6

We have been given two ears and but

chapter

a single mouth in order that we may hear more

and talk less.
Zeno of Citium

Mindful
Listening
M
eet Anna Deavere Smith. Shes a playwright, an artist in residence at MTV,
a recipient of the MacArthur Foundation genius award, a performance
studies teacher at Tisch School of the Arts, and a University Professor at NYU.
Shes won high praise for her one-woman shows, Fires in the Mirror, which dealt with
ethnic turmoil in Crown Heights, Brooklyn, and Twilight: Los Angeles, which focused
on the riots that erupted following the acquittal of the police officers accused of beat-
ing Rodney King. She also played the presidents secretary in the film The American
President and a staffwoman in Philadelphia, and she has a continuing role on the
hit series West Wing.
Anna Deavere Smith just added another title to her rsumteaching medical
students at Yale and law students at New York University. You might wonder what qual-
ifies her to instruct medical and law students. After all, shes not a doctor or lawyer.
What Anna Deavere Smith is is a virtuoso listener. Thats why she was hired to
teach medical and law students. No one listens betterthan Anna Deavere Smith,
says Dr. Ralph Horat, Chair of the Department of Internal Medicine at Yales School
of Medicine (Arenson, 2002, p. 34). Doctors and lawyers need to listen, and nothing in
conventional medical and legal training teaches them how to do it well. Thats why
Anna Deavere Smith was brought in. She says Listening is not just hearing what
someone tells you word for word. You have to listen with a heart.Its very hard work
(Arenson, 2002, p. 35). Smith teaches prospective doctors and attorneys how to lis-
ten fully to patients and clients.
Doctors and attorneys arent the only ones who need to listen well. All of us do.
If you think about your normal day, youll realize that listeningor trying totakes
up about half of your waking time. Listening takes up more of our time than any other
communication. We spend more time listening than talking, reading, or writing. This
point is well made by Marilyn Buckley, who says, Students listen to the equivalent
of a book a day; talk the equivalent of a book a week; read the equivalent of a book a
month; and write the equivalent of a book a year (1992, p. 622).
San Francisco Chronicle

Mindful Listening 155

 Studies of people ranging from college students to professionals indicate that the
average person spends at least 50% of waking time listening to others (Barker,
Edwards, Gaines, Gladney, & Holley, 1981; Wagner, 2001; Weaver, 1972). You listen in
classes, listen to acquaintances in casual conversation, listen to your parents during
phone calls, listen to clerks in stores, listen to your supervisor and customers when
youre at work, and listen to friends when they talk to you about important concerns
or issues in their lives. If we dont listen effectively, were communicating poorly about
half of the time. This point was well made in an advertisement sponsored by the
Unisys Corporation: How can we expect him to learn when we havent taught him
how to listen? (cited in Berko, Wolvin, & Wolvin, 1995, p. 81). If we cant listen, we cant
learn. Student Companion: Activity 6.5.
The costs of poor listening can be very high. Doctors who dont listen fully to
patients may misdiagnose or mistreat medical problems (Nyquist, 1992). For this rea-
son, an increasing number of medical practices hire communication specialists to pro-
vide listening workshops to medical practitioners. Theyd rather pay the consultants
fees than the legal fees for malpractice suits that can result from poor listening
(Crossen, 1997). Research shows that listening is considered the number one skill of
effective managers (Winsor, Curtis, & Stephens, 1997) and that poor listening is a lead-
ing reason some people dont advance in careers (Deal & Kennedy, 1999; Waner, 1995).
In this chapter we explore what listening is and how to listen effectively. First,
we consider whats involved in listening, which is more than most of us realize. Next
we discuss obstacles to effective listening and how we can minimize these. We also
consider some common forms of nonlistening. The next section of the chapter
explains different types of listening and the distinct skills needed for each. To wrap up
the chapter, we identify guidelines for improving listening effectiveness.

The Listening Process

Listening is a complex process that involves far more than our ears. To listen well, we
rely on our ears, minds, and hearts. Although we often use the words listening and hear-
ing as if they were synonyms, actually they are distinct. Hearing is a physiological activ-
ity that occurs when sound waves hit our eardrums. People who
are deaf or hearing impaired receive messages visually through
Eyes lip reading or sign language.
Listening is far more complex than hearing or otherwise
physically receiving messages. Listening has psychological and
cognitive dimensions that mere hearing, or physically receiv-
ing messages, does not. The multifaceted aspects of listening
Ears are reflected in the Chinese character in Figure 6.1, which
includes the symbols for the eyes, ears, and heart. We can
define listening as an active, complex process that consists of
being mindful, hearing, selecting and organizing information,
interpreting communication, responding, and remembering.
Heart
Listening is not just hearing but also includes interpreting and
responding to what others communicate. The International
Listening Association (1995; see the ILA Web site at http://
Listening
listen.org) emphasizes that listening is an active process,
Figure 6.1 which means we have to exert effort to listen well. We have to
The Chinese Character for the be involved with our ears and hearts and minds if we want to
Word Listening listen effectively. Figure 6.2 outlines the listening process.

156 Chapter 6
 BEING MINDFUL

The first step in listening is making a decision to be mindful. Mindfulness is being

fully present in the moment. The Reverend Jisho Perry says that to pay attention is
to stop putting our own ideas and opinions on the situation (1996, p. 22). To be mind-
ful is to keep your mind on what is happening in the here and now. When we are mind-
ful, we dont let our thoughts wander from the present situation. We dont think about
what we did yesterday or plan to do this weekend, nor do we focus on our own feel-
ings and responses. Instead, when we listen mindfully, we tune in fully to another per-
son and try to understand what that
person is communicating without
imposing our own ideas, judgments,
or feelings on him or her. Mindfulness
Communication in Everyday Life
starts with the decision to attend fully Signing as a Foreign Language
to another. Physically this is symbol-
ized by paying attention, adopting an About half of the colleges and universities in the United States cur-
involved posture, keeping eye contact, rently recognize American Sign Language (ASL) as a language that
and indicating interest in what anoth- fulfills the academic requirements for a foreign language (Manning,
er person says (Bolton, 1986). 1996). Ivy League universities that give foreign language credit for
Mindful listening allows us to ASL include Harvard, Brown, Georgetown, and MIT.
grasp relationship meanings of mes- The first lesson students learn is that ASL is not just a visual form
sages so that we have an idea of how of English. Rather, it is a complex linguistic system with its own syn-
another person feels about what she tactical and grammatical structure (Carl, 1998). ASL is also more
or he is saying. In other words, mind- conceptual than spoken English. There are signs for distinct con-
fulness fosters dual perspective, cepts such as walking quickly and walking slowly and for being
which is a cornerstone of effective smart and being very smart. Spoken English relies on modifiers to
communication. In addition, mind- make these distinctions: The word walking is modified by quickly or
fulness enhances the effectiveness of slowly; the word smart is modified by very.
anothers communication. When peo- Like learning any language, learning ASL introduces students not
ple sense we are really listening, they just to words but to the values of the Deaf culture. For example, stu-
tend to engage us more fully, elabo- dents learn that in ASL there is only one word for music: a sweeping
rate their ideas, and express them- gesture with the right hand over the left arm. Because deaf people
selves in more depth. cannot hear, they dont need the many terms hearing people use to
Being mindful is a choice we make. describe different kinds of music.
It is not a talent that some people have
and others dont. Instead, it is a matter
of making a personal commitment to attend fully and without diver-
sion to another person. No amount of skill will make you a good lis-
tener if you dont choose to attend mindfully to others. Thus, it is your Mindfulness
choice whether to be mindful and thus a good listener.
Physical Reception of Communication
M A R I SA I always thought I was a good listener, until I spent 2 years liv-
ing in Japan. In that culture there is a much deeper meaning to listen- Selective Perception of Communication
ing. I realized that most of the time I was only hearing others. Often I Organizing Perceived Communication
was thinking of my responses while they were still talking. I had not been
listening with my mind and heart. Interpreting Communication

Responding to Others

Remembering Communication
P H YS I C A L LY R E C E I V I N G M E S S AG E S

The second process involved in listening is physically receiving

messages. As we noted earlier, hearing is a physiological process Figure 6.2
in which sound waves hit our eardrums so that we become aware The Listening Process

Mindful Listening 157

 of noises, such as music, traffic sounds, or human voices. For people who have hear-
ing impairments, messages are received in other ways, such as through writing, lip
reading, or ASL.
Receiving messages is a prerequisite for listening. For most of us, hearing is auto-
matic and unhindered. However, people with hearing impairments may have difficulty
receiving oral messages. When we speak with someone who has a hearing disability,
we should face the person and check to make sure we are coming across clearly. In
addition to physiological problems, hearing ability may decline when we are fatigued
from concentrating on communication. You may have noticed that its harder to pay
attention in classes that run 75 minutes than 50 minutes. Background noise can also
interfere with hearing. Its difficult to hear well if loud music is playing, a television
is blaring, cell phones are beeping, or others are talking in our vicinity.

N AT H A N I live with five other guys and listening is just about impossible in our apartment.
Each of us has a stereo and were usually playing music, so there can be six different CDs going
at any one time. The television is on a lot too, so thats more noise. We cant hear each other
if we try to have a conversation. Maybe thats why we dont talk a lot.

Even among people who have normal hearing, there may be physiological differ-
ences in how we hear. Women and men seem to differ in their listening styles. As a rule,
women are more attentive than men to the many things that are happening around
them. Thus, many men tend to focus their hearing on specific content aspects of com-
munication, whereas women generally are more likely to attend to the whole of com-
munication, noticing details, tangents, and major themes (Weaver, 1972). Judy Pearson
(1985), a prominent communication scholar, suggests that this could result from the
brains hemispheric specializations. Women usually have more developed right lobes,
which govern creative and holistic thinking, whereas men typically have more developed
left lobes, which control analytic and linear information processing.

Everyday Application Being Mindful

To develop your ability to be mindful, follow these guidelines in a situation that calls on you
to listen:
Empty your mind of thoughts, ideas, plans, and concerns so that you are open to the
other person.
Concentrate on the person with whom you are interacting. Say to yourself, I want to
focus on this person and what she or he is feeling and thinking.
If you find yourself framing responses to the other person, try to push those aside; they
interfere with your concentration on what the other person is saying.
If your mind wanders, dont criticize yourself; thats distracting. Instead, gently refocus on
the person you are with and what that person is communicating to you. Its natural for
other thoughts to intrude, so just push them away and stay focused on the other person.
Let the other person know you are attending mindfully by giving nonverbal responses
(nods, facial expressions), asking questions to encourage elaboration, and keeping eye
contact.
Evaluate how mindfully you listened. Did you understand the other persons thoughts
and feelings? Did you feel more focused on that person than you usually do when listen-
ing to others?

158 Chapter 6
 MARK My girlfriend amazes me. Well have a conversation, and then later one of us will bring
it up again. What I remember is what we decided in the talk. She remembers that too, but
she also remembers all the details about where we were and what was going on in the back-
ground and particular things one of us said in the conversation. I never notice all of that stuff,
and I sure dont remember it later.

SELECTING AND ORGANIZING MATERIAL

The third element of listening is selecting and organizing material. As we noted in

Chapter 3, we dont perceive everything around us. Instead, we selectively attend only
to some messages and elements of our environments. What we attend to depends
on many factors, including our interests, cognitive structures, and expectations. Selec-
tive listening is also influenced by cultureas early as age 1, babies distinguish the
sounds of their language, but they dont learn to recognize sounds in other languages.
Thus, people who learn a second language later in life may not be able to recognize
sounds that werent in their first language (Monastersky, 2001).
We can monitor our tendencies to attend selectively by remembering that we
are more likely to notice stimuli that are intense, loud, or unusual or that otherwise
stand out from the flow of communication. This implies that we may overlook com-
municators who speak quietly and dont call attention to themselves. Intan, an Asian
American student, once told me that Caucasians often ignore what she says because
she speaks softly and unassertively. Westerners who are accustomed to outspoken,
individualistic speaking styles may not attend to speaking styles that are less bold. If
were aware of the tendency not to notice people who speak quietly, we can guard
against it so that we dont miss out on people and messages that may be important.
Once weve selected what to notice,
we then organize the stimuli to which
weve attended. As youll recall from
Chapter 3, we organize our perceptions
Communication in Everyday Life
by relying on cognitive schemata, which Hard Times for Listening
include prototypes, personal con-
structs, stereotypes, and scripts. As we Have you noticed that theres a lot more talk than listening going on
listen to others, we decide how to cate- these days? Television talk shows, call-in radio programs, and hot
gorize them by asking which of our pro- lines encourage people to talk, talk, talk. But is anyone listening?
totypes they most closely resemble: Several factors contribute to reduced listening skill (Crossen,
good friend, person in trouble, student, 1997). First, there is the fast pace of everyday life. Hurrying is a
teacher, and so forth. We then apply national pastime. Even when we dont need to hurry, we seem habit-
personal constructs to define in more uated to do so. In conversations, were thinking, Get to the point.
detail others and their messages. We Another contributor to poor listening is media. Television and
evaluate whether they are upset or radio encourage passive attention, not active listening. Further-
calm, open or closed to advice, and so more, says communication consultant Sheila Bentley, the constant
on. Based on how we construct others, interruption of commercials decreases our skills in sustaining atten-
we then apply stereotypes that predict tion for periods of time.
what they will do. When friends are Poor listening causes mistakes and problems, which explains
clearly distraught, we can reasonably why many companies now require employees to attend listening
predict they will want to vent and may workshops. Starbucks, for instance, requires employees to learn to
not want advice until after they have a listen to orders and rearrange customers requests in the sequence
chance to express their feelings. Final- of size, flavoring, milk, and caffeine. Thats helpful when customers
ly, we apply scripts, which specify how often spurt out double-shot decaf grande or iced, skim, cappuc-
interaction should proceed, including cino, small.
how we should act.

Mindful Listening 159

 The schemata we use to organize our perceptions help us figure out how to
respond to others and what they say. Its important to remember that we construct oth-
ers and their communication when we use our schemata to make sense of situations
and people. In other words, we create meaning by how we select and organize com-
munication. This reminds us to keep perceptions tentative and open to revision. In
the course of interaction, we may want to modify perceptions.

INTERPRETING COMMUNIC ATION

The fourth step in listening is interpreting others communication. The most impor-
tant principle for effective interpretation is to engage in dual perspective so that you
interpret others on their terms. Certainly, you wont always agree with other people
and how they see themselves, others, or situations. Engaging in dual perspective does-
nt require you to share, or agree with, others perspectives; however, it does require
you to make an earnest effort to understand them.
To interpret someone on her or his own terms is one of the greatest gifts we can
give another. Too often we impose our meanings on others, or we try to correct or
argue with them about what they feel, or we crowd out their words with our own. As
listening expert Robert Bolton (1986, p. 167) observes, good listeners stay out of the
others way, so they can learn what others think and feel.
BAR T Id been married and working for years when I decided I wanted to come back to school
and finish my degree. When I mentioned it to the guys I worked with, they all came down
hard on me. They said I was looking for an easy life as a college Joe and trying to get above
them. My dad said it would be irresponsible to quit work when I had a wife and child, and
he said no self-respecting man would do that. It seemed like everyone had a view of what I was
doing and why, and their views had nothing to do with mine. The only person who really lis-
tened to me was Elaine, my wife. When I told her I was thinking about going back to school,
the first thing out of her mouth was, What would that mean to you? She didnt presume she
knew my reasons, and she didnt start off arguing with me. She just asked what it meant to
me, then listened for a long long time while I talked about how I felt. She focused completely
on understanding me. Maybe thats why were married.

RESPONDING

Effective listening also involves respond-

ing, which is communicating attention
and interest. As we noted in Chapter 1,
interpersonal communication is a trans-
active process in which we simultaneous-
ly listen and speak. Skillful listeners show
that they are following and interested. In
the United States, signs of responsive lis-
tening include eye contact, nodding,
attentive posture, and questions and
comments that invite others to elaborate.
These behaviors signal that we are
Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works

involved in what is happening in the

moment. All of us tend to communicate
more clearly and interestingly when we
feel others are committed to us and our
communication (Deal & Kennedy, 1999).
We dont respond only when others
finish speaking; rather, we respond
160 Chapter 6
 Everyday Application Responsive Listening

The next time a friend or co-worker starts talking with you, express disinterest by slouching,
avoiding eye contact, and giving no vocal feedback. You might want to look at something
else, such as a paper or book, while your friend is talking. Note what happens as you com-
municate a lack of interest. How does the other person act? What happens to her or his
communication? Does she or he criticize you for not listening?
Now reverse the experiment. When somebody starts talking to you, show interest. Put aside
what you were doing, incline your body slightly forward, make eye contact, and give vocal
feedback to indicate that you are following. Note what happens as you listen responsively.
Does the other person continue talking? Does she or he become more engaging?
Finally, try varying your listening style during a single conversation. Begin by listening
responsively, then lapse into a passive mode that expresses disinterest. What happens when
you vary your listening style?

throughout interaction. This is what makes listening such an active process. Good lis-
teners let others know they are interested throughout interaction (Bostrom, 1996).
They adopt an attentive posture, nod their heads, make eye contact, and give vocal
responses such as um hmm, and go on. These nonverbal behaviors show we are
attentive and ready to hear more. On the relationship level of meaning, responsive-
ness communicates that we care about the other person and what she or he says.

REMEMBERING

The final part of listening is remembering, which is the process of retaining what you
have heard. According to communication teachers Ron Adler and Neil Towne (1993),
we remember less than half a message immediately after we hear it. As time goes by,
retention decreases further so that we recall only about 35% of a message 8 hours after
hearing it. Because we forget about two thirds of what we hear, its important to make
sure we retain the most important third. Effective listeners let go of a lot of details to retain
basic ideas and general impressions (Cooper, Seibold, & Suchner, 1997; Fisher, 1987).
By being selective about what to remember, we enhance our listening competence. Later
in this chapter, we discuss more detailed strategies for retaining material.

Obstacles to Effective Listening

Weve seen that a lot is involved in serious listening. Adding to the complexity are hin-
drances to effective listening. There are two broad types of impediments to good lis-
tening: obstacles related to the communication situation and obstacles that are inside
of us. (Did you notice that a series of ideas to be discussed was organized into two
broad classes to aid your retention of the basic idea?)

EXTERNAL OBSTACLES

Much of what interferes with effective listening has to do with communication situ-
ations themselves. Although we cant always control external obstacles, knowing what
situational factors hinder effective listening can help us guard against them or com-
pensate for the noise they create.
Mindful Listening 161
 Message Overload The sheer amount of communication we engage in makes it dif-
ficult to listen fully all of the time. Think about your typical day. You go to classes for
3 hours. How much you learn and how well you do on examinations depends on
your ability to listen mindfully to material that is often difficult. After listening for
50 minutes in a history class, you listen for 50 minutes in a communication class and
50 more minutes in a business class. A great deal of information comes your way in
those three lectures. After class, you check your voice mail and find three messages
from friendsyou need to remember them and get back before the day ends. You start
doing research on the Web and find over 300 sites for your topichow can you pos-
sibly process all the information they will offer? Then you go to work and your super-
visor informs you of new procedures for doing your job. Feeling a need to get on to
other matters, your supervisor describes the changes quickly, and you are expected to
understand and remember them immediately.
Naturally we feel overwhelmed by the amount of information we are supposed
to understand and retain. To deal with the overload, we often screen the talk around
us, much as we screen calls on our answering machines, to decide when to listen
carefully.
RAYMOND Ive been married near-
ly 30 years, so Ive figured out
when I have to listen sharply to
Communication in Everyday Life Edna and when I can just let her
Technological Overload talk flow in one ear and out the
other. Shes a talker, but most of
Our era is dominated by technologies of communication. We can what she talks about isnt impor-
reach others faster than ever before. We can find people we want to tant. But if I hear code words, I
talk with in their homes, offices, or cars or when theyre in meetings know to listen up. If Edna says, Im
or at restaurants, movies, or the beach. But do these technologies really upset about such and such,
enhance interpersonal communication? or if she says, We have a prob-
Many people feel overloaded by the relentless stream of informa- lem, my ears perk up.
tion that technology makes possible (Hymowitz, 2000; Imperato,
1999; Salopek, 1999; Shenk, 1997). Were inundated daily with email
messages, faxes, and voice mailall of that in addition to old fash- Message Complexity The more
ioned face-to-face communication. detailed and complicated mes-
You dont have to be a luddite to wonder whether communica- sages are, the more difficult it is to
tion technologies impede meaningful communication between follow and retain them. People for
people. Does being wired all the time diminish how we interact with whom English is a second lan-
people we are with in any given moment? Author Jonathan Cole- guage often find it hard to under-
man (2000) recalls a summer evening when he attended his daugh- stand English speakers who use
ters lacrosse practice. He writes, Standing next to me was a father complex sentences that have mul-
more intent on the cell-phone conversation he was having than on tiple clauses or that include slang
watching his daughter play. Time and again she would look toward expressions (Lee, 1994, 2000). Even
him, craving his attention, but he never saw her. Nor, for that mat- native speakers of English often
ter, did another girls mother see her child, focused as she was on feel overwhelmed by the complex-
her laptop, merrily tapping away. ity of some messages. Its tempting
Can we really engage others if we have a cell phone handy and to tune out messages that are filled
will answer it if it rings? Can we listen well to any conversationin with technical words, detailed
person or on a phoneif we are actually or potentially involved in information, and complex sen-
more than one conversation? If we cant, then is technologys tences. If we let message complex-
promise of better communication misleading? Does it, as Jonathan ity overwhelm us, however, we
Coleman, suggests create the illusion of intimacy while it actually may perform poorly in school or
makes us intimate strangers? on the job, and we may let down
friends and intimates.

162 Chapter 6
 There are ways to manage complex
messages so that we maximize how much
we understand and retain. When we have to
listen to messages that are dense with infor-
mation, we should summon up extra ener-
gy. In addition, taking notes and asking
questions for clarification may help us

Sepp Seitz/Woodfin Camp & Associates, Inc.

understand and retain difficult information.
A third strategy is to group material as you
listen, organizing the ideas in ways that will
be easy for you to recall later.

Noise A third impediment to effective lis-

tening is noise. Sounds around us can divert
our attention or even make it difficult to
hear clearly. Perhaps youve been part of a
crowd at a rally or a game. If so, you probably had to shout to the person next to you
just to be heard. Although most noise is not as overwhelming as the roar of crowds,
there is always some noise in communication situations. It might be music or tele-
vision in the background, other conversations nearby, pagers that are beeping, or muf-
fled traffic sounds from outside.
GREGORY Ive been a salesman for a long time, and I know when clients are really interested
and when theyre not. When someone answers a phone when Im in his or her office, I know
they arent focused on what Im saying. Taking calls or leaving the door open for people to
drop in communicates that theyre not interested in me or the service I represent.
Gregory reminds us that allowing distractions communicates the relationship-
level meaning that were not interested. Good listeners do what they can to mini-
mize environmental distractions. Its considerate to turn off a television or lower the
volume of music if someone wants to talk with you. Likewise, it is courteous to turn
off the ringer on cell phones and pagers when attending lectures, movies, or other
events in which a buzzing phone could distract others who have come to listen. Pro-
fessionals often instruct secretaries to hold their calls when they want to give undi-
vided attention to a conversation with a client or business associate. Its also
appropriate to suggest moving from a noisy area to cut down on distractions. Even
if we cant always eliminate noise, we can usually reduce it or change our location to
one that is more conducive to good communication.

INTERNAL OBSTACLES

In addition to external interference, listening can be hindered by five obstacles inside

of us.

Preoccupation When we are absorbed in our own thoughts and concerns, we cant
focus on what someone else is saying. Perhaps youve attended a lecture right before
you had a test in another class and later realized you got almost nothing out of the lec-
ture. Thats because you were preoccupied with the upcoming test. Or maybe youve
been in conversations with co-workers and realized that you werent listening at all
because you were thinking about your own concerns.

Mindful Listening 163

 DAW N I think my biggest problem as a listener is preoccupation. Like my friend Marta came
to me the other day and said she wanted to talk about her relationship with her boyfriend. I
followed her for a few minutes, but then I started thinking about my relationship with Ted.
After a whileI dont know how longMarta said to me, Youre not listening at all. Where is
your head? She was right. My head was in a totally different place.
When we are preoccupied with our own thoughts, we arent fully present for oth-
ers. Were not being mindful. In describing how she stays mindful in intense interviews,
Anna Deavere Smith says, I empty out myself. While Im listening, my own judgments
and prejudices certainly come up. But I know I wont get anything unless I get those
things out of the way (Arenson, 2002, p. 35). Its natural for our thoughts to wander
occasionally. However, we dont have to be passive when our thoughts roam. Instead,
we may actively call our minds back by reminding ourselves to empty ourselves so
we can focus on the person who is speaking and the meaning of his or her message.

Prejudgment Another reason we may not listen effectively is that we prejudge oth-
ers or their communication. Sometimes we think we already know what is going to be
said, so we dont listen carefully. At other times, we decide in advance that others have
nothing to offer us, so we tune them out. When we prejudge others communication, we
sacrifice learning new perspectives that might enlarge our thinking (Van Styke, 1999).
We also prejudge when we impose our preconceptions about a message on the
person who is communicating. When this happens, we assume we know what another
feels, thinks, and is going to say, and we then assimilate her or his message into our
preconceptions. In the workplace, we may not pay close attention to what a co-worker
says because we think we already know what is being expressed. Recalling our earlier dis-
cussion of mindreading, youll realize that its not wise to assume we know what others
think and feel. When we mindread, misunderstandings are likely. We may misinterpret
what the person means because we havent really listened on her or his terms.
ABBIE My boyfriend drives me crazy. He never listens, I mean really listens, to what I am say-
ing. He always listens through his own version of what I think and mean. Yesterday I said to him
that I was having trouble with my parents about wanting to come to summer school. Before I
could even explain what the trouble was, he said, Yeah, they get real tight when you want
them to pay for summer session. Ive been through that one. Just keep at them and theyll
come around. Well, as it so happens, money wasnt the issue at all. My parents wanted me
to do an internship to get some practical experience in my field, so Jakes advice is totally
irrelevant to why they are opposing me.
Prejudgments disconfirm others because we deny them their own voices. Instead
of listening openly to them, we force their words into our own preconceived mind-set.
This devalues others and their messages. Prejudgments also reduce what we can learn
in communication with others. If we decide in advance that others have nothing to
say of interest, we foreclose the possibility of learning something new. This diminishes
the richness of our own perspective.

Reacting to Emotionally Loaded Language A fourth internal obstacle to effective

listening is the tendency to react to emotionally loaded language. What is emotionally
loaded language? Its neither absolute nor the same for everyone. Emotionally loaded
language is words and phrases that evoke very strong responses, either positive or neg-
ative. There may be some words and phrases that you really like: ones you find sooth-
ing or pleasant, ones that summon up pleasant feelings and images for you. There may
be other words and phrases that summon up negative feelings and images for you.

164 Chapter 6
When we react to words that are emotionally loaded for us, we can be distracted from
the meaning of a message. We may respond so strongly to particular words or phrases
that we dont grasp what another person means (Wagner, 2001).
One of my closest friends responds very negatively and emotionally to any state-
ment that begins You should As soon as she hears that phrase, she feels the speak-
er is judging her and attempting to tell her what she should feel, think, or do. And she
stops listening. Politicians often rely on voters to respond emotionally to particular
words. One person who was nominated for high office was labeled the quota queen
by those who opposed her appointment. Although the charge was not grounded in
the nominees record, the word quota resonated so negatively with many people that
her appointment was halted. In recent years, politicians have also used the term fam-
ily values frequently because so many voters respond to it with strong positive emo-
tion. Politicians count on voters not to think critically about what they mean by family
values but instead to vote for them because the term itself evokes positive feelings.
When we react to emotionally loaded language, we dont learn what another per-
son has to say. We also lose the opportunity to reflect on our own values and beliefs
in dialogue with others. Finally, we give up our responsibility to think critically about
what others say, to inspect their meanings carefully instead of just reacting unthink-
ingly to particular words.
Perhaps the most effective way to guard against responding uncritically to emo-
tionally loaded words is to be aware of words and phrases that tend to trigger strong
emotional reactions in us. If we bring these to a conscious level, then we can moni-
tor our tendencies to respond unthinkingly.

Lack of Effort It is hard work to listen mindfullyto focus closely on what others are
saying, to grasp their meanings, to ask questions, and to give responses so that they
know we are interested and involved. Its also hard to control situational noise and per-
haps fight against fatigue, hunger, or other physiological conditions that can impede
listening (Isaacs, 1999).
Because active listening takes so much effort, were not always able to do it well.
We may want to listen but have trouble marshaling the energy needed. When this hap-
pens, you might ask the other person to postpone interaction until a time when you
will have the energy to listen mindfully. If you explain that you want to defer com-
munication because you really are interested and want to be able to listen well, she or
he is likely to appreciate your honesty and commitment to listening.

Not Adapting to Diverse Listening

Communication in Everyday Life
Styles A final internal hindrance to Listening in a World Dominated by Sight
effective listening is not realizing and
adjusting to different listening styles. Does the visual orientation of Western culture make listening more
How we listen differs for two reasons. difficult? Writer William Isaacs thinks it does. In his 1999 book Dia-
First, different skills are needed when we logue and the Art of Thinking Together, Isaacs notes that light moves
listen for information, to support others, at 186,000 miles per second, whereas sound moves at 1088 feet per
and for pleasure. We discuss these kinds second. If we watch television for a few minutes, were exposed to
of listening later in the chapter. thousands of images. We see at least as many images if we spend
A second basis for diverse listening the same amount of time on the Internet or Web. Isaacs thinks that
styles is differences between cultures weve become habituated to the pace of visual stimuli, so we are
and speech communities. In some cul- impatient with the pace of aural stimuli. His advice? If you want to
tures, listening means quietly attending listen better, slow down!
to others. In other cultures, listening

Mindful Listening 165

 means participating while others are talking. In the United States, it is considered
polite to make frequent, but not constant, eye contact with someone who is speaking.
In other cultures, continuous eye contact is normative, and still other cultures severe-
ly restrict eye contact.
Even in the United States, there are differences in listening rules based on mem-
bership in gender, racial, and other speech communities. Because feminine socializa-
tion emphasizes talking as a way to form and develop relationships, responsive listening
is emphasized. Thus, in general women make more eye contact, give more vocal and
verbal feedback, and use nodding and facial expressions to signal interest (Tannen, 1990;
Wood, 1994d, 1998). Masculine speech communities, with their more instrumental ori-
entation and focus on emotional control, deemphasize obvious responsiveness. For this
reason, many men typically provide fewer verbal and nonverbal clues of interest and
attentiveness. If you understand these general differences, you can adapt your listening
style to provide appropriate responses to both women and men.
JENIFER I used to get irritated at my boyfriend because I thought he wasnt listening to me.
Id tell him stuff, and hed just sit there and not say anything. He didnt react to what I was
saying by showing emotions in his face or anything. Several times, I accused him of not listening,
and he said back to me exactly what Id said. He was listening, just not my way. Ive learned
not to expect him to show a lot of emotions or respond to what I say as Im talking. Thats
just not his way, but he is listening.
Race also shapes listening style. Most whites follow the communication rule that
one person shouldnt speak while another is talking, especially in formal speaking sit-
uations. In some African American communities, however, talking while others are
talking is a form of showing interest and active participation (Houston & Wood, 1996).
Thus, some African Americans may signal that they are listening intently to a speak-
er by interjecting comments such as Tell me more or Yes, yes. Many black church-
es are more participatory than most white churches, with members of the
congregation routinely calling out responses to what a preacher is saying. When the
Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his I Have a Dream speech to a crowd of
thousands, his words were echoed and reinforced by the listeners during the speech.
Myrleen Ferguson Cate/PhotoEdit

166 Chapter 6
 Because others may speak and listen differently than we do, we shouldnt auto-
matically impose our rules and interpretations on them. Instead, we should try to
understand and respect their styles. By exercising dual perspective, we are more like-
ly to listen effectively to others on their terms.

Forms of Nonlistening
Now that weve discussed obstacles to effective listening, lets consider forms of non-
listening. We call these patterns nonlistening because they dont involve real listening.
We discuss six kinds of nonlistening that may seem familiar to you because most of
us engage in these at times.

PSEUDOLISTENING

Pseudolistening is pretending to listen. When we pseudolisten, we appear to be atten-

tive, but really our minds are elsewhere. We engage in pseudolistening when we want
to appear conscientious, although we really arent interested. Sometimes we
pseudolisten because we dont want to hurt someone who is sharing experiences.
RENEE Pseudolistening should be in the training manual for flight attendants. I had that job for
6 years, and you wouldnt believe the kinds of things passengers told me abouteverything
from love affairs to family problems. At first I tried to listen, because I wanted to be a good
attendant. After a year, though, I learned just to appear to be listening and to let my mind
be elsewhere.
We also pseudolisten when communication bores us but we have to appear
engaged. Superficial social conversations and dull lectures are two communication
situations in which we may consciously choose to pseudolisten so that we seem polite
even though we really arent interested. Although it may be appropriate to decide con-
sciously to pseudolisten in some situations, there is a cost: We run the risk of miss-
ing information because we really arent attending.
BELLINO I get in a lot of trouble because I pseudolisten. Often I slip into pretending to listen
in classes. Ill start off paying attention and then just drift off and not even realize Ive
stopped listening until the teacher asks me a question and I dont even know what
were discussing.
Pseudolisteners often give themselves away when their responses reveal that they
werent paying attention. Common indicators of pseudolistening are responses that
are tangential or irrelevant to what was said. For example, if Martin talks to Char-
lotte about his job interviews, she might respond tangentially by asking about the
cities he visits: Did you like New York or Atlanta better? Although this is related to
the topic of Martins job interviews, it is tangential to the main issue. An irrelevant
response would be Where do you want to go for dinner tonight?

MONOPOLIZING

Monopolizing is continuously focusing communication on ourselves instead of

the person who is talking. Two tactics are typical of monopolizing. One is conver-
sational rerouting, in which a person shifts the topic back to himself or herself. For

Mindful Listening 167

 example, if Ellen tells her friend Marla that shes hav-
ing trouble with her roommate, Marla might reroute
the conversation by saying, I know what you mean.
My roommate is a real slob. Then Marla would go off
on an extended description of her own roommate

DENNIS THE MENACE. Reprinted by permission of Hank Ketcham and by North American Syndicate.
problems. Rerouting takes the conversation away from
the person who is talking and focuses it on the self.
Another monopolizing tactic is interrupting to
divert attention to ourselves or to topics that interest
us. Interrupting can occur in combination with rerout-
ing, so that a person interrupts and then directs the
conversation to a new topic. In other cases, diversion-
ary interrupting involves questions and challenges that
disrupt the person who is speaking.
Monopolizers may fire questions that express
doubt about what a speaker says (What makes you
think that? How can you be sure?) or prematurely
offer advice to establish their own command of the sit-
uation and possibly to put down the other person
(What you should do is, What I would have done
is). Both rerouting and diversionary interrupting are
techniques to monopolize a conversation. They are the
antithesis of good listening. The following transcript
illustrates monopolizing in action and also shows how
disconfirming of others it can be:
Chuck: Im really bummed about my Econ class. I just cant seem to get the stuff.
Sally: Well, I know what you mean. Econ was a real struggle for me too, but its noth-
ing compared to the stat course Im taking now. I mean this one is going to
destroy me totally.
Chuck: I remember how frustrated you got in Econ, but you finally did get it. I just
cant seem to, and I need the course for my major. Ive tried going to review
sessions, but
Sally: I didnt find the review sessions helpful. Why dont you focus on your other
classes and use them to pull up your average?
Chuck: Thats not the point. I want to get this stuff.
Sally: You think youve got problems? Do you know that right now I have three
papers and one exam hanging over my head?
Chuck: I wonder if I should hire a tutor.
In this transcript, Sally shows that she is not interested in Chucks concerns, and
she pushes her own conversational agenda. Chances are good that she doesnt even
understand what he is feeling because she is not focusing on what he says.
Monopolizing is costly not only to those who are neglected but also to the monop-
olizers. A person who dominates communication has much less opportunity to learn
from others than a person who listens to what others think and feel. We already know
what we think and feel, so theres little we can learn from hearing ourselves!
Its important to realize that not all interruptions are attempts to monopolize
communication. We also interrupt the flow of others talk to show interest, voice sup-
port, and ask for elaboration. Interrupting for these reasons doesnt divert attention
from the person speaking; instead, it affirms that person and keeps the focus on her

168 Chapter 6
or him. Research indicates that women are more likely than men to interrupt to show
interest and support (Andersen & Leaper, 1998; Aries, 1987; Beck, 1988; Mulac, Wie-
mann, Widenmann, & Gibson, 1988; Stewart, Stewart, Friedley, & Cooper, 1990). Some
studies suggests that men are more likely than women to interrupt to gain control
of conversations, but more research is needed to verify or disconfirm this (Aries, 1996;
Goldsmith & Fulfs, 1999).

SELECTIVE LISTENING

A third form of nonlistening is selective listening, which involves focusing on only

particular parts of communication. As weve noted, all listening is selective to an extent
because we cant attend to everything around us. With selective listening, however, we
screen out parts of a message that dont interest us or with which we disagree, or we
rivet attention on topics that do interest us or with which we do agree. For example,
students often become highly attentive when teachers say This will be on the test
because they care about doing well on tests. Similarly, employees often become very
focused listeners when topics such as raises, layoffs, and holidays are introduced.
Selective listening also occurs when we reject communication that bores us or
makes us uncomfortable. For instance, many smokers selectively block out reports on
the dangers of smoking and secondhand smoke. Taking in that information would
be upsetting. We may also choose not to attend when others ask us to do things we
dont want to do.
Many people listen selectively to criticism. We may screen out communication
from others that calls attention to our weaknesses or pushes us to change in ways
we find uncomfortable. For months I tried to suggest financial strategies to a friend
who has no retirement savings. Finally, I realized that she wasnt listening to me
because the topic made her feel anxious. We all have subjects that bore us or disturb
us, yet its unwise to listen selectively when doing so could deprive us of informa-
tion or insights that could be valuable to us.

DEFENSIVE LISTENING

Defensive listening involves perceiving personal attacks, criticisms, or hostile under-

tones when none are intended. When we listen defensively, we assume others dont
like, trust, or respect us, and we read these motives into whatever they say, no mat-
ter how innocent their communication actually is. Some people are generally defen-
sive, expecting insults and criticism from all quarters. They hear threats and negative
judgments in almost anything said to them. Thus, an innocent remark such as Isnt
that a new shirt? may be perceived as a veiled suggestion that the shirt is ugly or
that all the other shirts in the persons wardrobe are tacky.
In other instances, defensive listening is confined to specific topics or vulnera-
ble times when we judge ourselves to be inadequate. A man who is defensive about
money may perceive phone solicitations as reproaches for his lack of earning power;
a worker who fears she is not performing well may hear genuine compliments as false;
a student who has just failed a test may hear questioning of his intelligence in benign
comments. Defensive listening can deprive us of information and insights that might
be valuable, even if not pleasant. Defensive listening also tends to discourage others
from giving us honest feedback. If stating genuine thoughts and feelings leads to quar-
rels and anger, others may learn not to be honest with us.

Mindful Listening 169

 AMBUSHING

Ambushing is listening carefully for the purpose of attacking a speaker. Unlike the
other kinds of nonlistening weve discussed, ambushing involves very careful lis-
tening, but it isnt motivated by a genuine desire to interact with another. Instead,
ambushers listen intently to gather ammunition they can use to attack a speaker. A
common instance of ambushing is public debates between political candidates. Each
person listens carefully to the other for the sole purpose of later undercutting the
opponent. There is no effort to understand the others meaning and no interest in
genuine dialogue.

KRALYN My first husband was a real ambusher. If I tried to talk to him about a dress Id bought,
hed listen just long enough to find out what it cost and then attack me for spending money.
Once I told him about a problem I was having with one of my co-workers, and he came back
at me with all of the things Id done wrong and didnt mention any of the things the other
person had done. Talking to him was like setting myself up to be assaulted.

Not surprisingly, people who engage in ambushing tend to arouse defensiveness

in others. Few of us want to speak up when we feel we are going to be attacked.
In Chapter 8 we look more closely at communication that fosters defensiveness
in others.

LITERAL LISTENING

The final form of nonlistening is literal listening, which involves listening only for
content and ignoring the relationship level of meaning. As we have seen, all com-
munication includes both content or literal meaning and relationship meaning,
which pertains to power, responsiveness, and liking between people. When we listen
literally, we attend to only the content meaning and overlook whats being commu-
nicated on the relationship level. When we listen only literally, we are insensitive to
others feelings and to our connections with them.
Perhaps the greatest danger of literal listening is that it may disconfirm others.
When we listen literally, we dont make the effort to understand how others feel about
what they say and how it affects their self-concepts. As a result, any responses we make
are unlikely to confirm their identities and worth.
We have seen that there are many obstacles to effective listening. Ones in messages
and situations include message overload, difficulty of messages, and external noise. In
addition to these, there are five potential
interferences inside of us: preoccupation,
prejudgment, unthinking reactions to
emotionally loaded language, lack of
effort, and failure to adapt to diverse styles
of listening. The obstacles to effective lis-
tening combine to create six types of non-
listening: pseudolistening, monopolizing,
selective listening, defensive listening,
ambushing, and literal listening. Learning
about hindrances to mindful listening and
learning to recognize forms of nonlisten-
ing enable you to exercise greater control
over your listening and thus your relation-
ships with others.

170 Chapter 6
 Everyday Application Identifying Your
Ineffective Listening

Apply the material weve just discussed by identifying times when you listen ineffectively.
Describe a situation in which you pseudolistened.
Describe an instance in which you monopolized communication.
Describe a time when you listened defensively.
Describe an example of ambushing someone else.
Describe an instance when you listened selectively.
Describe a time when you listened literally.
Now repeat this exercise, but this time focus on examples of others who engage in each of
the six types of ineffective listening.
For additional practice in recognizing forms of ineffective listening in everyday situa-
tions, complete Activity 6.2 in your Student Companion or online under Activities for Chap-
ter 6 at the Everyday Connections Web site. WEB SITE

Adapting Listening to Communication Goals

Now that you recognize some of the common barriers to effective listening, lets focus
on how to listen well. The first requirement is to determine your reason for listen-
ing. We listen differently when we listen for pleasure, to gain information, and to
support others. Well discuss the specific attitudes and skills that contribute to effec-
tive listening of each type.

LISTENING FOR PLEASURE

Often we engage in listening for pleasure or enjoyment. We listen to music for enter-
tainment. We may also listen to television shows and nightclub routines for enjoy-
ment. Because listening for pleasure doesnt require us to remember or respond to
communication, the only guidelines are to be mindful and control distractions. Just
as being mindful in lectures allows us to gain information, being mindful when lis-
tening for pleasure allows us to derive the full enjoyment from what we hear. Con-
trolling interferences is also important when we are listening for pleasure. A
beautifully rendered Mozart concerto can be wonderfully satisfying, but not if a tele-
vision is on in the background.

LISTENING FOR INFORMATION

Much of the time we are listening for information. Our goal is to gain and evaluate
information. We listen for information in classes, at political debates, when important
news stories are reported, and when we need guidance on everything from medical
treatments to directions to a new place. In each case, we listen to gain and understand
information in order to act appropriately. To do this, we need to use skills for critical
thinking and for organizing and retaining information.

Mindful Listening 171

 Be Mindful First, its important to make a
decision to be mindful, choosing to attend
carefully even if material is complex and dif-
ficult. Dont let your mind wander if infor-
mation gets complicated or confusing.
Instead, stay focused on your goal and take in
as much as you can. Later you may want to
ask questions about material that isnt clear
even when you listen mindfully.

Chromosohm/Sohm/Stock, Boston
Control Obstacles You can also minimize
noise in communication situations. You
might shut a window to block out traffic
noises or adjust a thermostat so that room
temperature is comfortable. In addition, you
should try to minimize psychological dis-
tractions by emptying your mind of the many
concerns and ideas that can divert your attention from the communication at hand.
This means you should try to let go of preoccupations as well as prejudgments that
can interfere with effective listening. In addition, its important to monitor the ten-
dency to react to emotionally loaded language. As William Isaacs (1999) notes, we have
to make a very deliberate effort to cultivate an inner silence that allows us to listen
thoughtfully to others.

Ask Questions Also important is posing questions to speakers. Asking speakers to

clarify or elaborate their message may help you understand information you didnt
grasp at first and enhances insight into content that you did comprehend. Could you
explain what you meant by? and Can you clarify the distinction between? are
questions that allow listeners to deepen understanding. Questions compliment a
speaker because they indicate that you are interested and want to know more.

Use Aids to Recall To understand and remember important information, we can

apply the principles of perception we discussed in Chapter 3. For instance, we learned
that we tend to notice and recall stimuli that are repeated. To use this principle in
everyday communication, repeat important ideas to yourself immediately after hear-
ing them (Estes, 1989). Repetition can save you the embarrassment of having to ask
people you just met to repeat their names.
Another way to increase retention is to use mnemonic (pronounced ni-monic)
devices, which are memory aids that create patterns for what youve heard. You prob-
ably already do this in studying. For instance, you could create the mnemonic
MRSIRR, which is made up of the first letter of each of the six parts of listening (mind-
fulness, receiving, selecting and organizing, interpreting, responding, remembering).
Similarly, you can invent mnemonics to help you remember information in conversa-
tions. For example, if your supervisor asks you to code and log in all incoming messages,
you might remember the instruction by inventing CLAIM, a word that uses the first
letter of each part of your supervisors instructions. If you meet someone named Kim
and want to remember something about the person, you might associate something
about Kim with each letter of the name: Kim from Iowa is going into Medicine.

Organize Information A third technique to increase retention is to organize what

you hear. For example, suppose a friend tells you hes concerned about a current math

172 Chapter 6
 Everyday Application Improving Your Retention

Apply the principles weve discussed to enhance memory.

The next time you meet someone, repeat his or her name to yourself three times in a row
after you are introduced. Do you find you remember the name better when you do this?
After your next interpersonal communication class, take 15 minutes to review your notes.
Try reading them aloud so that you hear as well as see the main ideas. Does this
increase your retention of material covered in class?
Invent mnemonics to help you remember basic information in communication.
Organize complex ideas by grouping them into categories. Try this first in relation to
material in classes. To remember the main ideas of this chapter, you might use major
subheadings to form categories: the listening process, obstacles to listening, forms of
nonlistening, listening goals, and guidelines. The mnemonic PONGG (process, obsta-
cles, nonlistening, goals, guidelines) could help you remember those categories. You can
also group ideas in interpersonal interactions.

course that hes finding difficult. Then he says he doesnt know what he can do with
a math major, wonders whether graduate school is necessary to get a good job, and
needs to line up an internship for this summer. You could reduce the complexity of
this message if you regrouped the stream of concerns into two categories: short-term
issues (the course, setting up an internship) and long-term issues (careers for math
majors, graduate school). Remembering those two categories allows you to retain
the essence of your friends concerns, even if you forget many of the specifics. Repe-
tition, mnemonics, and regrouping are ways to enhance what we remember.

LISTENING TO SUPPORT OTHERS

In some interactions our primary concern is the relationship level of meaning, which
involves anothers feelings and perceptions. We engage in relationship listening, lis-
tening to support others, when we listen to a friends worries, hear a romantic part-
ner discuss our relationship, or help a co-worker sort through a problem. Specific
attitudes and skills enhance relationship listening.

Be Mindful The first requirement for effective relationship listening is to be mind-

ful. Youll recall that this was also the first step in listening for information and plea-
sure. When were interested in relationship-level meanings, however, a different kind
of mindfulness is needed. Instead of focusing on information, we concentrate on what
lies between and behind the content in order to understand what another is feeling,
thinking, needing, or wanting in a conversation.

Suspend Judgment When listening to help another person, its important to avoid
judgmental responses, at least initially. Imposing our own judgments separates us
from others and their feelings. Weve inserted something between us.
Yet there are times when it is appropriate and supportive to offer opinions and to
make evaluative statements. Sometimes people we care about genuinely want our judg-
ments, and in those cases we should be honest about how we feel. Particularly when

Mindful Listening 173

 others are confronting ethical dilemmas, they may seek the judgments of people they
trust. Once my friend Cordelia was asked to work for a presidential candidate, but she had
agreed to take a job. She talked to me about her quandary and asked me what I thought
she should do. Although it was clear to me that she wanted to join the campaign, I could-
nt honestly approve of that. I told her that I thought it would be dishonorable to go back
on her word. After a long talk, Cordelia thanked me for being honest. Part of being a real
friend in this instance was making a judgment. Thats appropriate if someone invites
our evaluation or if we think another person is in danger of making a serious mistake.
Even positive evaluations (Thats a good way to approach the problem) may
seem to indicate that we think we have the right to pass judgment on others. If some-
one asks our opinion, we should try to present it in a way that doesnt disconfirm the
other person. Many times people excuse critical comments by saying, Well you asked
me to be honest or I mean this as constructive criticism. Too often, however, the
judgments are more harsh than candor requires. If we are committed to helping oth-
ers, we look for ways to use honesty to support them rather than tear them down.
LO GA N I hate the term constructive criticism. Every time my dad says it, what follows is a put-
down. By now Ive learned not to go to him when I have problems or when Im worried about
something in my life. He always judges what Im feeling and tells me what I ought to feel and
do. All that does is make me feel worse than I did before.

Understand the Other Persons Perspective We cant respond effectively to oth-

ers until we understand their perspective and meanings. To do this, we must focus on
the words and nonverbal behaviors that give us clues about how others feel and think.
Paraphrasing is a method of clarifying others meaning or needs by reflecting our
interpretations of their communication back to them. For example, a friend might
confide, I think my kid brother is messing around with drugs. We could paraphrase
this way: So youre really worried that your brothers experimenting with drugs. This
allows us to clarify whether the friend has any evidence of the brothers drug involve-
ment. The response might be, No, I dont have any real reason to suspect him, but I
just worry, because drugs are so pervasive in high schools now. This clarifies by telling
us the friends worries are more the issue than any evidence that the brother is exper-
imenting with drugs. Paraphrasing also helps us figure out what others feel. If a friend
screams, This situation is really getting to me, its not clear whether your friend is
angry, hurt, upset, or frustrated. We could find out which emotion prevails by say-
ing, You seem really angry. If anger is the emotion, your friend would agree; if not,
she would clarify what she is feeling.
Another strategy for increasing understanding of others is to use minimal encour-
agers, which gently invite others to elaborate by expressing interest in hearing more.

Everyday Application Learning to Paraphrase

Practice effective listening by paraphrasing the following statements.

Ive got so many pressures closing in on me right now.
Im worried about all the money Ive borrowed to get through school.
Im nervous about telling my parents Im gay when I see them next weekend.
I dont know whether Pat and I can keep the relationship together once she moves away
to her new job. Student Companion: Activity 6.3.

174 Chapter 6
Examples of minimal encouragers are Tell me more,
Really? Go on, Im with you, Then what hap-
pened? and I see. We can also use nonverbal min-
imal encouragers such as a raised eyebrow, a head
nod, or widened eyes. Minimal encouragers indicate
we are listening, following, and interested. They
encourage others to keep talking so that we can more
fully understand them. Keep in mind that these are
minimal encouragers. They should not interrupt or
reroute conversation. Instead, effective minimal
encouragers are brief interjections that prompt,
rather than interfere with, anothers talk.
A third way to enhance understanding is to ask
questions that yield insight into what a speaker thinks
or feels. For instance, we might ask, How do you feel
about that? or What do you plan to do? Another
reason we ask questions is to find out what a person
wants from us. Sometimes it isnt clear whether some-

Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works

one wants advice, a shoulder to cry on, or a safe place
to vent feelings. If we cant figure out whats wanted,
we can ask the other person: Are you looking for
advice or a sounding board? Asking direct questions
signals that we want to help and allows others to tell
us how we can best do that.

Express Support Once we understand anothers meanings and perspective, its

important to communicate support. This doesnt necessarily require us to agree with
the other persons perspective or feelings, but it does require that we express sup-
port for the person. We may express support without agreeing in a number of ways.
For example, you can say that you understand the difficulty of a friends position or
decision, or you can make it clear that you understand his feelings, even if your feel-
ings are different. Perhaps the most basic way to support another is by listening mind-
fully, which shows that you care enough to attend fully to the other person. Student
Companion: Activity 6.4.

Everyday Application Using Minimal Encouragers

Practice encouraging others to elaborate their thoughts and feelings by developing minimal
encouragers in response to each of these comments:
Im feeling really worried about getting into grad school.
Im not sure whether Im measuring up to my bosss expectations for new employees.
I just learned that Im a finalist for a scholarship next year.
I think my girlfriend is cheating on me.
I havent gotten any job offers yet and Ive been interviewing for 4 months. Im
beginning to wonder whether Ill get a job at all.
Im so excited about how this relationship is going. Ive never been with someone as
attentive and thoughtful as Chris.

Mindful Listening 175

 S H E RY L I think the greatest gift my mother ever gave me was when I told her I was going to
marry Bruce. He isnt Jewish, and nobody in my family has ever married out of the faith before.
I could tell my mother was disappointed, and she didnt try to hide that. She asked me if I
understood how that would complicate things like family relations and rearing kids. We talked
for a while, and she realized I had thought through what it means to marry out of the faith.
Then she sighed and said she had hoped I would find a nice Jewish man. But then she said
she supported me whatever I did, and Bruce was welcome in our family. She told me shed
raised me to think for myself and thats what I was doing. I just felt so loved and accepted
by how she acted.

Guidelines for Effective Listening

Three guidelines summarize our discussion and foster effective listening.

BE MINDFUL

By now youve read this suggestion many times. Because it is so central to effective lis-
tening, however, it bears repeating. Mindfulness is a choice to be wholly present in an
experience. It requires that we put aside preoccupations and preconceptions to attend
fully to what is happening in the moment. Mindful listening is one of the highest com-
pliments we can pay to others because it conveys the relationship-level meaning
that they matter to us. Being mindful requires discipline and commitment. We have
to discipline our tendencies to judge others, dominate the talk stage, and let our minds
wander away from what another is saying. Mindfulness also requires commitment
to another person and the integrity of the interpersonal communication process.
Being mindful is the first and most important principle of effective listening.

A DA P T L I S T E N I N G A P P R O P R I AT E LY

Like all communication activities, listening varies according to goals, situations, and
people. Whats effective depends on our purpose for listening, the context in which
we are listening, and the needs and circumstances of the other person.
When we listen for pleasure, we should be mindful and minimize distractions
so that we derive as much enjoyment as possible from listening. When we listen for
information, a critical attitude, evaluation of material, and a focus on the content level
of meaning enhance listening. Yet when we engage in relationship listening, very dif-
ferent skills are needed. We want to communicate openness and caring, and the rela-
tionship-level meaning is as important as the content-level meaning. Thus, we need
to adapt our listening styles and attitudes to different goals.
Effective listening is also adapted to people. Some people need prompting and
encouraging to express themselves, whereas others need only for us to be silent and
attentive. Paraphrasing helps some people clarify what they think or feel, whereas oth-
ers dont need that kind of assistance. We need to be skillful in using a variety of lis-
tening behaviors and to know when each is appropriate. Recall from Chapter 1 that
the ability to use a range of skills and knowledge of when each is called for are two
of the foundations of effective interpersonal communication.

176 Chapter 6
 L I S T E N AC T I V E LY
Communication in Everyday Life
When we realize all thats involved in
listening, we appreciate how active an
More on Developing Listening Skills
effort it is. To listen effectively, we have
Many good resources can help you improve your listening skills. One
to be willing to focus our minds,
good book is Madelyn Burley-Allens Listening: The Forgotten Skill
organize and interpret others ideas
(1995), which offers a self-teaching guide for recognizing listening
and feelings, generate responses that
styles, including your own, and learning to listen more effectively. In
signal our interest and enhance both
addition, the Web offers a number of sites that provide concrete,
content and relationship levels of
practical suggestions for improving your skill at listening. Many of the
meaning, and retain what we have
sites elaborate guidelines offered in this chapter, including ones on
learned in the process of listening. In
creating and using mnemonics and taking notes effectively.
some situations, we also become
To learn more about taking good notes to improve recall, visit
active partners by listening collabora-
the Web page created by the Department of Academic Advising
tively and engaging in problem solv-
Services at the College of St Benedict/St. Johns University:
ing. Doing all of this is hard work!
http://www.csbsju.edu/academicadvising/helplist.html.
Recognizing that genuine listening is
To develop skill in creating and using mnemonics and other
an active process prepares us to invest
techniques for improving recall, visit http://www.demon.co.uk/
the amount of effort needed to do it
mindtool/memory.html.
effectively.

Chapter Summary
This chapter opened with a quote from Zeno of Citium, an ancient philosopher. His
wry observation is as relevant today as it was thousands of years ago. Similar wis-
dom came from Mother Theresa in an interview with Dan Rather (Bailey, 1998, p. C5):
Rather: What do you say to God when you pray?
Mother Theresa: I listen.
Rather: Well, what does God say?
Mother Theresa: He listens.
In this chapter, weve explored the complex and demanding process of listen-
ing. We began by distinguishing hearing and listening. Hearing is a straightforward
physiological process that doesnt entail effort on our part. Listening, in contrast, is
a complicated process involving receiving messages, selecting and organizing, inter-
preting, responding, and remembering. Doing it well takes commitment and skill.
There are many hindrances to effective listening. External ones include message
overload, complexity of material, and external noise in communication contexts. In
addition, listening can be hampered by our preoccupations and prejudgments, react-
ing to emotionally loaded language, lack of effort, and not adapting to diverse lis-
tening styles. These obstacles give rise to various types of ineffective listening,
including pseudolistening, monopolizing, selective listening, defensive listening,
ambushing, and literal listening.
We identified skills and attitudes appropriate for different listening goals. Lis-
tening for pleasure is supported by mindfulness and efforts to minimize distractions
and noise. Informational listening requires us to adopt a mindful attitude and to think
critically, organize and evaluate information, clarify understanding by asking ques-
tions, and develop aids for retention of complex material. Relationship listening also

Mindful Listening 177

 involves mindfulness, but it calls for different listening skills: Suspending judgment,
paraphrasing, giving minimal encouragers, and expressing support enhance the effec-
tiveness of relationship listening.
The ideas weve discussed yield three guidelines for effective listening. First, we
need to be mindful. Second, we should adapt our listening skills and style to accom-
modate differences in listening purpose and individuals. Finally, we should remem-
ber that listening is an active process and to be prepared to invest energy and effort
in doing it skillfully. Because listening is important in all speech communities, we
revisit some of the ideas covered here as we discuss dynamics in relationships in the
following chapters.

Everyday Connections Online

ENARIO For chapter review, use WEB SITE Your Everyday Connec- Everyday Connections In
SC
your Everyday Connec- tions Web site features access to Info- Action! is available on your
S

tions CD-ROM to Trac College Edition and interactive CD-ROM and features video
access the Everyday Connections activities, threaded discussion, main- and audio scenarios of the Continu-
Web site at http://communication. tained and updated Web links, and a ing the Conversation cases found at
wadsworth.com/wood/icee4 and to review quiz for each chapter. You can the end of this section. Improve your
launch Everyday Connections In complete chapter activities or quizzes own communication by reading,
Action! and, if requested, email them to your watching, listening to, critiquing, and
instructor. analyzing these communication
encounters. After completing a conver-
sation analysis and answering the
questions provided, you can compare
your work to my suggested responses.

Key Concepts
Audio flashcards of the following key terms are available on the Everyday Connections Web site. Use the flashcards to improve your
pronunciation of text vocabulary.

ambushing listening for information mindfulness pseudolistening

defensive listening listening for pleasure minimal encouragers remembering
hearing listening to support others monopolizing responding
listening literal listening paraphrasing selective listening

For Further Thought and Discussion

1. Review the six types of nonlistening discussed in this chap- 2. What ethical principles can you identify to guide the three
ter. Are any of them common in your communication? Select kinds of listening? Are different ethical principles appropri-
one of your nonlistening practices and work to reduce its ate when listening for information and listening to support
occurrence. others?

178 Chapter 6
 For Further Thought and Discussion
3. Keep a record of your listening for the next 2 days. How 6. Who is your prototype, or model, for an effective listener?
much time do you spend listening for information, listening Describe what the person does that makes him or her effec-
to support others, and listening for pleasure? tive. How do the persons behaviors fit with guidelines for
effective listening discussed in this chapter?
4. Use your InfoTrac College Edition to read Eileen
Brill Wagners 2001 article, Listening: Hear Today, 7. The International Listening Association (ILA) is a rich
Probably Gone Tomorrow, published in the Busi- resource for learning more about listening and networking
ness Journal. Are the barriers to listening that she identifies with others who recognize its importance in everyday life.
consistent with those discussed in this chapter? Its Web site features exercises to test and improve listen-
ing, factoids about listening, Internet discussion groups,
5. Apply the strategies for remembering what we discussed
quotes about the nature and value of listening, and a bibli-
in this chapter. Create mnemonics, organize material as you
ography for those who want to read more. Visit the site at
listen, and review material immediately after listening. Do
http://www.listen.org.
you find that using these strategies increases your listening
effectiveness?

Continuing the Conversation

The following conversation is featured Chris: Hes funny and smart and
on the Everyday Connections in so easy to talk to. We can talk for
Action! section of your Everyday hours and it never gets dull. Ive
Connections CD-ROM. Click on the never met anyone whos so easy
In Action! icon on your CD-ROM to to be with. Were interested in the
launch the video and audio scenario same things and we share so
scripted below. many values. Brandons just super.
Ive never met anyone like him.
Christina is visiting her family for the holidays. Mom: Sounds great. When do I
One evening after dinner, her mother comes get to meet this fellow?
into her room where Christina is typing at her
Chris: Well, not until I do. [laughs] We met
computer. Her mother sits down and the fol-
online and were just starting to talk about get-
lowing conversation takes place.
ting together in person.
Mom: Am I disturbing you? Mom: Online? You met this man online? And
Chris: No, Im just signing off on email. [She you act as if you know him!
finishes at the keyboard and turns to face her Chris: I do know him, mom. Weve talked a
mom.] lotweve told each other lots of stuff, and
Mom: Emailing someone? Mom: How do you know what hes told you is
Chris: Just a guy. true? For all you know, hes a 50-year-old mass
murderer!
Mom: Someone youve been seeing at school?
Chris: Youve been watching too many movies
Chris: Not exactly. on Lifetime, mom. Brandons 23, hes in college,
Mom: [laughs] Well, either you are seeing him and he comes from a family a lot like ours.
or youre not, honey. Are you two dating? Mom: How do you know that? He could be
Chris: Sort of. Yeah, you could say were lying about every part of what hes told you.
dating. Chris: So? A guy I meet at school could lie too.
Mom: [laughs] Whats the mystery. Whats he Meeting someone in person is no guarantee of
like? honesty.

Mindful Listening 179

 Continuing the Conversation
Mom: Havent you read about all of the hes thought about it, like hes really interested
weirdos that go to these online matching sites? in what I say.
Chris: Mom, Brandons not a weirdo, and we Mom: So he really pays attention to what you
didnt meet in a matching site. We met in a chat say, huh?
room where people talk about politics. Hes as
Chris: Exactly. So many guys Ive dated dont.
normal as I am. After all, I was in that chat
They never return to things Ive said. Brandon
room too!
does. And another thing, when I come back to
Mom: But, Chris, you cant be serious about things hes said with ideas Ive thought about,
someone you havent met. he really listens.
Chris: I have met him mom, just not face-to- Mom: Like he values what you think and say?
face. Actually, I know him better than lots of
Chris: Exactly! Thats whats so special about
guys Ive dated for months. You can get to
him.
know a lot about a person from talking.
Mom: This makes me really nervous, honey. 1. Identify examples of ineffective and
Please dont meet him by yourself. effective listening on the part of
Chris: Mom, youre making me feel sorry I told Chriss mother.
you how we met. This is exactly why I didnt tell 2. What do you perceive as the key
you about him before. Nothing I say is going to obstacle to listening for Chriss
change your mind about dating online. mom during the early part of this
Mom: [pauses, looks away, then looks back at conversation?
Chris] Youre right. Im not giving himor youa
3. Identify specific listening skills that
chance. Lets start over. [smiles] Tell me what
Chriss mother uses once she choos-
you like about him.
es to listen mindfully.
Chris: [tentatively] Well, hes thoughtful.
4. Is Chriss mother being unethical
Mom: Thoughtful? How so? not to continue expressing her con-
Chris: Like, if I say something one day, hell cerns about Chriss safety?
come back to it a day or so later and I can tell

You can ENARIO

SC S
critique and
analyze this
encounter based on the
principles you learned in
this chapter by responding
to the questions included
on the Everyday Connec-
tions Web site as discussion
threads. By clicking on the
Submit button, you can
compare your work to my
suggested responses. Lets
continue the conversation
online!

180 Chapter 6