Community

Of Organisms Interacts With The Environment.

An Ecosystem Is Basically An Organism Community Which

Interacts With One Another And Their Environment In Such A Way
That Energy Is Transferred Between Them And System-Level
Processes Like The Cycle Of Elements Emerge.

The Ecosystem Is The Core Concept In Ecology And Biology, And

Serves As The Building Block Of Biological Organization Where
Organisms Interact With Each Other Simultaneously And With The
Environment As Well. Therefore, Ecosystems Are A Step After The
Ecological Community Level ( In Which Organisms Of Different
Species Interact With One Another) And Are At A Stage Below Or
Equal To The Biosphere And Biomes. Essentially, They Are
Regional Ecosystems, While The Biosphere Is Larger Than All The
Possible Ecosystems.

Ecosystems Include The Living Organisms Alonside The Dead

Organic Matter Which They Produce, The Abiotic Environment
Which These Organisms Inhabit And Exchange Elements, For
Example, Soils, Water, The Atmosphere, Etc, And The Interactions
With The Components. Ecosystems Follow The Concept That The
Living Organisms Must Continually Interact With One Another And

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With Their Environment To Create Complex Systems With Different
Emergent Properties, Like That "The Whole Is Greater Than The
Sum Of Its Parts" Or "Everything Is Connected".

Different Types Of Ecosystems

There Are Essentially Two Kinds Of Ecosystems; Aquatic And

Terrestrial. Any Other Sub-Ecosystem Falls Under One Of These
Two Headings.
Terrestrial Ecosystems

Terrestrial Ecosystems Can Be Found Anywhere Apart From

Heavily Saturated Places. They Are Broadly Classed Into:

The Forest Ecosystems

They Are The Ecosystems In Which An Abundance Of Flora, Or

Plants, Is Seen So They Have A Big Number Of Organisms Which
Live In Relatively Small Space. Therefore, In Forest Ecosystems
The Density Of Living Organisms Is Quite High. A Small Change In
This Ecosystem Could Affect The Whole Balance, Effectively
Bringing Down The Whole Ecosystem. You Could See A Fantastic
Diversity In The Fauna Of The Ecosystems, Too. They Are Further
Divided Into:

Tropical Evergreen Forest: These Are Tropical Forests That

Receive A Mean Rainfall Of 80 For Every 400 Inches Annually.

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 The Forests Are Characterised By Dense Vegetation Which
Comprises Tall Trees At Different Heights. Each Level Is
Shelter To Different Types Of Animals.

Tropical Deciduous Forest: There, Shrubs And Dense

Bushes Rule Along With A Broad Selection Of Trees. The Type
Of Forest Is Found In Quite A Few Parts Of The World While A
Large Variety Of Fauna And Flora Are Found There.

Temperate Evergreen Forest: Those Have Quite A Few

Number Of Trees As Mosses And Ferns Make Up For Them.
Trees Have Developed Spiked Leaves In Order To Minimize
Transpiration.

Temperate Deciduous Forest: The Forest Is Located In

The Moist Temperate Places That Have Sufficient Rainfall.
Summers And Winters Are Clearly Defined And The Trees
Shed The Leaves During The Winter Months.

Taiga: Situated Just Before The Arctic Regions, The Taiga Is

Defined By Evergreen Conifers. As The Temperature Is Below
Zero For Almost Half A Year, The Remainder Of The Months,
It Buzzes With Migratory Birds And Insects.

The Desert Ecosystem

Desert Ecosystems Are Located In Regions That Receive An

Annual Rainfall Less Than 25. They Occupy About 17 Percent Of
All The Land On Our Planet. Due To The Extremely High
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Temperature, Low Water Availability And Intense Sunlight, Fauna
And Flora Are Scarce And Poorly Developed. The Vegetation Is
Mainly Shrubs, Bushes, Few Grasses And Rare Trees. The Stems
And Leaves Of The Plants Are Modified In Order To Conserve Water
As Much As Possible. The Best Known Desert Ones Are The
Succulents Such As The Spiny Leaved Cacti. The Animal
Organisms Include Insects, Birds, Camels, Reptiles All Of Which
Are Adapted To The Desert (Xeric) Conditions.

The Grassland Ecosystem

Grasslands Are Located In Both The Tropical And Temperate

Regions Of The World Though The Ecosystems Vary Slightly. The
Area Mainly Comprises Grasses With A Little Number Of Trees And
Shrubs. The Main Vegetation Includes Grasses, Plants And
Legumes That Belong To The Composite Family. A Lot Of Grazing
Animals, Insectivores And Herbivores Inhabit The Grasslands. The
Two Main Kinds Of Grasslands Ecosystems Are:

1. Savanna: The Tropical Grasslands Are Dry Seasonally And

Have Few Individual Trees. They Support A Large Number Of
Predators And Grazers.

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 2. Prairies: It Is Temperate Grassland, Completely Devoid Of
Large Shrubs And Trees. Prairies Could Be Categorized As
Mixed Grass, Tall Grass And Short Grass Prairies.

The Mountain Ecosystem

Mountain Land Provides A Scattered And Diverse Array Of

Habitats Where A Large Number Of Animals And Plants Can Be
Found. At The Higher Altitudes, The Harsh Environmental
Conditions Normally Prevail, And Only The Treeless Alpine
Vegetation Can Survive. The Animals That Live There Have Thick
Fur Coats For Prevention From Cold And Hibernation In The Winter
Months. Lower Slopes Are Commonly Covered With Coniferous
Forests.

Aquatic Ecosystems

The Aquatic Ecosystem Is The Ecosystem Found In A Body Of

Water. It Encompasses Aquatic Flora, Fauna And Water Properties,
As Well. There Are Two Main Types Of Aquatic Ecosystem - Marine
And Freshwater.

The Marine Ecosystem

Marine Ecosystems Are The Biggest Ecosystems, Which Cover

Around 71% Of Earth's Surface And Contain 97% Of Out Planet's

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Water. Water In Marine Ecosystems Features In High Amounts
Minerals And Salts Dissolved In Them. The Different Divisions Of
The Marine Ecosystem Are:

Oceanic: A Relatively Shallow Part Of Oceans Which Lies On

The Continental Shelf.

Profundal: Deep Or Bottom Water.

Benthic Bottom Substrates.

Inter-Tidal: The Place Between Low And High Tides.

Estuaries

Coral Reefs

Salt Marshes

Hydrothermal Vents Where Chemosynthetic Bacteria Make

Up The Food Base.

Many Kinds Of Organisms Live In Marine Ecosystems: The Brown

Algae, Corals, Cephalopods, Echinoderms, Dinoflagellates And
Sharks.

The Freshwater Ecosystem

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Contrary To The Marine Ecosystems, The Freshwater Ecosystem
Covers Only 0.8% Of Earth's Surface And Contains 0.009% Of The
Total Water. Three Basic Kinds Of Freshwater Ecosystems Exist:

Lentic: Slow-Moving Or Till Water Like Pools, Lakes Or Ponds.

Lotic: Fast-Moving Water Such As Streams And Rivers.

Wetlands: Places In Which The Soil Is Inundated Or Saturated

For Some Lenghty Period Of Time.

The Ecosystems Are Habitats To Reptiles, Amphibians And Around

41% Of The Worlds Fish Species. The Faster Moving Turbulent
Waters Typically Contain A Greater Concentrations Of Dissolved
Oxygen, Supporting Greater Biodiversity Than Slow Moving
Waters In Pools.

An Ecosystem Has Two Basic Components

I) Abiotic Components
Ii) Biotic Components

The Relationship Between The Abiotic Components And The Biotic

Components Of The Ecosystem Is Termed 'Holocoenosis'.

Abiotic Components

Those Include The Non-Living Or Physico-Chemical Factors Like

Air, Soil, Water And The Basic Compounds And Elements Of The
Environment.Abiotic Factors Are Classified Broadly Under Three
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Categories: Climatic Factors, Including The Climatic Regime With
Physical Factors In The Environment Such As Light, Atmospheric
Temperature, Wind, Humidity, Etc; Edaphic Factors, Which Relate
To The Composition And Structure Of The Soil Like Its Chemical
And Physical Properties Like The Soil Type, Soil Profile, Organic
Matter, Minerals, Soil Water, And Soil Organisms. Inorganic
Substances Like Water, Carbon, Sulphur, Nitrogen, Phosphorus
And So On. Organic Substances Like Proteins, Lipids,
Carbohydrates, Humic Substances Etc.
Biotic Components

It Consists Of The Living Parts Of The Environment, Including The

Association Of A Lot Of Interrelated Populations That Belong To
Different Species Inhabiting A Common Environment. The
Populations Are Those Of The Animal Community, The Plant
Community And The Microbial Community. The Biotic Community
Is Divided Into Autotrophs, Saprotrophs And Heterotrophs.
Autotrophs (From Greek : Auto - Self, Trophos - Feeder) Are Called
Producers, Transducers Or Convertors, As Well. Those Are
Photosynthetic Plants, Normallu Chlorophyll Bearing, Which
Synthesize A High-Energy Complex Organic Compound ( Or Food)
From The Inorganic Raw Materials Utilizing The Aid Of The Sunt,
And This Process Is Called Photosynthesis. Autortophs Form The
Core Of All Biotic Systems.

In Terrestrial Ecosystems, Autotrophs Are Usually Rooted Plants. In

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The Aquatic Ecosystems, The Floating Plants Referred To As
Phytoplankton And The Shallow Water Rooted Plants
Macrophytes - Are The Main Producers.

Heterotrophs (From Greek: Heteros - Other; Trophs - Feeder) Are

The Consumers, Normally Animals That Feed On The Other
Organisms. Consumers Are Also Referred To As Phagotrophs
(Phago - To Swallow Or Ingest) While Macroconsumers Are
Normally Herbivores And Carnivores. Herbivores Are Called First
Order Or Primary Consumers, For They Feed Directly On Green
Plants. For Example, Terrestrial Ecosystem Consumers Are Cattle,
Deer, Grass Hopper, Rabbit, Etc. Aquatic Ecosystem Consumers
Are Protozoans, Crustaceans, Etc.

Carnivores Are Animals That Prey Or Feed On Other Animals.

Second Order Consumers Or Primary Carnivores Include Those
Animals That Feed On Herbivorous Animals. For Example, Fox,
Frog, Smaller Fishes, Predatory Birds, Snakes, Etc.

Third Order Consumers Or Secondary Carnivores Are The Animals

That Feed On Primary Carnivores. For Example, Wolf, Owl,
Peacock, Etc. Some Larger Carnivores Prey On Secondary
Carnivores. Quaternary Consumers Or Tertiary Carnivores Include
Those Animals Which Feed Upon Secondary Carnivores. For
Example, the Lion, The Tiger, Etc. Those Are Not Eated By Any

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Other Animal. The Larger Carnivores Which Cannot Be Preyed On
Further Are Also Called The Top Carnivores.

Saprotrophs (From Greek Again: Sapros - Rotten; Trophos - Feeder)

Are Called The Reducers Or Decomposers. They Break The
Complex Organic Compounds In Dead Matter Down (Dead Plants
And Animals). Decomposers Dont Ingest The Food. Instead They
Secrete A Digestive Enzyme Into The Dead, Decaying Plant Or
Animal Remains And Digest This Organic Material. The Enzymes
Act On The Complex Organic Compounds In The Dead Matter.
Decomposers Absorb A Bit Of The Decomposition Products To
Provide Themselves With Nourishment. The Remaining Substance
Is Added As Minerals In The Process Of Mineralisation To The
Substratum. Released Minerals Are Utilised Or Reused As
Nutrients By Plants - The Producers.

Ecosystem Components (Structure)

Ecosystems Might Be Observed In A Lot Of Ways, So There Isnt A

Set Of Components Which Make Up An Ecosystem. However, All
Ecosystems Have To Include Both Abiotic And Biotic Components,
The Interactions, And A Known Source Of Energy. The Simplest
But Least Representative Of Ecosystems Therefore Contains Just
One Living Plant The Biotic Component, In A Small Terrarium
With Light Exposure To Which Water Source With Essential
Nutrients For The Plants Growth Has Been Added The Abiotic

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Environment. The Other Extreme Is The Biosphere, Which Has All
Of Earth's Organisms And The Interactions Between Them And
Earths Systems The Abiotic Environment. And Of Course, The
Majority Of Ecosystems Fall In Between The Extremes Of
Complexity.

At A Core Functional Level, Ecosystems Normally Contain Primary

Producers Able To Harvest Energy From Sunlight By
Photosynthesis And To Use The Energy To Turn Carbon Dioxide
With Other Inorganic Chemicals In The Organic Building Blocks Of
Life. The Consumers Feed Upon This Captured Energy, While
Decomposers Not Only Feed On The Energy, But Also Break Up
The Organic Matter Into The Inorganic Constituents, For Them To
Be Used Again By The Producers. Those Interactions Among The
Producers And Organisms Which Consume And Decompose Are
Called Trophic Interactions, Composed Of Trophic Levels In The
Energy Pyramid, And The Most Energy And Mass Are In The
Primary Producers, At The Base, While The Higher Levels Of The
Pyramid, Beginning With The Primary Consumers That Feed On
Primary Producers, The Secondary Consumers Which Feed On
These, And So Forth. Trophic Interactions Are Described In A More
Detailed Form As The Food Chain, Which Organizes The Specific
Organisms By The Trophic Distance From The Primary Producers,
And With Food Webs, Which Map The Feeding Interactions
Between All The Organisms In The Ecosystem. Together, The
Processes Of Matter Cycling And Energy Transfer Are Essential In
Finding Out Ecosystem Function And Structure And Defining The

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Kinds Of Interactions Between The Environment And Its
Organisms. It Should Also Be Noted Most Ecosystems Have A
Wide Array Of Species, And The Diversity Ought To Be Considered
Part And Parcel Of The Ecosystem Structure.

Ecosystem Processes (Function)

By Definition, All Ecosystems Cycle Matter And Use Energy, And

The Processes Define The Fundamental Ecosystem Functions As
Well. Energetic Processes In An Ecosystem Are Normally
Described By Speaking Of Trophic Levels That Define The Position
Of Organisms According To Their Level Of Feeding In Comparison
To The Original Energy Taken In By Primary Producers. Always The
Energy Doesnt Cycle And Ecosystems Need A Continuous Inflow
Of High-Quality Energy In Order To Maintain Their Function And
Structure. For This Reason, Ecosystems Are "Open Systems"
Needing A Net Inflow Of Energy To Continue Over Time - Without
The Sun, Our Biosphere Would Shortly Run Out Of Energy!

Energy Inputs To Ecosystems Drive The Flow Of Matter Within

Organisms And Their Environment In A Process Called
Biogeochemical Cycling. Our Biosphere Gives A Good Example Of
The Process, As It Exchanges Matter With And Interacts With The
Lithosphere, Atmosphere And Hydrosphere, Driving The Earths
Biogeochemical Cycles Of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Carbon
And The Other Elements. An Ecosystem Process Is Dynamic,
Undergoing Strong Seasonal Cycles Responding To Changes In
The Solar Irradiation; Causing Fluctuations In The Primary

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Productivity; Varying The Inflow Of Energy From Photosynthesis
And Carbon Dioxide Fixation Ointo Organic Materials During The
Year; Driving Remarkable Annual Diversity In The Carbon Cycle,
Which Is The Biggest Of All Global Biogeochemical Cycles. The
Fixed Organic Carbon In Plants Becomes Then Food For
Decomposers And Consumers, Who Degrade This Carbon Into
Forms With Less Energy, And Finally Releasing This
Photosynthesis-Fixed Carbon Back Into Carbon Dioxide In Our
Atmosphere, Creating The Global Carbon Cycle. The Nitrogen
Biogeochemical Cycling Also Uses Energy, Because Bacteria Fix
The Nitrogen Gas From The Atmosphere In Reactive Forms Useful
To Living Organisms With Energy From Organic Materials Or From
The Sun And From Plants. Ecosystems Cycle Sulfur, Phosphorus
And Other Elements As Well. Because Biogeochemical Cycles Are
Determined By The Transfer Of Matter Between The Environment
And Its Organisms, They Are Good Examples Of Ecosystem-Level
Processes.

History Of The Ecosystem Concept

The Word "Ecosystem" Was Coined First By Roy Clapham In 1930.

However, It Was The Ecologist Arthur Tansley That Fully Defined
An Ecosystem Concept. In The Classic Article From 1935, Tansley
Defined An Ecosystem As:
"The Whole System, Including Not Only The Organism-Complex,
But Also The Whole Complex Of Physical Factors Forming What We
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Call The Environment".

The Ecosystem Concept Signalled A Critical Step In The Study Of

Ecology, As Tansely Used The Term Specifically To Replace The
Previous "Superorganism" Concept, Which Stated That
Communities Of Organisms Comprised Something Like A Higher-
Level And More Complex Organism - A Mistaken Conception Which
Formed A Theoretical Barrier For Ecological Scientific Research.
Though Tansely With Other Ecologists Used The Ecosystem Idea
Together With The Now Abandoned Concept Of An Ecological
"Climax" (The "Final Or "Equilibrium" Type Of Ecosystem Or
Community Arising Under Some Environmental Conditions), The
Idea Of Ecosystem Dynamics Now Replaces This. Eugene Odum,
The Major Figure For Advancing The Study Of Ecology, Made The
Ecosystem Concept Into A Central Part In The Seminal Textbook
On Ecology, By Defining Ecosystems As

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 CONCLUSION
In studies of energy flow, the number of
organisms at any trophic level depends upon
the availability of organisms which serve as
food at the lower level. For example, the
number of particular herbivorous insects
would increase if more plant food was
available to them. In this way, a large
amount of food would be available not only to
its prey, such as the frog but also to other
animals such as a bird which feeds on that
insect as a second choice which leads to an
increase in their number. With the result of
the increased predation, the number of
herbivorous insects is decreased and this
inturn leads to a reduction in the number of
their predators. Thus the balance of

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nature is maintained by the availability of
food.

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