CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 1/15

Water Treatment Water Treatment

Water treatment describes those industrial-scale The goal of all water treatment process is to
processes used to make water more acceptable remove existing contaminants in the water, or
for a desired end-use. reduce the concentration of such contaminants so
These can include use for drinking water, industry, the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.
medical and many other uses. One such use is returning water that has been
used back into the natural environment without
adverse ecological impact.

Water Treatment Water Treatment

Basis water treatment consists Coagulation

of four processes: This process helps removes
Coagulation/Flocculation particles suspended in water.
Sedimentation Chemicals are added to water
to form tiny sticky particles
Filtration
called "floc" which attract the
Disinfection particles.

Water Treatment Water Treatment

Flocculation Sedimentation
Flocculation refers to water The heavy particles (floc)
treatment processes that settle to the bottom and the
combine or coagulate small clear water moves to filtration.
particles into larger particles,
which settle out of the water
as sediment.
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 2/15

Water Treatment Water Treatment

Filtration Disinfection
The water passes through A small amount of chlorine is
filters, some made of layers of added or some other
sand, gravel, and charcoal disinfection method is used to
that help remove even smaller kill any bacteria or
particles. microorganisms that may be
in the water.

Water Treatment Water Treatment

1. Coagulation 1. Coagulation - Aluminum or iron salts plus chemicals
2. Flocculation called polymers are mixed with the water to make the
3. Sedimentation particles in the water stick together.
4. Filtration 2. Flocculation - The coagulated particles are slowly
mixed so that they can collide and form larger particles,
5. Disinfection known as "floc."
6. Fluoridation 3. Sedimentation - Water flows through a large tank
7. Stabilization which allows the "floc" to settle to the bottom of the tank
8. Collect and test water and be removed.
samples 4. Filtration - Water is passed through filters made of
sand and anthracite coal to filter out remaining
particles.

Water Treatment Water Filtration

5. Disinfection - Chlorine is added to reduce risks from Filtration is used to separate nonsettleable
remaining bacteria and other disease-causing solids from water and wastewater by passing it
organisms and to maintain water quality through the through a porous medium
distribution pipe system.
6. Fluoridation - Fluoride is added to provide dental The most common system is filtration through a
benefits. layered bed of granular media, usually a coarse
7. Stabilization - Small amounts of lime (calcium anthracite coal underlain by a finer sand.
hydroxide) or sodium hydroxide are added to make the
water less corrosive to pipes and plumbing.
8. Collect and test water samples
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 3/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Filters may be classified according to the types of Filters may be classified according to the types of
media used as follows: media used as follows:

Single-media filters: These have one type of media,

usually sand or crushed anthracite coal.

Dual-media filters: These have two types of media,

usually crushed anthracite coal and sand.

Multi-media filters: These have three types of

media, usually crushed anthracite coal, sand, and
garnet.

Water Filtration Water Filtration

In water treatment all three types are used; Filtration was actually developed prior to the discovery of
however, the dual- and multi-media filters are the germ theory by Louis Pasteur in France.
becoming increasingly popular.
Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895) was a
Particle removal is accomplished only when the French chemist and microbiologist.
particles make physical contact with the surface
of the filter medium. He is remembered for his remarkable
breakthroughs in the causes and
preventions of diseases.

Water Filtration Water Filtration

In the 1700s the first water filters for domestic application In 1854 it was discovered that a cholera epidemic spread
were applied. These were made of wool, sponge and through water.
charcoal.
The outbreak seemed less severe in areas where sand
In 1804 the first actual municipal water treatment plant filters were installed.
designed by Robert Thom, was built in Paisley, Scotland.
British scientist John Snow found that the direct cause of
The water treatment was based on slow sand filtration, and the outbreak was water pump contamination by sewage
horse and cart distributed the water. water.
Some three years later, the first water pipes were installed. He applied chlorine to purify the water, and this paved the
way for water disinfection.
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 4/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

John Snow (1813 - 1858) was an

English physician and a leader in the
adoption of anaesthesia and medical
hygiene.
He is considered to be one of the
fathers of epidemiology, because of his
work in tracing the source of a cholera
outbreak in Soho, England, in 1854.

Water Filtration Water Filtration

How does filtration work?

Lets examine the physical and chemical mechanisms

of filtration

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Floc Particles
Larger particles may be removed by straining
Interception
Straining Particles may also be removed by sedimentation
Flocculation
Others may be intercepted by and adhere to the surface
of the medium due to inertia

Filtration efficiency is greatly increased by destabilization

or coagulation of the particles prior to filtration

Sedimentation
Filter Media
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 5/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Gravity Granular-Media Filtration Gravity Granular-Media Filtration
Gravity filtration through beds of granular media is the Because of the reduction in pore area, the velocity of
most common method removing colloidal impurities in water through the remaining voids increases, shearing
water processing off pieces of capture floc and carrying impurities deeper
into the filter bed
Initially, surface straining and interstitial removal results
in accumulation of deposits in the upper portion of the
filter media The effective zone of removal passes deeper and
deeper into the filter

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Gravity Granular-Media Filtration Gravity Granular-Media Filtration
Eventually, clean bed depth is no longer available and
breakthrough occurs, carrying solids out in the underflow
and causing termination of the filter run

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Turbidity Turbidity
Turbidity is a measurement of the clarity of water run

Clouded water is caused by suspended particles

scattering or absorbing the light

Turbidity is an indirect measurement of the amount of

suspended matter in the water
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 6/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Turbidity Slow Sand Filtration
However, since solids of different sizes, shapes, and The early filtration units developed in Great Britain used a
surfaces reflect light differently, turbidity and suspended process in which the hydraulic loading rate is relatively low.
solids do not correlate well.
Typical slow sand filtration velocities are only
Turbidity is normally gauged with an instrument that about 0.4 m/hr.
measures the amount of light scattered at an angle of 90
from a source beam. At these low rates, the filtered contaminants do not
penetrate to an appreciable depth within the filtration
The units of turbidity are usually in Nephelometric Turbidity medium.
Units (NTU).

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Slow Sand Filtration Slow Sand Filtration
The filter builds up a layer of filtered contaminants on the
surface, which becomes the active filtering medium
Slow sand filters are cleaned by taking them off line and
draining them. The organic or contaminant layer is then
scraped off.
The filter can then be restarted. After water quality reaches
an acceptable level, the filter can then be put back on line.

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Slow Sand Filtration Rapid Sand Filtration
In rapid sand filtration much higher application velocities are
used
Filtration occurs through the depth of the filter
A comparison of rapid and slow sand filtration is shown in
the table below

Filtration Type Application Rate

m/hr gal/ft2-day
Slow Sand 0.04 to 0.4 340 to 3400
Rapid Sand 0.4 to 3.1 3400 to 26,000
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 7/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Rapid Sand Filtration Hydraulic Loading Rate
In the United States, filter application rates are often Lets compute the hydraulic loading rate on our filters in
expressed as volumetric flowrate per area, or lab:
gal/min-ft2, which is actually a velocity with atypical units.
Flowrate: 1,000 ml/min

Area of filter: 3.5 in. diameter filter

Filtration Type Application Rate Flowrate

Loading Rate
m/hr gal/ft2-day Area
Slow Sand 0.04 to 0.4 340 to 3400
1,000 ml 2
Rapid Sand 0.4 to 3.1 3400 to 26,000 min 1gallon 144in. 3.954 gpm
(3.5 in.)2 ft 2
4
3,785ml ft.2

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Hydraulic Loading Rate Hydraulic Loading Rate
Lets compute the hydraulic loading rate on our filters in Lets compute the hydraulic loading rate on our filters in
lab: lab:

Flowrate: The one you used in lab last week.

Flowrate (ml/min) Loading Rate (gpm/ft2)
Area of filter: 3.5 in. diameter filter
1,000 3.954
Flowrate
Loading Rate 1,250 4.943
Area
Flowrate ml 2 1,500 5.932
min 1gallon 144in.
(3.5 in.)2
4
3,785ml ft.2

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Hydraulic Loading Rate Hydraulic Loading Rate
A hydraulic loading rate of 3.954 gpm/ft.2 could be To convert the hydraulic loading rate to the U.S.
classified as: standard of gpd/ft.2, convert minutes to days
Flowrate
1. A high-end direct filtration (1-6 gpm/ft.2) Loading Rate
Area
2. A mid-range rapid filter (range of 2-10 gpm/ft.2 gpm
with 5 gpm/ft.2 normally the maximum design 3.954 2 60 min 24 hr
ft. hr day
rate)
5,694 gpd
ft.2
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 8/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Hydraulic Loading Rate Hydraulic Loading Rate
A hydraulic loading rate of 5,694 gpd/ft.2 could be Lets compute the hydraulic loading rate for flowrates in
qualifies as a rapid sand filter class:

Flowrate: 1,250 and 1,500 ml/min

Filtration Type Application Rate
Area of filter: 3.5 in. diameter filter
m/hr gal/ft2-day
Slow Sand 0.04 to 0.4 340 to 3,400 Flowrate
Rapid Sand 0.4 to 3.1 3,400 to 26,000 Loading Rate
Area

Flowrate ml
min 1gallon 144in.
2

(3.5 in.)2
4
3,785ml ft.2

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Hydraulic Loading Rate Hydraulic Loading Rate
Lets compute the hydraulic loading rate for flowrates in To convert the hydraulic loading rate to the U.S.
class: standard of gpd/ft.2, convert minutes to days
Flowrate
Flowrate: 1,250 and 1,500 ml/min Loading Rate
Area
Area of filter: 3.5 in. diameter filter
gpm
4.943 2 60 min 24 hr
ft. hr day
Flowrate of 1,250 ml/min 4.943 gpm/ft.2
7,118 gpd
Flowrate of 1,500 ml/min 5.932 gpm/ft.2 ft.2

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Hydraulic Loading Rate Rapid Sand Filtration
Lets compute the hydraulic loading rate for flowrates in The water above the filter provides the hydraulic pressure
class: (head) for the process.

Flowrate: 1,250 and 1,500 ml/min The filter medium is above a larger gravel, rock, or other
media for support.
Area of filter: 3.5 in. diameter filter
Below the rock is usually an underdrain support of some
type.
Flowrate of 1,250 ml/min 7,118 gpd/ft.2
The water flows through the filter and support media,
Flowrate of 1,500 ml/min 8,541 gpd/ft.2 exiting from a pipe below.
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 9/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Rapid Sand Filtration Rapid Sand Filtration

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Rapid Sand Filtration Rapid Sand Filtration

Most modern filters employ two separate filter media in As the filter begins to clog from accumulated solids, less
layers: water will pass through it. At some point cleaning is
The lower layer is composed of a dense, fine media, often sand required.
The upper layer is composed of a less dense, coarse media, often
anthracite coal Usual filter operation before cleaning is from a few hours to
2 days.
The coarse upper layer removes larger particles before they Cleaning is accomplished by reversing the flow of water to
reach the fine layer, allowing the filter to operate for a longer the filter, or backwashing.
period before clogging.

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Rapid Sand Filtration Rapid Sand Filtration

Water supply Backflush water out The backwash velocity is sufficient to fluidize the bed -
that is, to suspend the bed with the reverse flow.

Backflush Backflush After backwashing, the filter is again placed in operation

supply supply

Fluidized filter
Filter media media

Filtered water
Underdrain support Underdrain support

Operation during filtration Operation during cleaning

CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 10/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

http://www.fbleopold.com/flash/media.swf

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Backwash Velocity Backwash Velocity

The backwash velocity may be estimated using the following Once the backwash velocity has been estimated, the depth of
equation the expanded filter bed may be computed
L(1 )
v v s e4.5 Le 0.22
1 v
where v is the backwash velocity (ft./s) vs
vs is the settling velocity of the filter media (ft./s) where L is depth of the filter media (ft.)

e is the porosity of the expanded filter Le is depth of the expanded filter media (ft.)

is the porosity of the filter media

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Backwash Velocity Example Backwash Velocity Example

Determine the required backwash velocity to expand the sand The backwash velocity may be estimated using the following
filters in lab to a porosity of 0.70. equation

v v s e4.5
Also, determine the depth of the expanded filter bed.

0.70
Assume the following data about our lab filters:
4.5
0.27 ft.
1. Depth of sand bed 0.5 ft.
s
2. Sand with a particle diameter of 0.5 mm or 0.02 in. with a settling velocity

0.054 ft.
of 0.27 ft./s

3. Sand porosity is 0.35

s
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 11/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Backwash Velocity Example Backwash Velocity Example

Determine the hydraulic loading rate of the backwash Once the backwash velocity has been estimated, the depth of
the expanded filter bed may be computed
3
Velocity 0.054 ft. 0.054 ft.
ft.2 s L(1 )
s
Le 0.22

0.054 ft.
3

7.48 gallons 86,400 s
1 v
ft.2 s ft.3 day vs
0.5ft.(1-0.35)
The backwash loading rate 1.09 ft.
34,900 gpd
0.22
2 is about 7 times larger than 0.054 ft.
ft.
the filter loading rate 1- s
0.27 ft.
s

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Backwash Velocity Group Problems Traditional Filtration

A typical scheme for water filtration consists of flocculation
with a chemical coagulant and sedimentation prior to
Switch presentations filtration.

Alum or other
coagulant Polymer coagulant

Influent Effluent
Flocculation Sedimentation Filtration
t = 15-30 minutes t = 1-4 hours t = 1-10 gpm/ft.2

Rapid mixing
t = 30 minutes

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Traditional Filtration Traditional Filtration

Under the force of gravity water passes downward through When the media become filled or solids break through, a
the media that collect the floc and particles. filter bed is cleaned by backwashing.

Alum or other Alum or other

coagulant Polymer coagulant coagulant Polymer coagulant

Influent Effluent Influent Effluent

Flocculation Sedimentation Filtration Flocculation Sedimentation Filtration
t = 15-30 minutes t = 1-4 hours t = 1-10 gpm/ft.2 t = 15-30 minutes t = 1-4 hours t = 1-10 gpm/ft.2

Rapid mixing Rapid mixing

t = 30 minutes t = 30 minutes
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 12/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Traditional Filtration Direct Filtration

Filtration rates following flocculation and sedimentation are The process of direct filtration does not include
in the range of 2-10 gpm/ft.2 with 5 gpm/ft.2 normally the sedimentation prior to filtration.
maximum design rate.
Alum or other
Alum or other coagulant Polymer coagulant
coagulant Polymer coagulant

Influent Effluent
Influent Effluent Optional mixing Filtration
Flocculation Sedimentation Filtration T > 30 minutes R = 1 - 10 gpm/ft.2
t = 15-30 minutes t = 1-4 hours t = 1-10 gpm/ft.2
Rapid mixing
Rapid mixing t = 30 minutes
t = 30 minutes

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Direct Filtration Direct Filtration

The impurities removed from the water are collected and Contact flocculation of the chemically coagulated particles
stored in the filter. in the water takes place in the granular media.

Alum or other Alum or other

coagulant Polymer coagulant coagulant Polymer coagulant

Influent Effluent Influent Effluent

Optional mixing Filtration Optional mixing Filtration
T > 30 minutes R = 1 - 10 gpm/ft.2 T > 30 minutes R = 1 - 10 gpm/ft.2
Rapid mixing Rapid mixing
t = 30 minutes t = 30 minutes

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Direct Filtration Description of a Typical Gravity Filter System

Successful advances in direct filtration are attributed to:
During filtration, the water enters above the filter media
Development of coarse-to-fine multimedia filters
through an inlet flume.
Improved backwashing systems, and
Availability of better polymer coagulants After passing downward through the granular media and
the supporting gravel bed, it is collected in the underdrain
Filtration rates in direct filtration are usually 1-6 gpm/ft.2 system
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 13/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Operating Table
Filter Bed
Description of a Typical Gravity Filter System
Concrete
Floor Wall

Floor
Hydraulic
During backwashing, wash water passing upward through
Lines
for Values the filter carries out the impurities that accumulated in the
Drain

Waste
Influent Line media
Effluent Line
Wash Line to Clearwell
The flow is directed upward, hydraulically expanding the
filter media
Wash Trough Concrete Wall
The water is collected in the wash-water troughs that
Filter Sand
discharge to the outlet flume
Graded Gravel

Perforated Laterals
Manifold

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Description of a Typical Gravity Filter System

The filters are placed on both sides of a pipe gallery that

contains inlet and outlet piping, wash-water inlet lines, and
wash-water drains.

A clear well for storage of filtered water is located under a

portion of the filter bed area

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Filter Media - Ideal Filter

Depth
Bed Depth

Increasing
Grain Size

Pore Size
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 14/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Filter Media - Single Medium Filter after Filter Media - Dual-Medium Filter
backwash

Increasing

Depth

Depth
Grain Size
Bed Depth

Bed Depth
Increasing
Grain Size

Increasing
Grain Size

Pore Size Pore Size

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Filter Media Filter Media

Broadly speaking, filter media should possess the following These attributes are not compatible. For example:
qualities:

1. Fine sand retains floc and tends to shorten the filter run
1. Coarse enough to retain large quantities of floc,
2. Sufficiently fine particles to prevent passage of suspended solids, 2. For a course sand the opposite would be true
3. Deep enough to allow relatively long filter runs, and
4. Graded to permit backwash cleaning.

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Filter Media Filter Media

A filter medium is defined by effective size and uniformity Conventional sand medium has an effective size of 0.45-0.55
coefficient. mm, a uniformity coefficient less than 1.65

Effective size is the 10-percentile diameter; that is, 10%

by weight of the filter material is less than this diameter, A sand filter bed with a relatively uniform grain size can
D10 provide effective filtration throughout its depth

Uniformity coefficient is the ratio of the 60-percentile size

to the 10-percentile size (D60 /D10)
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Filtration 15/15

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Multimedia Filters Multimedia Filters

Dual-media filter beds usually employ anthracite and sand The main advantages of multimedia filters compared to single-
medium filters are:
However, other materials have been used, such as
activated carbon and sand
1. Longer filtration runs,
Multimedia filter beds generally use anthracite, sand, and
2. Higher filtration rates, and
garnet.
3. The ability to filter a water with higher turbidity
However, other materials have been used, such as
activated carbon, sand, and garnet.

Water Filtration Water Filtration

Multimedia Filters
The advantages of the multimedia filters are due to:

1. The media particle size,

2. The different specific gravities of the media, and Any Questions?
3. The media gradation.