CONTROVERSIAL PLANTS

A large percentage of plants used in herbal industries are a subject of

controversy. Non-availability of plants, poor understanding and parallely evolved

knowledge systems are some of the reasons attributed to it. The existing practices

of polynomial nomenclatural system of Sanskrit, different perceptions in various

communities, vernacular equivalents all are cumulative factors. However

controversial drugs offer a promising area of plant based research. Here a simple

attempt have made to review information about a few of the important controversial

drugs commonly used in Ayurvedic medicine.

BRAHMI

According to ayurvedic classic Abhinjanamanjari (Mooss, 1952), four

different kinds of brahmi are mentioned. They are satala brahmi, medha brahmi,

muni brahmi and mandukaparni. But this differentiation is found neither in the

classical literature, nor in practice. Rajanighantu (Narahari, 1933) equated brahmi

and mandukaparni as one and the same plant, which is distributed in many parts of

North India (Sivarajan and Balachandran, 1994). But the great triads of Ayurveda,

Charaka, Susruta, and Vagbhata treated brahmi and mandukaparni as one and the

same.

Comparative studies on the phytochemistry and pharmacology clearly

proved that brahmi and mandukaparni are distinct drugs. According to Charaka,

though both drugs are promoters of general mental ability, brahmi is used in

specific mental disorders where as mandukaparni is generally employed as a

rasayana drug or rejuvenator (Sivarajan and Balachandran, 1994).

attributed to brahmi by Bhavaprakasha ( Panday, 1985) but mandukaparni has

kasaya rasa (astringent property).

Exact botanical identity of brahmi and mandookaparni is contributed by

Ali et al., (1981).

Kerala physicians treated these two plants as two distinct drugs. According

to them brahmi is Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell. and mandukaparni is Centella

asiatica (Linn.) Urban.

JIVANTI

Jivanti is included in the regimen of rasayana (life promoting) drugs by

the great Charaka (Pandya, 1983). It is an important constituent of ayurveda

formularies such as Jivantyadi ghritham, Jivantyadi thailam,

Amrutaprasaghritham, Manasamitra vatakam, Balarishtam, Anuthailam etc.

Vaghbhata treats it among the ten vitalising drugs i.e. Jivaneeyagana.

According to Bhavamisra, " Jeevanti Jivani Jivaniya Madhusrava

Mangalyanamadheya ca Sakasresta Payasvani " - means it is the plant which is

vital to life, protects life, having sweet juice , shower bliss and happiness, apt

among vegetables and having milk (Pandey, 1985).

Ayurvedacharya Charaka also considers it as " Jivanti saak saakanam

means Jivanti is the best vegetable (Pandya, 1983)

The great classic Madanadinighantu (Madanapal, 1902) opines jivanti "

Netra rogahara, sita pittasrkkaphanasam " i.e. jivanti is a choice in ophthalmic

conditions, having cooling nature and also corrects the vitiation of pitta, kapha and

rakta.
 The botanical identity of this drug is highly controversial. In classics

Jivanti is included in "sakavargam" means it is a vegetable drug (Vagbhata,

1966 ).

The term jivanti is a synonym for a number of drugs. Various drugs are

being used in different parts of India under this name (Vaidya, 1982 ; Vaidya, 1975;

Uniyal et al. 1979 ; Gupta and Kapoor, 1971 ) these include

1. Desmotrichum fimbriatum Bl. Bidr = Dendrobium macraei

2. Dendrobium normale Fale = D.ovatum (Willd) Kranzl.

3. Pholidota articulata Lindl.

4. Flickingeria nodosa ( Dalz. ) Seiden.

5. Celtis orientalis Linn.

6. Cimicifuga foetida Linn.

7. Leptadenia reticulata Wight and Arn.

8. Holostemma ada-kodien Schultes.

Leaves of jivanti plant are used as a pot herb in Gujarat and Kathiyavar

region against tuberculosis and eye diseases (Sivarjan and Balachandran, 1994;

Vaidya, 1982). According to modern version, leaves of jivanti is the best source

of Vit. A and can be successfully utilised in eye diseases such as night blindness,

cataract etc. (Un published data).

By considering these aspects, it can very well be inferred that jivanti is a

pot herb and a climber of par excellence rather than an orchard plant.

Among the above mentioned eight plants, the first four plants belong to

the family Orchidaceae and show the characteristic features of the family and

they cannot be used as a leafy vegetable.

member of the family Urticaceae and being a medium sized tree, it can not be

regarded as jivanti .

Cimicifuga foetida Linn. ( Ranunculaceae ) is known as "jiunti" in Punjab.

But the pharmacological action of this plant is different, being indicated in dropsy

and bronchial diseases, it cannot be considered as jivanti (Vaidya, 1982).

Holostemma ada-kodien Schultes and Leptadenia reticulata Wight and

Arn. are members of Asclepiadaceae family. They show the characteristic

features of the family such as climbing nature, presence of latex etc. The latter

bear light yellow flowers and is regarded as swarna jivanti as mentioned in

Rajanighantu .

In classical literature Vaidya Jadavji Acharya considers another type of

jivanti viz, swarna jivanti in addition to the ordinary one. The difference is

attributed to the difference in colour of the latex obtained by plucking the fruit.

Jivanti has white latex while swarna jivanti has yellow latex. In Bengal and other

regions of North Eastern India, Flickingeria nodosa is being used as jivanti. It

may be due to the yellow latex produced (Vaidya, 1982 ). The exudate of

Leptadenia reticulata being yellow in colour also fit well and is considered as the

genuine source of the drug by many (Singh and Chunekar, 1962 ; 1979;

Anonymous 1978 a; Gupta and Kapoor, 1971; Kolammal, 1979; Vaidya, 1975;

Uniyal et al., 1979). Verma and Agarwal (1962) reported chemical characteristics

of Leptadenia recticulata.

Another species of Leptadenia, L.pyrotechnica Forsk. Decne. is used in

Rajasthan and Gujarat as swarna jivanti ( Sharma, 1983).

Schultes. (H. annulare) as the accepted source of jivanti from time immemorial

(Nicolson et al., 1988). This plant is known as adapathian in Kerala. The name

arkapushpi in Sanskrit is due to the resemblance of flowers of this plant to

Calotropis sp. (Kolammal, 1979) On the other hand, Leptadenia reticulata is used

in other South Indian states especially in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh as

jivanti. Market sample obtained from these regions also confirms the use of this

drug. It is an accepted galactogogue (Akhtar and Sitaratna, 1972; Gokhalae, 1965;

Gupta Nawal Kishore, 1966 and Moulvi, 1963).

In Kerala - dried roots of Holostemma ada-kodien is marketed as jivanti.

It fetches a high price in the market. The dried samples are often adulterated

due to scarcity. Besides the tuberous roots, the normal roots are also found

admixtured in the samples collected from market .

PATHRA

In Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia, a collection of four drugs known as

chaturjatam (chatur = four, jatam = collection) is widely used in arishtam and

lehyam . They are-

a. Eletteria cardamomum Maton. - Ela (Fruit)

b.Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume - Twak (Stem bark)

c.Cinnamomum tamala Nees and Eberm - Pathra (Leaf)

d .Mesua ferrea Linn. - Nagakesara (Flower)

Ayurvedic system of medicine describes these plants as being useful as an

expectorant, digestive, carminative and above all a flavouring agent in medicinal as

well as in dietary preparations. Essential oil from the above is used in various
medicinal preparations and in perfumery. In almost all arishtam and asavam, dried

and powered leaves of pathra along with other ingredients are incorporated as

prakeshpana choornam. Lehya preparations also make use of the virtues of these

plants in the powder form.

However, the identity of "pathra" is still a controversial one. As per

ayurvedic treatises (Pandey, 1985), Cinnamomum tamala (Family : Lauraceae) is

the source plant and it is also referred as tamala pathra.

Pathram tamalapathranca tatha syatpathranamakam

It is a medium sized evergreen tree distributed at an elevation of 900-2, 400

m in the sub-Himalayan region and in parts of northeast. The leaves of the plant are

used in cough, flatulence and dyspepsia and also as a carminative (Nadkarni, 1954).

This material is not available in the central and southern parts of India and drug

manufacturers are using the leaves of patchouli (Pogostemon patchouli) instead.

The dried leaf of patchouli also is used in cough, flatulence, dyspepsia and also as a

carminative (Nadkarni, 1954).

An extensive survey on this drug revealed that in Kerala, different species

and varieties of Pogostemon (Malayalam patchouli) are being used as pathra. The

drug is not available in the state and the markets depend on suppliers from other

states. Market samples are found adulterated with impurities such as earth, sand and

dust. According to Guenther (1949) fine dust is mixed with the leaves or by

sprinkling muddy water over the leaves with subsequent drying. It is also made

substandard by spraying water inside of the bales or packing the leaves very early

in the morning while they are wet with dew. The advantage is that moist leaf can be

packed more easily, but the quality deteriorates due to fermentation of the leaves.
 Pathra is also found adulterated with leaf material exhausted of essential oil

by steam distillation such as leaves of Ocimum basilicum L., Urena lobata L.,

Hyptis suaveolens and also with leaves of different species of Pogostemon such as

P. heynianus Benth. It is also known as Java Patchouli, indigenous to India, often

cultivated in Indian gardens. This species is the only flowering patchouli and the

Japanese term it as dilem kimbang that means flowering patchouli. In Malaya, it is

called as dhalum outan to mean forest patchouli.

The word patchouli came from the Hindustani Patcholi referred to by some

as Tamil Pacha, pachai - green, ilai - leaf. Pogostemon cablin Benth. (P.

patchouli Pellet.), a native of Phillippine Islands, is the true patchouli of

commerce. The word cablin is derived from "cablam" - the vernacular name of the

plant in the Philippines and it is known to have been cultivated in Pennang since

1834 (Guenther, 1949).

PITABHRINGARAJ

Ayurvedic treatises describe 3 types of bhrinjaraj viz. seveta, nila and pita .

Of these, seveta and nila were formerly identified as two distinct plants. But now

they are equated as Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. = E. alba (Linn.) Hassk. The

yellow flowered one (pita bhringarj) is Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merrill

(Rheede 1690; Sharma, 1984; Sivarajan and Balachandran, 1994).

Sidhas claim the availability of four different names for bhringaraja. They

are: Vellaikurisalanganni Eclipta. prostrata (L.) L.,

Manjakarisalanganni Widelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merrill

Nilakarisalanganni - Caesulia axillaris Roxb

available.

E. prostrata when exposed to direct sunlight, produce greater % of

anthocyanin pigments which impart black stem colour to the same and this plant is

misinterpreted as kalabhringaraj. In Ayurveda Heliotropium brevifolium is also

known as kala bhringaraj. Though the same therapeutic property is attributed to

Heliotropium brevifolium Wall, the botanical identity is different with different

cytological characters (Balu, 1991).

Traditionally pitabhringaraj is considered as a substitute for Eclipta

prostrata (Balu 1988). Though same property is attributed to Eclipta prostrata and

Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merrill (Kritikar and Basu, 1991), and wherever the

term bringaraja is mentioned, E. prostrata is used in Ayurvedic formulations such

as Neelibringhadi thailam, Narasimharasayanam, Bhringarajasavam, Kayyunyadi

tailam etc. But W. chinensis is widely used in Siddha medicine especially for the

calcination of iron (lobha bhasmam) and for the preparation of

Ponkurisalathelineer a fermentative preparation used as a haematinic tonic

(Govindachari et al., 1969). Sharma (1983) reported that W. chinensis is used by

Nagarjuna for the processing of iron.

RASNA

Rasna is an effective anti rheumatic and anti arthritic drug, which has wide

application as single drug in our indigenous system of medicine. Apart from this,

it is used in gastro intestinal complications like flatulance, dyspepsia and upper

respiratory diseases like bronchitis and asthma (Sharma, 1983).

formulations. Rather than formulation in classical literature, it has wide

application in traditional and tribal medicines. In most of these preparations

rasna is used as the apt choice in rheumatic complaints. Due to this superior

efficacy of rasna, Charaka includes it in the vayasthapana varga the group of

drugs that can maintain vigour and strength. He commends that rasna

vataharanam - means the right choice for rheumatic complications (Pandya,

1983).

Besides, rasna is digestive and can eliminate kapha. As per Ayurvedic

concept ama matter is the causative factor for most of the ail-ments. Since

rasna bears "amapachanam" property it can basically act against diseases

connected with indigestion. Because of these properties rasna is mentioned as

regulator of rheumatic ailments (Pandey, 1985). Besides rasna is capable of

regulating kapha function too, there by suppressing pain or oedema . The

synergetic action of the drug make it a panacea that is why it is one of the major

ingredient in so many anti rheumatic formulations indicated for rheumatoid

arthritis, myalgia, sciatica and other allied conditions.

The important formulations based on these properties of rasna are

Rasnerandadi kwath, Ashtavargam kwath and Rasnasapthakam kwath. The

Sanskrit synonyms rasna (tongue like leaf), rashna (tongue like leaf), rasana

(tongue like leaf), rasya (with higher degree of pungency), sugantha moola (root is

fragrant), suvatha (anti rheumatic), elaparni (leaf resemble Eletteria), surpagandha

(snake like odour), atirasa (with high pungency) and rasadhya (high pungency).
 The botanical identity of rasna is still a controversial one. This controversy

exists in various angles, language, availability etc. A number of different plants

are equated with rasna by different workers. It includes Pleuchea lanceolata C.B

Clarke (Compositae), Vanda tessellata Loud and Loud (V. roxburghii R.Br.)

(Orchidaceae), Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd (Zingiberaceae) etc. (Anonymous, 1978;

Sharma, 1983 and Warrier et al., 1995). Other plants substituted as rasna are

Acampe papillosa Lindl., Saccolobium papillosum Lindl., Viscum album L.,

Withania coagulans Dunal., Inula racemosa, Tylophora asthmatica and

Aristolochia indica (Regunathan,1982 and Satyavati et al., 1987). The Vaidyas of

greater part of Northern India consider Pleuchea lanceolata as the genuine source

of rasna (Anonymous, 1978 and Satyavati et al., 1987)

The synonyms used for rasna such as sugandhamoola (root is fragrant), ela

parni (leaves resembles those of ela) etc. have certain cannotations appropriate to

Alpinia galanga Linn. than Pleuchea lanceolata or Vanda tessellata. Sharma and

Sharma (1977) reported that the water soluble fraction of the alcoholic extract of

Pleuchea lanceolata is significantly effective in inflammatory conditions., but less

effective than Alpinia galanga and more active than Vanda tessellata, Tylophora

asthmatica and Aristolochia indica. The sun dried rhizomes of Alpinia sp. are the

useful part. The aerial and climbing roots, stem and leaves of Vanda sp. are cut

and dried and sold in the drug market of U.P., M.P., Bihar and Bengal. Whole

plant mainly, leaf is used as rasna in the case of Pleuchea lanceolata C.B.Clarke.

TRIVRIT

Trivrit is an effective purgative or laxative drug used in ayurvedic

formulations from time immemorial for rheumatic and paralytic affections

oedema and haemophilic diseases (Sivarajan and Balachandran, 1994).

Traditionally, this plant has various applications in heart, kidney and liver diseases

(Kurup et al., 1979; Nesamony, 1985). Classically, trivrit is indicated as a laxative

(Warrier, 1955). The word trivrit means twining or twisted. Sanskrit writers think

that it is twining so as to form 3 turns (Vaidya, 1982).

Trivrit is known in English as turpeth root or Indian jalap . It is considered

as a well known substitute for the imported drug - jalap obtained from Ipomoea

purga and Ipomoea orizabensis (Wahi and Bhattacharya, 1960).

Ipomoea purga, a large twining plant of Convolvulaceae is indigenous to

Mexico. It is the source of the drug - jalap with the trade name Mexican or Vera

Cruz jalap. Ipomoea orizabensis, belonging to the same family is used as a

substitute or adulterant to jalap or its resin, jalapin. But this resin is more soluble in

ether (65%) than jalap resin (10 %) (Treas and Evans, 1983).

The main constituents of Ipomoea orizabensis resin are methyl pentosides

and other glycosides of jalapinolic acid and its methyl ester, sitosterol and

phytosterol glycosides (Trease and Evans, 1983). Ether soluble portion of Ipomoea

purga resin is known as jalapin and the ether insoluble part comprises convolvulin.

Convolvulin on hydrolysis yields about 74% rhamno convolvulic acid, 9% tiglic

acid and 7% exogenic acid. Jalapin is the main active constituent of jalap. In

addition to all the above constituents, resin also contains ipurganol, methyl

aesculetin, palmitic and stearic acids. (Kokate et al., 1990). Therapeutic value of

these two plants are the same; being used as a powerful hydrogogue and cathartic.

(Treas and Evans, 1983). Trivrit is a controversial drug as per ayurvedic treatises.
According to Charaka, trivrit consists of two types of plants which can be

distinguished on the basis of colour of roots, viz., aruna and syama (Pandya, 1983).

Susruta included a third variety to the list, namely mahatrivrit or mahasyama

(Singh and Chunekar, 1972). But Bhavamisra referred it as Svet and Syama

(Panday, 1985). According to Sivarajan and Balachandran (1994), mahatrivrit or

mahasyama described by Susrutha (Singh and Chunekar, 1972) does not exist in

Kerala. This has created a lot of confusion in the drug market regarding the

genuinity of this drug. Dalhana and Chakrapani, the learned commentators of

Charaka and Susrutha Samhitas included this in the group of purgative drugs

irrespective of the colour. Following this, the Ayurveda Nighantus also classified

trivrit in to two; white and black.

According to Dymock et al., (1891), white variety of turpeth consists of the

dried roots of Ipomoea turpethum R.Br = (Operculina turpethum Silva Manso) and

the black variety is the root of Lettosomia atropurpurea Clarke and he attributed

the same morphological and histological structure to both.

In South Indian markets, two types of materials are sold as trivrit (nisoth).

One is the stem and root of Marsdenia tenacissima W and A of the family

Asclepiadaceae and the other is the stem and root of Operculina turpethum (Linn.)

Silva Manso. (Wahi and Bhattacharya, 1960; Shah et al., 1960, 1961 and Sivaraj

and Balachandran, 1994). Reghunathan and Mitra (1982) opined that roots of

Marsedenia tenacissima W and A and Ipomoea turpethum has the same anatomical

structure except that the cork portion is absent in Ipomoea turpethum R.Br. They

observed that the drug collectors sold Marsdenia tenacissima W. & A. after

scraping the cork with a special knife. Since these two plants belong to two
different species and families, their pharmacological action will also be different.

Vaidya (1982) also opined that white turpethum sold in market is the stem of

Marsdenia tenacissima W. and A. with an entirely different therapeutic value.

Though some medicinal property is attributed to Marsdenia tenacissima W. & A., it

is basically a fiber yielding plant. Operculina turpethum belong to the family

Convolvulaceae and it provides drastic purgative action. According to

Bhattacharya (1961), turpethin and turpethin, responsible for purgative

activity are found only in Ipomea turpethum. Singh et al., (1967) confirmed that

there are no two trivrit, where as, Operculina turpethum (Linn.) Silva Manso is the

genuine source and Marsdenia tenacissima W. & A., is the adulterant.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS