Chapter Four

Strengthening mechanisms
Introduction
are methods which have been devised to Strengthening mechanisms
modify the yield strength, ductility, and toughness of materials

These strengthening mechanisms give engineers the ability to tailor the

mechanical properties of materials to suit a variety of different
.applications
 The key idea of the chapter is that plastic deformation is due to the
motion of large number of dislocation.. Thus, the strength (resistance to
deformation) can be improved by putting obstacles to slip.

Dislocations can be edge dislocations, screw dislocations and exist

in combination of the two. Their motion (slip) occurs by
.sequential bond breaking and bond reforming

Most crystalline materials, especially metals, have dislocations mainly

as a result of stresses (mechanical, thermal...) associated with the
forming process and increases dramatically during plastic
deformation.
The Strengthening mechanisms which available
to increase the strength:
Solid solution strengthening.
Grain size refinement
Strain hardening.
Precipitation hardening.
Dispersion hardening.
Point defect hardening.
Strengthening mechanism of cast iron.
Strengthening mechanism of martensite.
Strengthening mechanism of thermo-mechanical heat
treatment.
Dislocation Motion
 Strain field around dislocations

Dislocations have strain fields arising from distortions at their cores -

strain drops radially with distance from dislocation core

Edge dislocations introduce compressive, tensile, and shear lattice

strains, screw dislocations introduce shear strain only.
 Slip Systems
In single crystals there are preferred planes where dislocations move
(slip planes). Within the slip planes there are preferred
crystallographic directions for dislocation movement (slip directions).
The set of slip planes and directions constitute slip systems. The slip
planes and directions are those of highest packing density.
Resolving of the Applied Stress on to the Slip
System
The slip system is response to
shear stresses applied along
these planes and directions and
it is equal:

When the cos shear

= resolved cos stress
becomes sufficiently large, the
crystal will start to yield
 When the resolved shear stress becomes sufficiently large,
the crystal will start to yield (dislocations start to move along
the most favorably oriented slip system).

The minimum shear stress

required to initiate slip is

CRSS = y (cos cos ) MAX

y = CRSS /(cos cos ) MAX
Slip will occur first in slip
systems oriented close to this
angle ( = = 45o) with
respect to the applied stress
 1. Solid solution strengthening

Is a type of alloying that can be used to improve the strength of a pure

metal.

The technique works by adding atoms of one element to the

.crystalline lattice another element

The alloying element diffuses into the matrix, forming a solid

.solution
Types of Solid solutions
Depending on the size of the alloying element, a substitutional
.solid solution or an interstitial solid solution can form

a. Substitutional solid solution strengthening occurs when the solute

atom is large enough that it can replace solvent atoms in their
lattice positions. According to the Hume-Rothery rules
b. Interstitial solid solutionforms when the solute atom is
much smaller than the solvent atoms.This typically occurs
when the solute atoms are less than half as small as the
.solvent atoms
The mechanism of strengthening

The strength of a material is dependent on how easily dislocations in

its crystal lattice can be propagated. These dislocations create stress
.fields within the material depending on their character

When solute atoms are introduced, local stress fields are formed that
interact with those of the dislocations, impeding their motion and
causing an increase in the yield stress of the material, which means an
.increase in strength of the material

High-Purity metal are almost always softer and weaker than alloys
composed of the same base metal .Increasing the concentration of the
impurity resulted in an attendant increase in tensile and yield
strength
 The effect of
alloying elements in
tensile and yield
strength.
1. In substitutional solid solution
When solute and solvent atoms differ in size, local stress fields are
created (if solute atom size is larger than solvent atom size, this field
is compressive, and similarly, when solute atoms are smaller than
.solvent atoms, this field is tensile
In interstitial solid solution

When the solute atom is much smaller than the solvent atoms.This
typically occurs when the solute atoms are less than half as small as
the solvent atoms. The smaller solute atom essentially "crowds" into
the spacing within the lattice structure, causing defects in the material

When the interstitial atoms interstitialed in the matrix its size larger
than the voids in lattice structure this created strain field which
impeding the dislocation movement and as result the stress required
.increased and the strength increase
 Governing equations
According to Darken an Gurry model the strain energy resulted from
:solid solution can be calculated by

/C)2] F(c)( . ) /1ES(c) = A [(

Another equation illustrate that solid solution strengthening

increases yield strength of the material by increasing the stress to
move dislocations

= G b3/2 C1/2
 Grain boundary strengthening .2
There are an important roles of
the grain boundary which acts
as a barrier to dislocation
motion;

a) Difficulty for a dislocation to

pass through two different
grain orientations (need to
change direction).

b) The atomic disorder within a

grain boundary region
contributes to a discontinuity
of slip planes from one grain
to another.
 Also decreasing of grain size and increasing the grain boundaries this
decrease the stress concentration which required to start yielding in
second grain and this required more applied stress for yielding.

Hall-Petch relation
Reverse or inverse Hall-Pitch relation
There is a limit to this mode of strengthening

1 ot (sniarg egral) m100 Grain boundary sizes can range from about
ot snigeb snoitacolsid fo ezis eht ,siht naht rewoL .(sniarg llams) m
nm, only 10 tuoba fo ezis niarg a tA .sniarg eht fo ezis eht hcaorppa
one or two dislocations can fit inside of a grain. This scheme prohibits
dislocation pile-up and never results in grain boundary diffusion. The
lattice resolves the applied stress by grain boundary sliding, resulting in
.a decrease in the material's yield strength
 3. Strain Hardening Strengthening
It is strengthening by increase of dislocation density.

By increasing of dislocation density with plastic deformation, the

average distance between dislocations decreases and dislocations start
blocking the motion of each other.

The strengthening mechanism

With plastic deformation work being done on a material; energy is

added to the material. In addition, the energy is almost always
applied fast enough and in large enough magnitude to not only move
existing dislocations, but also to produce a great number of new
.dislocations
Yield strength is increased in a cold-worked material. Using lattice
this fields will hinder the movement of any one ,strain fields
.dislocation

Because dislocation motion is hindered, plastic deformation can not

.occur at normal stresses

Just beyond the yield strength of the non-cold-worked material, a

.cold-worked material will continue to deform

The percent cold work (%CW) is often used to express the

degree of plastic deformation:

%CW = [(A0-Ad)/ A0] 100

* The new yield strength, yi, is * Yield strength and hardness
higher than the initial yield strength are increasing as a result of
0 due to strain hardening strain hardening
* Effect of cold working * Effect of cold working on
on yield strength ductility
 4. Dispersion Strengthening Mechanism
It is a type of strengthening Mechanism that the strengthening
achieved by presence of second phase which not formed by
precipitation but by introducing non soluble particles such as
dispersed oxides.

In this case the solute atoms are not dissolved in the matrix but thy
form separate second-phase particles dispersed in the matrix.
 Factors affect on strengthening of
second-phase particle
* Particle size
* Particle shape
* Distribution (inter particle spacing)

The strengthening mechanism

When a moving dislocation encounters
precipitates it will not be able to cut
through them because the precipitates are
generally stronger than the matrix atoms.
So the dislocation have to bow between
the precipitates and around them, leaving
a dislocation loop around the precipitate,
so the work hardening increase and as
result the stress required for passing
another dislocation will increase and
equal:
/ Gb2 = s
 5. Precipitation hardening Strengthening
Mechanism
Precipitation hardening is a heat treatment technique used to
strengthen malleable materials, especially nonferrous alloys. It relies
on changes in solid solubility with temperature to produce fine
particles of an impurity phase, which impede the movement of
dislocations, or defects in a crystal's lattice.

Precipitation hardening requires the second phase which is soluble at

high temperature but has a limited solubility at lower temperatures.

Example: Age hardening aluminum alloys

Copper-beryllium alloys
 The strengthening mechanism
The strength of an age hardening alloy is governed by the interaction
of moving dislocation and precipitate. The obstacles in Precipitation
hardening alloys which binder the motion of dislocation may be
either (1) the strains around G.P zones; (2) the zones or precipitates
themselves or both.
 There are at least three causes of hardening, namely:
a) Internal strain hardening due to the coherency strains.
b) Chemical hardening.
c) Dispersion hardening.

a) Internal strain hardening(Coherency)

- It is based on the knowledge that the precipitation of particle having a
slight misfit in the matrix gives rise to internal stress fields which
hinder the movement of gliding dislocation.

- For the dislocation to pass through the regions of internal stress

required applied stress must be at least equal to the average internal
stress, and for spherical particles is given by:

=2
Structural changes during precipitation hardening
 (b) Chemical hardening.
When a dislocation passes through a solute rich zonea change in the
number of solvent-solute near neighbours occurs across the slip
plane. This tends to reverse the process of clustering and, hence,
additional work must be done by the applied stress.
 Interaction between dislocation and precipitates and arises from three
possible causes:

(1) The energy required to create an additional particle/matrix interface

with energy per unit area which is provided by a stress:

1^(3/2) ( r)^(1/2) / b^2

(2) The additional work required to create an antiphase boundary

inside the particle with ordered structure, given by:
apb^(3/2) ( r)^(1/2) / b^2

(3)The change in width of the dissociated dislocation as it passes

through the particle where the stacking fault energy differs from the
matrix, so that
SF / b
 c) Dispersion hardening.

In dispersion hardening, it is assumed that the precipitates

do not deform with matrix and therefore the yield stress is
the stress necessary to expand
a loop of a dislocation between the precipitates. This will be
given by the Orowan stress:

=b/L
 Point defect hardening .6
The point defect hardening is based on production of an excess
concentration of either vacancies or interstitials which give rise to a
significant change in mechanical properties.

Increasing the concentration of vacancies mean that the atoms migrate

from its position to interstitial positions inside the matrix, which
resulted strain field impeding the dislocation motion and increasing
the strength.

The concentration of point defect depend on:

1-Temperature of heat treatment process.
2- Holding time of heating.
 To maintain the concentration of the point defect on the metal, it is
quenched, and this concentration can be determined by:
nv = no exp(-Q/RT)
For aluminum the shape of the stressstrain curve is very dependent on
the rate of cooling and a large increase in the yield stress may occur
after quenching.

a) Effect of quenching on
the stressstrain curves
for Al b) For gold
 Also the concentration of point defect increase by heating on
irradiation media.

Hall Pitch equation used

to explain the effect of
point defect on the
mechanical properties:

y = o + kd^ (-1/2)

K is an indication to point defect

 7. Strengthening of Martensite
Martensite is a super saturated solid solution of carbon in -iron of
the same concentration as in the original austenite, it has BCT-
structure.

Martensitic strengthening is obtained when austenite is transformed

into martensite by a diffusionless process in quenching.

* Some alloy systems where

martensitic transformations are
known to occur.
Transformation process
When the steel is heated from room temperature to above A3, -
ferrite transformed to - austenite and then holding for period
obtaining after it homogenous structure and then quenching to room
temperature, so the steel conserves this structure at room temperature
, this conceder un stable phase because carbon atoms can not diffuse
in the new sites so they trapped in its sites, this called ssss- (super
saturated solid soluation ), this is martensite.
 The heating temperature is very important because it determine degree
of strength of martensite , for example about hypo eutectoid steel
(c<0.8) it must heated to temperature above A3 by (30-50 c) to
ensure that it transformed to austenite and there is not retained ferrite
in which ferrite decrease the strength.

About hyper eutectoid steel (c>0.8) it must heated to temperature

above A1 by (30-50 c) because pearlite and cemetite will austenite
and cementite, austenite transfer to martensit after quenching and
cementite remained, this cementite increase the hardness beside the
strength of martensite.
Strengthening of martensite is related to:

(1) The high concentration of carbon atoms on which the dissociation

of ferrite is different than austenite, austenite dissociate carbon more
than ferrite due to tetrahedral and octahedral sites.

for -FCC: 0.41r octahedral , 0.225 r tetrahedral.

for BCC: 0.291 r octahedral , 0.154 r tetrahedral.

(2) The distortion in the martensite structure which resulted

from the high concentration of carbon atoms in ferrite
which causing expansion in c-direction and contraction in
a-direction produce internal stress, this distortion resulted
tetragonal structure, the degree of distortion can
determined by the degree of tetragonality (c/a), by
increasing the tetragonality (by increasing carbon atoms)
the distortion increase and the strength increase.
 (3) Increasing of dislocation
density and point defect due to
quenching.

(4) Carbon atoms hinder the

movement of dislocation.

* Contributions to the
strength of martensite in
0.4% carbon steel
 8. Strengthening of Cast iron
In all types of cast iron the strengthening is due to second
phase, In which presence of second phase act as obstacles
for dislocation motion then the stress required to move the
dislocations get higher hence the material is strengthened.

The size, dispersion and morphology of the second harder

phase affected on the mechanical properties.

As the second phase particles size decrease, at the same

quantity, its dispersion in the matrix increase hence mean
free path, through which dislocation can move, decrease
then the dislocation motion become more difficult and cast
iron get strengthened.
 Also the morphology of graphite affect the mechanical properties of
cast iron. Where in the flakes shape second phase the distance
between the flakes is smaller than in the spheroids shape second
phase then the hindering of dislocation motion in the case of flakes
shape second phase is greater than in spheroids shape second phase
hence the strength of cast iron posses flakes shape second phase is
higher than of spheroids shape second phase, but lower in toughness
and ductility.

(a) Flakes shape (b) Spheroids shape

The strength of cast iron differ from a type to another type of cast iron
according to the nature, size, dispersion and morphology of the second
.phase

precipitates out of the melt as cementite, In white cast iron the carbon
Fe3C, this cementite has relatively large particles,

These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide precipitation

hardening. Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron simply
by virtue of their own very high hardness and their substantial volume
fraction.

white cast iron

silicon causes the carbon to rapidly come out of ,In gray cast iron
solution as graphite, leaving a matrix of relatively pure, soft iron.
Weak bonding between planes of graphite lead to a high activation
energy for growth in that direction, resulting in thin, round flakes.So
the strength decreases.

In malleable cast iron which starts as a white iron casting, that is then
900C. Graphite separates out much more heat treated at about
slowly in this case, , and it is preferred previously that flakes shape
second phase is greater than in spheroids shape second phase, so its
strength lower than gray cast iron.

gray cast iron

 In nodular or ductile cast iron, tiny amounts of magnesium or cerium
added to these alloys and this slow down the growth of graphite
precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes, this
allows the carbon to separate as spheroidal particles as the material
solidifies.

The properties are similar to malleable iron but parts can be cast with
larger sections.

Nodular cast iron

 9. Strengthening mechanism of thermo-
mechanical heat treatment.

Thermo-mechanical heat treatment is one of the treatments used to

increase the strength of steel, it conceder as two processes
(Mechanical treatment + Heat treatment).
Types of this treatment:

(a) Deformation in the stable austenite range above A3 before

transformation (HTHT).
(b) Deformation below A1 before transformation (LTHT).
(a) High temperature thermo mechanical treatment (HTHT)

The steel is heated to temperature above A3 (above recrystallization

temperature) and then it is exposed to plastic deformation then it
quenched to obtain martensite.

Heating above recrystallization temperature resulted fine grains of

austenite so the strength increase.

Also the strength increase due to formation of martensite after

quenching.
(b) Low temperature thermo mechanical treatment (LTHT)

The steel is heated from room temperature to get austenite and then it
cooled to temperature lower than recrystallization temperature, then
it exposed to plastic deformation, then it quenchedio get martensite.

So the increasing of strength is related to:

(1) Plastic deformation (cold working).
(2) Quenching which give martensitic structure.