CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS

CHAPTER SEVEN
DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS

7.1- INTRODUCTION
An air-conditioning system must not only condition air, it must also distribute conditioned air
throughout the space. Usually, the conditioning fluid is distributed from a central equipment location
to the individual spaces requiring environment control. For example, a fan and duct system
distributes air or a pump and piping system distributes water. Then, the conditioned air is
distributed into the room by air diffusers or grilles.
An objective of duct system design is to provide a system that, within prescribed limits of
velocities, noise intensity, and space available for ducts, efficiently transmits the required flow rate
of air to each space while maintaining a proper balance between investment and operating cost.
When the heating, cooling, or ventilation load is established, the total flow rate of air required can be
determined as explained earlier in Chapter-3. The size of the duct system governs frictional losses,
and thereby, the size of fan and power required to operate the duct system.

7.2- DESIGN OF DUCTS SYSTEMS

7.2.1- PRESSURE CHANGES
Resistance to airflow imposed by the supply duct system must be overcome by mechanical
energy, which is ordinarily supplied by a fan. Resistance also is imposed by the return-air system,
which must also be overcome by the fan. In air-conditioning and ventilating work, the pressure
differences are ordinarily so small that the equations for incompressible flow can be applied.
Additional simplification is obtained by considering the air to be at the standard density of 1.2 kg/m3.
At any cross section in a duct, as shown in Fig.(7.1), the total pressure pt is the sum of the static
pressure ps and the dynamic velocity pressure pv as:
pt ps pv (7.1)

Fig.(7.1) Static, velocity, and total pressure

Pressures are normally expressed in (Pa). The velocity pressure is then given by:
V 2
pv (7.2)
2

Where V is the fluid mean velocity in (m/s) and defined as (V = Q/A), i.e. Q and A are the airflow rate
and cross-sectional area of duct, respectively.
For air at standard conditions (1.2 kg/m3), Eq.(7.2) can be written as:
pv 0.6 V 2 (7.3)

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Note: The total pressure pt is a measure of the total available energy at a cross section. In any duct
system, the total pressure always decreases in the direction of the airflow. Static and velocity pressure
are mutually convertible and either increase or decrease in the flow direction. To explain how these
pressure components can change, variation of static, velocity, and total pressures along a simplified
fan/duct system is shown in Fig.(7.2). This illustrative system consists of a fan with both supply and
return air ductwork. Also shown are the total and static pressure gradients referenced to atmospheric
pressure, where the following aspects are indicated:
1. For all constant-area sections, total and static pressure losses are equal.
2. At diverging transitions, i.e. sections 3 and 6, both velocity pressure and the absolute value of
total pressure decrease, while the absolute value of the static pressure may increase. The static
pressure increase at these sections is known as static regain.
3. At converging transitions, i.e. sections 1 and 4, the velocity pressure increases in the direction of
airflow, while the absolute value of both static and total pressures decreases.
4. At the exit, total pressure loss depends on the shape of the fitting and the flow characteristics.
Exit loss coefficients C0 can be greater than, less than, or equal to one, as shown in Fig.(7.2).
Note that when C0<1, the static pressure upstream of the exit is less than atmospheric pressure
(negative).
5. At the entry, i.e. section 1, the loss also depends on the shape of the fitting. The total pressure
immediately downstream of the entrance equals the difference between the upstream pressure,
which is zero (atmospheric pressure), and the loss through the fitting. The static pressure at the
entrance is zero, and immediately downstream, the difference between static pressure is negative,
algebraically equal to the total pressure (negative) minus the velocity pressure (always positive).
6. System resistance to airflow is measured by the total pressure grade line in Fig.(7.2).
7. Sections 3 and 4 include fan system effect pressure losses. To obtain the fan static pressure
requirement for fan selection where fan total pressure is known, use:
Ps Pt pv, o (7.4)
Where:
Ps = fan static pressure, Pa
Pt = fan total pressure, Pa
pv,o = fan outlet velocity pressure, Pa

Fig.(7.2) Various components of the heat gained in a particular zone

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS

7.2.2- CIRCULAR EQUIVALENTS OF DUCTS

An air-handling system is usually sized first for round ducts. Then, if rectangular ducts are
desired, duct sizes are selected to provide flow rates equivalent to those of the round ducts originally
selected.
Rectangular ducts of aspect ratios not exceeding 8:1 usually have the same friction pressure loss
for equal lengths and mean velocities of flow as do circular ducts of the same hydraulic diameter.
When duct sizes are expressed in terms of hydraulic diameter (4 times area divided by perimeter),
and when equations for friction loss in round and rectangular ducts are equated for equal flow rate
and equal length, Eq.(7.5), giving the circular equivalent of a rectangular duct, is obtained as:
1.3a b
0.625
De (7.5)
a b 0.25
Where:
a = length of one side of rectangular duct, mm
b = length of adjacent side of rectangular duct, mm
De = circular equivalent of a rectangular duct for equal friction and capacity, mm

The circular equivalents of rectangular ducts for equal friction and flow rate for aspect ratios not
greater than 8:1, based on Eq.(7.5), are given in Table (7.1). Note that the mean velocity in a
rectangular duct is less than its circular equivalent.

7.2.3- FLUID RESISTANCE

Duct system losses are the irreversible transformation of mechanical energy into heat. The two
types of losses are (1) friction losses and (2) dynamic losses.

7.2.3.1- FRICTION LOSSES

Pressure drop in a straight duct is caused by surface friction. This friction loss can be calculated
by using the Air Friction Charts shown in Fig.(7.3). The charts were built from the basic flow equation
for pressure loss in circular ducts:
V 2
p f f D (cf L De ) f (cf L De ) pv (7.6)
2
Where:
pf = friction loss in terms of total pressure, Pa
fD = dimensionless friction factor, which depends on Reynolds number (Re) and the relative
roughness of the conduit
L = duct length, m
De = inside diameter of duct, mm
V = velocity, m/s
= density, kg/m3
cf = conversion factor

Fluid resistance caused by friction in round ducts can be determined by the friction chart,
Fig.(7.3). This chart is based on standard air flowing through round galvanized ducts with beaded
slip couplings on 1220 mm centres, equivalent to an absolute roughness of 0.09 mm.

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS

Table (7.1) Circular equivalents of rectangular duct for equal friction and Capacitya

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS

Fig.(7.3) Pressure drop in straight, circular, sheet-metal ducts for 20C air

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS
Note: No corrections to Fig.(7.3) are required for temperature variation of 15 K from 20C or
elevations up to 500 m. However, exceeding these bounding conditions makes it necessary to correct
the pressure drop estimated using Fig.(7.3) due to the deviation resulted in the values of air density
and viscosity from those used for establishing the Friction Chart as follows:
p f ,a K p f ,s (7.7)
Where:
p f ,a friction loss in terms of total pressure at actual conditions, Pa
p f ,s friction loss in terms of total pressure at standard conditions using Fig.(7.3), Pa
K = dimensionless correction factor for density and/or viscosity, which is determined as:
0.9 0.1

K a a (7.8)
s s
Where the subscript a and s refer to actual and standard conditions, respectively.
As the viscosity of air is essentially a function of temperature, while density depends on both the
temperature and barometric pressure (elevation), the correction factor computed in the above equation
can be reformulated as follows:
K KT K E (7.9)
Where:
KT = friction correction factor for temperature, dimensionless
KE = friction correction factor for elevation, dimensionless
Temperature correction factor can be estimated as:
0.825
293
K T (7.10)
Ta 273
Where Ta is the actual temperature of air in C.
While the Barometric pressure (elevation) correction factor can be determined as:
0.9
B
KE (7.11)
101 .3
Note: Both KT and KE correction factors can also be measured using the chart illustrated in Fig.(7.4).

Fig.(7.4) Friction chart correction factors for temperature and elevation

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7.2.3.2- DYNAMIC LOSSES

Wherever eddying flow is present, a greater loss in total pressure takes place than would occur
in steady flow through a similar length of straight duct having a uniform cross section. The amount
of this loss in excess of straight duct friction is termed dynamic loss.
Dynamic losses result from flow disturbances caused by fittings that change the airflow paths
direction and/or area. These fittings include entries, exits, transitions, and junctions.

Notes:
1. For all fittings, except junctions, the total pressure loss pj at a section can be calculated as:
p j C o p v ,o (7.12)
Where the subscript o is the cross section at which the velocity pressure is referenced.
2. The dynamic loss is based on the actual velocity in the duct, not the velocity in an equivalent non-
circular duct. Where necessary (unequal area fittings), convert a loss coefficient from section o to
section i using the equation below, where V is the velocity at the respective sections.
Co
Ci (7.13)
Vi
Vo
2

3. For converging and diverging flow junctions, total pressure losses through the straight (main)
section are calculated as:

p j C c , s p v ,c (7.14.a)
While for total pressure losses through the branch section:

p j C c ,b p v , c (7.14.b)
Where Pv,c is the velocity pressure at the common section c, while Cc,s and Cc,b represent the losses
for the straight (main) and branch flow paths, respectively, each referenced to the velocity pressure
at section c.

7.2.4- DESIGN METHODS OF DUCTS SYSTEMS

The transmission of air at high velocities has gained wide acceptance in comfort air-conditioning
and ventilation systems. This acceptance is due partly to improved fans and special sound attenuation
and control equipment and partly to improved design and installation methods based on a better
understanding of the design and installation of high velocity air-conditioning systems.
The design of high-velocity duct systems involves a compromise between reduction of duct size
and the consequent need for higher fan power. While the duct size and air velocities are mostly
governed by the space available, the maximum velocities (given later in this section) should not be
exceeded without carefully examining all factors.
The following principles apply to all duct systems regardless of the design method used:
1. The measure of the amount of energy required to move air from one location to another is the
change (decrease) in the total pressure within the system.
2. In any duct system, the total pressure always decreases in the direction of airflow.
3. In any system having two or more branches, the losses in total pressure between the fan and
the end of each branch are the same.
4. Static pressure and velocity pressure are mutually convertible and can either increase or
decrease in the direction of flow. For example, in a straight run of duct, the static pressure
decreases, the velocity pressure remains constant, and the total pressure (their sum) decreases.
In a gradually diverging section (area increase), the velocity pressure decreases, the static
pressure increases, and the total pressure remains the same (neglecting the small friction loss).

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS
The most common methods of air duct design are (1) Equal Friction, (2) Velocity Reduction, and
(3) Static Regain. No single duct design method automatically produces the most economical duct
system for all conditions; the system design with the minimum owning and operating cost depends
on both the application and ingenuity of the designer.

7.2.4.1- VELOCITY REDUCTION METHOD

This method consists of selecting the velocity at the fan discharge and designing for progressively
lower velocities in the main duct at each junction or branch duct, as illustrated in Fig.7.4). For the
selected velocities and known airflow rates, the area and diameter of each duct section can be found
as:
Q De2
A (7.15)
V 4
Otherwise, the duct diameter may be read directly from Fig.(7.3) and the equivalent rectangular sizes
obtained either using Eq.(7.5) or from Table (7.1).
The return air ductwork is sized similarly, starting with the highest velocity at the fan suction and
decreasing progressively in the direction of the return intakes. With the ducts sized and the fittings
known, the total pressure losses can be calculated, the pressure gradients plotted, and the maximum
pressure loss or critical path of the system established.
A refinement of this method involves sizing the branch ducts to dissipate the pressure available
at the entrance to each. The pressure loss of the ductwork between the fan and first branch take-off is
subtracted from the total fan pressure to obtain the available pressure at the first junction. Through
trial, a branch velocity is found that results in the branch pressure loss being equal to or less than the
pressure available. The procedure is repeated for each branch.
If the fan is specified so that the total pressure available for the system is known, the method
consists of finding, through trial, the velocities in the main and branch ducts that will result in a
pressure loss equal to or less than the pressure available. The branch ducts are sized as discussed
previously.

Fig.(7.4) The change of pressure drop rate at constant velocity

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS
Example 7.1- Size the duct system shown in Fig.(7.5) if the velocity in the section next to the fan
should not exceed 7.5 m/s, while its value should not be higher than 3.5 m/s in any branch section.

Fig.(7.5) Duct layout diagram of Example- 7.1

Answer: The following procedure is followed to design the duct system using the VELOCITY
REDUCTION METHOD:
1. Looking closely at Fig.(7.5), it is reasonable to consider that the velocity in section BC should be
the average value of 7.5 and 3.5, i.e. 5.5 m/s.
2. Then, the air flow rate for each section is listed as given in Table (7.1); and hence, the area and
size of each section can be found using Eq.(7.15).
3. The relevant pressure drop, however, can only be determined using Fig.(7.3).
4. The duct run having the greatest total pressure drop is known as the INDEX RUN. This is usually,
but not always, the longest duct run.
5. It is clear that the pressure at point C is high enough to deliver the desired airflow rate to the
terminal end of the index run at D'. However, it is more than required to deliver the desired airflow
rate through branch CC' to point C'. A similar consideration applies at B. Thus, it is essential to
set branch dampers at the entrance to each of the sections BB' and CC' to absorb the surplus
pressure and ensure the correct branch airflow.
Table (7.1) Design data for each duct section in Example- 7.1

7.2.4.2- EQUAL FRICTION METHOD

The principle of this method is to size a systems ductwork for a constant pressure loss per unit
length of duct. For an initial design, the friction loss per unit length of duct for the corresponding
recommended velocities is given in Fig.(7.3).
Once the system is sized, the total pressure losses for the main and branch sections from junction-
to-junction/fan/terminal may be calculated and the total pressure grade line plotted.
After initial sizing, the total pressure losses for all duct sections are calculated. Then, these
sections are resized to balance pressure losses at each junction and to avoid relying entirely on
balancing dampers. This procedure is known as the BALANCED PRESSURE DROP METHOD.

Note: The shaded area of the friction chart, i.e. Fig.(7.3), is the suggested range of friction rate and
air velocity for optimum design. The second method is commonly used with a pressure drop rate of
0.8 Pa/m, which quotes a range of limiting velocities from 9 to 20 m/s, leaving the exact choice to the
designer.

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Example 7.2- Resize the duct system shown in Fig.(7.5) using a constant pressure drop rate of 1.0
Pa/m.

Answer: The following procedure is followed to design the duct system according to the EQUAL
FRICTION METHOD:
1. The air flow rate for each section is firstly listed as given in Table (7.2).
2. Using a fixed pressure drop, i.e. 1.0 Pa/m, the relevant velocity and duct size for each section are
determined using Fig.(7.3).
3. While using this method, care must be taken to always have an optimum value for air velocity, i.e.
through avoiding to have design points outside the shaded area of the friction chart.

Table (7.2) design data for each duct section in Example- 7.2
Q P V d
Section
m3/s Pa/m m/s mm
AB 1.5 1.0 7.1 520
BC 1.0 1.0 6.4 450
CD 0.5 1.0 5.4 345
BB 0.5 1.0 5.4 345
CC 0.5 1.0 5.4 345

Example 7.3- Using a constant pressure drop rate of 0.8 Pa/m, resize the duct system shown in
Fig.(7.5) considering a velocity limit of 6.0 m/s in all the system sections.

Answer: The following procedure is followed to design the duct system according to the EQUAL
FRICTION METHOD:
1. The air flow rate for each section is firstly listed as given in Table (7.3).
2. Using a fixed pressure drop, i.e. 0.8 Pa/m, the relevant velocity and duct size for each section are
determined using Fig.(7.3).
3. Considering a pressure drop rate of 0.8 Pa/m for the duct section AB results in an air velocity
beyond the air speed limit, i.e. 6.5 m/s. Thus, the air velocity in this section must set to its maximum
limit of 6.0 m/s resulting in a pressure drop rate of 0.65 Pa/m.

Table (7.3) Design data for each duct section in Example- 7.3

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS
Example 7.4- Considering a pressure drop rate of 0.8 Pa/m along the index run, size the air
conditioning ducts system shown in Fig.(7.6) using the EQUILIBRIUM PRESSURE DROP BALANCED
PRESSURE DROP.

Fig.(7.6) Duct layout diagram of Example- 7.4

Section 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Length (m) 9.3 9 4.5 28 3 3 3 3 6 6 6
Section 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20-28 29
Length (m) 6.3 6.3 6 6 6.3 6 8.3 6.5 0.3 2.3

Point A B C D
Flow rate
540 720 1800 1800
(m3/h)

Solution:
Length of the index run= L1 +L2 +L3 +L4 +L5 +L6 +L7 +L8 +L9 +L10 +L11 +L12
=9.3+9+4.5+28+3+3+3+3+6+6+6+6.3=87.1 m
P/m for index run =0.8 Pa/m, hence;
Pindex run Lindex run P / m index run 87.1 0.8 69.68 Pa
To balance the remaining branches in the ducts system, pressure drop across each one of them
should be equated to the pressure drop across the corresponding branch within the index run. Thus,
the pressure drop rate through the branch (131415) can be determined as:
P(13-14-15) P(8-9-10-11-12) L(13-14-15) P / m (13-14-15) L(8-9-10-11-12) P / m (8-9-10-11-12)
L(8-9-10-11-12) P / m (8-9-10-11-12) (3 6 6 6 6.3) 0.8
P / m (13-14-15) 1.19 Pa / m
L(13-14-15) (6.3 6 6)

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS
Similarly, the pressure drop rate along the branches (1617), (18), and (19) can be determined as:
L(5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12) P / m (5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12)
P / m (16-17)
L(16-17)
(3 3 3 3 6 6 6 6.3) 0.8
2.36 Pa / m
(6.3 6)
L(1-2) P / m (1-2)
P / m (18)
L(18)
(9.3 9) 0.8
1.76 Pa / m
(8.3)
L(1-2) P / m (1-2)
P / m (19)
L(19)
(9.3 9) 0.8
2.25 Pa / m
(6.5)
Now, using the pressure drop rates detailed above, the relevant velocity and duct size for each section
are determined using Fig.(7.3) as detailed in Table (7.4) below.

Table (7.4) The design data of Example- 7.4

Airflow rate Pressure drop rate Equivalent diameter Air Velocity WH

Section
m3/s Pa/m mm m/s mm

1 0.5 0.8 363 5 250450

2 1 0.8 465 5.9 225900
3 1.5 0.8 543 6.5 450550
4 2 0.8 601 7.05 550550
5 1.7 0.8 567 6.7 450600
6 1.55 0.8 550 6.5 350750
7 1.4 0.8 533 6.3 400600
8 0.9 0.8 443 5.8 250700
9 0.75 0.8 414 5.6 250600
10 0.6 0.8 381 5.3 250500
11 0.4 0.8 326 4.8 175550
12 0.2 0.8 253 4 100600
13 0.2 1.19 235 4.6 125400
14 0.35 1.19 289 5.3 125650
15 0.5 1.19 331 5.8 150700
16 0.15 2.36 183 5.6 100300
17 0.3 2.36 238 6.8 175275
18 0.5 1.76 310 6.7 150600
19 0.5 2.25 289 7.6 125650

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7.2.4.3- STATIC REGAIN METHOD

In this method, the ducts are sized so that the increase in static pressure (static regain) at each
take-off balances the pressure loss of the subsequent section of ductwork. This method is especially
suited for high-velocity installations having long runs with many take-offs or terminal units.
Approximately the same static pressure exists at the entrance to each branch, which simplifies outlet
or terminal unit selection and system balancing. With the ductwork sized by this method, the systems
total pressure losses can be calculated. A disadvantage of this method is that excessively large ducts
(low velocities) result at the ends of long duct runs.
The total pressure design method is an adaptation of the static regain method. This method is
advantageous since the intermediate system pressures and control of duct sizes and velocities are
known.

7.2.5- AIRFLOW IN BENDS

Similar other pieces of ducting, the losses produced when air flows via a bend is expressed as a
function of the velocity pressure in the bend if its cross section is constant. If the section varies,
precise calculations are not possible; but with a bit of common sense, a good approximation can
frequently be obtained. For a bend of constant cross-sectional area, the loss depends on:
1. The curvature of the throat.
2. The shape of the section.
3. The angle through which the air stream is turned.
The curvature of the throat is usually expressed either in terms of the ratio of the throat radius Rt
to the dimension parallel to the radius W, or in terms of the ratio of the centre-line radius Rc to the
dimension W, as shown in Fig.(7.7.a). The second one is the most common method, where a large
value of Rc/W implies that the air is smoothly and gradually turned; and hence, the pressure loss is
small due to the little opportunity to have turbulence formation there. However, it is costly and
impractical to have a long bend as it requires large space and its appearance is unsightly. It is usually
practical to set a bend having Rc/W =1.01.5.

Fig.(7.6) (a) and (b) Airflow around a bend, (c) Bends of different aspect ratios

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Fig.(7.8) shows the equivalent length of a circular duct with respect to the elbow diameter D,
while Fig.(7.9) displays the equivalent length of a rectangular duct with respect to the elbow width
W.

Fig.(7.8) Equivalent length of circular elbows

Fig.(7.9) Equivalent length of rectangular elbows

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Example 7.5- Determine the pressure drop for the duct shown in Fig.(7.10) between points A and D,
where 1m3/s of air is delivered through a constant cross section of HW =150600mm. Consider that
the radius of the first and second elbows are 450mm and 225mm, respectively.

Fig.(7.10) Duct layout diagram of Example- 7.5

Solution:
First of all, the equivalent length of each elbow should be estimated as follows:
R1 450
As, 0.75
W1 600
H 1 150
And, 0.25
W1 600
L
From Table (7.9) we find that: 1 11 .5
W1
Thus, the equivalent length of the first elbow is:
L1 11.5 0.6 6.9m
This means that the pressure drop in the first elbow is equivalent to 6.9m of the straight duct having
the same cross section.

Similarly for the second elbow:

R2 225
1.5
W2 150
H 2 600
And, 4
W2 150
L2
From Table (7.9) we find that: 6
W2
So, the equivalent length of the second elbow is:
L2 6 0.15 0.9m
The total equivalent length of the duct system is:
Lt L1 LDuct L2 6.9 (2.2 6 1.5) 0.9 17.5m

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS
Now, the circular equivalent diameter for the rectangular cross section is:
1.3a b 1.3150 600
0.625 0.625
De 310 mm
a b 0.25 150 600 0.25
From Fig.(7.3) equivalent diameter of 310mm and airflow rate of 1m3/s, we find that the pressure
drop rate is:
P/m=6.3Pa/m
Finally, the total pressure drop can be determined as:
Pt=Lt P/m=17.56.3=110.25Pa

7.3- FANS
A fan is an air pump, a machine that creates a pressure difference and causes airflow. The
impeller imparts to the air static and kinetic energy, which varies in proportion, depending on the type
of fan. Fan efficiency ratings are based on ideal conditions; some fans are rated at more than 90%
total efficiency. However, actual connections often make it impossible to achieve ideal efficiencies
in the field.

7.3.1- TYPES OF FANS

Fans are generally classified as centrifugal or axial flow according to the direction of airflow
through the impeller.
Fig.(7.11) shows the general configuration of a centrifugal fan, while the components of an axial-
flow fan are shown in Fig.(7.12). Table (7.5) compares typical characteristics of some of the most
common fan types.

7.3.2- PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

All fans produce pressure by altering the airflows velocity vector. A fan produces pressure
and/or airflow because the rotating blades of the impeller impart kinetic energy to the air by changing
its velocity. Velocity change is in the tangential and radial velocity components for centrifugal fans,
and in the axial and tangential velocity components for axial-flow fans.
Centrifugal fan impellers produce pressure from the (1) centrifugal force created by rotating the
air column contained between the blades and (2) kinetic energy imparted to the air by its velocity
leaving the impeller. This velocity is a combination of rotational velocity of the impeller and airspeed
relative to the impeller. When the blades are inclined forward, these two velocities are cumulative;
when backward, oppositional. Backward-curved blade fans are generally more efficient than forward-
curved blade fans.
Axial-flow fan impellers produce pressure principally by the change in air velocity as it passes
through the impeller blades, with none being produced by centrifugal force. These fans are divided
into three types: propeller, tubeaxial, and vaneaxial. Propeller fans, customarily used at or near free
air delivery, usually have a small hub-to-tip-ratio impeller mounted in an orifice plate or inlet ring.
Tubeaxial fans usually have reduced tip clearance and operate at higher tip speeds, giving them a
higher total pressure capability than the propeller fan. Vaneaxial fans are essentially tubeaxial fans
with guide vanes and reduced running blade tip clearance, which give improved pressure, efficiency,
and noise characteristics.
Table (7.5) includes typical performance curves for various types of fans. These performance
curves show the general characteristics of various fans as they are normally used; they do not reflect
fan characteristics reduced to common denominators such as constant speed or constant propeller
diameter, because fans are not selected on the basis of these constants. The efficiencies and power
characteristics shown are general indications for each type of fan. A specific fan (size, speed) must
be selected by evaluating actual characteristics.

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Fig.(7.11) Centrifugal fan components

Fig.(7.11) Axial fan components

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Table (7.5) Types of fans

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS

Table (7.5) Types of fans (Continued)

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS

7.3.2- FAN TOTAL PRESSURE

As previously stated, a fan impeller imparts static and kinetic energy to the air. This energy is
represented in the increase in total pressure and can be converted to static or velocity pressure. These
two quantities are interdependent: fan performance cannot be evaluated by considering one alone.
Energy conversion, indicated by changes in velocity pressure to static pressure and vice versa,
depends on the efficiency of conversion, where the energy conversion occurs in the discharge duct
connected to a fan being tested.
Thus, the fan static pressure (PSF) is the pressure increase produced by a fan, while the fan
velocity pressure (PvF) is the velocity pressure corresponding to the mean velocity of air at the fan
outlet based on the total outlet area without any deductions for motors, fairings, or other bodies. The
total pressure created by a fan or the fan total pressure (PTF) is the algebraic difference between the
total pressure at the fan outlet and the total pressure at the fan inlet as:
PTF = PT1 PT2 (7.16.a)
Where:
PT1 = Total pressure at the fan inlet
= PS1 +Pv1 (7.16.b)
And:
PT2 = Total pressure at the fan outlet
= PS2 +Pv2 (7.16.c)
As preceded, the total pressure at a point is the sum of static pressure and velocity pressure at that
point. Thus, for a fan:
Fan total pressure = Fan static pressure + Fan velocity pressure
i.e. PTF = PSF +PvF (7.17.a)
As the fan velocity pressure (PvF) is the velocity pressure at the fan outlet (Pv2), therefore:
PTF = PSF + Pv2 (7.17.b)

7.3.3- FAN AIR POWER

The power output of a fan is expressed in terms of air power and represents the work done by
the fan. Mathematically, the total fan air power HaT based on fan total pressure, PTF is:
H aT Q PTF K P , (W ) (7.18.a)
Where:
Q = Total quantity of air flowing at the fan inlet in m3/min,
PTF = Fan total pressure in mm of water,
KP = Compressibility coefficient.
Similarly, the static fan air power HaS based on the fan static pressure (PSF) is:
H aS Q PSF K P , (W ) (7.18.b)

7.3.4- FAN EFFICIENCY

The ratio of the total fan air power to the driving power (or shaft power) required for the fan shaft
is known as the total fan efficiency or the mechanical efficiency of the fan, which is expressed as:
Total fan air power H at
TF (7.19.a)
Input or shaft power B.P.

Similarly, the static fan efficiency,

Static fan air power H as
SF (7.19.b)
Input or shaft power B.P.

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS

7.3.5- FAN LAWS

Fan laws relate the performance variables for any geometrically similar series of fans. The
variables involved are the fan size D, rotational speed N, gas density , volume flow rate Q, pressure
Pt or Ps, power H (either air or shaft), and mechanical efficiency TF. Those laws can be summarised
as:
1. The volume flow rate or capacity (Q) of a fan is directly proportional to the fan speed (N) and cube
of the impeller diameter (D) as:
Q N D3 (7.20)
2. The fan total pressure (PTF), static pressure (PSF) and velocity pressure (PvF) at the fan discharge
are directly proportional to the square of the fan speed (N 2) as:
(PTF, PSF, PvF) N 2 (7.21)
3. The fan power (Hf) is directly proportional to the cube of the fan speed (N 3) as:
Hf N 3 (7.22)
4. At constant fan speed and flow rate, the fan power (Hf) along with the fan total pressure (PTF),
static pressure (PSF), and the velocity pressure (PvF) at the fan discharge are directly proportional
to the air density (a) as:
(Hf, PTF, PSF, PvF) a (7.23)
5. At constant fan pressure, the fan speed (N), volume flow rate (Q) and the fan power (Hf) are
inversely proportional to the square root of the air density (a) as:
1
(Q, Hf, N) (7.24)
a
6. At constant mass flow rate the fan speed (N), the volume flow rate (Q) and fan pressure fan total
pressure (PTF), fan static pressure (PSF) and the velocity pressure (PVF) are inversely proportional
to the air density (a); while the fan power (Hf) is inversely proportional to the square root of the
air density (a) as:
1
(Q, p, N) (7.25.a)
a
1
Hf (7.25.b)
a

Example 7.6- A fan having an efficiency of 0.65 is used to suck air from a room and then push it
through a duct system, where a grill is installed at the end of duct to distribute the air delivered.
Consider that the airflow rate through the duct is 1m3/s, while the equivalent diameter of the duct is
310mm. If the grill causes a pressure drop of 30Pa and the static pressure drop along the duct and
elbows is 110.25Pa, calculate the fan power.

Solution:
Total static pressure= PDuct & Elbows + PGrill
Pst = 110.25+30=140.25 Pa
The mean air velocity in the room is zero, while it is increased to the velocity in the main duct, which
can be evaluated from Fig.(7.3) at airflow rate of 1m3/s and equivalent diameter of 310mm to be:
V2 =13 m/s
Thus, the change in the dynamic pressure through the fan is:
1

Pv V22 V12
2

= 0.51.2[(13)2 -0], The ideal density of air is considered =1.2 kg/m3
= 101.4 Pa
Total fan pressure:
Pt =Ps+Pv
=140.25+101.4=241.65 Pa
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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS
Air power:
Wa=QPt
=1 241.65 =241.65 W
Fan power:
Wf = Wa/
=241.65/0.65 =371.8 W

Example 7.7- A fan delivers 8.2m3/s of air at static pressure 250kPa when the speed of fan is 256rpm
and requires a power of 34 kW. If the fan speed is changed to 300 rpm, find the new air flow rate,
static pressure and the power required.

Solution:
As, Q N
Q Q
1 2
N1 N 2
300
Q2 8.2 9.61 m3 / s
256
And, (PTF, PSF, PvF) N 3
PSF1 PSF 2
2
N12 N2
2
300
PSF 2 250 343 .3 Pa
256
Wf N 3
Wf1 Wf 2
3
N13 N2
3
300
W f 2 3.4 5.47 kW
256

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CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN OF DUCTS AND FANS SYSTEMS
PROBLEMS:
1- Find the total pressure drop in a straight air duct having a length of 36m and its diameter is 1100mm
and carries air having temperature of 40C at atmospheric pressure on a flow rate of 7m3/s.
Ans. 15.8Pa
2- If the air in Problem-1 is at temperature 48C and barometric pressure of 96kPa, determine the
total pressure drop assuming the same airflow rate. Ans. 14Pa
3- If two elbows are added to the duct in Problem-2. The first is composed of three pieces and has a
radius of 1.65m, while the second is composed of for pieces with a radius of 2.2m. Determine the
extra pressure drop resulted from the two elbows. Ans. 14Pa
4- Find the dimension of a rectangular duct equivalent to a circular one having diameter of 1200mm
if the new duct is a) square, b) rectangular having width to height ratio=2:1, c) rectangular having
width to height ratio=6:1
5- If the supply velocity for the main passage in the duct system given in Fig.(7.5) is 12m/s, size the
duct system for this high velocity and for the same airflow rates according to the EQUAL FRICTION
METHOD.
6- If the air velocity through the main section is 6m/s, size the duct system illustrated below according
to the EQUAL FRICTION METHOD. Also, form a table including the values of air velocity, pressure
drop rate, airflow rate, circular diameter. Then, convert all the ducts from circular to rectangular
cross-section having height of 300mm. Assume that the equivalent length of the bend in the index
run equals to quarter than the total length of the index run and calculate the total pressure drop
along the index run. Ans. B=0.750.3m, Pt=13.6Pa
3
0.4m /s

E 3m
5m 3m 5m

A B C

3m
D

3
0.4m3/s 0.8m /s

7- Resize the duct sections D and E for the system given in Problem-6 to make the pressure balanced
in all the system branches. Hint: the total equivalent length of the index run was 20m, while the
pressure drop rate considered for the design in Problem-6 was 0.68Pa/m
Ans. D=265mm, E=310mm
8- A duct delivers air at 3.5m3/s and temperature 50C. If the duct dimensions are 1.10.4m and it
includes a horizontal bend having a radius of 1.65m, determine the pressure drop in this bend.
Ans. 4.5Pa
9- A centrifugal fan supplies 4.7m3/s of air at a total static pressure of 325Pa. If the fan efficiency is
60% and rotates at a speed of 950rpm and supplies air with a velocity of 12m/s, determine the fan
total pressure, air power, and fan power. Ans. 411Pa
10- If the efficiency of the fan given in Problem-9 becomes 70%, determine the power required
for running it. Then, find the power required and airflow rate supplied if the fan speed is increased
to 1050rpm. Also, assume that the fan static pressure does not change and determine the air
velocity out of the fan. Ans. 4.6kW, 6.21kW, 5.195m3/s, 17.2m/s

Dr Ahmed Alhusseiny 140