GENERICGUIDETOSELECTEDCORALSOFMALDIVESByHusseinZahirandIbrahimNaeem

Ministry
Marine

of Fisheries
Research
Section

and Agriculture
~--"
II
II
 Marine Research Section
(Q1996
,... Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture
Ghaazee Building
Male', 20-06
Republic of Maldives.
Tel:322509,322328
Fax: 322509,326558

ISBN
9991
Thisworkiscopyright.Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposeofstudy,researchor
criticism, no part of this book may be reproduced by any process without prior written
permission. In all cases the source of copied material should be cited.
GenericGuidetoSelectedCoralsofMaldives.
PrintedinMaldivesbyNoveltyPrinters&Publishers.D-90/96/DPE
AndersonprovidedtheintroductorysectionontheformationoftheMaldives.MissSianDamschkeassistedinmaterialisingtheEnglishtext.DraftsofsectionsofthisbookwerereviewedbyDr.CharlesAnderson,AhmedHafizandAbdullaNaseer.IbrahimNadheehwordprocessedtheDhivehiscript.WewouldalsoliketoextendoursincerethankstoIsmailHaleemandAdamManikuwhorenderedtremendoussupportincompilingthisbook.ManythankstoallstaffofMRSfortheirmoralsupport.
support and encouragement.

ACKN0WLEDGEMENTSWethanktheHon.HassanSobir(MinisterofFisheriesandAgriculture),Mr.MaizanHassanManiku(DirectorGeneral)andMr.AhmedHafiz(DeputyDirector)fortheir
works. Abdullah Naseer provided the introductory section on coral mining. Dr. Charles
Mohamed Faiz took all the photographs and did the layout
.
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgement

Table of contents 11

Contents

Page
Introduction 1

Coral Mining in Maldives 3

7
FormationoftheMaldives
10
CoralStructutreandBiology
16
FamilyPocilloporidae
Pocillopora
16

Family Acroporidae
18
Montipora 18
Acropora 20

Family Poritidae
24
Porites 24
Goniopora
28

Family Siderastreidae 30
Psammocora 30

Family Agariciidae 32
Pavona 32
Leptoseris 35
Gardineroseris 38
Pachyseris 39

Family Fungiidae 41
Fungia 41
Herpolitha 45
Polyphyllia 47
Halomitra 49

11
 50
Family Oculinidae
50
Galaxea

52
Family Pectiniidae 52
Oxypora 54
Mycedium
55
Echinophyllia
57
Pectinia

58
58
FamilyMussidae
Lobophyllia
60
Symphyllia

62
Family Merulinidae 62
Hydnophora 64
Merulina

66
Family Faviidae 66
Favia
70
Favites
73
Goniastrea
75
Platygyra
77
Leptoria 78
Oulophyllia 80
Montastrea
81
Plesiastrea
82
Diploastrea 84
Leptastrea 85
Cyphastrea 87
Echinopora
89
Family Caryophylliidae 89
Physogyra
91
Appendix
96
Glossary
98
Selected Bibliography
99
Dhivehi Section

111
 warming,arealsolikelytohaveanegativeimpactonMaldiviancoralsandcorp.!reefs. organisms.Theseinturnsupportvaluablefisheriesandareofprimeimportanceasattractionsforthetourismindustry.WithoutcoralstherewouldbenoMaldives.However,coralsandcoralreefsareunderincreasingpressureintheMaldivesfromnumeroussourcesincludingcoralmining,
effortshavebeenmadetounderstandthedynamicsofcoralreefecosystems.Inparticular,attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythemajorthreatstocoralreefs,andmuchworkhasbeendoneontheeffectsofcoralmining.OneconstraintfacedbyMRSstaffinthisworkhasbeenthedifficultyinidentifyingcorals.1 Agassiz(I903).The"Xarifa"expeditionof1957-58ledbyHansHasswasthefirstdivingexpeditiontotheMaldives.AmajorcollectionofcoralswasmadeanddepositedattheHessianStateMuseum,Germany.PublicationsoncoralsincludeScheer(1972,1974&1978)andPillaiandScheer(1976).TheCambridgeUniversityexpeditionof1964ledbyDavidStoddartalsomadesignificantcontributionstotheunderstandingof affected.Islandcommunities,andthetwomajorindustries,fisheriesandtourism,wouldsuffer.It.isthereforeimperativethateffortsaremadefromanearlystageto Maldivianpopulation,thegrowingnumberoftouristarrivals,andthegrowing everyislandinthecountry.Theyalsoformanaturallineofseadefenceforthese TheMaldivesisacountrybuiltbycorals.Itismadeupexclusivelyofcoralatollsand
Maldivesastourists(CiarapicaandPasseri,1993;Morri,BianchiandAliani,1995)andthoseundertheauspicesoftheMarineResearchSection(MRS).MRSwasformed
Without
dredging

affluence
associated

up to 1994
is
and

provided
healthy
localized

within the then Ministry

in
of both groups.
coral structures.

MRS
(1995).
Events
pollution.

coral reefs, islands

of Fisheries
Coral
beyond
These

possible. This requires a sound understanding

reef
INTRODUCTION

in turn

research
will be eroded
the control

Davies (1966) and Davies, Stoddart and Sigee (1971).

Coral reefs are the foundation

has
in 1984, and a summary
of coral taxonomy.

been
are a reflection

understand the processes affecting coral reefs, and to take mitigating

given
of the Maldives,
and source

Maldivian reefs and stony corals. Publications include Stoddart (I966),

and reef fish resources

priority
of the

notably
of material

and
of the work undertaken
action wherever
adversely
growing

global

Charles Darwin (I842), and also by John Stanley Gardiner (1903, 1906) and Alexander
Early studies of the reefs and corals of the Maldives were made by the famous naturalist
islands. Coral reefs provide a habitat and refuge for reef fish and other reef associated
for

Recent studies on corals include those undertaken by foreign scientists visiting the
Wells and
 beencollectedandidentified.Clark(1995)reviewedtheserecentcollectionsofcorals.ShesuggestedthatthetotalnumberofhermatypiccoralsrecordedfromtheMaldivesto PillaiandScheer(1976)providedamajorreviewofMaldivianstonycorals.Theydescribed147speciesfromtheircollections,andcitedliteraturerecordsofafurther94
suggestedthatthetotalnumberofvalidspeciesknownfromtheMaldiveswas166.WithinMRSacoralcollectionprogrammewasinitiatedwiththeobjectiveof
knowledgeofcoralsandcoralreefsintheMaldivesbyprovidingavailablelocalnames Theobjectivesofthisbookaretwofold:firsttoprovidedescriptionsandguidanceforidentificationofcommoncoralgenerasofarcollectedandrecordedattheMarine
publishamorecomprehensiveguidetocoralsofMaldivesinthefuture.ItisourhopethatthisfirstpublicationonMaldiviancoralswillhelpthereadertoappreciatethe
species,

establishing

date is about
making

a national

of corals, and information

cnidarians have been poorly studied.
a total of 241 species.

a coral reference

2
Sheppard

collection.

on their biology and utilization.

(1987)

Over
150 corals
synonymized

variety and abundance of corals and to increase our knowledge of coral reefs.
specimens

Research Section in the Maldives. Secondly, the book also seeks to further the readers'
have
this list, and

The Marine Research Section continues to collect and identify corals and hopes to
200 species, representing over 60 genera (Appendix 1). Non-scIeractinian
 NorthMaleAtollwillbeexhaustedwithinamaximumof20years. alsotheonlysourceofaggregateandsand.NotsuprisinglythereforecoralsareamajorsourceofbuildingmaterialsintheMaldives.Coralminingisamajorsourceofrevenueformanypeople,butitisalsothemajorcauseofdamagetocoralreefs.Thedemandforcoralhasincreasedatanenormousrateduringthelasttwodecades.Recentstudiessuggestthatcoralminingisnolongerasustainableactivity.Inthe1980s,thedemandforcoralaggregatefortheconstructionindustryinMaleAtollwas
itisthoughtthatcurrentdemandisprobablyatthelimitofsupply.Furthermore,with
currentminingpractices.Biologicalsurveysofminedsitesindicatethatthecoraland
theenvironmentalstandardsrelatedtocoralmining.TheGovernmentofMaldivesisconcernedwithenvironmentalimplicationsofcoralminingandisdeterminedtocontrolminingwithlegislation.Analternativesourceofbuildingmaterialneedtobeidentified Coralminingclearlyhaslonglastingimpactsonthereefenvironment.Thesuccessful
usedformoreimportantconstructions,suchastombstones,wellsandmosques.Inmost CoralmininghasalonghistoryintheMaldives.Thepredominantsourcesofbuilding
moremoneytotheislandcommunities.Asaresult,constructionofcoralhousesbecameapriorityforpeopleinmanyislands.Inaddition,publicbuildingssuchasschools,3
material
estimated

Historical
management

Development
(uva) by burning.
in earlier
Within the Maldives

development
at 0.5 million
CORALMININGINMALDIVES
of the fishing
cubic

of coral

days were coconut

intensively mined over 20 years ago.

of coral mining activities

feet/year.

in order that coral mining be completely

mining

and tourism
palms
requires

banned.
Although
corals are the only indigenous

industries
and other
no recent

local timbers.
estimates
source of building

a strong legal foundation,

Coral

since the early 1970's

have
been
made,

which defines
fish diversity and abundance have been dramatically reduced. Sea defence capabilities

has brought
rock was only
stone. They are

cases large massive coral heads (Porites) were collected for such works. Apart from
their use as building bricks, corals and coral aggregate were also used to make lime
In addition to the difficulties of maintaining a steady supply of building materials in the

of reefs are also reduced by mining. In addition, little recovery is seen at sites
face of dwindling coral stocks, there are many other problems associated with the
current methods of mining it is thought that the supply of coral building materials in
offices and mosques were considered important components in island development and
their construction rate increased. In consequence, the quantity of coral being mined
increased, and coral mining became more widespread throughout the archipelago.

However, the greatest development of coral mining activities has been in the central
Maldives.WiththeintroductionoftourismandwithincreaseddevelopmentinMale,theconstructionindustrygrewatatremendousrateanddemandforconstructionmaterialsincreasedexponentially.Easilyaccessiblereefsweresoonexhausted,andothersuitablereefshavebecomeincreasinglyscarceandthegovernmenthadimposedtentative
regulations for coral mining activities in the country.

Uses of Corals
CoralsareminedintheMaldivesmainlyfortheconstructionofhousesandother
I
buildings.ThemaintypesofcoralsminedaremassivevarietiessuchasPoritidsand
Faviids. Large corals are broken up manually into smaller pieces and used to build
walls. Groynes, solid jetties, breakwaters and sea walls are also constructed from
massivecorals,althoughinthesecasestheyarenotbrokenupintosmallerpieces.Coralsarealsousedintheconstructionofcausewaysinsomepartsofthecountry.
Another major use of corals is in the making of lime or uva. For many local
communitiesitischeapertoproducelimelocallythantobuyimportedcement.
Naturally occurring coral aggregate (akiri) is burned in a pit in the ground using locally
availablefirewood.Thecoralrock(calciumcarbonate)isconvertedtolime(calcium
oxide) by the heat.

Coral Mining Areas

Untilquiterecently,coralswereusuallyminedfromthereefflatsofislandhousereefs.Inmanyislandsthereefisclosetotheisland,socollectionisveryeasy.However,in
many cases this led to erosion of island beaches. Current regulations do not allow coral
mining from island house reefs. Professional coral miners tend to choose accessible
shallow ring reefs ifaros) to mine corals; mining tends to be carried out on the inner
rims. In atolls with few ring reefs mining activity is concentrated on the lagoon side of
outeratollrimreefs.
Methods of Coral Mining
Coralminingmethodsaremanualandlabourintensive.Havingchosenasuitablereef,theminerstraveltothesitebyboat.Coralsarebrokenupwithironbarstomanageablesizes.Somemassivecoralsmaybesmallenoughtobeminedwithoutbreaking.The4
 demandofcoralsforharbourwallconstructions.Coralminingformsanimportantsourceofincomeforatleastsomeislandcommunities.TheGovernmentisawareofthefinanciallossofincometotheseminersthatmayariseasaresultofitsattemptstoseekalternativesforcoralmining,butatthesametimeisdeeplyconcernedaboutthecurrentlevelofcoralmining. constructioncompaniesinMale,touristresortislands,andinmanyotheratollscountry- Coralminingisnotcarriedoutonalarge-scalecommercialbasisthroughoutthecountry.Inmostatollsminingiscarriedoutonaminorscale.LargescalecommercialminingisnormallyonlycarriedoutbyminersfromAriAtoll.Inthisatolltwoislands,
reefs.Thisinturnhasledtoincreasedreefdamage.ThebiologicalandphysicalimpactsofcoralminingonreefsinMaleAtollhavebeenrelativelywellstudied.Livecoralcoveronreefssubjecttocoralminingisverylowcomparedtounminedreefs(BrownandDunne,1988).Abundanceofreeffishissignificantlyloweronminedreefscomparedtonon-minedreefs(BrownetaI.,1990;ShepherdetaI.,1992).Inaddition,littlerecoveryisseenatsomeminedsitesovera20 Populationgrowth,combinedwithincreasedwealthfromtourismandthefishery
islandsexposedtoincreasedwaveaction,swellsandstormsurgesandconsequentlybeacherosion.Thesedimentdynamicsofcoralislandsmaybealsoalteredasaresultofalteredflowregimes.5--.. dissipatingmostoftheenergyintheincomingwavesbeforetheyreachthebeachline. reefsofislandsaresubjecttominingactivitiestheremaybeadverseeffects.Island Physicalimpactofcoralminingdependsonthetypeofreefsinquestion.Noimmediate
industries,

year period.
Environmental
wide. Recent harbour

has created
Impacts

effect may be observed

Fenfushi and Maamingilli,

a steadily
improvement

of Current
Coral

increasing

with coral mining

Mining corals from the reef flats effectively

projects

Mining

demand

at an isolated
Activities

for building

remove this physical

materials

ring reef. However

in many atolls had led to an increase

from
are famous for coral mining. Miners work under contract
to the island, where the coral lumps are left to be dried and cleaned by the sun and rain.

coral

if house
Coral mining is believed to be the most serious threat to reefs in the Maldives.

barrier and leaves the

in the
for

house reefs act as physical barriers, protecting the coral islands against wave action, by
corals are lifted by hand on to the boat. When enough has been collected it is transported
RegulationsregardingcoralminingTheGovernmentofMaldivesisconcernedabouttheenvironmentalimplicationsof
coral mining. In 1992 preliminary regulations were introduced to control mining
activities. The following controls are now in effect in the country.

1. Mining cannot to be carried out on island house reefs.

2. Mining cannot be carried out on atoll rim reefs or common bait fishing reefs.
3.Permissionisrequiredfromtheatollofficetominecoral.Eachapplicantmustapplythroughtheislandofficetotheatolloffice.Theislandofficeisrequiredtoestimate
the quantity of corals needed for the job in hand, and hence should ensure that only
the required amount is granted.
4. Every island is required to keep a log book of the amount of corals mined.
5. The export of corals is banned.

The Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture is the responsible authority for the
formulationofregulationsregardingcoralmining.TheMinistryhasbeenlformulating
comprehensive coral mining regulations, and more stringent controls are expected in
1997.Underthenewregulationscoralminingwillberestrictedtospecificareasand
monitored very closely.

6
 TheMaldivesisalinearatollchainstretchingnorth-southfromapproximately7Nto0.5Salong73EinthecentralIndianOcean.TheMaldivianatollsformthecentralandlargestpartoftheChagos-LaccadivesRidge.ThisRidgeispartofastilllarger
Reunionin2loS(Morgan,1981;DuncanandHargreaves,1990).TheMaldives
TheChagos-LaccadivesRidgeliesonanoceanplatethatwasformedduringthelast100millionyearsorso,asIndiadriftedawayfromAfricaandtravellednorthtocrashintotherestofAsia.Asitdidsoitpassedoverastationaryhotspotunderlyingtheposition basementoverlainwithapproximately2000mofshallow-watercarbonate(Purdy,1981;
drawnoutinalongline,fromtheDeccanTrapsinthenorth,throughtheLaccadives,MaldivesandChagos,toMauritiusandReunioninthesouth.Thustheatollsofthe
reachedtoatleasttheseasurfaceinmanyplaces,whereitsmarginswouldhavebeencolonizedbycorals.Asthevolcanicridgesubsidedtherewouldhavebeenaclassic
ThecrestoftheMaldiviancarbonateridgemusthavebeenexposedandsubjecttosubaerial(i.e.rainandwind)erosionduringperiodsoflowsealevel,notablyduringice-ages.Themostrecentsealevelminimumwasreachedattheglacialmaximum,
thedepthtowhichsealeveldroppedisoftentakenas120m.AtthattimetheMaldivianatollsmusthavestoodoutfromtheseaasgiantsteepsided,plateau-toppedislands.Thesurfacesoftheseplateauswouldhavebeenworndownbyerosion.Asaresult,whensea
ofthereefsmayhavebeenatabout15-30mbelowthecurrentsealevel.7
Ancient

feature

Duncan
themselves
that
history

of the now much

stretches

comprise
FORMATIONOFTHEMALDIVES
Darwinian progression

More recent history

and Hargreaves,

of present day Reunion.

reduced
an

resulted in the accumulation

from

early

volcanic
the late

perhaps 20,000 years ago. Although

to

1990; Purdy

This resulted

ridge.
Cretaceous

mid-Tertiary

and Bertram,
early

in the volcanic

level rose again the atolls would have been completely

of over 2000m of carbonates
(50-60

1993,

there are considerable

Maldives are oldest in the north and youngest in the south.
Tertiary

million

outpourings

submerged.
from fringing to barrier to atoll reefs. Continued
years

see also Glennie,

old)

I
1936).

of the hotspot

subsidence
volcanic

regional and other variations,

The eroded surfaces

being

has
of shallow water origin on top
In the region of the Laccadives, Maldives and Chagos the volcanic ridge must have
(66~68 million years old)
Deccan Traps of India (centred at about 200N) to the volcanically active island of
 ....---

with.andepthofabout250-400m,knownlocallyastheAlihurasKandu.Howthisunusualfeaturewasformedisnotknown,butthemostconvincingscenariotodateisprovidedbyPurdyandBertram(1993).Theysuggestthattheoriginalextrusionofhotspotbasaltwasunusuallybroad(inaneast-westsense)inthisarea.Associatedwiththisextrusionwasamodestamountofcrustalstretching,indicatedinseismicrecordsbya Attheendofthelastglaciationthesearoserapidly,reachingsomethingnearitspresentlevelabout6,000yearsago.Reefgrowthwasslower,andthereefsdidnot'catch-up'
CharlesDarwinwasthefirsttospeculateontheoriginoffaros.HenotedthattheywerecommoninthenorthandcentralMaldiveswheretherearemanygapsintheouteratollrims,butrareinthesouthwhereatollrimsaremorecontinuous.Hesuggestedthatthe8 Therearetwomaintypesofexplanationfortheformationoffaros:thoserelatingtheir betowardsthecentreoftheinnersea.Todatethishasresultedintheformationofthedoublerowofatolls.Eventually(i.e.inseveralmillionyearstime)itmayresultinthecoalescingoftheatollstoformasinglemassivecoralplatform. thethickestcentralportionwouldhavecontractedmorethantheedges,resultingintheformationofa'sagbasin'bythemid-Oligocene,about30millionyearsago.This Maldivianislandscannotbemuchmorethanabout3,000yearsold,eventhoughtheMaldivianatollchainhasbeenine)(istenceforsome50-60millionyears.TheMaldivianatollsshowtwopeculiarfeaturesthatarenoteasilyexplainedwithinthe
Ring
reefs

foundations.
Double atoll chain

fault and subsidence

with sea level until about 3,000 years ago (Woodroffe,

system in the centre of the extrusion.

1993). Therefore

Maldives. The other is the presence of numerous ring-shaped reefs orJaras.

Later as the basalts

the present

cooled,

known asJaras. Although common in the Maldives, faros are relatively rare elsewhere.
conventional Darwinian framework. One is the double line of atolls in the central

In the centre of the Maldives the atolls form a double chain, separated py an 'inner sea'

Maldivian atolls, particularly the northern and central ones, contain ring shaped reefs

structure to the nature of their growth, and those relating them to the nature of their
simple picture is complicated by periodic changes in sea level that have occurred in the
past. Nevertheless, coral reef growth on either side of this basin since then has tended to
 reefswillgrowoutwardsintwodirections,inring-likeshapes.ThescarcityoffarosinsouthernMaldivesisexplainedbythemorecompleteatollrimsandlesserstrengthof atolls,thereforeallowingcoralsinsidetheatollstoHourish.Thisconceptwaslaterdevelopedtotakeaccountoftheseasonallyalternatingmonsoons.Asthesebring
hypothesisappearstoworkwellforatollrimfaros(PurdyandBertram,1993)b\.ltisless Analternativehypothesisisthatfarosarering-shapedbecausetheyhavegrownfromring-shapedfoundations.DuringthelasticeagewhenthetopsoftheMaldivianatollswereexposed,thelimestonewouldhavebeensubjecttoerosion.Limestoneerodedbyrainwatertendstobecomesculptedintosaucer-likeshapes,eachwitharaisedrim
numerous

the monsoons
channels

there compared

convincing for atoll lagoon faros.

9
in the north and centre allowed

to the north and centre.

more 'fresh'

around a central depression. When sea level rose again after the ice age, these saucer-
shaped foundations would have tended to support the growth of ring-shaped reefs. This
ocean water into the

currents and waves, onto alternating sides of the reefs it is reasonable to suppose that the

I
,

r
.-
~~-CORALSTRUCTUREANDBIOLOGY
chemicalsuponcontact.Thesecellshelptocaptureplanktonicpreyandactasa anemone,andisknownasthepolyp.Thepolypmouthissurroundedbysofttentacleswhichcanberetractedorextendedforfeedingortootherstimulus.Somespecieshave
knownaszooxanthellaelivesymbioticallywithinthepolyptissues.Theseunicellularalgaeusesunlighttomakeorganiccarbonthroughphotosynthesis.Thisexplainswhymostluxuriouscoralgrowthsarefoundinwelllitshallowareas.Indeedthedepthstowhichreefbuildingcoralscangrowislimited.Hermatypiccorals(thosewhichpossesszooxanthellaeintheirtissues)areprovidedwithsomeoftheorganiccarbonproducedbythezooxanthellae.Asaresultdepositionofthecalciumcarbonateskeletonoccursat
releaseofspermsandeggsintothewater).Inallcasestheendresultofsexualreproductionisthedevelopmentofsmallmobileplanulalarvae.Theselarvaeareameansoflongdistancedispersal.Additionallymostcoralspeciesalsoengageinasexualreproduction.Asexualreproductiontakesintheformofbudding.Daughterpolypsmayarisefromthedividingofanexistingpolyp(intratentacularbudding)orfromthesideofanexistingpolyp(extratentacularbudding).Itisinthiswaythatcoralcoloniesare Allcoralsdevoteasubstantialpartoftheirenergytosexualreproduction.Thismaybe
The

formed.
Coral
to the

defensive
tentacles
Polyp

via either
Zooxanthellae

Reproduction
phylum

which
is a general

internal
mechanism
term
Cnidaria.
used

fertilisation
have special
The

Corals do not get all their nutrients

in competition

corals (those without zooxanthellae).

living

stinging
to describe

(swimming
part

10
for space
a variety
of the

mobile
cells called

from the plankton

coral

with other

sperm),
of related

species
is very

nematocysts,
forms

or external
simple,

which

of corals.
of animals

that they catch. Microscopic

fertilisation
release
resembling
belonging

a much faster rate in corals that have zooxanthellae in their tissue than in ahermatypic

(the
toxic

algae
an
 Tentacle
~::>'"
.P-'.r

Polyp

.r
.p
A
I
S-
IJ
S
'
Jf
J"
'
::> "'~
L.rS.?

CoralIite
'"
'" Jf>

S'"
Jf>.r
.p
A
IS
-Jf>
A
S
'Jf>
JP
"'
.....

., .'::, ::,l\\
,,'
:: '\ "\::,":""'"
,','

Coenosteum

'" '" 0::>::> '" '" If.::> '"

AIJP.r.r./.r AJf>'" Jf> S~S Costae
..... 0::> '" If. ::>elf. If. '"

.:.

Palifonn lobe Septa

If.::> '" 0::> '" If.If.If. If. If. If. '" If.elf. If. If. If. '"
S -' Jf>A S '" Jf>
.:. .:.
;';';J, ;:.,;.:. ,;.;:.::,; A:;.;JI
.....

'.,

s~s
, :.,

A.J"
S"'J
AL.r
Columella
",:>If. If. "'::> If. If. '" .. ,
, ,
"". Jf> S ... A A S ..;.? S'" Jf>
.:.
::>"':>If.",o::> "'If.-.. '.' ,'v-O:,?::"""',
t..rS.rA .r.r./A/..;'/ ':',~.;'
" "
t, "">','::',',:',':",," '

.,

Basic features of polyp and skeleton of coral

0';.;If.'"~"'~If.::>'"
'".:......"i'.J.,:1I11
 polyps.Inintratentacularbuddingthecorallitedividesfromthemiddle.Inextratentacularbuddinganewcoralliteappearsfromtheoutsideoftheparentcorallite. featureswithregardtoidentification. dividethecoralliteradiallyinto6ormoredivisions.Theskeletonbetweenthecorallitesareknownascoenosteum.Whentheseptapassoverthecoenosteumtheyarereferredtoascostae.Insomecasesthedistinctionbetweenseptaandcostaeisindistinctandtheyaretermedsepto-costae.Verticaltooth-likestructuresknownaspaliformlobesmaybeformedattheinnerendofsomesepta.Anaxialstructureknownascolumellaisusuallydevelopedatthecentreofeachcorallite.Thismaybeofdifferentshapes.Theentirecoralskeletonisknownasthecorallum.Specificarrangementsand Theskeletalpartssecretedbyanindividualpolypiscalledthecorallite.Thepolypsits
exposedtopoundingwavestendtobesolidandrobustlystructured.Furtherdowntheslopewherethewaveactionislesscoralcoloniesbecomelargeanddelicateandthestructuremaybereducedtothinplates.Suchvariationingrowthformneedstobetaken Considerablegrowthformvariationmayoccurwithinonespeciesdependingonwhere Coralsthatformcoloniesdosobyasexualreproductionintheformofbudding.Ifthecorallitesofacolonyhavetheirownwallstheyarecalledplocoidorphaceloidanddependsonthelengthofthecorallite.Ifthecoloniessharecommonwallstheyarecalledcerioidormeandroiddependingwhethertheyformvalleysornot.Themostcommontypesofgrowthformsaremassive(similarinallsides),columnar
(forming
Structure

into account
characteristics
The corallite

identification,
The method

Class?fication
when
columns),

it grows. These variations

of the septa,

identifying
and Classification

encrusting
of budding used
with the skeletal
costae,

coral
of Corals

(adhering

species.
columella,

arrangement

12
to the
corallites

finger like), foliaceous (leaf-like) and laminar (plate like).

substrate),
and corallum

branching
I

by the polyps is also often an important

(tree
reflecting the budding patterns

like
are all important

polyp are all important features in identification of corals. Corallum shapes and growth
can be easily seen on a reef slope. Corals on the upper slope
of the
in the cup like corallite. Within the corallite are series of vertical radiating septa, which

or

The appearance of living coral under water, its growth form, shape and colour of its
aid to

For
Cora
Grow
formsvarymarkedly.Whiletheshapeofthecorallummaybedeterminedbydepth,waveactionandavailabilityoflight,thepatternofcolonyformationandthegrowthformofthecoloniesareimportantinthetaxonomicclassificationandtheidentificationcorals.Identificationofcoralstogenericlevelisrelativelyeasy.Theyaregrouped
according to general skeletal and tissue features. Generic groups are quite distinct.
However where there is doubt in identifYing a genera coral specialists rely entirely on
the details of skeletal structure.

Solitary
"" eet: ""
""",.to .;'"",-",v'p
.....
~~..~..
Cerioid
""~0""""""t:""
Plocoid ./>,r A,.tO,.tO,?"A ,r,.,...,.to

-f-~~~~ 0"" "" .:;

,r".;"'.;'
A,.tO,.,...,.tO
.....

Phaceloid
oX~0""""
Meandroid
,.,...v,r.;'
A,.tO,.,...,.tO
.....

""e~ oeoex~ 0"" ""

./.P.;' -",""'A,r",r.;' A,.tO""",.tO

.....

Structural diversity of corals

o""oX~"" "" eee 0"" "" e~""
A,.tO,.tO,r *.,r A.? .;""" A,.tO,.,...,.tO ,r?,r
.....

13
 .r
"P
-'"
t!
A
J.r
s"A
t.r
.?
O
-JlP 070'-0'-
Intratentacular
2 ':':'-':07':
....
.-

.r
C>
The
two
main
type
of
asex
rep
in
co ,;/
Extratentacular

.: 0':0'-'-707<:':
At!AJO~V .r~tlP
070'-0'-
':0':0'-
SAt!AJO

2
OX~.-.:.-0.-.-.:7.-
JOs"P.rs "PAtlP AJO-"'JO S~S
"""" ....

14
 '-0,,", ""'
-""-J'lJ'~J'
..,

0""0
7~""
"..
eA "4:
~
.J'I
~
J.;
...
J'
. 'I .-
~77'-
.?' -'" '" ... -""".11
.-

Growth fonus of corals

5---
1
 ,rAV~.7-"'.7~A,r,,?'AAOCIoponae"~..!,,?""""..!VAV~.7~"'"P-",,r~~~</:"/O/
</://"e</:</:/~~
.rA
Membersofthisgroupareusuallyramoseoraborescent,butmaybesubmassiveorencrusting.Thebranchesareusuallyquitethickwithroundedtips.Theyareeasilyidentifiedbythesmallroundedgrowthsonthesurfaceofthecorallumcalledverrucae,thatonlyoccurinPocillopora.Thecorallitesaresmallandcrowded(lessthan1millimeterindiameter).Theseptaarenotwelldeveloped.Columellamaybepresentasalowbluntspine.Polypsareusuallyextendedatnight.Colonycolourvariesthrough
shallowreefhabitatstoexposedreeffront.Alargeproportionofakiriorcoralaggregateismadeupfromthesebranchingcorals. Therearearoundseventotenspeciesinthisgenus.SixareknowntooccurintheMaldivesandtwospeciesareillustratedhere(Fig.1a,b). occurintheMaldives,andarerareelsewhereintheworld.Thecommonspeciesofthisfamilymaybefoundinmostreefenvironments.Howevertheyaremorecommononexposedupperreefslopesandreefflats.Growthformsandmorphologyvarywith
Unlikemostcorals,membersofthisgroupareknowntobroodtheirplanulalarvae
o/~
//:11</:~/oxx/:11:11</::11~~</:</:</:/0/6</:</:/eeo~</:</:
A""r.7
shades
Characters

Remarks

~~",~
~""""""....</:x~0</://</:</:/:11:11//:I1:110~</::11/</:0:>:>0</:</:/ee</:</:O/:I1/</:</:
exposure

V.7~~
O</:"/~ee</:/"/:11/</::11/:110///</::11/0</:/~o</:</:</::>:>0
Pocillopora
Pocillopora

/":11/0:11/
of green,

-"'-"'~
'A"""..!"',r~,r
pink
Stylopora, Palauastrea
ramose or arborescent.

is a common

~,,?'~A
Lamarck,

(P

~ '
or yellow,

,r ll
1816

'A,r.7.r~A
- :11:110</:0</:/0:11
-"'~AV"'-"'A
~""""~16._-
but
O
"~'A
Family

ct)
and Madracis.
Members of the Family Pocilloporidae

brown

,r~
,r "
to waves, current and light availability.

p/

~,
"
.r
v 'A,r"?',r,r",,,P-.7
/:11/</::11/~
Pocilloporidae

Palauastrea

""pV~"'A"p
is probably

x"
year. Such display of parental care is rare among corals

r
A
7
~
"
P
v (
genus on most reefs in the Maldives,

,
the most

,
la b

///,,~//,,~~

-"'.r~

""PA~~A~.r~
~""""
e
pX
r
.r </:</:</::11/</:
~
)
common.

~ ~
There are five extant genera: Pocillopora,

""~~
A ,
,r
..
v o
A,r~A~
~....
"",;11""
and occurs from

,,"".. r </:o/xox
"""'"P""..""..,r""..oS
-"'A~'"
...
/
~~
,."

,
Seriatopora,
are colonial corals that can be submassive,

~
and Madracis are not known to

after internal fertilization of the gametes. Brooding occurs at particular times of the

"""P
VA
""..
"",P A
,,?
-'"
P.7
.""",~ ""-
"
.r
A"
,...
.r"
,
v
o
~
 ,,\~...~\,'l~~~\X\~"~,~\~\0\,~'\~~\'\~\~~~,:~\~\",.,~II.,.~0\...,'"
\ ",\ \\ ,

~\~,0\~~o~~\x~~~\'\
1
0

.D
~~-"~.."\~O.\\~..o~~~'I\~~.o~~\~~,~"n."\~~\0,~I.,~\o~~'\0,~~'\)0,"\~~o~~\'I.,:~"\,~'\0\~~\"~\~~,~~~0,~\",~
\

o~~\~~~~~\'\,~x~'\,~,~\~
1

\~~,~'\~~~\\'\~~~~"\~~"\x~0
\

.......
t'--

\
~\,,~~~,~\,~~,~~,~~~o~\,,'~~~,\'\,~'\"\0\~\"\,,~x~~~~\o~R\~~~\~~~"~~~'\,~~\,~~
'~~\'~.~~~~~\~
\

"\~\~\~\~,~\~\,~~~~~'\\'\~\~\~~:~~~~
,,1 ~\~},~ 01

.......

C1:I

~\'\~~'~~\~~n~~o~~~\"'~~~,~\\\
\ \
\'~~\~
"

,~o~o~~\~I.,'\~~~~,~0,~\x~"\~\~~o~~\,,~\~~\"\~\:~\o~0,o~~~~\~~'~,,~~"'~~,\\,~~
\
~,~~,\x~~,~~
 Family Acroporidae
MembersoftheFamilyAcroporidaearecolonialcoralsthatareusuallybranched.Thesebranchesmaydifferinshapeandsizeconsiderably.Therearefourextantgenera:
Montipora; Anacropora; Acropora and Astreopora. This book only illustrates members
of Montipora and Acropora.

Acroporids are important reef building corals. They can persist in all reef environments,
buttendtodominateintheshallowareasandthereeffront.Speciesofthisfamilyareamongstthemostcolourfulonthereefandthemostnumerousinbothspeciesand
abundance.

Montipora Blainville, 1830

Whiletherearearound200nominalspeciesinthisgenus,thenumbersoftruespecies
are unknown. Twelve species are known to occur in the Maldives and one is illustrated
here (Fig. 2).

Characters
Membersofthisgroupmaybesubmassive,foliaceous,ramoseorencrusting.Theypossessverysmallcorallites(lessthanlmmindiameter)andmaysometimesbe
confused with the genus Porites. Montipora appears to be lacking in any skeletal
structures within the corallites. Septa are usually short and project inwards making them
difficulttoseewiththenakedeye.Theskeletonjoiningthecorallitestogether
(coenosteum) largely differs between species and is used in identification. Quite often
there are ornamentations and depending on their size they are referred to as papillae or
tuberculae(smallorlargerespectively).Thereisawidevariationincolour.Livingcoloniesmaybebrown,yellow,greenorpurple.Polypsaresmall,withminutewhitetentaclesthatmaybeextendedduringthedaybutusuallyatnight.
Remarks
Montiporaisacommongenusoccurringinmostreefhabitats,andappeartobe
widespread throughout the Maldives. These corals are not exploited by coral miners,
probablyduetotheirloselyporousstructureandgrowthforms.
""~~I.t!!.,I..,"".JII"""~
PX
(2 )
""

.
d ae )
0.:'"~0.:.:.:~~o.:(A
"xxo':"~~'"'"7
"'.,I,-J'.,I ;A "n "",.,A .","'.,1-'" J J cropon "-"'.,I-"""A ~AA "'-"'.7 A.7
...~~...
0"""':':': ",':co~ 0 .:.: ':7"'0'" "'""'0"": CC': "'7"'7'" ':7"'70"""'" ':7",
./'.7"';"'" AJ<!A-'" ",., A-"'.,tO J-'" .,tOA'" ",.,to,-J' A.,tOA ;"'" AJ"'.,tO".,I J'" .,to;A""'-"',-J' J""""" -
...

18 c--

c-

1
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eee...~e
e~...~
J'~J'J' AJ'AJOJ',,?AA A,,? ,,?,.,..A ""'"P""""~~

""P"'"JOA"P,,;ee~~...
.... ':;"" ,:;
ee ee~ 0 CO""" ... oec ~~...
eoX~...ceee
0""...~...oe~
........

,.,AJO~JO
,:; ........

eeee o~c"e o...Xox ~"'X"'07 ...Xo o...

~..xoeeoe~e~...o'"
.r"P J"J' AA ,,?,.,..A J' J""" JOA"P"? ""PA,.,..,,? ,.,.. ";"",,;"" """ J"" J' 'A",J"J' ,.,..,., A~>A ""'?I!!!A-
.... ....
~....eee~~...e...e~~...X
~~...~...~0c......"'"A~_>AAA""'~"P,,?,.,..
cc~
""pA""'"PA~ A~"P""',,;"? J',.,..A J'~J"""JOA"p,,? ""pA AA"'" ....
.... .... ........ ........
e~...ceee~~e~~
eec~
'"~~coX~o"'o
0'"~c~...
""PA""'.... "",?~-~-
... .... ....

0"'0Xe~",cccc"'~7~'"oC...
"'..ex~o~o...~...~e~...~
ASAJ"J',,?AA AJO""'J"'? J'~J' JO"P"'" AJO..!~..! J'~J' ""pA,.,.."?"" ~"',,;"'" ,,;A I!!!~A"P
... .; ,:;.;....
...oex~o~...",...7~cee",ce...o~...cco...ce
..e"'oe"'~'"eoe...o...~~
.... ,:;.; ,:;.;
e7...0...~~0~" o...~"
ceceo..."'...~0C"'oc~~~C"O~ccc..."C
':;"" .; ;
eee... ~oe ...e ...~~o~" ...~~c"'~ 0 c"'... CC770C...
""P""'?'" "p""'J' """A ..."?",,,...,.,..,.,..- AJ"'?"p ,,;"pA "P,,?"'" ""P""""" A~J'
,:; ,:; .;

e7... ... ",ceo oc... ... 0'" '" e ...

-----A';'
c 0 Q e '" o
7"
cc
.?AA SJ' ... A,,? JO"'" A"P"""" &"",..."", AJ'A"'" A,,?,.,.. ""'p .",... ", J' J' JO"p -,,?
.... .... .... .; .... .;
ce ... '" Co'" "...... c"
-----
0 ' 0'" '"

""pA"'" "PA"P ,,;""""" .",... ...""",? ""'JO ,.,.. -----"P ", A

,:; .; .; .... .; .... ....

19
 Acropora Oken, 1815
There are around 350 nominal species of Acropora, the number of true species being
approximately 150. This is the largest genus of all extant scleractinia. It is an important
groupbeingthemostabundantonmostMaldivianreefs.Around50speciesareknown
to occur in the Maldives, of which seven are illustrated here (Fig. 3a-g). Recognition of
thegenusiseasy.Howeveridentificationofspecies.ismadedifficultbythelargenumberofcolonies,withhugearrayofshapesandcoloursthatmaybepresentonanygivenreef.Thecommonnamesformanyofthesespeciesare'elkhorn'or'staghorn'
corals due to the resemblance.

Characters
Acroporacoloniesdisplaymanygrowthforms,themainonesbeing:aborescent;tabulateorplate-like;corymbose;digitateandcaespitose.Coralitesareoftwotypes,
axial and radial. Almost all species of Acropora possess axial corallites that are usually
at the tip of each branch or branchlet. Septa are poorly developed. There is no
columella. Coralite wall and the coenosteum are porous. Acropora are amongst the
most brightly coloured corals on the reef. They are often creamy, yellow, blue, green,
purple,redorbrownishincolourwithdifferentcolouredbranchtips.Polypsareusually
extended only at night.

Remarks
Acroporaareabletodominateinallreefhabitats,andareparticularlycommonon
upper reef slopes and reef flats. The light porous skeleton and the branched growth
allow them overgrow and overtake neighbouring colonies. These colonies tend to re-
establish themselves readily from damage. Arborescent and plate-like colonies tend to
flourish in sheltered areas, while digitate and corymbose colonies are able to persist in
more exposed environments.
Branchingmembersofthisgenusarecommonlyexploitedformakinguvaastheirporousskeletalstructureturnstolimequickly.Alargeproportionofakiriismadeup
from broken pieces of Acropora and other branching coral fragments and is collected as
coral aggregate for building and construction purposes.

(3
~X
""~
a - g t!!!..,1 ) ~",,~
"",,::>""~~~::>"""""
c~~~"~c~""""::>~C::>~"x::>"~,,~
/"/"/"..-A..,1;..-J J~JOA"p.? "P.,!~J /".?-"'~.? .1'A-"'" """'.?AA /""-"p; A.?
~....
~....~~~~""~C,,~::>"""'"
"PA;"- AJCJA~
....
~JOA"p
/50 ;;; .J.;;*:;;~ JA;;';"] ;';';;;..,1;.... J~;::';;;;
::> "~~,, "" "c"""" ~~~~"c""""~c"'""~ "'::>""cc """::>"""""::>~"" c ",,",,:1
or'" .,!~JA.? """""P.?/" "p/"/"A.?"'..-""""..,1"'.? "'.?JOJ/"; AJO~JOA"PJO..,1JO JA"'~.?
....
~....20
~
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.~ ~
.,;A
.,

.~ " t
J"
t!!.7.?
~
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JA
.
!!"
-
A
'",,~
.
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A
I
J"JJ"
1'
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t..7
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J~
J
'-"
"
'
"~"~~"""~,,~
J""" '- ........
""'?7J" ""~.?'pA 'J' J"AJ"A

...,~.,...,~X.,~~~~~~~~~~.,...,.,.,..:1:1..
'J";.7'" AJ'~ J" J'.? 'pAJ" ;.1'.7""- """"J"..!~ J'

~....~.,~"..~..~..~~.,~.,.,~~~~~AA~~J'A~.PJ"J".?J"~'pA~;"""'~.?'pAJ".?""
~~~~~.,.,...,.,~
~.,
.PA.,;A.7;- "A.7'" ....
"'~.?;-
....

A~ AJ
J"
J"
J~

1 t)e
II
~~~~..".,~(C
"x~~...~~~...~
....,...~
'pA;"" ""'~J"A'p; ora t!!A.7~'" J".PJ" "J"J"J"A AJ"lt.J"J'.? J'.7J' J"J""" AJ'A"'~.?
........ ....

J"
-,<
J~A
J~
.7
J'
"A
JJ"
"'"
J"
~tA
'I~'!!
<I~",,~~X~~~
,r"'~.P.PIt.- ;~A "'~.? .P"'~ J"A'p ;"" J"J".?~A A "'~ J"A'p ;""J".J"" J""J"~J' AA
.... ....

~
"7X~~'" x
~""~~~~..~...~~
~~......~......~
J'A"'~.?
.,
'pA;J".?P~J"A
....
.1'.7 ; AJ'.J""J""J"~J'
....

~.......~~~~...~...
<I ~~~7"'~
~
~~~~......
~...~c~~...X
,rA-"'J"J""J"J' "'A"'~.? 'pAJ" .1""".7- 'A~'pA.7 ~A.7-.J'A A(!A~ J'A 1t.J'J"A
., .... .... ....

.1
A
.It.
-"~
t.?
t!
1'
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~~~~"~..~"~..~X
:1:1 :1:1
...~~...
~~,~..~"""'77~'"
.P"'J".7"'.?AA A.? .7""'.?;A

'J"';~~~7...x~
.... ....
~....~...~~~...~
<I~~ ~~... 7"'~~7""""7 "'7X~7...X

~x~..~
""-"A J"~J" A A .7 '" J' .7 J' J" J" J" "" AJ'AJ"J' .?AA
.... ........
~..~...~
~~""'~"'7
'pAJ'AA.7'"

~"'7"""7 C~"'7'" ~... ...7...

~~~,,~~~~..x7..~..~...7...7...
.P"'J".P- ;"""""?AA ~'pAJ""J".7.P ;A AAJ"'~~A J""J"~~ AAJ'JO.?~~ A.?
.... ....

~~.......~~...rC7...7...
... ... ... ... 7 7
"7X~...""'~X7"~...~C..~
AJ'J"J' J'~"'A AJ'AJ"J'.?AA AJ'~A~ """ J" "'~.? J" J"""
....
~...~X~.,
"~....<I~"<I...~.....x"~..7...77
~C5-"C~7..7"..C7~...7
AJ'J"J' J'~"'A .1"".1" AA~"'J"J"- ~.P".?'p;'pA
.... ~....
"77"7"~~7CC
~~~~...7X~~7
.1""7 AA 'p.7A 'pAJ"'pJ" J' AJ".J"" J"A
"""'pA"~'p J".?PJ".7AJ' "AA "'A"'~.?~;
........ J' A "'~.?
~....~"""~~~~~"""7..C"/..~~..~~~~...
~"C..~...C7X...
"'-"'-"A AJ"J".P- J'A"'~.? 'pA"'~.? ~.P"'.I" AA;J"J"p"'.7"" """'pA .?J"A J"A-.P J'.7-"'"
....
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3a

21
22
 .

I
.
II
.

I
23

II
 ofthelargestofallcoralcolonies,somemeasuring8metersindiameter!
Coloniescanbemassive,branching,columnarorplate-like.LikeMontiporathe Therearearound120nominalspeciesofPorites.Seventruespeciesareknowntooccur
intheconstructionindustry.Thecoralrockisbrokenintoregularshapedbricksforuseinbuilding.TombstonecurvingsarealsomadefromlargecoloniesofPorites.Themassiveformsarecommontoreefflats,upperreefslopes,andmaydominateinsomeareas.Poritescommonlyformwhatareknownas'micro-atolls'.Sedimentsdeposition ramoseorencrusting.Therearefourextantgenera:Porites,Goniopora,AlveoporaandStylaraea.Stylaraeah~sonlyonerelativelyrarespeciesanditisnotknowntooccurin
...
.:.:.:.;70~0';';.;7.;7.;':"0"7.:.:.::,,'o.:~~
.;7.;7.;.:.:.:.;"07.;~~".:~.;0.;.;~7,"".:':0':';0';
':70"':"'
A.r"'"."~
Characters

Remarks

invertebrate
corallites
Members

The massive
the Maldives.

30
in the Maldives.
"'7~707,"".:.:.:.:o"'o"'~.:"'.:.:.:':7"'~"':':0,""':'"""0"".P"e~A.r"..7.1'~"."..r.7'pA"..7"'"A".".'p-.r""'"A.r""..r"'"..r;"""""""'-.7",.11......~.........24I".,~n~
'pA'p"",;
.P"'~.r .7AA "".1'
The

organisms
species
of Porites

...
Porites Link, 1807
three
of the Family

""""'~";
(e.g.

A.r"'"."~
of Porites
pink colonies are not uncommon.
common

Six are illustrated

Poritidae

fanworms
are very small,

.raA"
1

(Hirigaa)

"",-A.7'"
-2mmindiameter.Thesurfaceofthecoralissmoothorgranular.Poriteshaveveryspecificseptalarrangementswhichservetodistinguishbetweenspecies.Generallythesearetoosmalltobeseenwiththenakedeye,makinginsituidentificationdifficult.Thereareusuallytwelveseptawithprominentpaliformlobes.Mostcoloniesarebrownincolour,butcream,green,blueor
Family

genera

and
here (Fig.

'p"",,".r
which are commonly extended during the day.
are colonial

clams).

".7"'.1"'-
Poritidae

4a-f).

...
.r~AA
are extensively
corals

(P

';""""""
are morphologically

Members

Polyps are usually extended

..
mined

"

.rA"".A.P
at night.
distinct.

on t 1d ae ) "e"'"
~~...~...
7
(4a-f
of this genus

,"""
7~.;

".~".
that can be massive,

in the Maldives
Porites

A.7
~')
form

...
"'"O~

A.ra"'""
usually

some
laminar,

for use

-"",
appears massive and has small corallites, Goniopora and Alveopora have large polyps

""'"'"
live coral. Large boulders provide refuge for fish and vantage points for growth of
and exposure, kills large area in the middle of the colony, leaving only the perimeter of
-"
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(Septa) :,;..ft,'; A~

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~~~-:'o-:'X

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JO./'./
7
*.rJ.?
"'-:.

.,;A
OX-:'
~~~

'"

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JOJ"pA./'JOA
"'"
.r
'"

"'-'/
'"

~7'"
J~J
7CC~

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~~
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~
7~

,
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-:;""-

0-"07
'"
'AJ'..-
I?

-:;""-
~C-"7'"

AJO.r"pA_A_.?
C"""
"P.?r
..-CC
.r.r.r..-
'"

C~..-
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..- 07
A./'.r
...-...-...-

...-
..- C C
"'7'"
~~~~
"PA.,;"-

-:;""-"'-

7
~X

...-...-
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...-
7

..-
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-:;. ...-

0 '" "CC ~ ~ ~ 7 7 CC -:. ..- " x 0 7 -: -:. ~ ~CC0 -: ~X..- ..- 7 7

.I".7,/"""""A"'A J.?r, A""'.?~""'JO .r ?J.r J~"p J<!A' YA"'- JO*- JO"P.r .,;Y
-:;""- -:;. ...-
C 0"- ~ o ~ 0 ~ C C 7 ..--:. CCC ..- 7..- 7..- ~CC0 -:. 7 ~ -:. 7 ~ ~ C :. ..- ..-0 ~X 70-:'
OS.I'",/"'A,/"'J.?rA.rA'JOJYJOJ.,;..-AJYJO'./J<!A'YAA.?"P"pY~JJ.rAJAJOJ.?AA
..- ...-
~X o "-0"-"-"- 0"..-7 ~CCo-:' CC~~ "'7"-0~"- C7 :' CC~707CC
-"-".t"*-
"' """'-'AA"".Y / .rYJO,./.rJ J<!A' "pA.r.?.- ,..- AJ.?YA~J
...- JJO"P- "p'y.r.r-
2 I ""-"'"' o~"- -:'7X 07..- 0"-"- "-77~7 ~~C-:' C7 CC~..- ..- "-7C
)
- ""..-A A~J "P*- .r..-~"".",P AJ'?,;./A A.? "pA.r.,;"P.r- Y.?YJO.,;f y.?r./
-:;""- "'--:;'
~~ 0 C 0"- ~ 0"- 7 ~ 7 o ..-..- ..- 7X -:. 7 ~ -:. 7 ..- 7..- 7..- o ~
;;.~ ':.Je.? I (
"PAJ.rA"'-AAJOA"""?,;./A""'Y~A"""'-'*-J,..-YA'?"pAJ.?'"'t'!.?t'!.r"""'-'
-:;. -:;""-
~~"-"-7"-"'
50 /- 0 0"-"-"-0-:' 0"-7~7
"pAJ.r'..-A - ""'Y*JJOJ """?,;./A

-:. 7 ..- ..- :. ~X ~ 7 ..-~ ..- -:...-

,1"'".t".J'-" J*.r'" , J.? '"".y JO"""
0"""-:'~7..--:'770"-",0"-
A"".YJO'./ Y~JJ JO*- JJO"P-.? .,;A A~J' ..-
-:;""- ...- ...-...-
" ~X ..-
""A-" -"
~ ..-..- .t"*-
o
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:.
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~~~-:.
"pA.r .,;"P~-
...-
~~
AJ.?YA.I" AA .,;""'YJO./'.?.-
...-
AJO"'" .,;*J
~7"-0"-
J "". , , "". A

...-
-:'..-7..-
Y JO' ./

cc "I? -:...- :. 0 ..- 0 " -:. " ..- -:. 0 ~-: 0 ..- 7-:'..-CC7 ..- 7..-
;A;-" JO./'.?"- A .? '" ..-"P./' ...-
..- ""'./.JO"""'-'./"""'-'.,;A A"""'-'A.?-.?"""'-'.? JO./JO..J'A AJ'./
..- ...- ...- ...-
~~~-:.~~0~"-7"-0~"-..-
"PA.r .,;"P~- , "PAJ.?YAJO~"""'-'"P
-:;.

4a

25
4b26
 4e

4f

27
Ii
.J
 Goniopora Blainville, 1830
Thereare39nominalspecies,butthenumbersoftruespeciesareunknown.SevenspeciesofthisgenusareknowntooccurinMaldives.Twoareillustrated(Fig.Sa,b).
Characters
MostGonjoporacoloniesaremassiveorcolumnar,butmayalsobeencrusting.ThepolypsofGonioporaarelong,fleshyandarearmedwith24tentacleswhicharegenerallyextendedduringtheday.Theshapesandthecoloursofthepolypsareusedin
identification of the species underwater. Calices of these corals are much larger than
Porites ( 3
-Smmindiameter)andareroundedorhexagonalinshape.Thecolourof
the polyp and the corallum may be brown, gray, blue or green.

Remarks
GonioporaisacommongenerainmostreefhabitatsintheMaldives.Itcanbefound
in shallow water areas along the reef front and reef slope. Goniopora anti other massive
corals with similar skeletal characters are collectively termed as onuhiri in Maldives.
Goniopora is not commonly found amongst coral boulders that are mined for
construction purposes.

..1"'-
.P-"
JO
.r-'
"'"
1'-"0
JO
'" AJO
04-"
"'pA
A
.'"
-" JO"
..",
JO
".1
-rJ~.r
.?
'" A.r
-'.r
JO
.I'
-O ~..1
.
.'"
"'"
A
;?A ~
rA
-'
.'"
JO
~
"';
-A
Jr..J.~'O
" x"
( b Px

7
)
"" ""

~".pSa,e~"".~",.I,,?
.O
ct
ae )
777C~CCC:I:lOC~~
...rA.? A.r.?;"", .r.? ..P"'..l-'.r .r~AA
.....
(P
antI .. e-'..l JO.P'" -' "'" A.?
~~.....7C~""CCCoxCCCCOC""O'-C
0""7~C7C70CC""CCC
-"JO..",.r.? .r~.r .r-'JOA'p.? .'p~.r;"", ~-'JO~ A~.r;"", -""'~- 0404 .'pA'pA-'JOA'p.;
.....
2 '-
~""OC~CoxCcCC""070C7~;'A.rA..'".r.?.?'"'";A..I'A~-''"'"'"'""'".I'~.I'.;~C7~""77""CC~C70""7C~7CC~""7""~C0""""7~""C7""7~
O""""OC ~7""
CCC7
..1'04-""" ~"'e"'e ( ) .1'-""
.r..",.r.? A.r.?JO.r",; .r .r-'JOA'p.? "'A.?'p ..PJO~JO A.r~.r.r"'A AJO~"'AA~ .r"'JO"",.r.??
....
CCXC70""""C0""""""07~""7""CCCC707"""7""07~....
~.....OCO""""""~XOOCCC7""7~7COCO""Cox7""5
3
oo~
~..........
~"";""""'7CCC""CCC.-;'7CCCO~CC""777C7CCC;,
'AA.r-"~-'A .'p"'~.r;"", A.r-'~-'~",.r .raA-' A.? "'pA~"'-"'? "'A~'" .r~.r .'pA~""
~~CCC7~""0""""07"7~""C77"~C7""~""07""CO~OCC7;'",
~~
('
~....'."...t~;c."~Ii
28
29

.
 Family Siderastreidae

Members of the Family Siderastreidae are colonial corals. Colonies may be columnar,
foliaceous or encrusting. There are six extant genera: Pseudosiderastrea, Siderastrea,
Anol1lastrea,Horastrea,Psal11l11ocoraandCoscinarae.OnlyPsal11l11ocoraand
Coscinarae are known to occur in the Maldives.

PSal1l1110COra Dana, 1846

Thereareapproximately27nominalspeciesofPsal11l11ocora.Sixspeciesareknownto
occur in the Maldives. Three are illustrated here (Fig. 6a-c).

Character '
,
Thisgenusshowsagreatvarietyofgrowthforms:branching,encrusting,foliaceous,
massive or columnar. The calices are tiny and closely packed, falling between the few
millimetershighcollines.Coralitewallsareindistinct.Septaarenumerousand
converge toward the centre of the calice in a flower-type arrangement. Polyps may be
seenextendedduringtheday.Coloniesareusuallybrownorgreenincolour.
,r.7'?
JOA
A
J' "PA
.?
Remarks

-'"
JO
A".7
,r-
.7
.?
..
J
p -
""'p
JO
A
.7 '"
p.?.JA7
P.ml1ll11ocoracanbefoundinwiderangeofreefhabitatsandisespeciallycommononthereefflatandupperreefslope.Massiveandencrustinggrowthformsofthisgenusmaybeexploitedbycoralminers.p?~(6a-Ce').1""..1~
"'pA
J-A
vJJ-"
~-'"
A
'"JO.7
J-'"
~'J,,;-
O.
-'"
AA
A
r'A
JO
JO
-"
vJ..A
Jv-~
J'
" 0 0 ~'" o
"
Id eras t reI d ae )
O
"'pV..!-'"J J.?AA
0"'XOX7~'" ~C7"'0'"
(S "-"'e~-"'-'~ A.7
-"JOJJOJJO~JOJJ-'"JOA"p.7
""
""~""""~""0co'"x0x0xcx'"CC'"7C~'"0xxCCCe
0770'""'7'"CCC7
~"p-"-"J-"J -"VJO-'" ,;A '"PA~-"'JO~ 'A-"..!JOJ~J '"PA;""
""
"" "" "" "" ""
CCC~070CX7~ """"""07 '" 0'" "'7
"'0'"CoC0"'7C~'"~C7"'0'"
~""~C'"'"07"'~C7'"CC~
~""
0 '" '"
COC",0"'07'"'"~",CCCC
AJOJ'~ JA.?7 AJO,r"pA"A" "PAJ-"'JOA J-" JO,r,r A -.,r J.7 J.? J '"PAA-" ""
"" "" "" ""
~"""""C7'"CCC7o"""X""""""07'":Ie
0"'7 "'~ C7'" ccoC ","'7 7 """7
AJO-.,rJ.7 J.?J "'p~A~ JO"P,r -".7 VA'?V J.?J '"PA-"'-'" -"VJOJ .?-"'V,r,r-"'A~"""A
"" ..
""~CCC""oC~~
CC.."..07..CC"0CX:lO~
'"P-.,rJ-'" ,r,r,r-"'A~-"',r AJAJOJ .7AA
~""""CC'""'..C7....7~..'"C7..CCOX7O~0"7"0..
J.?J.7
""
~""~""~""""~~'"07~"'~C~"'07'"C
0""'" ",C
'"'"COC7
OX..'"7'"7~'"
( )
J,r ,r-",.7J,rJ'?"p J,r,r-"'A~,;-'" AJA~~ JA-'.7 -"V-'JJOVA
"" "" .. '"
cee7
~""""""""""""""C7..
"'pA.)'A

30
 0/

-"'A.I"'--
/

./
.r.,7.r
.: / .:

VA.7J".r'
.: /

./A..I.I"""
./
.:

v
.,
""'v"'"
.: .,.: /
A.7.r'V.I'
./
/ .:.:

.A.r
.I'
A.
,r.
I'.r'
.,n
V
.1'A.,nV

.:.:
./
/
.,
.r'./.I',r
./
/
./
.: ., /
".,7.r
.:."".
/ .:

.rJ".I'-.7./
"
/

,, .,

r""'..1.r""--.I'././././
.
6a31
 Leptoseris;Gardineroseris;Coeloseris;PachyserisfromIndo-PacificregionandAgaraciafromWest-Indies.Fourofthesegeneraareillustratedhere.Themembersofthisfamilyaremostabundantinreefareasprotectedfromwaveaction,
MembersoftheFamilyAgariciidaearecolonialcoralswhichcanbemassive,laminarorfoliaceous.ManyspeciesofthisFamilyareknowntooccurintheMaldivesbutare
------~ Pavonacanbedividedintotwomaingroups:theleafyandnon-leafyforms.Thelatterareusuallymassiveorencrusting,whiletheformerhavevariableshapedfrondsandbifacialplates.Corallitesareroundorpolygonalinshape,slightlydepressedwithvery PavonaLamarck,1801Inthepast,manyspeciesofPavonahavebeendescribed.Howeverrecentstudieshave
Membersofthisgenusaremostlyfoundinshallowwaterhabitats,suchaslagoons,reef distinctivepattern.Septaareincyclesandonlysomereachcolumella.Insomecasescolumellaispoorlydevelopedandliesdeepwithinthefossa.Coloniesaremostlybrownincolour.Someshowsshadesofpurple,green,oryellow.Tinytentaclesmaybe
;1""""""<I:o<l:0~<I:<I:<I:~~O<I:~~(A
~JO"A

(St

S..!,
ep
<l:o~~o
----~----~--.;'.;'.;'0;I~<1:;1<1:<1:<1:.;'""ec<I:0.;'.;'0.;'0.;'""oX;I"".;'""<1:<1:<1:<1:""""
poorly

Remarks

e<l:<I:",,;I<I:~;I
currents

"""""'~-"'JO~
--~------~--~C<I:.;';I~;I;lec"";1"tt~
extended

S.?
-"'JOA"p""

a-cas
generally

Characters

a,s.?

A.?
~----~----~--
t)
ae
S.?

Aa.?
defined

during

OX.;'
,.>s
O;l;l

JOS"""
S~S
and sunlight.

,A<!A-'"

0;1
walls.

""""""<1:
not common

"'-"'JO"pAA
the day.

as,
"""A~'>S
The

...P""JOA"p

;1"";1<1:;1
<1:<1:
."pA~""-

"".?
."p"'..!-"'s

O;l.;';lO.;'O.;'O<l:.;'O.;'O<l:
"""'
<1:""
Family

septo-costae

C<I:.;'
~e~JOA'A
S~AA

."pA~'>A
~""JOA"p""'"
0

<I:
~'JOA"pJO",IJO~
serve as sheltered habitats for large reef fish.

32
in any reef habitat.

,
<1:;1

0;1<1:;1
,'"
------~
Maldives and four are illustrated here (Fig. 7a-d).
Agariciidae

arrangement

'~JOAA
aSA.?
There

garacll
..

",

O<l:oC.;'
""'A~.?
~""JO

."pA~ --
d ae )
joining

...P~""""
"

C<I:.;'.;'o.;'.;'
.;'0;10;1<1:;1<1:;1.;'

--
a

aSA.?
""""~A

""JOA"pA'A

<1:<1:0;1.;'
are six extant

,"',,-
corallites

...P,,"'-JO'JO
"'SA

"""'A
S~S
~<I:"
( 7a - d ~:;

;I.;'
)
genera:

~xo""
A~"'A"p
A.?
creates

~I.~
.I

<I:<I:<I:

...P"'-"'JOA./'
."pA"pA~.r.J
....

"..:1

~.?JOs..r,;J
""'J'v

..r,;""
tt

"'..P ..r..r.r""
Pavona;

t
a very
indicated that there are only 12 true species. Six of these are known to occur in the

flats and upper reef slopes. They may attain huge sizes rivaled only by Porites, and
 .7AA
.r'
n

",tIII

o
J7S
.;'A
~'p.?p.;'~.//AA-.p~.I"'"svJO~.I""'S.?s.?s.'pA.I""'/.I""'.;'.?;'.?~.pSSA,?V...CCC~C::>...Cc.'pA.I""'/~.//~.I"'"~~/~/J>-"/
/

::> /
./
A.?..p~.I""'S~
/'e.?A'p~.p.?1"'".'pA,?V""",?ASAJOS.?AAVA,?VS.?SSJO.p-.?~......~...
~...
.'pA..J'AS.I"'"...0::>...CC/0C,.,.::>o~.I""'.I""'.I""'./A/~.I"'"ASAJOS.?AA~......
VA.?JO.I"'"
C

CCC::>~
::>C::>
oC

C
C C

....
/

7b
A/'pV
/0

.I""'./.?S.I""'S.?pSS~JOA'p.~.?S/.~S.?~......
...

....
/ CC

C::>
C//

0
V
('
t:

""
ASt:?A
CC/::>

..pA.I""'.PA/.p.;'.I""'.I""'"",V
CC
0 "'CCo
::>

33
0
A.?I"'"

/OC""::>o~
...
C

....
/
/

....
...

C
0
A-"
o

/
V.p

....
/

.'pV.?S.1""'.1""'/.l""'VJO-~./.?JO
....

~'p.?1"'"
//::>

"",V
0

/I
S
....
C...

./V
"""'?S

....
0'"

7a
C::>/

C::>/I
C

SJO.p-.?

.I""'.p
C::>/~

::>...

0
....

....
"""A/
0"""
...

...
....
::
/~
C;
C::>0
C /::>

o::
o/cc.
cc
~::
0:
C~C
C::
 .7c

34
LeptoserisMilne-Edwards&Hairne,1849
There are 14 true species of this genus. Six are known to occur in the Maldives. Four
are illustrated here (Fig. 8a-d).

Characters
'Lepta'referstoslenderwhile'seris'meanslettuce,indicatingtheleafyformofthisgenus.Leptoserismayhaveanencrustingbase,turningfoliaceous,ormaybeentirelyencrusting.Coloniesmaybebrown,green,redorgray.Theoutsidemarginsofthecorallummaybepalerincolour.Unlikeitscloserelative,Pavana,foliaceouscoloniesofLeptaserisareunifacial.Collinesarecommonandencloseacentralmouth,while
septo-costae are fine and tend to run from corallite to corallite. Corallites are usually 2
-Smmindiameter.Polypsmaybeextendedduringtheday.
Remarks
Leptoseristendstopreferareasoflowlight.Thereforethesecoralsoccursindeeper
water on lower reef slopes, and also in overhangs and crevices. These are usually
uncommon and found only by scuba divers.

"p:
.r.r.
A~"
AJ
J"
'p
.;A
JI
'~- .I' ./. v ""61
(8a-d~,)~~~
~.""7"'11110CCCIIIIOC7'""'7'"C""""'0'"0'"xx
.1"'>.7 'A.r"'/"J".7 .p"",/".r J"~J" .r.r""A~.;"" -'"""JI'A'p JI'~",/" :I..r- 04.7
'""'~~....c"c'"~7"'0'"CoC07C7~'"'"C7'"CCC7OC~C7"'0'""'7'"7C
J"".?7 ..r"p"JI'A'p .7.rA .r "" "PA.rJl'.7 .r~.r 'pA""" ~'pJ" .r"JI'A.P .r.r""A~"J"~
~~....""""'oC'""'oCC7'"CC"'7~"'OCC7'"~07'"CoCCC~'"'"
-"e-'" ,;>A.rA .r-'" Jl'AA .I ~J" 'pAJ"JI'" ~AA J"~J" .r.r.r .rA~:I. "P.r.r.;.7 'pA".rA~:I.
~....C7'""""O7"'~C7'"CCc~o~X0"'777"'7"'C7
5-2 ;'.7I: .r"JI'-'"JI'.r.rA :I..r.r.7 J"~.r "pA.r.P.r.7A -'"JI'.r~~A .r.r""A~'p.;
'" ....
'" 7 . 7 '" ""
CCC~07Co",oX","'CX70~'"7CC7'"CCC~7'"7'"
""';>'?" .r~J".7 "PA.r.r.r Ae-'"JI'",/~",/A.7 AJ"AJI'J".7AA AJ".;.7 J"~J" 'pA.r.P".p"e.7~.7
~........
~'""7~OCOX70~7C~7CC"'7"'70"""'"CC'"07'"CC~COIIIIO
CC",CC"'7",CC"'7"'~C7'"CC'"'"'"C7
~....
.1"',,1..r..r..r~ -,"".7AA "A.7.p 'pAJ""JI'.;A"""~ -~~A .r.;.7 .r.; J" .r"'/"J".7
~~....
.cc:.,o C7'" ",oC 07'" "'"o~ CC07"'7~ 07 C7"""7 '" ~07"'0'"

'.1"'..1.-"'.1 .r~.r .r.r~ .r.;.7 AJ".:!A" A.7 .p.r.r"JI'-~"".r~ J"-'"~"A ';04 'A.r.r.rJl'.rJl'
~...."""70~C7'"7C~7C'"C70PCOC","'o~"'~O"""COIIIIO
-""",,1-'" .7AA .r~J" "A.7J1'.r A~'p"" :I.,,"" A.7.r ~A';" ".p-"" -,"~.r J"",/"J".7....
CC'"'"co;~,,~xx"~
'pA.r'pA~'p.;.r.r -"" J" ...I.":I..r- .r~.p
~~....35
..

8a

8b36
 8c

8d

37

J
 GardineroserisScheer&Pillai,1974Thereisonlyonenamedspeciesinthisgenus,G.planulata,whichisrelatively
common in the Maldives (Fig. 9).

Characters
Colonies are usually massive and columnar, but may be encrusting or foliaceous.
Corallites are rounded or polygonal in shape. Corallite walls are poorly defined but are
separated by acute ridges. Septa-costae are fine and even. Calices are in a neat rounded
cup on the corallum surfaee. Colonies are usually pale to dark brown, but may be

A
J-"
JO
/"
A"/"
..I..?
O
purplish. Polyps are rarely extended, and only at night

..r~
"'pA
~
.".P JO
..1-
Av -"v
p-
AA
.".../"..
JO~
".
.I'
A "p
/
Remarks

;04"'p
P/
A -
G.planulatarequiresclearwatersandcanbefoundinmostreefhabitats,butitisnotparticularlycommonorabundant.(9~,)~~".~~".;?.I'...",.",""'.;~
/"
p"'"
A
.J../"
.I
..~
."A
~
vO
".
-", JOA.p"..? /";""'..1
0" ,. 0 ,. 77 0: o:~
..rJO.P-..? A..rAJO..r..?AA
... ...
0:7,.~ "00:X70~ 0:0:0:"7"

"'pv~..r;..?
,.O:O:O~

A..rt:!A'
...
07"

/"JO-~/"
0

...
A..?
~...
~
0" ,.,. 0 7 ,.~
0:7"0:0:0:70O:O"~0"OX7~,.770:00:,.,.0:0:,.,.,.
... ... ... ... ,.
~,.0:0:0:0:0:,.,.
O:O:XOX,.~0:7",.0:7",.0:0:,.,.0,.~XO""07
'pA..r'JOA ..r-"JO..? ;04
...~......
...~0:7,.O:O:O:oO:X,.O:O:~X,.0:""""0,.07,.,.
,,00:X70~ ""7
A..rAJO..r..?AA VA~V
... ... ,.
...~
0:0:,." "07,,0:0:0,.7"~0:7,. 0:0:,.77
~...,.~o0""70~0:7"",,"~00:,.,.O~,.,.0:0:0:0:00:0""
/,,~.p -"A..I~ ..?AA ..r~..r JOJ'/" ~v A..?/" ~A~ v.p A..r,JO ..r/""",.p; -"~..r..?
~... ...
0:0:,.,. O:O,.~ 1I~~,.77"7"
"'pA/,,'pA..I.P;/"/"~v..IJO""";-"'"~.........938
PachyserisMilne-Edwards&Haime,1849
.Pachy' means thick, therefore the genus is described as 'thick lettuce'. Twelve nominal
specieshavebeendescribed,howeveritisthoughtthatthereareonlytwotruespecies.BotharefoundinMaldivesandareillustratedhere(Fig.lOa,b).
Characters
Coloniesarelaminarandunifacial,tobranchingandbifacial.Branchesarehighly
twisted. Corallites are very small, indistinct and lie in valleys in-between steep-sided
ridges. Septa are very distinct, running at right angles to the ridges and right over the top
whichcontinue to the next valley. These ridges are usually concentric and run parallel to
the edge of the colony. Colonies are usually brown or green in colour. Polyps are
extended only at night.

Remarks
I
Pachyseriscanoccurinwiderangeofhabitats,butprefersshallowshelteredwaters.
Colonies can grow to a very large size.

-tJ- -tJ-
( .I' ,.
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tSA.? ,S',/'J "'A.?,JO.r A~'p""'V ~""'V"'" A.?r ""'.I',,;' --'A";-V'p /,V",/"J J""'JOA'p'?
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lOalOb40
 i
MembersoftheFamilyFungiidaemaybefree-livingorattached,colonialorsolitary.Thereareelevenextantgenera,withnumeroussub-generawhichmakesthe
Thepolypsofthisgroupareamongthelargestofallknowncorals.Thedistinctionbetween'solitary'and'colonial'maybedifficultwithsomecorals.Howeveritis
probablyevolvedfromsolitarygroup.Membersofthisfamilyhaveprovedtobemobileandabletoextractthemselves,frombeneaththesandorrubble.
Therearearound25speciesintheFungiagroup.SixspeciesareknowntooccurintheMaldives(Fig.1la-f).
Membersofthisgrouparesolitarycoralswhichbecomeunattachedwhenjuveniles,maintainingafree-livingstatus.Theymayberoundedorelongated,flatordome-shaped.Themouthislocatedinthecentreofthecorallum.Septaarenumerousand
.;..;..;..;..;~..;..;
coc,;o,;6Co~~oCCC7~,,~..;70";"..;..;7
o,;,;~c~~07..;ccccc~~OC~~
o~,;';07~~7..;0777","0";";";..;~C7..;0,,;
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,;~~";0";CCC7..;..;C7..;C~..;CCC
).;1'1
AJ,jOt!
JA",jOA'p
their

".;1'JJ
edgesarearmedwithteeth.Septaradiateoutwardsfromthecentralmouth.Costae
have
prominentspinesontheirmargins.Thecoralitewallisperforated.Corallumis
Fungia

Characters

usually

Remark",'

washed
brownincolour.Polypsareusuallyextendedonlyatnightandhaveshort
upperreefslopes,protectedlagoons,lowerreefslopes.Thesearecommonon
.I".I",jO .r.r

;';J.)
classification

..?A.?A
widely spaced

J..?AA.7

s.,,!-'
sandyreef flats.

..; ..;

~~-'
Lamarck,

"

S.7
.

..;

'pA.1'A-'.;
tentacles.

~-'

"..7.p-.-
'pA.1'A-"V
1801
and identification

..;..;..;
S".A

ASJ'>.7
..;
S

""'V-"pv.p

s-'s~.p
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Family

'pV.,,!-'

..;

41
of this group

S
S~AA

AAS-'J'>
J'>.p".
..;

SS-'J'>A'p.7
Fungiidae

complex.

..;
(F
C7..;~..;7","COCoC..;oC
(Mushroom

svJ'>S

;~::;.~ ':.r~l: ".'.rA A:;';':;'~;::';.7

'pA-'V-'J'>.;
ungll

-
"

'pA~'p-'v

CCC777..;
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d)ae

---
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ASJ'>S
Coral)
"
( lla - f

-'-'v-'

",.."'J'>A"'A
-.C'".~
~:;

~..;~..;

SAPAAV'p
0";"

O..;..;OC..;
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-
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O~~C!_";"

07..;OC
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t!!!A".
,.."

S
usually the number of mouths that is used as the guide rather than the number of polyps.

Fllngiaare usually very common, and can persist in all reef habitats, including wave-
There is a long fossil history of the Fungiidae and it is thought that colonial species

."
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44
Herpolitlla Eschscholtz, 1825
Only
twotruespeciesarethoughttooccurinthisgenus.Bothareknowntooccurinthe
Maldives and are illustrated here (Fig. 12a, b).

Characters
Herpolithaisusuallyelongate,withanaxialfurrowthatrunsthelengthofthecorallum.
This furrow may have several mouths, therefore members of this genus are described as
colonial corals. Septa can come in three lengths, primary septa radiating from the
groove to the edge of the corallum. Secondary centres sometimes develop and the
corallummaybecomeY,TorXshaped.Coloniesareusuallybrown.Polypsareonly
extended at night.

Remark",'

This is a common genus, generally occurring in protected areas on reef sldpes and in
lagoons.

".P
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AS
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( 12a, b t!~

QX
)
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~~.....c~~~~
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)
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~~.....0"""""""cc;;;;cc;Co;xoc;
o~xoc 0;; ;
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~~~o~C~""o;ccc~o~;~o;co;;~~;c0Coc;;;~occ
JAA- S'JOA'p.7 "'pA,,-"-"--'" ASJO"-JOVA "-JO.7'A JO'~; ~'pAVJOS"-A ;V"--"'A
.....

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~~ cc c;; ;o~ ;cc ~ ;~ c~; cc;~ ~ ;;~ c~; ccc~
A.? '.P~.rs' "-VA.7-'" "-"-"--"'A~"'- ~,,-S.7 S.,?S "'pA.,?V",.7 VA.,?V S.,?S "'pA'-'"
~~ccc~ceo~c;~;~~~;c~;~;
.....~....45
 12a

46
PolyphylliaQuoy&Gaimard,1833Therearethreespeciesinthisgenus,oneofwhichisknowntooccurintheMaldives
and is illustrated here (Fig. 13).

Characters
LikeHerpolitha,Polyphylliaisconsideredacolonialcoralduetothepresenceofmanymouthsontheuppersurfaceofthecorallum.Coloniesarefreeliving.Thecorallumis
elongate in shape, and may be flat, arched, or crescent shaped. The colony is covered
withlongtentacleswhichareusuallyextendedduringthedaymakingthisgenusvery
easyto distinguish. Colonies are usually brown.

Remarks

Found in a variety of reef habitats; sandy bottoms, upper reef slopes, reef flats and
lagoons.

(13~,)~.,1~
...

S""
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J'
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~.r,...I.A "pA"""J"-"..I ""'J'~J"AJ' .?",..A AJ"""'J'A-A- S", J"-"'" JO",..",..A

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ASA,JOS .?AA "'A,?'" S.?S J'A>AA'" .?s..I -".?s SJ"J'-'? """""? S"'JO "" AA- SCA~
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':':':':0:7"':7"'~0':0:7"':70:7~o""::7'"':':'"'"
J'A""'..I ""'.;'.?;'.? S.? J""""'JO.? J'", I A"""""J"'? s~..I J"""""'~ A"'J"'?
'"'"'"'""""~47
 13

14

48
Halomitra Dana, 1846
Although six species have been described it is thought that only one is a true species.
Ha/omitra pileus occurs in the Maldives and is illustrated here (Fig. 14).

Characters
Ha/omitraarefree-living.roundedcolonies.Theyareusuallydomeorumbrellashapedconsistingofathinskeleton.Theremaybeacentralcoralitethatislargerthanthesecondaryones.Themouthsarescatteredwidelyovertheuppersurfaceofthe
corallum. The septa are covered in spines making it rough to touch. The corallum is
brownishincolour.Polypsareextendedonlyatnight.
Remarks

Ha/omitra is uncommon and prefers protected lower areas of the reef slope or lagoons
with a sandy substrate.

.I -AV,?

(14~,)~".,,::1'
.07"'7'".cco~7"''"..."''".0C.C"'O"O
'.I'A.r.l '-.P.r"'J"'..I SCJA' 'J"A'p.? ".P""J"A'p .?rA .r.r.?"'" AS..!'S.?
'"~'"'"'""...~07Co'"'"CO:.7"'~'"7'".CXx'"C.0:oXCX'"07'"C~
rA "'pA.r.r.r"'" AI!!!AJ"A.? '.r~.rS.? AS~S ".P-""'.rS -"A'J"A -""'J"~" .r.r.r"'" A.I.,;""'S
"'"'"'"'"~'"'"~"7C..7'"'"~o'"O:O:C~07oCoC",'"7~'"7C"'7777O""""..co:
'pAS",c- S"'J"-"J" AI!!!.AJ" "'pA.r.r.r"'" '-'pA"'J"-"J" .,;'" .PA..I'J"A AS"';"'; .rSA-"'p SA
,. '" '" '" '" '" '" '" '"
"",."''"~C7"'0'"~""X7"0."'""'77~07"'7'"'"
"""'.p .r~J"A S S'J"A.P.? .?p ".P-""'.rJ" .r""'A"'J"-"""'" .r.r.r"'" AJ".r.P-4..A..
'"~'"~'"'"",CO:"'7"'..c"'7"'~C""'77"""7C7'"~"'7
AS CA",c Ao? ".P~.rS' .r.r.r"'" A..I'.r AJ"~.rS.? "'pA~"'-"'? "'A~'" S~S "'pA.r.P""'"
,. ~'"
~'"'"~'"
" x 07 ~"'0"""7 7XO"'0"'~ "'" "07"'7'" """OC"'70~
roll .1'1;..rs A"'J"-".I'A ~".r"'J"-"'?"'" .r.r.r..l '-.P.r.,;.?,;.? ".P.r.rA~S.?AA
" '"
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".P.r.r'" J"~.P.r..l
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49

...
 MembersoftheFamilyOculinidaearecolonialcoralswhichmaybebothhermatypicandahermatypic.Thepolypsofthisgroupareverybeautifulwithtwocirclesoftentaclessurroundingthemouthoftranslucentpastelcolours.Allgeneraexcepttwoare
sa..r'""',,1'-..1.;04~a..ro4".P"'..I.~sS~o4o4ell1maea..r~"'o4A.? TherearethoughttobefivetruespeciesofGalaxea,threeofwhihoccursinthe Membersofthisfamilyarefoundinawiderangeofhabitatsbothinshallowwaterhabitatsandindeepareas.Thesecoralsareexclusivelycolonialandmayformlarge
Galaxeaisacommoncoralthatoccursfromshallowinshorereefflatsandreefslopes,todeeplowerreefslopes.Occasionallycoloniesmayattainverylargesizes.Large Galaxeaformrelativelysmallcoloniesthatmaybemassive,columnarorencrusting.Corallitesofthisgenusareverydistinct.Theyrisefromthecorallumasseparatetubularcylinders.Theymaybeuniforminwidthandlength,withveryexertseptamostofwhichreachthecorallitecentre.Theoverallcolourisgreenorbrownish.Polypsare
':;1'"0.:'"~0.:.:':"0.:~~
-'~-'-'-'-'~-''"
;1'"

o"';1X
regIOn

""";1;1
.I' o4S~
Remarks
expanses

'"
".P~Jl'o4'p
':':"'0'"
~~-'~-'-'-'~",e",.:.:.:'".:':""""'0':~0"""~o;1X0~0;10'"'"':':""1
-'~-'-'~~~'"'"
Maldives.
Galaxea

frequently

Jl'o4
ahermatypic:

Characters

':;1",~;1",
0':
-' -'

s.".
~-'-'-'-'':;1"'~':0"0':':':"0':;1'"e",.:'";1':'"0'"XX~"""'""'.:ox",
One
-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-"~"
Jl'
of mono

Oken,

3 .r;'"" .:.:

","';1':;1'"
'"
extended

-'
colonies of Galaxea
Galaxea

':;1"';1
".P"""'~
specific

"'"o~
1815

o4S<:!o4~
-'

S
is illustrated

0"""""";1"':;1'"

"'~
s
~ .1'0404
0
-'
-'-'.:.:~~"".I'AJ".I'.;'"50--L
growth.

.ro4~Jl'

'"
;;
.:.:
and Archeliao

':':"":;1;10"'"':;10'"
may be exploited

':':':~':;1
Family

here (Fig.

~S
,- .
I' .r.?"..P
~0;10'"
':;1"'0'"
S~Jl'o4'p'-"I
15).
However,

S 0'"
-'
during the day and tentacles

A "'.:.:
o4.r.r./""'-
(0
Oculinidae

~S '"
':0"0
by coral miners.

A 0
s..I.~S.7
1
0O
..
~ ' """.:'"
A
ct
only Galaxea

':':':~;1~",

':;1~;10",;1
s'" o
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occurs

.".
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J 0"""
o4S"'Jl'~"I
"';1"';1'"
( 15
often have conspicuous

~-'-'~-'

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s'"~ o4Jl"'"
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s ':;1'"
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)
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.I

S"'Jl';o4;-'-'
':;1"';1"""""

a ':~tll
;
white tips.

".PA",I.7.Jo4
in the Indo-Pacific

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 Family Pectiniidae
MembersoftheFamilyPectiniidaearecolonialcoralswhichpossesslargethickandfleshytentacleswhichmaybeavarietyofcolours.Thesepolypsareonlyextendedatnight.Thisgrouponlyconsistsofhermatypiccoralswhicharegenerallylaminar
consisting of thin plates, -but may be encrusting or foliacous.

There are approximately 30 species in this family. There are five extant genera:
Physophyllia, Echinophyllia, Oxypora, Mycedium and Pectinia. Only the latter four are
known to occur in the Maldives (Fig. 16).

Oxypora Saville-Kent, 1871

TherearetwotruespeciesofOxypora,oneofwhichoccursintheMaldivesandis
illustrated here.

Characters
Oxyporaformsencrusting,submassiveorlaminarcolonieswithfoliaceousperimeters.Theskeletalplatemaybethin,becomingthickenedinsomeareas,especiallyin
submassive colonies. Most corallites are separate and distinct, but may be crowded on
thecoralluminsomeareas.Theyareroundedinshape,andslightlyraised.Septaarefewandcolumellaarepoorlydeveloped.Coloniesareusuallybrownincolourwith
pink, grey or green centres. Polyps are extended only at night.

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Remarks

."..
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;
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Maybecommoninshallowreeffrontsandupperreefslopes,coloniesreachinguptoa
meter in diameter.

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404CC"'"o"!>C44:1'"4:1"''"
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'" {; '" '" '" '" '" '" '" "
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{; '" {; '" '" '"

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52
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s'"JO-'"JO~.P,;?.r..PA.,?''"-'",;?"'A.,?''"
..... ..........

.,

n~~
"p:I..rs~.i".r.r"",A~~.rAJO:I.,rS,;?
I'

0"""'" ~~~"'o'" ~~~'" '" o OX O '" '" """ '" '" O'"

.r.r"'"-""",;?AAA,rJO,;?S-"'A,r"'JOAA-A,;?.....
-""".;S SS~JOA'p,;? "p"'.,?'S

..... .....
0 ~ '" ~ ~ '" 0 "'&~ ~ 0 X 0 ~~~ '" et:. 0 t:. oX X 0'" '" "' 0 '" et:.

A,r,;?r A,;? -"""JO:I.-

A?,r ,r~JOA.p.1'A -","'.r.r- .r""'.p.; "pA.;"'" -",.p
A,rJO.rJO.;"'"

..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....

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" :> 0 0 """ 0 '" '" o '" '" et:. 0 0'" '" :> "'

A.J.P'"
:I."' -'" ,;? '" -" '" A,;?r A';'
"'.p A,r JO
,r.r""'.p.; -",.,?',r SJO.P-,;?
.... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....

'" '" O'" ,, " '" :>

S "'A
"pA.r'pA'p.;.r.r -"'" "'A,;? JO.r

S.,?',r
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....

1653
 Mycedium Oken, 1815
TherearetwotruespeciesofMycedium.OneisknowntooccurintheMaldivesandis
illustrated here (Fig. 17).

Characters
lvfycediumusuallyformflatorcontortedfoliaceouscolonies,thatareknowntodisplayalotofgrowthvariation.Corallitesareusuallyseparatebutmaycrowdtogetherinplacesonthecorallum.Theyareinclinedatanangletothecorallumsurfacewiththe
calice opening facing towards the outside of the colony. Most colonies are brown, pink
or greenish often with brightly co loured red or green oral discs. Polyps are extended
only at night.

Remarks
Commoninawiderangeofhabitats,wheretheskeletontendingtobecomethinnerandmoredelicateindeep,protectedareas.
~~."
~(17~') .I .;",,'""-"",

...:.: .:~"'.."'.:.:.."".. ".:.: "'~"'~..""""'.:~ "'.. .: "'~..

.rA~J"
... S~J"A"P..;' s,,!~s..? ... ..;"'" AS"'J"..;'A-""~""""
... SA.r'" "'~,
... ... ",! ..;'A
... .l"A.rA
......
.."""'"'"~~"'.."""'"~.:..x~.:.:"'.."'...:"'...:..~"'~'"':""tI<-
""""A~""""~"""" J"~J"""'~"P ~~J"~ """"'.rJ" A..? '"P~J"A"pAA .r.r.r~ .r"'J"~~ Stt!A.I'
......~...~~.."""""'""'...:x~..~"'..~..'""""..~"'~.:~'".:.:.:'".:...:",..","t
A;t' A"'.rA J""'A ASAJ"S..?AA .r.r.r-"" AJ"""'J".r.rA A.rS..? S.,?S '"P"'.,?S SA~J"A.I',;'"
...~......
..""" .:.:.:~.:~...:", '" ",..""" "'~~ ...:",.:~",...:""" ':':"':1'
AJ"""'J" '"PA.r..;'~-"" """""pAS~A"'~A'" AJ"""'J"..? AS.,??'; AA" S.,?S """""P..?r "'pAS""';
......~...~~..",~~"'~".:.:~"'~"'~.:"""",.:",..x",..",~",...:~'"
-""~-"" ."...,??..;' AA~ A"'~" S.,?S "PA~~J"~ J"..?S.rA S""'J" """"~A AJ"~~AA ".."..".-'
.........~...~.:~'"'".:.:""""'~.:"""~x~~",..~",~.:~'".:.:",x",..~"':,,:1,,,<--
S"'J"""'J" '"P""""A.,?"'-""~ J""P.r ""'J".I"~ '." ? .r.r.r-"""?'" S.,?S '"P""'J"s.r.r-"" """""P.r"'.JtI"")
......~
",..~ "'.:.: ..",~ "'~ .:~'" .:.:"'~ .: """~..,,, ~..~ "'~~ ~':C:1t

.r.r.r-""A~~.r AJ"A.rS..? S.,?S '"PA.,?"'-""~ J""P.r J"~ .r.r.r-"" AS.,??'; AA~.JtI,;.?

~......~...
",~..",..~..x",..~ .:.:.:",.:...:",.."",.:.: ",~",~.."""", ~~"'.:~"'~'" .:.:"et
ASJ".rJ".r~ """"""""A.7 '"P"'.,?S SA~J"A"P..;'-"" AS"'J"..;'A-""~"""" J"~J" S"'J"~~ A..? '"PL"'J.I'
... ... ~...
.:.:.:~ ~~.:~",..", Ctt
'"PA.r"P.rJ" S S~J"A.I'.? ,;'"
... '"

~.:~~.: '" .:~..P.:.."",,~ ...:", ",..~ ",...: ..""".:~",..",

"'A..?J".r A~"P~'"
... ... A~"'~ """'?'" .1"'"... A..?r """"A.7 "'"P .r-"""P..;'... ""'.,?S S~J"A"p..? ...
.:.:
'"'".:..",~,,~x.."'"~...."""~..~C:1-
'"PA.r"PA~"P..;'.r.r .I" '" S..1',,! J"" .r"""""P ""'A~"""" .?AA S,:1'.I
~............54
Ecllillophyllia Kulunzinger, 1879
Therearefivenominalspeciesandfourtruespecies.Threespecieshavebeenrecorded
from Maldives and only one species is illustrated here (Fig. 18).

Characters
Coloniesareencrusting,laminarorfoliaceous.Oftenthecentralpartofthecorallumisattachedandsolid,themarginfreeandthinner.Calicesareroundandovalinshape,not
strongly inclined to the corallum surface. There are numerous septa and columella are
well developed. Septal margin is unevenly serrated. The overall colour of the colonies
arebrownwithgreenorpinkoraldiscs.Polypsareextendedonlyatnight.
Remarks

This genus is common in wide range of habitats, especially lower reef slopes and
I

1r.:l'
.:I',J
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~"S~S
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p.7
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AS
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lagoons.Coloniesmayreachameterortwoindiameter.
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; .- ... .. ....

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,,; .- .,:. .." ..
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.. ":""'" ..
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.,:. .. ":"'"
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,,~..""":'"",~;;1.-eeC.-;1;1;1C;1.-eCC~o;1OC.-O.-;1;1;1C;1.-C1r.l,7AS,JI"S"pVA~V-"'.7VA~VS~S.7..PAJ"'J"'J""'"AVJIIJII.rJ"'JIISI!:A,'VA
.- "":'" .. ..
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.,:. ..

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./.)"'A ".""...-' A.7 "pVS SAJIIA"p
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1"""'" "'.7"'./'A J'V A S-'" JII S J'" ""..1'",11 A.7J'" , v..P ~..P-'" ~S S-'" JIIA"p.7
1-,,~1/~00'-'-00.-~0'-'-~.-C;1'-;1C~;1e.-C;1
.If ...
".-~.:I'.JI" ", .r, '..P
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.. ....
'J'v-'"~S.AA..I,'S~SvA.7JIIJ'"A..1..1'-'"v
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.,:. .. ..

55

"'"
 ]8
17

~f[(,fIe~I56
Pectinia Oken, 1815
There 14 nominal species, but only seven true species. Three species have been
recordedfromtheMaldives.Onlyonespeciesisillustratedhere(Fig.19).
Characters
Coloniesarelaminarandbranchingwiththinirregularwallsarrangedasshortvalleys.Thewallsmayformtallspires,becomingsub-arborescent.Alargecoralitecentremaybeinanypositioninthecorallum.Thewallscommonlyhavesmallersecondarycentres
halfway up the coral. Septo-costae are often spiny. The living coral is often brown or
greyishin colour.Polypsare extendedonly at night.

oS
.I.
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JO
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Remarks

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v
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r
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,
Occursinmostreefhabitats,bothinshallowanddeepareas.Commoninlowefreefslopesandinturbidwaters.Thesecoralsmayhavebeenexploitedformakinglime
.I"
J"
"..
"JO
JO.
"'04
.1""
JOA.r
.?
""0
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0. I'
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,JO
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.
which have been used as a substitute for cement for construction purposes.

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.- '" '" '" '" '" '"

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oM7'-07~C7'-0'-CCC'-O'-
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C7'-7'-7'-C-o~0CCC7.-C7.-0.-
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'" .- '" '" '" '" '" '"
cc~"""'-07o'-XoxC~7'-0'-CoC~C7'-0'-CCC~07OC.-0'-:;#
'" '" fI- '"
CCC~07 '-7~ CC:;#.-oC 7 .- CCC~o:;#OCO.- '-'-0 7'-~ '-7'-

.- """ '" '" '" '" '" '"

C", CCC-J-71#1# .-C7 0'-0'- .-0.-07'-'- '-07 .-C70'-0'-0C.- 0 '-OC C7.-
'" '" '" '" '" '"
CC.-- .-0:;# .-CCO.-:;#.-~ CCC'-:;#'-O:;#O'-~'-'-'-7 7 7
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",v.?AA ,?rA 'pA;"" ~'pA.rJ"""JO"".,I
'" '" '" '" '"
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f, '" '" '" '" '" '" fI-
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57
 MussidaehastwelvegeneraofwhichsevenareknowntooccurintheIndo-Pacificregion.OnlyfiveofthesegeneraareknowntooccurintheMaldives:Scolymia;Cynarina;Acanthastrea;LobophylliaandSymphyllia.Howevertwogeneraare
Lobophylliaformsmassive,convexorroundedcolonies.Coloniesarephaceloidtomeanderoid.Coralitesandvalleysarelarge.Septaarelargewithverylongteeth.Columellaarecompact.Afleshymantleisoftenpresentonthesurfaceofthecoral,hidingmuchofthedetailofthecorallum.Thelivingtissueofthecorallumisusuallygreenorbrown,sometimesredorpinkishwithdifferentcolouredmouth.Polypsareonlyextendedatnight.Tentaclesusuallyhavewhitetips. TherearefivetruespeciesofLobophyllia.ThreehavebeenrecordedfromtheMaldives.Twoareillustratedhere(Fig.20a,b). Theskeletonsofthisgroupareheavyandhavelargesharpspinesonthesepta.The
",","""",",~"",~~X"""'7~"'7~~7"""~"""~~~7"~""".,7",'"7"""""
mayreachtwometersindiameter.Thesecoralarenotexploitedbycoralminers.
",
~7",.,~",~.,~~~:I:I"~~~(M
,,;'A
~C~~"7.,~",.""7:1:1",",~",",~~X~~."".,7",",~",C~~~~' ~~",.""
s..,v

",
Remarks

A.?"~
A~"PJO"-
""p"JOA"P

",
Characters
described
Members

AI!!AJO"-'"
Lobophyllia

~"""""7"""
"""

3
v~~..!
~~",~~C",~C",.,7",~~""'7"'~~7'"C~'""'7"~
Lobophyllia

"S,A
here.
",",~",~","",,7.,'"",.,7",7~7"""'"~",~~"7"",,7~"",,7~7'"~~~~"
'JO~-'"
~"""
',,;'-'"
~~",cc.,~.,~CC7""""5~":I:I"CC~",7",7",~7'"70""'"
SA
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,,;'A
colonies

S.?S",,;'
",
AS.:!A"

"pAS,,;'..?
"'77~"'"
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"""

AS..?,,;'-'"
"""~""""""~"~""'~7"'X~7"'".,7"""~",~~"'~"""""X~""""~"7,,"
,--~
,A"JO
of the Family Mussidae

are common

svJO""JO
Blainville, 1830

""P"'S"
AJO""JO"A

"""",
""".,
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Family

~",",","58;Y'
S"JOA"p

S..?,,;'A

",-'"
AVJO""JO
7
S.?AA

..'s..?
are hermatypic

",

",~
Mussidae

A~'"
""pA"-'"
~~x."".,x
S..!"S"?,,;'-'"

""PA~-"'.:!~..?
us

",

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S

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O
d
polyps are thick and fleshy and may have a range of colours.

1 a

AJO"'S,,?
e)

.".V-
~"P""JO"-'"
",
",

vSJA ""vJO"-
II
( 20a,

~X
ASVJO"~
~",~",
and may be colonial

S.?s"
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:1:111
:,

SA
)

"",-",
~

S
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SVJO,,;'A"';~
or solitary

",
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".I1""IJ11A./'A

""pAS A'?"""""")
.I J""~';.A
'"

""s~.s

JO"
along the reef flats and upper reef slopes. Colonies
corals.

,JO
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JO"PASA~
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SJOS
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..,

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AJ<lP ""
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J""/A "',?J J..!~ J;
..p"""~J"'p<lPr""/"A/"J....cc;;>~"0;;>~;;>0"0""
.... .... .... "" '::' ,::. ....

c ;;>" c "Cc 0 cc cc oX cX
J,?J,?'p AJCA A; .".~.p JAA<lP J~J"A'p;
..pAr""""'" J":&<lP

"" "" ....

,::. '::"'" ....

..P/"/"A,?JJ~J"A'p20a20b59
SymphylliaEdwards&Haime,1848Threeofthefive,truespeciesofSymphylliaareknowntooccurintheMaldives.Two
species are ill.ustrated here (Fig. 21a, b).

Character,\'
Symphyllia colonies are usually massive, with a rounded or flattened top surface.
Colonies are meandroid. Like Lobophyllia the surface of Symphyllia colonies are
covered by a co loured fleshy mantle, hiding the skeleton details. Lobophyllia has
coarser skeletal structure compared to Symphyllia. Septa are large with very long teeth.
Coloniesareusuallybrown,greenorwhite.Thevalleysandthewallsusuallyhave
contrasting colours. Polyps are extended only at night.

Remarks
all reef habitats, especially on the: reef flats and

A
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Thisisacommoncoral,occurringin
upper reef slopes.

J~,
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( 21a, b :, )
of> .of> ""
.I' .".."".,."."'"
-'
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..:0:1:10<:c..:..~..~....:~..~o..:~..0..:..~0
S~J"A'p S..!~ s.?"' ;-' "'AS"'J"~~ S"'J";A-'~~ s~"" "'~~..!
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A~S S..!~S S'~~A .P"""'A'p ';~AS.? .P"'..!~S S~J"A'p ""~.P AA.!~J.7
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0"""0~..~C~..CCCC~~O"OX~"..O~..C~CO:l:lO~~"~,,
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"' "' "' "'
~....C~..~..0x..O~CCC..~O~..~..~..C<:c0~CC.."..0~",,
AASJ".? S"'J"~~ """'~A';' .P"'~S .?AA AS"'J"~~ St!'A~ A.? 'p~'S~ ",-' "".1-".1"
"'~"'~"'~..CC...."":7"'"
'pAS~ A"'J".? or", .I-"A '
~"'~~00"..~O~C~..~C~~C..C~0PCO":,,C..~0"..
'~.P ""A~~ .?AA S~S "'A.?J'" A~'p~'" ~~"'~ A.?,-"p; "'.I' ""'" ,.,.~S.?
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CC....CO"~,,~O~..71"'"
~"'"'"'"'"'60
 21a

21b

61
 Therearethoughttobefivetruespeciesinthisgenus,twoareknowntooccurintheMaldives.Twoareillustratedhere(Fig.22a,b). Allmembersofthisfamilyarehermatypicandcolonialcorals.Therearefivegenera,twoofwhichareknowntooccurintheMaldivesandareillustratedhere.
surface.Thesesmallconicalmoundsprotrudefromsharedcorallitewalls,andmaycomeinavarietyofshapes,whichcanservetoidentifyspecies.Hydnophoramaybebranchedmassiveorencrusting,orcombinationsofthesegrowthforms.Thecorallites
toprefercalmlagoonsandshelteredreefslopes.Massiveformsmaybeexploitedby Membersofthisgrouparefairlycommoncoralsoccurringinmostreefhabitats. arejoinedinseries,andridgesarenotprominent.Coloniesareusuallybrownorcreamincolour.Polypsmaybeextendedduringtheday.
~~....CCC7-1-,.07-1-,.-1-C-1-C7,.0,.CCC0,c77co"occ,.7,.7-1-7,.C~,.'"
0
Remarks

A./~.r'
c-1-
coral

-: t!,.
AJOAA-:;.r'.r'""AJO-::JO.r'.r'-:L.r'S.?S.,?"S'.pA.r'or~"".r'or..,IAS~JOA.p-:S.7oSAA
.r"""""'.p
cC7,.-1-c7,.Cc,.70777,.,.77,.,.7c7,.cc,.C,..,t".
"07
.r'.r'.r"'"
-1-o,.oc
Characters

,.cc,.

-1-
HydnopllOra

miners.
Hydnophora

L.r'S.?

"A./"""""
,.
0""

A..,Ior""
,.c,.,.

c
"070"

s.,?"s

.?AA
~~cc,.o,c,c,.,.7c0,c77Cc-1-C7,.0,.CCC,.,.07,.7,."~~~Ii
~........-1-00",.70-1-C7,.7C-1-7C,.C70PC0C,.C,.-1-0",.
Fischer

,,"'.?AA
,.,.-1-

0,c70-1-

S.,?"s
,.,.07,.07

"pA.,?"V
,.,.07
de

Co"o
is easily recognised

VA.?JO.r'
S
.A
Waldheim,

"""""-J'VV
Family

CCC,.0,.-1-7,.
~f
ccc"o

'.pV"'JOJO.P-or'?
. ,.-1-c7,.

A./'p~V
,.-1-,.
?
J
v
", JO.P.r'
c-1-
1807

by the presence

o,c"

..!
L~"'~
".?
-1-

~
.r'
Merulinidae

(M
,.7,.7,.
. ASVJO~..,I
ccc-1-C7
~................-.
l

A VA.,?"V
~....62
o'

cc,.,.
"7,.-1-

A.?r""'.Por
SCA~
da)

ccco-1-
s.,?"s
of hydnophores

"7C".r'A"""""""./,,~.pv.,?"sss..!~s.?"pv..!~sS.,?"AAeru1meL.r"'?"~.?A.?~~~~c'
07C7C7,.0"
JO "
""p
.,I
'.PA.r'.PA..,I'por.r'.r'
( 22a, b

,.,.
v.,?"S
A
.r'
-"
J'
co,.-1-
S ccc,.o,.-1-

v
~J
t

,?"
S'.p" v
J.
' "pA./JO./""C
)
covering

-" v
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cc

CO"o
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".,?"S.?
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....
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OS
A
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"-1-XC.,,,"
cccc,.t.1
JlVA"-

S ""VA-'
"JOA,/"A
"~"~'l

,.~,
,r',/",/"./
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the corallum

~
Tend

"
v-,
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:'
1

rA
o.r""
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or"
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JO
JOs
J
p
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.
t
J
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~22a22b63
 .
Merulinaisusuallyfoliaceous,laminarorsub-arborescentwithpartlyencrustingbase.Acolonymaydisplayacombinationoftheabovegrowthforms.Merulinaisameandroidcoralwithsmallcalicesarrangedinrowswhichareseparatedbycollinesorhills.Thevalleysandrowsofcalicesusuallyradiatefromthecolonycentre.Flatsurfaceshaveconcentricgrowthlines.Coloniesmayhavevarietyofpalecolours,
TherearetwotruespeciesofMerulina,
:7",~~7'"~~",",7:7"",,7X~7",",..7",7~7'"~~"'7~~:7"'7'";0:1 .."""",~~~7",~~7'"~~",X~..","AJOS.rA".r-..rS.7S.,?'S..p-"JOS'p-""'"~.."..7~~7~",~7..~",c~..~..~",",..~",~7~..",",
7",",..7"'~7..",X~~..~"~"'7'"
~II~~:7XII~...."""",7"~~7'"",~",~..X....",0""~'"S.7,rs.r".r~.p-""'JO~~.7AAS.,?'SorAA.7.r~'"-""""~t!!.rA'-./",?J
S.7
",~..",7",~7",7",~~"..~",~..~",..",7"~","..~~~",c~",..7;tt
",~~~~",..",I~~",c~..~..~~~7",~7",..",2cc~",.."..
-'.rS.7

S..!"
-..rS.7
A~,r"-S
Remarks
Characters

slopes.
Merulina
Maldives

S.7
ASJO.rJO-'.7
s.,?'s

.r.r"-A~'p,r

S.,?'S
..p"JOA'p

"'A.7JO.r
S"'JO"~
.'pA""-

-"JOS.7

.'pASA.,?""-".7
~....7",~~7'"~~~7..7~7~7""""
is not common
Merulina Ehrenberg,

....

A~'p"'"
.r,r"-
and is illustrated

.r,r~A

..p.r.r
..p.r.r..-

JO.P.r
AS~A"
1834

-.""',,
A.,?'S
S"JOA'p

""""':'
-"JO~~
A"'JOS.7
here (Fig. 23).

.rA"JO

SA"JOA'p
2

AS~A"
-'.7

64
7
oneofwhichisknowntooccurinthe
",..~",I~~",..xx~",7~;0:1
~7""'~
ASA.,?'S

.r.r.r

.7AA
s.,?'s

A.7.r
usually pink or brown. Polyps are usually extended

""':"'"
", .. 7

,?""

AS~A"

~A.7
S"JOA.p

~..7~
",~

S.,?'S

A.7
..p-"..!JOS~S
(23~,)~~~~
only at night.

............
.r.7"-

~7'"
7 7 7 7

"'.p ..1'A
.'pAS,r.7

..p-..rs"
,:,

~'"
~~~"""..~
.'p"'.,?'s.r.r~

.'pA.r
~~",",to"
.."""",..~
AA~"JO~
AS..!"S.7

", .. 7

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, .r.r.r..-

....
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-".,?'S.7

'pA..I.P
.r..7;
.r,r.7
. .r ....

",
,:,
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';.1".1"
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./",~
A0""
A..I'.I"
,:,
or.r.r'"
;0:1
;
0
oror.r'"
J1"",.r ,. J#
in the Maldives, but may occur in protected lagoons and reef

,r
S
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rS
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S,r.r
,r.r
A.
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 23(i)

23(ii)

65
 MembersoftheFamilyFaviidae,areamongthemostimportantgroupsofcolonialcorals.Thisgroupdisplaysthelargestnumberofgenerainscleractiniancorals.Morphologywithinthisgroupisvariable.Faviidaediplaysagreatarrayofcolonystructuralvariations.Themorecommoncorallitestructuresare:phaceloid;plocoid;cerioid;andmeandroid.Twotypesofasexualreproduction;intra-tentaculurorextra-
Faviausuallyformmassiveroundedordomeshapedcolonies,withsomeencrustingforms.Corallitesaremonocentricandplocoid.Corallitesareroughlythesamesize familywhicharedividedinto27extantgenera.Thirteengenerawillbedescribedhere.
knowntooccurintheMaldives.Fourareillustratedhere(Fig.24a-d).
areclearlyvisibleandtogetherwiththeadjoiningcostaeareroughtotouch.ThisgenusisverysimilartoMonastreaandonewaytoseparatethemisbylookingatthemodeofasexualreproduction.Faviausesintra-tentacularbuddingtoformdaughtercoralliteswhereasinMontastreanewcoralitesareformedbyextra-tentacularbudding.'Coloniesareusuallybrown,greenoryellowwithcontrastingcolouredcorallitemouths.Polyps'
Thisisoftenadifficultgenustodistinguishasmanyofthecharacteristicsarevariablewithdepth,light,andreefhabitat.ThedistinctionbetweenFaviaandFavitesisnotverycontrasting.Faviaarecommononshallowreefflatsandreeffronts,andmay
"S?"sA.7',PA?AA"'.7"--""'-"'A~V""V.7AAA"s~A-'"A.7aVlae",P~
,,!!...;;;:..;,:,,;,,;,::,;:,,:~~::,;",;:';~A;I.;:';A;:'"S;;~~':.J:'::}.7.;~~;'::';6,::.""""""""""66
c~"'..c'"~..cc~~cec.."'..""..'"c..c..ccc~",..""..,,~~ c~'"CC~~cec~X~..x~..~",ce..~
,::.
"'.;"-
"s"",v
Favia

ec
Characters

Remarks

dominate

""
tentacular

'::"'"
and shape,

""
are extended

""
Oken,

A"s~A-'"
v~""""'..!
",ce..~..
flats and slopes.
budding

""
""

.;A

""
1815

"'A-"'J"
cc
""
one area. Favia

~""'A
""
and are slightly

only at night.

""
""""

c~",..",
.s-"'J"A'p
is heavily

II
can be important

projected

',PA?AA ""
""
Family

c..""..
"'.7"-
above

""

"s..!-",.s.7
exploited

""
cec~~",
Faviidae

""'::"'"

,P-"'v~?
AJ"..!-""'s
in identification.

by coral
(24a-ct~,)
the corallum

"",s""
.."",,&ec
miners,

"".71"';"-
.7",A
Eleven true species are known to occurs in the Indo-Pacific

(F
surface.

""
.
often

""
ct
"'A-"'J"
"'~"'~'"
)
The

A"sVJ"-"'~
"
'::"'"
;?~
collected

ell

"svJ"..!-"'.s
numerous

c~",~.."",,~
;?;?

"svJ".;"""""""
"" ",.".. A""""""" ",
'"
septa

.JII.J.I'
from reef
There are over 200 species in the

region. Six species are

 ""'Xo/ /0" / '"

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"p-,"VA'p .r.r.r-'" A./,;-" A.p",.p.r.rA j;.rJ.7 J?S "'pA-"'-" ~'pJ J-"'.pA.p ,;-" ./-"'.P./
... ... ...
~......
AA
".P
~
. P
/'"~O~O//""""'//"'0'"/O~/o"'o/"'oX/
,;~~~ -"~.:- A~::';;';'::' 'pVA .r.r.r-'" A'p"'.p "'pVAJA .7.rA .r.r.r-" ASAt!!!A'p .7.rv ,;A
... ... ... ~... ~... ...

'pS
' A
pS
~O~~O """"'~O"
0/0'"0/ce/o/X/"'/%~//'"/"""/~~~~
AA.-/.-'" J.7 "'pA.r.r.r-" .r.r.r./ .rA-"~./ -'?? A./.P.rJ A.P.r'pA-A- S"'.p "'pAS-"',;-"',;
/ ...

...~
"e
~'"0/"
./' J" A .p ,; (Mc)ntastrca) ,,~00/0x"'"'"'"'"/~~0'"~~00'"'"~/0/
"'pA c A-"'t!!!~t!!!.r.7 AA "'pA'pAJ?AA.7 A.,,!-'" J .r-"A -"'.PA'p
...~...//o~~o"""/X~///0X//o/X"'0'"/~~~/
'" / /
.r'pAtPA- "'.P AS.,,!-"'S.7 ".P",.pJ'pA-A- "'.P.,,!?,,! .r?- ",j;- .7.rA AS.7-"'VV.p
::; / ...

~......"""/~//O/O/"'/~'"//o/X"""O~"""/O~~"'Xall//
'"~"'"/
/,V J?J
"'pA.r.P?,;- -'t!!!""p,;j;V 'pA-A- ""pJ.7 ".P.r.r,;.7 S"'.P .r.7.P.Pj;- ",v-"',PV.p
~...~......"'~/""""'~,,~//~"'//""'//"""X~~//~'"~/O~J?J"'pA.r.P.P./.P?VSASASv.p",'p".P"'V,;-'".P.P.r-"./-",.7.r.r.r-'"......~~
0'"~'"~
AJ"t/"J.7

AJ,,
VA
A.7
".P
-'"
.r.
'p
""" /ce ~o" /"""
".p j;.r J -'" .r .r .r -'"A./ -'".r

~...
.~"'%" all ~~~O """~~o"'//ce/~ /~/""'~ "'o~~o
~'"~//
J./' J" A .p A A '" -'" .p A .,,!-'" J .7 VA"",.7.7-'" ".P.r.rA.7V -"'~./.7 V.7.PS.r,; J s.,,!-'" S.7
... ... ...

VA
-'"
-"
~...
'" '" "0 / "'" '" """"~ 0 "'0 "'~~o 0"""
(Favities)
o",~"O~~O"~'"~~
AJ"J' J.-/.-"'J,;.7 VAA.7.p "'pA ~t!!!A'p./ S -t"'-"A
... ... ~...

"'p
.>
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""" "'~ "'~ OX~/O~X 0'" /~~O//O~~O

"'pA.r ,;.p.7,;
... ...

'"
V
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-'
Sp
'" '" '" / ce '"
.~'"~/
/~//~~/0//'"~/~///~'"o~,0
Jv J"-".I "'pV?J ,;-'" AJV'pAS-~-'" .rS "'-"',P SV'p-"'./ V?SS S.,,!-"'J.7

A
......~...""""'"0/all~"'~/O//~/~~/
0""""" / ~~/o/~ce~"'~~
~"".p Jt! A~ ,;.7V -'.7.r-'" VAA.7.p "'pA,;-'" .rA.rJ "'-"',P S S-""pA'p.7 AJV'p_~-"'?'p
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
//"'~/o/ """"""O~/~/ "'ceo~ ~~/O//
';~7::'~ :;~ )?-:.5> Y-/; A;j;;~~ V?SS-'" .PA'p.7 "'pAS.r.rV'p-"'./ S ,,:A-'" s-'" 'pA'p.r S
... ...
~...
/ceo~~"'~~ ""'~ """~O~"'O"
.~"'~'"~/oX0~~/~
ocecee~
JvJ"-".I 'pA./"'V~-'" S.rS t!!!-'" ,;./A
...
.........~'"'"o~/all/~~~
"'~/o/ / /

".P.r.r-"'? "'-"',P .r .P?A S S-""pA'p.7 AS'p.7

~
......~
0"0///ce'"/~/o~,0//"'~~/ce0~'"
~/.I'.r -,"?J .rJ .r.7-'" AJV.p."!-,,,S V'pV.p S?AA.7 AS,,:A-"'-"'.p,;
'" / ... ... ... ......
~......"""/ce~~
.."~~0'"/0'"0'"//O~/allo~,0//~"'~~
OX~O~
'J'A>,/" AA"",V .r-".p,; A.7.r ~A':'- v.p ",V.p."!-,,, J v.pv.p VA.7.p ",V.7AA

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

'" 0" 0
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"""~X"'~~.."0"'0///"'OX/o~
//~O~
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... ... ... ...
'"/~/~X
~............oX0/0~/0/'""'~/~0'"//
0 / '" 0 / 0 / / 0" 0 / /

1"/.?rV -'".r.r-"'.7 .r.rS.r,;S V.7~A,,:.7-'" .r.r -",.p,; .rV'p

...
v'pV.p
... ...
~~~""X~~/"~00//~//
",ce0//~'"o~,0
~/~/0'"/..~ce
""V ./'/'/"A -"',;"'.p .r~.p -'A./~ j;SA.7 S A "'? S S S .,,! -'" S .7
'" // ... ... ... ... ...
...
~
"'e / / "0/
".PA.r'pA./'p,;.r.r
~......67
.. .

~....-.....,.I,24a24b68
 ""'"

24c

24d

69
.
Favites Link, 1807
AlloftheseventruespeciesofthisgenusareknowntooccurintheMaldives.Only
three are illustrated here (Fig. 25a-c).

Characters
Favitesformsmassiveroundedcolonies.Theymaybesubmassiveoroccasionallyencrusting.LikeFaviacorallitesaremonocentric.HoweverFavitespossessescerioid
corallites with shared walls which is raised above the surface of the corallum.
Corallitesmayberounded,ovalorpolygonalinshapeandareoftenhighlyvariable
even within the one colony. Septa are prominent and finely serrated. Underwater, these
species appear quite colourful and the inner mouth often have contrasting colours with
respect to the walls. Polyps are extended only at night.

Remarks
Favitesisacommongenusandfoundinmostreefhabitats.Coloniesmaygrowoverameterortwoindiameter.LikeFaviathemassiveformsofthesecoralarealsocollectedbycoralminersandusedforconstructionpurposes.
AJ,;.
~AA.P
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( 25a - c t!!~ )
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0 ~~"'0"'
7
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~'p~,.tOA'p J..!~J.?,;-'" AJV,.tO~~ JV,.tO,;A-"'~~ J*.rv v~~..! ,;A ~~.rA
... ... ... ......
~~""""'o'""'o~'"~~"""~o"""o"'~~~~o"'~~o~~o~~~~"'""~
'p"V~,.tOA'p .r.r-'" ~~,.tO~ ,.to.P.r "~,.tOA'p~.? .r,;-'" A,.tOJ J..!~ J.? 'pA,;-'" AJ.:!.;f,!'
...~..."""~x~~"'"0~"""11.~0'"'""'o~0'""""0~"'~~~'"0~"'o~~"'
~-"'.rA ~,;",.tO ~.P.?r .P.r.rv'pV'p .r.r.r-'" A,.tO",.tO.r.rA ~.rJ.? J~J ~'pAJ.I.~S.7 ;
:-:oxo",;;'"'"~~'"~.;'0:0~~"'o~'"'"o~"'o'"'"~o~~oo"'",~~t
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......~......""'"f~~'"0~"'o~"'o~o~x11.~"""0'""'o~"'o~x~o~0~"""~~~~.,
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... ... ~... t
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AV,.tO,.tO,; .r.? -'" AJA~,;,.tO.? 'A~.P.rJ A,.tO.r'pA_A- J",.tO 'pA.r,;~-'" A,.tO",.tO J~,JOA'p
...""...~~..."'~~~~"'~'"~o'"11.~'"'"~~'""'~~~'"0"""o"""~~~'"~~~~,,'
... ... ... ... ... ...
~~"'""'o~"'11.11.o"'~"'~~~'"~~~~~~'""'~"',,'
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~...~"'o"'~~~~~~~~~~"'o'"0"""~"~x~~"'"o"'~~o~:#o
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70
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25a

71
 25h

25c

72
GoniastreaEdwards&Hairne,1848ThereareseventruespeciesofGoniastreaoTwospecies
areknowntooccurinthe
Maldives, and both are illustrated here (Fig. 26a, b).

Characters
(;oniastreaformsmassiverounded,convexorlobedcoloniesthatmaybeoccasionallyencrusting.Corallitesmayberoundedorpolygonalandtendtobecrowded.Corallitesarecerioid,andmayformshortmeandersonthecorallumsurface.Septaarevisibleandsmoothtotouch.Buddingisintra-tentacular.Thereisawellformedpaliformlobe
"'
A
~v
, 1
at the inner margin of the septa. Columella is well defined. Colonies are brown, green
or greyish. Polyps are extended only at night.

Remarks

C<
7
0
'
70
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0
7 "
:
This

""
;'.
~ P
isacommongenus,thatprefersshallowwaters,andcanpersistevenANhen
exposed
atlowtide.Somespeciesmaydominateinreeffrontsandreefflats,where
theyare mined for use in the construction industry.

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73
.

26a

26b

74
Platygyra Ehrenberg, 1834
TherearethoughttobearoundeightspeciesofPlatygyra.Threespeciesareknownto
occur in the Maldives~ and one is illustrated here (Fig. 27).

Characters
Platygyraformsmassive,flatordomeshapedcolonies.Corallitesarejoinedinseriestoformlongmeanderswithmouthsarrangedinrowsinthecentreofthevalleys.Septaarearmedwithteethandrunfreelyovertheridgeandintocalices.Coloniesmaybegreen,brownorwhiteoracombinationofthesecolours.Polypsareextendedonlyat
night.

Remarks

Platygyra are commonly called 'brain corals' due to the meanders on the corallum
surface.Platygyraisacommongenusandcanoccupyagreatnumberofreefhabitats.
Large boulders are exploited by coral miners.

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28

76
LeptoriaEdwards&Hairne,1848
There is thought to be only one true species in this genus that also occurs in the
Maldives, and is illustrated here (Fig. 28).

Characters
Colonies are massive, but hillocky rather than rounded. Calices are joined in series to
formlongmeandersoverthecorallumsurface.Thevalleysareofuniformwidthanddepth,makingLeptoriaquitea'neat'species.Septaaredistinctandrunparallelto
each other, not quite meeting in the centre of the corallite. Leptoria is often confused
with Platygyra, but can be distinguished by the plate-like columella, which appears
spongyinPlatygyra.Coloniesarebrownorcreamyincolour.Polypsareusually
extended at night.

Remarks
Leptoriaoccursinmostreefhabitats.Ittendstoprefershallowwatersdominatingareas
along the reef front and upper reef slope. These corals are also exploited by coral
miners.

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OulopllylliaEdwards&Hairne,1848TherearethreetruespeciesofOll/ophyllia,oneofwhichoccursintheMaldivesandis
illustrated here (Fig 29).

( ."'aracle rs
Oll/ophyllia forms massive colonies that may be round or convex in shape. Calices are
joinedinseriestoformrelativelyshortdiscontinuousvalleys.Valleysareusuallybroad(upto20mm)andtheseptaappearirregular:SeptaarenotevenlyspacedasinLeptoria.Paliformlobesareusuallypresent.Coloniesmayhavebrownorgreenwalls
with pink or creamy valleys. Polyps are usually extended at night.

.1'-'
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pA
s~ -'
Remarks
Although known to occur in most reef habitats, Oll/ophyllia is a relatively uncommon
species. It may be found in shallow protected environments such as lagoons. t

(7-
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(29 )

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 29

79

","
I.

Montastrea de Blainville, 1830

There are around five or six species from the Indo-Pacific area, three of which are
knowntooccurintheMaldives.Twooftheseareillustratedhere(Fig.30a,b).
Characters
Monastreaformrounded,flattenedormassivecolonies.Somecoloniesmaybeencrusting.Themonocentric,plocoidcorallitesaregenerallyroundedandareslightly
elevated from the corallum surface. Members of this genus are often confused with
Faviaduetothesimilargrowthformandcorallitearrangement.Faviareproducesby
intra-tentacular budding, while Monastrea reproduces by extra-tentacular budding.
Septa are finely toothed bearing a paliform lobe. The smaller daughter corallites of
Montastrea can often be seen between the larger mature ones on the colony surface.
Coloniesareoftenbrown,yelloworgreenishincolour.Polypsareextendedonlyat
night.

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WhileMonastreamayoccurinawidevarietyofreefhabitats.Howeveritisnot
common on Maldivian reefs. Large colonies may be mined, if they are found on reef

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~"80
PlesiastreaEdwards&Hairne,1848Therearetwotruespeciesdescribedforthis
genus. One is known to occur in the
Maldives and is illustrated here (Fig. 31).

Characters
Plesiastreaformsmassivecolonieswhichmayberoundedorflattened.Corallitesaremonocentricandplocoid,thatmaybecrowdedandslightlyraised.Daughtercorallites
are produced by extra-tentacular budding. Paliform lobes are distinct and form a circle
around the columella. Colonies may be pale green or brown. Polyps are commonly
extended only at night.

Remarks
Althoughitisknowntooccurinawidevarietyofreefhabitats,Plesiastreaisnotacommoncoral.Ittendstoprefershelteredareasawayfromwave-action,suchasdeeper
waters and overhangs in the reef. t

( 31 ~J )
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81
Diploastrea Matthai, 1914
Thereisonlyonememberofthisgenus:Diploastreaheliopora,anditisoneofthemosteasilyrecognisedcorals.ThisspeciesisknownfromtheMaldivesandis
illustrated here (Fig. 32).

Characters
Diploastreaformsmassivecoloniesthatmayberoundedorslightlyflattened.The
corallites are plocoid and regular in appearance (cone shape), 2

-3mmraisedabove
the corallum surface. Budding is extra-tentacular and daughter corallites can often be
seen between the larger mature ones. Septal arrangement is distinct with a thicker
outside edge that becomes thinner as it reaches the centre of the corallite. Colonies are
palebrownorgreenincolour.Polypsareextendedonlyatnight.
Remarks
I
WhileD.helioporaisknownfrommostreefen~ironments,itisnotacommoncoral.It
seems to prefer areas of strong current movement such as reef fronts, flats and upper
reef slopes. Colonies in these areas can attain large sizes. Larger colonies may be mined
if found in shallow reef flats.

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 31

32

83
 LeptastreaEdwards&Haime,1848
There are around sevn true species of Leptastrea, three of which are known from the
Maldives. One is illustrated here (Fig. 33).

Characters
Leptastreaformsmassiveandencrustingcolonies.Thecorallitewallsarefusedatthebasehoweverjustbelowthelivingcoralthereisafinewallwhichisvisibletothe
naked eye. Corallites are therefore described as subceriod to plocoid. The corallites are
closelypacked,andmaybeoval,roundedorpolygonalinshape.Calicestendtobe
irregular in shape and size in a single corallum. Colony colour is usually brown but may

".A
.~;
bepurple.Oftentheoraldiscandthecoralwallareofdifferentshadesofcolour.
Polyps may be partially extended during the day.

Remarks t
Leptastreaisarelativelycommoncoralthatmaybefoundinawidevarietyofhabitats.Howeversomespecieshowevertotendtoprefershallowerwaters.Largercoloniesmay
be exploited by coral miners.

(33~,)~."
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,.,~,.".,,.".,""""'"'""0'"~"::IX'""~00""",,~'"~'"~OXO..'"
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~,.,,.,,.".".,,.,,.,,.,,.,,.,"""'"84
CypllastreaEdwards&Hairne,1848TherearearoundseventruespeciesinthegeneraCyphastrea.Threeareknowntooccur
in the Maldives and are illustrated here (Fig. 34a-c).

Characters
Cyphastreaformroundedmassive,orencrustingcolonies.Theseparateplocoidcorallitesareroundandsmall,withcalicesonlyImmindiameter.Corallitesareslightlyraisedfromthecoenosteum.Corallitesmaybewidelyspacedorcrowdedinareasonthecorallum.Costaedonottravelbeyondthecorallitewallandthecoensteuminbetweencorallitesiscoarselygranulated.Coloniesareusuallybrown,green,yelloworcreamyincolour.Polypsareonlyextendedatnight.
Remarks

Encrusting colonies are more likely to be found in deeper, sheltered reef slopes. The

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threespeciesknownfromtheMaldivesarecommontomostreefhabitats.Iffoundinshallowreefflatareas,thesecoralsmaybemined.
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34b

86
 -

Echinopora Lamarck, 1816

There are approximately six species of Echinopora.

Threeareknowntooccurinthe
Maldives, and are illustrated here (Fig. 35a-c).

Characters

Echinopora frequently forms a variety of foliaceous colonies. However, massive,

encrustingandarborescentcoloniesarenotuncommon.Encrustingformstendtohave
free foliaceous perimeters of new growth. Corallites are plocoid. Septa protrude from
the corallum surface and costae are confined to the corallite wall. Colony colour is
usuallybrownorgreenwithyelloworpinkishtinges.Polypsareextendedonlyatnight.
Remarks

Foliaceous forms of Echinopora are common on Maldivian reefs, and occurs III
t
shallower areas on reef flats.

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,:. ... .........

87
 I

88
 Family Caryophylliidae
FamilyCaryophylliidaeisalargefamilythathasbeendividedintosixsubfamilies.
Only one of these is hermatypic. Members from the hermatypic group have phaceloid
ormeandroidcolonies,whiletheahermatypicmembersofthegroupmaybesolitarywithonelargepolypandasinglemouth.Thereareeightextantgenerawithinthehermatypicsubfamily,fiveofwhichareknownfromtheMaldives.Onlyonegenusis
illustrated here.

Physogyra Quelch, 1884

There are three true species of Physogyra. Only one is known to occur in the Maldives
andis illustrated here (Fig. 36).

Characters
Colonies are usually rounded and massive. Calices are joined in series, to form
meandersoverthecorallumsurface.Duringthedaytherearesmallair-bubbletype
vesicles that are extended and retract when disturbed. The skeleton of Physogyra
consistsofmanythinplatesmakingtheskeletonverylight.Septaandcostaearebroad
and leafy, protruding from the corallites as they pass over the corallite walls. Colonies
arepale grey and sometimes dull green. Polyps are only extended at night.

Remarks
Physogyraiscommononlyinprotectedhabitatsonthereef.Itmaybefoundunder
overhangs and in underwater caves.

( 36 ~:; )
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Appendix1.AChecklistofHermatypiccoralspeciesknowntooccurintheMaldives.PreparedfortheMarineResearchSectionbyDr.SusanClark(1995)
in Recommendations for Establishing a Coral Collection within the
Marine'R"esearch Section.

Family Genera Species

Astrocoeniidae Stylocoeniella arrilata

gueutheri
Pocilloporidae Stylophora mordax
pistillata
subseriata
caliendrum
Pocilloporidae Seriatopora
hystrix

Pocilloporidae Pocillopora acuta

t
damicornis

eyedouxi
meandrina
molokensis
verrucosa

Acroporidae Acropora abrotanoides

aspera
austera
cerealis
clathrata
concinna
corymbosa
cytherea
danae
digitifera
divaricata
echinata
eibli n.sp
elseyi
eurystoma

florida
forskali
formosa

gemmifera

granulosa
haimei

hemprichi

horrida

humiJis

hyacinthus
latistella

loripes

microphthalma

91
Acroporidae Acropora millepora
monticulosa
nasuta
nobilis
palifera
pharaonis
quelchi
pulchra
robusta
rotumana

selago
surculosa
squarrosa
stoddarti n.sp
tenuis
valenciennesi
valida t

variabilis
vaughani
Acroporidae Montipora floweri
foliosa
hispida
informis

maldivensis n.sp
monasteriata
prolifera
sinensis
sinuosa n.sp
suvadivae n.sp
verrucosa
venosa
Acroporidae Astreopora gracilis
listeri
myriophthalma

ocellata

Poritidae Porites andrewsi

convexa
cylindrica
lichen
lobata
lutea
mayeri
murrayensis
vaughani
nigrescens
Poritidae Synaraea rus
solida
Poritidae Goniopora columna

djiboutiensis

92
 ..

granulosa n.sp
minor
stokesi
tenella
tenuidens
Poritidae Alveopora allingi
superficialis n.sp
verrilliana
viridis
Siderastreidae Psammocora haimeana
contigua
digitata
explanulata
merstazi
profundacella
Siderastreidae Coscinaraea monile
Agariciidae Pavona cactus
clavus
explanulata
maldivensis
Agariciidae Pavona minuta
varians
venosa
Agariciidae Gardineroseris planulata
Agariciidae Pachyseris rugosa
speciosa
Agariciidae Leptoseris explanata
fragilis
gardineri
hawaiiensis
mycetoseroides
scabra
solida
yabei
Fungiidae Ctenactis echinata
simplex
Fungiidae Danafungia danai
Fungia fungites
paumotensis
Verrillofungia repanda
Pleuractis scutaria
Fungiidae Herpolitha limax
weberi
Fungiidae Halomitra pileus
Fungiidae Polyphyllia talpina
Fungiidae Podabacia crustacea
Fungiidae Sandalolitha dentata
Fungiidae Zoopilus echinatus
Oculinidae Galaxea astreata
fasicularis
93
 lamareki

Pectiniidae Echinophyllia aspera

Pectiniidae Oxypora lacera
Pectiniidae MYl.:edium elephantotus
Pectiniidae Pectinia alcicomis

lactuca
paeonia
Pectiniidae Physophyllia ayleni
Mussidae Acanthastrea echinata
Mussidae Symphyllia radians
recta
valenciennesi
Mussidae Lobophyllia corymbosa
costata
hemprichii
Mussidae Cynarina lacrymalis '...
Mussidae Scolymia vitiensis
Merulinidae Merulina ampliata
Merulinidae Hydnophora exesa
microconos
Faviidae Gaulastrea furcata
tumida
Faviidae Favia favus
mattahai
pallida
rotumana

speciosa
Faviidae Favia stelligera
Faviidae Favites abdita
amicorum

bennettae

chinensis

complanata
flexuosa

halicora

melicerum

pentagona
Faviidae Goniastrea pectinata
retiformis

Faviidae Platygyra daedalea

lamellina
sinensis
Faviidae Leptoria phrygia
Faviidae Oulophyllia crispa
Faviidae Montastrea annuligera
curta
valenciennesl
Faviidae Plesiastrea versipora
Faviidae Diploastrea heliopora
Faviidae Leptastrea bottae

94
 purpurea
transversa
Faviidae Cyphastrea chalcidium

microphthalma

serailia
Faviidae Echinopora hirsutissima

horrida

gemmacea

lamellosa

Trachyphylliidae Trachyphyllia geoffroyi

Caryophylliidae Euphyllia cristata
glabrescens
Caryophylliidae Fimbriaphyllia fimbriata
Caryophylliidae Plerogyra sinuosa
Caryophylliidae Physogyra lichtensteini
Caryophylliidae Catalaphyllia jardinei
Dendrophylliidae Turbinaria mesenterina
stellulata
Dendrophylliidae Heteropsammia michelini

n = 15 n=62 n = 209

95
 Glossary

Ahermatypic: corals without zooxanthellae

Arborescent: branching colony where branches are longer and 'tree-like'.
Attached: coral is attached to the substrate.
Axial corallites: corallites which have a special function of budding (eg. Acropora).
Axial furrow: the groove occuring in Fungidae corals, running the length of the
corallum.
Bifacial:colonythathastwoverticalsides(suchasfoliaceouscolonies)possessing
corallites.

Budding: asexual reproduction where daughter corallites arise from already mature
corallites.
Caespitose:coloniesaresmallandbushywithbranchesthatrefuse(eg.Acrop~ra).
Calyx (calices): the openings on the surface of the corallum, the openings of the
corallites, the polyp cup.
Cerioid: adjacent corallites share walls.
Coenosteum: skeletal structure in-between corallites on the corallum.
Collines:smallprotrusions(hillocks)onthecorallumsurface(eg.Psammocora).
Colony: a group of polyps forming an individual coral specimen, ie. colonial corals.
Columella: skeletal structure at the centre of the corallite.
Columnar: colony shape where corallum divides into columns that rise vertically from
substrate.
Corallites: individual skeletal parts secreted by a single polyp.
Corallum: entire skeleton of a colony
Corymbose:plate-likecolonywherehorizontalbranchesfuse,andtherearesmall
vertical branches (eg. Acropora).
Costae: an extension of the septa radiating from the outside of the corallite.
Daughter corallites: corallites that have budded off from an existing mature corallite.
Digitate: colony branches are small, vertical and consist of finger-like projections.
Encrusting:coralcolonywherethecoralgrowsinathinlayer.overthesurfaceofthe
subtrate.
Extratentacularbudding:formofasexualreproductionwheredaughterpolypsform
on the edge of an existing colony.
Foliaceous: coral colonies are composed of thin leaf-like sheets.
Free-living: unattached, mobile coral.
Gametes: male sperm and female ova.
Hermatypic: Corals that have zooxanthellae in their tissue.
Intratentacularbudding:formofasexualreproductionwheretheparentpolypdividesintotwoormorepolyps.Laminar(plate-like):coloniesformflattenedhorizontalplates~
Mantle: living flesh of coral that sometimes covers the corallum.

96
 ...

Massive: colonies are the same size in all dimensions (eg. spherical).
Meandroid: calices are joined in series so corallites are separated by valleys rather than
walls.
Monospecific: 'one type', mono specific growth in large areas of one species of coral.
Nominal:differentspeciesbyname.Inthepastthesamespecieshasbeendescribed
with a different name,. making it a nominal species.
Paliform lobes: large teeth-like structures occuring on the inner surface of the septa,
within the corallite.
Papillae:smallornamentationsonthecorallum(e.g.Montiporacolonies).
Phaceloid: individual corallites are projected from the corallum, distinctly separated.
Plocoid:corallitesareconicalinshape,possessindividualwallsandprotrudefromthecorallum.Radialcorallites:corallitesatthesidesofbranches,whicharecommonlyderivedfrom
the axial corallite (eg. Acropora). t
Ramose: branching colonies.
Septa: vertical plate like skeletal structures that occur within the corallite and radiate
inwards.
Solitary: description used for corals possessing only one mouth.
Septo-costae: septa united wit~ costae from one corallite to other corallite (eg.
Oxypora).
Submassive:coralshapeisapproximatelysphericalwithaflatbase.
True species: true separated species cf. nominal species.
Tuberculae: large ornamentations on the coenosteum of Montipora colonies.
Turbid: water that has suspended materials in it making it unclear and less light passes
through it.
Unifacial: corallites only occur on one side of vertical foliaceous colonies (eg.
Leptoseris)
Verrucae: small rounded growths on the corallum of Pocillopora.
Zooxanthellae: symbiotic algae that lives in the tissues of coral.

97
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100
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