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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SKIMMING AND SCANNING

Key Difference: Skimming and scanning are two different techniques for fast reading. Skimming
is all about reading the article in order to get the general idea of it. On the other way, scanning is
about locating a specific text or phrase in a document.
Reading is often treated as a technique. People read an article, book, etc, in order to gain some
information or knowledge. Many times, one needs to read at a faster rate due to various reasons
like lack of time, etc.

Skimming and scanning are two such fast reading techniques adopted by a reader. Skimming
often refers to the way in which one reads at a faster rate to gain the general idea about the text.
It does not involve a thorough reading and understanding. However, it often depends upon the
skills of a reader to understand the text quickly. Generally, a reader quickly reads all the words
or the text that seems to be important and then tries to gain the general idea about the document.
At times, when time is a constraint, skimming is achieved by reading that text only which is
considered to be relevant. For example, one may read only the topics.

On the other hand, scanning generally refers to that technique when one looks into the document
for searching some specific text. One does not need to read the document fully. One requires the
skill of pattern recognition for a speedy scanning. Many people use it in day to day life while
searching a particular phone number in phone directory, etc.
Skimming is about going through the whole article, whereas scanning is just finding out the
specific text or pattern. Therefore, scanning requires a higher understanding of word recognition
than compared to scanning. Unlike skimming, in scanning the reader is already aware of the text
he wants to search in the document. However, in skimming, the reader usually has no or little
idea about the document. Skimming is more about reading and understanding, whereas scanning
is all about searching or finding. Therefore, both are different from each other.

Comparison between Skimming and Scanning:

Skimming Scanning

A technique in which a reader

A technique for fast reading. A reader reads the
Definition tries to search a particular text
article in order to get the general idea of it.
or word in the document

Ability to find quickly

Ability to go through the article quickly Use of fingers can be

effective while looking
Requirement
Ability to understand what can be relevant for a specific
and not in reading information

Focus on key words

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Generally to search a
Generally to get the general idea of an
telephone number from
article
a list
Purpose
To sample a book before actually
To find a particular
purchasing it
quotation in a book

Reader must be clearly

aware of the specific
information that needs
Read the title carefully to be searched in the
document
First paragraph and introduction need to be
read carefully Clues must be used to
find the answer like
Emphasis on the reading of first sentence of if one is searching for a
date, then only
every paragraph
numbers should be
looked for
Method Heading and sub headings should be read
Headings can be
Pictures, charts or graphs should be noticed
helpful in suggesting
the location of the
Words or phrase that are italicized or desired information
boldface must be noticed
One should be careful
Summary or last paragraph is important to in reading and skipping
understand the conclusion the sections of the
passage
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NOTING DETAILS
The meaning of noting details is a brief record of something that one has written down on paper.
This may be a statement, a quote, a definition or a phrase one may have written down in order to
remember. This noting of details may be used later in a speech, an essay or any other type of
future reference of written or oral form.
Noting Details is vital to reading comprehension. In fact it can be said that the foundation of
literal comprehension and comprehension as a whole is noting details.

EXAMPLE:

NOTING DETAILS. Read the essay below & answer the questions that follow.

Money is one of the greatest inventions made by man. Money came into use in response
to the need for a better system of transacting goods other than barter. The earliest forms of
money consisted of commodities, gold and silver coins and paper notes. With the emergence of
a modern banking system, paper money came to be accepted as true money as well as bank drafts
or checks. Any form of money should meet the following characteristics if it is to become
generally acceptable: portability, homogeneity, durability, recognizability, divisibility,
malleability, elasticity of supply and stability of value. There are many reasons why money is
important to all of us. From its main function as a medium of exchange and a standard of value,
money is now a standard of deferred payments and a store of value.

A. What are the five forms of money?

1. commodities
2. gold and silver coins
3. paper notes / money
4. bank drafts
5. checks

B. What are the uses of money?

1. system of transacting goods other than barter

2. medium of exchange
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3. standard of value
4. standard of deferred payments
5. store of value

C. What are the characteristics of money?

1. portability
2. homogeneity
3. durability
4. recognizability
5. divisibility
6. malleability
7. elasticity of supply
8. stability of value
INTERPRETATION

Interpretation or interpreting is oral translation of speech or sign from a language into another.
Translation studies is the systematic study of the theory, description and application of
interpretation and translation.

An interpreter is a person who converts a thought or expression in a source language into an

expression with a comparable meaning in a target language either simultaneously in "real time"
or consecutively when the speaker pauses after completing one or two sentences.

The interpreter's objective is to convey every semantic element as well as tone and register and
every intention and feeling of the message that the source-language speaker is directing to target-
language recipients (except in summary interpretation, used sometimes in conferences)

For written speeches and lectures, sometimes the reading of pre-translated texts is used.

COMPARISON TO TRANSLATION

The terms interpretation and translation are commonly used interchangeably but are not
synonymous. Interpretation describes immediate conversion of source (oral or text) orally (or by
sign language), whereas translation is the conversion of source (recorded oral, sign or text) to
text. The primary practical distinction is that, in translation, the translator has more time to
consider the output and may access resources (dictionaries, glossaries, etc.) in that process. These
ought not to be confused with transliteration which, in contrast, seeks to render the sound of one
language into the script or form of another with no attendant interpretation or translation of
meaning, e.g. a spoken Chinese dialect written using alphabetic characters or spoken English
represented in a signed form of English, Signed Exact English, not ASL.

In a legal context, such as court interpretation, where ramifications of misinterpretation may be

dire, accuracy is paramount. Teams of two or more interpreters, with one actively interpreting
and the second monitoring for greater accuracy, may be deployed.
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Translators have time to consider and revise each word and sentence before delivering their
product to the client. While live interpretation's goal is to achieve total accuracy at all times,
details of the original (source) speech can be missed and interpreters can ask for clarification
from the speaker. In any language, including sign languages, when a word is used for which
there is no exact match, expansion may be necessary in order to fully interpret the intended
meaning of the word.

TYPES

Conference
Conference interpreting refers to interpretation at a conference or large meeting, either
simultaneously or consecutively. The advent of multi-lingual meetings has reduced the amount of
consecutive interpretation in the last 20 years.

Judicial
Judicial, legal, or court interpreting occurs in courts of justice, administrative tribunals, and
wherever a legal proceeding is held (i. e., a police station for an interrogation, a conference room
for a deposition, or the locale for taking a sworn statement). Legal interpreting can be the
consecutive interpretation of witnesses' testimony, for example, or the simultaneous
interpretation of entire proceedings, by electronic means, for one person, or all of the people
attending.

Escort
In escort interpreting, an interpreter accompanies a person or a delegation on a tour, on a visit, or
to a meeting or interview. An interpreter in this role is called an escort interpreter or an escorting
interpreter.

Public sector
Also known as community interpreting, is the type of interpreting occurring in fields such as
legal, health, and local government, social, housing, environmental health, education, and
welfare services. In community interpreting, factors exist which determine and affect language
and communication production, such as speech's emotional content, hostile or polarized social
surroundings, its created stress, the power relationships among participants, and the interpreter's
degree of responsibility in many cases more than extreme; in some cases, even the life of the
other person depends upon the interpreter's work.

Media
By its very nature, media interpreting has to be conducted in the simultaneous mode. It is
provided particularly for live television coverages such as press conferences, live or taped
interviews with political figures, musicians, artists, sportsmen or people from the business circle.
In this type of interpreting, the interpreter has to sit in a sound-proof booth where ideally he/she
can see the speakers on a monitor and the set.

SIGN LANGUAGE
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A sign language interpreter must accurately convey messages between two different languages.
An interpreter is there for both deaf and hearing individuals. The act of interpreting occurs when
a hearing person speaks, and an interpreter renders the speaker's meaning into sign language, or
other forms used by the deaf party(ies).

COMMUNICATION INTERFERENCE

Noise pollution can have a considerable effect on communication. According to Berglund and
Hassmen (1996), "there can be no doubt that noise can mask speech" (p. 2994). And as Miller
(1979a) points out, even when speech is accurately understood, background noise may result in
"greater pains on the part of the talker and listener than otherwise would be needed" (p. 124).

Many factors contribute to the effect of noise on communication interference. For example,
according to Berglund and Hassmen (1996), noise that has a similar frequency to speech will
mask it better than noise at other frequencies, especially higher frequencies, since lower
frequency noise is capable of an "upward spread" (p. 2994) that is rather effective at masking
speech.

Miller (1979a) discusses several other factors affecting noise-induced speech interference. For
example, communication that involves a higher ratio of speech intensity to noise intensity is
more likely to be understood. In addition, speech content is also important, since a person that is
trying to convey personal information is less likely to raise his or her voice to compensate for
background noise. As a result, personal information is less likely to be understood. This also
relates to another influencing factor, culture, which governs how close two people can be to each
other. Since two people who are close together have a higher speech to noise intensity ratio than
two people who are farther apart, people in cultures that emphasize personal space are more
likely to encounter communication difficulties in noisy situations.

Another factor influencing communication interference is the age of the people involved.
Specifically, because children have poorer articulation skills than adults, "their lack of
vocabulary or different concepts of the rules of language may render speech unintelligible when
some of the cues in the speech stream are lost" (Miller, 1979a, p. 125). Thus, noisy conditions
are more likely to interfere with the speech of children than with that of adults. Additionally, the
ability to understand partially masked or distorted speech appears to begin deteriorating at
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around the age of 30. Thus, "the older the listener, the lower the background noise must be for
practical or satisfactory communication" (p. 125).

Spatial factors also contribute to communication interference, in that noises that are produced in
areas containing highly reverberant materials become less localized, resulting in greater
interference with communication. Further, situational factors are also important in their influence
on message predictability and on the availability of non-verbal cues. That is, predictable
messages can often be understood despite highly noisy backgrounds, such as the snap count of an
NFL quarterback in a noisy stadium, whereas less predictable messages are more poorly
understood, such as speech about unexpected situations that firemen encounter during a fire.
Though forms of non-verbal communication such as lip-reading or bodily gestures are often
utilized to compensate for such noisy environments, these again are more efficient in conveying
predictable information, and may not be very useful regarding unexpected events. Further, some
situations preclude the use of such forms of communication, such as situations often encountered
by firemen in which their visibility is limited due to smoke and as a result lip-reading and
gesturing are useless. (Miller, 1979a)

Noise can obviously be very hazardous, in that it can preclude the conveyance of vital life-saving
information. However, it is the more benign, everyday conversation that is more often what is
disrupted by noise. This is not to say, though, that such disruption is not damaging. On the
contrary, everyday conversation disruptions can lead to increased annoyance and anxiety
(Bragdon, 1972), and as result may indirectly contribute to physiological complications such as
the non-auditory physiological effects discussed previously.

LANGUAGE TRANSFER
Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and cross linguistic
influence) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from one language to another
language. It is the transfer of linguistic features between languages in the speech repertoire of a
bilingual or multilingual individual, whether from first to second, second to first or many other
relationships. It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and
teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command
of a language, as when translating into a second language.
Positive and negative transfer

When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can
result in correct language production called positive transfer: here, the "correct" meaning is in
line with most native speakers' notions of acceptability. An example is the use of cognates.
However, language interference is most often discussed as a source of errors known as negative
transfer, which occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the
same in both languages.

Proactive interference and negative transfer in psychology

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During the 1950s, memory research began investigating interference theory. This refers to the
idea that forgetting occurs because the recall of certain items interferes with the recall of other
items. Throughout the 1950s, researchers provided some of the earliest evidence that the prior
existence of old memories makes it harder to recall newer memories and he dubbed this effect
"proactive interference." During the same time, researchers began investigating negative transfer.
Negative transfer concerns itself with a detrimental effect of prior experience on the learning of a
new task, whereas proactive interference relates to a negative effect of prior interference on the
recall of a second task.

Conscious and unconscious transfer

Transfer may be conscious or unconscious. Consciously, learners or unskilled translators may

sometimes guess when producing speech or text in a second language because they have not
learned or have forgotten its proper usage. Unconsciously, they may not realize that the
structures and internal rules of the languages in question are different. Such users could also be
aware of both the structures and internal rules, yet be insufficiently skilled to put them into
practice, and consequently often fall back on their first language.

LANGUAGE TRANSFER IN COMPREHENSION

Transfer can also occur in polyglot individuals when comprehending verbal utterances or written
language. For instance, German and English both have relative clauses with a noun-noun-verb
(=NNV) order but which are interpreted differently in both languages:

German example: Das Mdchen, das die Frau ksst, ist blond

If translated word for word with word order maintained, this German relative clause is equivalent
to

English example: The girl that (or whom) the woman is kissing is blonde.

The German and the English examples differ in that in German the subject role can be taken by
das Mdchen (the girl) or die Frau (the woman) while in the English example only the second
noun phrase (the woman) can be the subject. In short, because German singular feminine and
neuter articles exhibit the same inflected form for the accusative as for the nominative case, the
German example is syntactically ambiguous in that either the girl or the woman may be doing
the kissing. In the English example, both word-order rules and the test of substituting a relative
pronoun with different nominative and accusative case markings (e.g., whom/who*) reveal that
only the woman can be doing the kissing.

Examples

Chinglish Czenglish (Czech) Denglisch

(Chinese) (German)
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Dunglish (Dutch) Konglish (Korean) Swenglish

(Swedish)
Engrish or Manglish
"Japlish" (Malaysian) Taglish (Tagalog)
(Japanese)
Poglish (Polish) Tanglish (Tamil)
Finglish (Finnish)
Porglish Tinglish (Thai)
Franglais (French) (Portuguese)
Turklish (Turkish)
Greeklish (Greek) Runglish (Russian)
Yinglish (Yiddish
Hinglish (Hindi) Spanglish
(Spanish)
 Broader effects of language transfer

With sustained or intense contact between native and non-native speakers, the results of
language transfer in the non-native speakers can extend to and affect the speech
production of the native-speaking community. For example, in North America, speakers
of English whose first language is Spanish or French may have a certain influence on
native English speakers' use of language when the native speakers are in the minority.
Locations where this phenomenon occurs frequently include Qubec, Canada, and
predominantly Spanish-speaking regions in the US. For details on the latter, see the map
of the Hispanophone world and the list of U.S. communities with Hispanic majority
populations.

EXPANDING/ BUILDING VOCABULARY

To develop students' vocabulary, teachers must encourage a curiosity about the meaning
and use of unfamiliar words and promote the use of strategies that will help students find
the meaning of unfamiliar words.

What Is It?

One of the most important responsibilities of every teacher is to help students develop a
strong working vocabulary. Vocabulary falls into four categories:
1. Listening: the words we understand when we hear them
2. Speaking: the words we use when talking
3. Reading: the words we understand when we read
4. Writing: the words we use when writing

To develop students' vocabulary, teachers must encourage a curiosity about the meaning
and use of unfamiliar words and promote the use of strategies that will help students find
the meaning of unfamiliar words.

Why Is It Important?

The size of a person's working vocabulary is both a measure of educational attainment

and a key to academic and career success. Vocabulary development, for example, is
crucial to success in reading. Research shows that the proportion of "difficult" words in a
text is the single most important predictor of the difficulty of the text, while the size of a
person's vocabulary is the best predictor of how well that person can understand the text
(Anderson and Freebody 1981).

Unfortunately, research also shows marked differences in vocabulary development in

students from high- and low-income families, with a widening gap during the first three
years in the lives of children much of which can be attributed to the level of verbal
 interactions that children have with their parents. For example, researchers have found a
difference of almost 300 spoken words per hour between parents who hold professional
positions and parents on welfare. As a result, by the age of three, children in
"professional" families actually had a larger vocabulary than the parents with low-
incomes (Hart and Risley 1995).

Research also shows that children who enter school with a vocabulary deficit tend to
continue to fall behind through the course of their schooling. If education is truly to be
the "great leveler" and provide all children access to the same opportunities, teachers
must somehow find ways to reverse this trend and help all children develop a rich
working vocabulary.

How Can You Make It Happen?

Strategies for fostering vocabulary development fall into two broad categories: teaching
strategies for vocabulary directly and learning new words indirectly. Generally, school-
age children learn about 3,000 new words a year, but only about 10 percent of these
words come from direct vocabulary instruction. The rest come from their everyday
experiences with oral communication, listening to text read aloud, and reading a wide
variety of texts independently.

Researchers conclude that teachers can have the biggest impact on vocabulary by
increasing the amount of incidental word learning (Nagy and Herman 1987).

Indirect Vocabulary Instruction

Teachers can help students increase vocabulary by including powerful, difficult words in
their oral language while they teach, and encouraging students to use those words in their
speaking and writing.

Read, Read, Read

The single most effective way of helping students build vocabulary is by increasing the
amount that they read. Researchers have found that students who read just 10 minutes a
day outside of school demonstrate significantly higher rates of vocabulary growth than
students who do almost no reading outside of school (Nagy and Anderson 1984).
Students are likely to develop vocabulary more rapidly when the books they read are not
only easy enough to read fluently but also contain unfamiliar words. Most importantly,
students need to read a lot to have the frequent encounters with words in different
contexts that lead to true word knowledge; the sheer volume of reading matters. Find
ways to increase the amount of reading that students are doing, and they inevitably will
build vocabulary. It's that simple.

Thoughtful Classroom Discourse

 Talk is also important. Children whose parents talk to them often on a range of topics
come to school with a much larger vocabulary than children from homes where talk is
limited. These children do not have a larger vocabulary because they are smarter rather,
they are smarter because they have a larger vocabulary. Assist children with vocabulary
deficits by providing them with the same sort of highly interactive, language-rich
environment that advantaged children have at home. Engage students in conversations on
a wide range of topics, calling attention to the shades of meaning of interesting words in
their daily interactions with text (both written and oral), and promote a spirit of curiosity
about words and the different meanings that words can have in different contexts. Don't
be afraid to use "big words," as this is how students will learn.

Direct Vocabulary Instruction: Learning New Words

Students can learn new words by finding meanings of words in meaningful contexts;
using dictionaries, and using structural analysis to find the meaning of unfamiliar words.

Vocabulary in Context
Researchers have found that teaching dictionary definitions of words out of context does
not enhance the comprehension of a text containing those vocabulary words (Stahl &
Fairbanks 1986). Students need to encounter words repeatedly and in a range of contexts
before the words become part of their working vocabulary. For example, McKeown,
Beck, Omanson, and Pople (1985) found that students did not really know and
understand words they had only encountered 4 times, but they did know and understand
words they encountered 12 times.
Using a Dictionary

Students should be taught how to use dictionaries to look up the meanings of unknown
words. Small pocket dictionaries are inexpensive and can provide a wealth of
information, provided that students know how to use them. Dictionary skills, such as
using guide words, understanding parts of speech, and deciphering phonetic spelling,
should be explicitly taught and practiced. Dictionaries are also useful in introducing
multiple meanings of words. Students can practice working out which of several defined
meanings of a word is relevant in a given passage.

Word Walls

Words that are used often or are easily confused can be displayed in a classroom on a
word wall. Be selective about which words go on the wall, making sure the words
displayed are really those your students need to know. Add words gradually, a few each
week, and provide plenty of opportunity for students to say and write them. Students can
choose a word and give clues about the word for other students to guess. For example,
"The word begins with the same sound as head and rhymes with mouse."

Vocabulary Journals

 Encourage students to build their vocabulary every day and keep a vocabulary journal.
Students can write 10 words in their journals each week that they have either heard in
class or read in a textbook or novel. Have them use context clues or structural analysis to
try to figure out the meanings, and then allow them to use a dictionary to check the
definitions. Students can use the 10 new words they've learned to write pairs of analogies
that express one of the relationships you have reviewed with them. Examples of analogies
can be found in the "How can you stretch students' thinking?" section.

Using Context Clues

Most students will naturally use context clues to try to find the meanings of words. For
example, given a sentence such as:
Unlike Virginia, who never talked much at all, Stella was a garrulous sort, with more to
say than most of us wanted to hear.
A reader who is unfamiliar with the word garrulous may figure out a rough
approximation of its meaning based on the contrast of Stella, the garrulous one, and
Virginia, "who never talked much at all."

One way to teach using context is to give students text with some unfamiliar words. Have
them circle the words they don't know, guess their meanings, and tell how they arrived at
their guess. Then have them take turns explaining their guesses. Make a list on the board
of the strategies they used. Common context clues include a restatement (signaled by
that, is, or, in, etc.), a comparison (signaled by like, similar to, as, or the use of a
synonym), or a contrast (signaled by but, not, although, or the use of an antonym).

Structural Analysis

Structural analysis involves looking at word structure or word parts that students know-a
base word, prefix, suffix, or word root-to determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word.
Once students understand how multisyllabic words are constructed, and once they master
the meanings of common prefixes and suffixes, they can deconstruct the meaning of an
unfamiliar word.

Base words are words that are complete by themselves. Words that can be divided are
made up of two or more prefixes, suffixes, and word roots.

A prefix is a letter or series of letters that are added to the beginning of a word that has
meaning only when attached to a word root. It changes the meaning of a word root. The
most common prefixes are un- (not), re- (back, again), dis- (away, off, opposing), and in-
(not).

A suffix is a letter or series of letters that are added to the end of a word that changes the
word's part of speech or tense. Many suffixes do have meanings, but they are more
difficult to learn than are prefixes, which should be emphasized.

Root words, mainly Greek and Latin, are the words that carry the main meaning of the
word but usually cannot stand alone. When introducing structural analysis, write a
relatively easy and well-known word such as redo or rewrite on the chalkboard. Ask
students how they might determine the meaning of the words if they could not use a
dictionary or read them in context. Ask students to come up with several other words that
they know that begin with the prefix re-, and have them infer the meaning of the prefix.
Guide students to understand that the prefix re- means "back" or "again," and they know
what the base words do and write mean. Therefore, they can figure out that rewrite means
"write again," and redo means "to do again." Review common prefixes with students, and
put five grade-appropriate vocabulary words that contain those prefixes on the board, and
then ask students to find the meanings of the words.

To model finding an unknown word, draw a word web, and place the Latin root bene- in
the middle of the circle. Ask students to come up with three words that have -ben- or
-bene- in them. For example, students might say beneficial, benefit, or benign. Now, ask
students to use their knowledge of what these words mean to figure out what beneficent,
a more difficult word, means. Guide students to understand that bene- means "good" by
having them explain how the three words that they know relate to something that is good.
Now, have them predict that beneficent means "doing or producing good." Explain that if
they were taking a test and came across this word, they could at least use their knowledge
of the meaning of bene- and the words that they know that contain bene- to figure out a
working definition for beneficent. Have students practice the same process with the word
roots -uni- (one) and ver- (turn) using grade-appropriate words that contain those roots.

To help younger students decode unknown words, have them deconstruct compound
words. For example, you might start by writing the word birdhouse on the board. Ask
students to tell you what bird and house mean, and then guide them to figure out the
meaning of the compound word by combining the meanings of the two base words.
Group younger students into pairs, and have them find the meanings of several grade-
appropriate compound words.
Specific Word Instruction

Providing students with contexts in which they can learn new words incidentally is the
most effective way to build vocabulary. Nevertheless, explicit vocabulary instruction can
also help, especially if it is focused on helping students develop strategies to learn new
words representing new concepts, or to clarify and enrich the meanings of known words.

How Can You Stretch Students' Thinking?

One way to enrich explicit vocabulary study is through the use of analogies. An analogy
shows a relationship between words and can be used to help students learn new words.
Analogies are also frequently used in standardized tests, so it is important that students
learn a step-by-step strategy to decode analogies. To solve word analogies, students must
 first understand the relationship between the words. Many different types of analogies
can be used to help students understand words:

Category: tea:drink :: deer:animal

Synonym: rare:scarce :: dry:arid
Antonym: hot:cold :: day:night
Part to Whole: collar:shirt :: buckle:belt
Object to Use: pen:write :: brush:paint
Product to Producer: fire:match :: pearl:oyster

When teaching vocabulary using analogies, model the process using a simple analogy,
such as cat:pet :: tulip:flower. Help students talk through the analogy by saying, "A cat is
to a pet as a tulip is to a flower." Ask students to determine what type of relationship they
see in this analogy (category a cat is a type of pet and a tulip is a type of flower). Select
a few other types of analogies, such as antonym and synonym, and work with students to
help them understand the relationships. Give students sets of analogies that are grade- and
subject-appropriate, with each set containing one word that students might not know.
Group students, and ask them to figure out the meaning of the unknown word by first
identifying the relationship expressed in the analogy and then by using their knowledge
of the three words they know. For example, happy:enthralled :: intelligent:smart is a
synonym analogy. Once students identify this relationship, they can figure out that
enthralled means "happy."

WHEN CAN YOU USE IT?

Reading/English

Have students make a list over several days of all of the words from their reading that
they don't know. Ask them to try to figure out the meanings and then look up the words in
the dictionary to find the exact meanings. Group students in pairs, and have them teach
five of the previously unknown words to their partners by using one of the vocabulary
building strategies they learned in class.

Writing

Give students several common Greek or Latin roots, and have them write every word that
they know that contains the word roots. Give students a fun topic, such as sports or
popular music, and have them construct five sets of analogies that express five different
relationships. Ask them to write a sentence that explains each analogy and the
relationship expressed in it.

Math

 Group students into pairs, and have them write down the Latin or Greek words that
represent numbers in mathematics. For example, tri means "three," quad means "four,"
and so on. Have them apply those words to something they are studying. For example,
students in algebra can better understand binomials and trinomials by knowing the root
words. In geometry, students can use root words to remember the number of sides in a
pentagon and hexagon.

Social Studies

Have students read an excerpt from an earlier era that contains words that are not in
common use today. Have them use context clues or one of the other vocabulary-building
strategies to determine what some of the words mean. Ask students to create sets of
analogies that relate these words to words that they already know.

Science

Have students write classification or characteristic analogies for the topic they are
currently studying. Students can brainstorm the number of words they know that contain
the word gram and then think of the different metric system units that contain that word.

HOW TO FIND THE MAIN IDEA

It's time to put your thinking caps on! We have all seen the main idea questions on our
reading comprehension tests, but sometimes, those questions are pretty difficult to
answer, especially if you are not completely sure you understand what the main idea
really is. But finding the main idea of a paragraph or longer passage of text, along with
 making an inference, finding the author's purpose, or understanding vocab words in
context, is one of the reading skills you will need to master at some point.

WHAT IS THE MAIN IDEA?

The main idea of a paragraph is the point of the passage, minus all the details. It's the big
picture - the Solar System vs. the planets. The football game vs. the fans, cheerleaders,
quarterback, and uniforms. The Oscars vs. actors, the red carpet, designer gowns, and
films.

The main idea is what you tell someone when they ask what you did last weekend. You
might say something like, "I went to the mall," instead of saying, "I got in my car and
drove to the mall. After I found a parking space near the main entrance, I went inside and
got a coffee at Starbucks. Then, I went into several shoe stores looking for a new pair of
kicks to wear next weekend when we go to the beach. I found them at Aldo's, but then I
tried on shorts for the next hour because I realized mine were all too small."

It's the brief, but all-encompassing summary. It covers everything the paragraph talks
about, but nothing in particular.

HOW TO FIND THE MAIN IDEA

Summarize the Passage

After you've read the passage, summarize it in one sentence that includes the gist of ever
idea from the paragraph. A good way to do this is to pretend you have just ten words to
tell someone what the passage was about. You'd have to think broadly, so you could
included every detail in just a short statement.

Look for Repetition of Ideas

If you read through a paragraph and you have no idea how to summarize it because there
is so much information, start looking for repeated words, phrases, ideas or similar ideas.
Read this example paragraph:

A new hearing device uses a magnet to hold the detachable sound-processing portion in
place. Like other aids, it converts sound into vibrations. But it is unique in that it can
transmit the vibrations directly to the magnet and then to the inner ear. This produces a
clearer sound. The new device will not help all hearing-impaired people - only those with
a hearing loss caused by infection or some other problem in the middle ear. It will
probably help no more than 20 percent of all people with hearing problems. Those people
who have persistent ear infections, however, should find relief and restored hearing with
the new device.

What idea does this paragraph consistently repeat? A new hearing device. What's the
point about this idea? A new hearing device is now available for some hearing-impaired
people. And there is the main idea.

Avoid Main Idea Mistakes

Now, choosing a main idea from a set of answer choices is different than composing a
main idea on your own. The writers get tricky and will give you distractor questions that
sound a lot like the real answer! So be sure to avoid making these 3 common mistakes
when you're selecting a main idea on a multiple-choice test.

HOW TO FIND THE STATED MAIN IDEA

First of all, before we get into the stated main idea strategies and tricks, you have to know
what the main idea is in the first place. What does it mean when a professor or teacher
asks you to determine the main idea of a paragraph, essay, chapter or even a book? The
main idea of a paragraph, essay, or chapter is the point of the passage, minus all the
details. The main idea is the big picture.

It's what you tell people when they ask you what you did last Saturday. You might say, "I
went to the movies," instead of saying, I hopped on the train to go to see Channing
Tatum's new movie where he blows up the planet and teams up with his long-lost love to
start a new life on Pluto. I ate popcorn, used the restroom, washed my hands, then left the
theater and went back to my apartment. The main idea is the general instead of the
specifics.

It's the Solar System vs. the planets. It's the football game vs. the fans, cheerleaders,
quarterback, and uniforms. It's the Oscars vs. actors, the red carpet, designer gowns, and
films. So, how do you find the stated main idea? The good news? It's really easy
compared to figuring out the implied main idea. Read on for the details.

WHAT IS A STATED MAIN IDEA?

Sometimes, a reader will get lucky and the main idea will be a stated main idea, which is
the easiest to find in a passage.

It is written directly in the text. Authors sometimes come right out and write the main
idea in the passage for a variety of reasons they don't want you to miss the point, they
are new writers and have not figured out the art of subtlety, they like clear, informational
writing. Whatever the reason, it's there waiting for you; you just need to find it.

HOW TO FIND THE STATED MAIN IDEA

Read the passage of text
Ask this question to yourself: "What is this passage mostly about?"
In your own words, explain the answer in one short sentence. Do not includes details or
examples from the text. Do not extend your idea beyond what is written in the text, even
if you know a ton about the topic. It does not matter for this exercise.
Look for a sentence in the text that most closely fits with your summary.
 RECOGNIZING CAUSE AND EFFECT

A cause and effect analysis is an attempt to understand why things happen as they do. Use
this resource to help your students understand the effects of various events and actions, so
they have a better grasp on the way the world operates.

WHAT IS IT?

A cause and effect analysis is an attempt to understand why things happen as they do.
People in many professionsaccident investigators, scientists, historians, doctors,
newspaper reporters, automobile mechanics, educators, police detectivesspend
considerable effort trying to understand the causes and effects of human behavior and
natural phenomena to gain better control over events and over ourselves. If we
understand the causes of accidents, wars, and natural disasters, perhaps we can avoid
them in the future. If we understand the consequences of our own behavior, perhaps we
can modify our behavior in a way that will allow us to lead happier, safer lives.

Cause Effect
Earthquakes
Erosion
Heavy Rain Mudslides
Poor Drainage
Deforestation
Steep Terrain
Flooding
Mudslides Property Loss
Injury and Death

Why Is It Important?

One of the primary goals of education is to create empowered, analytic thinkers, capable
of thinking through complex processes to make important decisions.

Whether students recognize cause-and-effect relationships or not, they are affected by

them every day. Students experience them in their own lives, see them occur in the lives
of others, read about them in both narrative and expository texts, and are asked to write
about them. To be successful, students need to be able to clearly recognize these
 relationships so that they are able to think analytically in their personal and academic
lives. Without the ability to identify these relationships, students are at risk socially and
academically. They will not understand actions and consequences or be able to
understand or describe phenomena at a deep level.

How Can You Make It Happen?

Helping students develop the ability to think and talk intelligently about causes and
effects will grow naturally over time, as students take part in multiple conversations
about why things happen as they do, how one thing leads to another, how a single event
can have multiple causesand multiple consequencesand how some consequences are
intended and some are not. It is not a strategy that can be mastered in a few lessons. It all
begins with how you structure classroom discussions.

Here are some general guidelines for introducing cause and effect into discussions:

1. Always ask why. Why did the fish in the classroom aquarium die? Why were slaves more
important in the South than in the North? Why do people continue to commit crimes after
being released from prison? What are the causes and effects of bullying in schools?

2. After students answer the Why questions, ask them, "How do you know? What is your
evidence?" Have students find research or texts to justify their position.

3. Encourage students to consider multiple causes of events. Make lists of possible causes of
events, and then try to determine which are more likely, or important, than others.

4. Encourage students to consider multiple consequences. How did World War II change life
in America? What happens when we waste electricity? What are some of the likely
consequences of global warming? What consequences does the behavior of a character in
a story have on the lives of other characters?

5. Use graphic organizers, such as cause-and-effect chains, flow charts, and feedback loops,
to help students think about complex cause-and-effect relationships.

6. Help students develop the vocabulary of cause and effect. Teach power words such as
consequence, consequently, influence, and as a result. Also teach qualifiers such as partly
responsible for and largely because of. Encourage students to qualify cause-and-effect
statements with words such as possibly, probably, or almost certainly. Explain that
whenever there is doubt (as there often is in matters of cause and effect), qualifying
 words actually strengthen an argument. Compare the following sentences, and ask
students to consider which statement is easier to agree with.

The author created a happy ending in order to please the reader.

The author probably created a happy ending in order to please the reader.

Connect students' understanding of cause-and-effect relationships to their writing. Point

out that writers use the language of cause and effect to inform, to persuade, and to
provide their readers with an understanding of order. Help students describe cause-and-
effect relationships in their writing. Encourage them to use graphic organizers to illustrate
their ideas.

How Can You Stretch Students' Thinking?

Often the cause-and-effect relationship in a reading passage is implied and not clearly
stated. Students need to make inferences about these relationships. Encourage students to
use vocabulary clues in the text (so that, accordingly, therefore, and later) and their prior
knowledge to determine the relationships. Begin by having students make inferences
about information that is in close proximity. Direct students to make an inference based
on the first sentence of a reading passage and their prior knowledge. Then have them
evaluate the inference based on their reading of the rest of the passage (Johnson and
Johnson, 1986). Explain that this is like building a theory from existing evidence and then
testing it against additional evidence as it becomes available.

Analyzing causes and effects is just like developing a theory. It is important to provide
evidence that supports the analysis and to entertain the possibility that, in many cases,
there may be other equally valid explanations. Encourage students to consider that
proximity of events in space or time does not necessarily imply causality. Being in the
same room when a crime occurs does not necessarily make you a criminal.

Teach students that making generalizations based on cause-and-effect sequences can be

applied to a number of situations. For example, people who do not take care of
themselves get sick more often than people who do take care of themselves.
Generalizations are important organizing ideas because they give students a broad
knowledge base that they can apply in different situations. According to the authors of
Classroom Instruction that Works, teachers need to provide many examples of
generalizations to students. They also should upport each generalization with several
cause-and-effect sequences, make sure students can clearly state their own
generalizations as well as ones presented to them, and discuss generalizations with
 students and encourage them to argue against them if they disagree (Marzano, et al.
2001).

When Can You Use It?

The ability to understand and discuss cause and effect relationships is central to the study
of literature, science, and the social sciences.

Reading/English

Have students create visual maps representing cause-and-effect relationships in the books
they are reading, whether narrative texts or history books.

For example, in the book Ira Sleeps Over by Bernard Waber, Ira makes a decision about
taking his teddy bear to Reggie's house. Have students discuss how each conversation in
the book results in a new decision.

Another example is in the book Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt. Have students
discuss the effect of Winnie wandering in the woods (meeting Jesse Tuck), and the effect
of meeting Jesse (finding out about the magic water).

Writing

Make sure students have plenty of practice writing about increasingly complex cause-
and-effect relationships. Encourage students to use graphic organizers to organize their
ideas and to illustrate their writing. Encourage students to consider multiple causes and
multiple consequences. Stress the importance of using appropriate qualifiers such as
probably and possibly, when the true nature of cause and effect is in doubt.

Math
 Cause and effect is most clearly relevant to mathematics in the area of probability, which
provides a way of quantifying the likelihood that certain outcomes will occur given a
certain triggering event such as tossing a pair of dice. Statistics is also useful in
determining whether a given outcome is something other than a random occurrence. At
the high school level, students can develop stochastic models (involving chance,
probability, or a random variable) of real-world events, such as traffic jams, that can aid
in understanding cause-and-effect relationships at a formal level.

Social Studies

Cause-and-effect thinking is central to all of the social sciences, including history,

economics, sociology, and psychology. When teaching history, have students analyze the
causes and effects of a historical event such as the Civil War. Ask students to use a
graphic organizer to outline the political, social, and economic causes of the war and its
effects on the United States, and then have them write up the analysis using the graphic
organizer as an illustration.

Science

Cause and effect can be related to climate changes in science. The variations of climate
and the effect on mortality rates and the human body can be studied. For example,
increased humidity levels affect the body's ability to cool itself, and decreased humidity
levels contribute to dehydration and infections.

















COMPARE & CONTRAST

What is a Comparison / Contrast Essay?
A comparison shows how two subjects are similar; a contrast shows how two subjects are
different. People compare and contrast in both writing and life. In writing, you must first
decide whether you will compare, contrast or both. Follow these steps when writing a
comparison / contrast essay.

1. Identify similarities and differences.
If you have three items to compare or contrast, figure out how they are similar and how
they are different.

You will need to find at least three points for comparison / contrast.
Write detailed characteristics for each point.
Lets say you want to compare three seasons.
Points Summer Winter Fall

Weather hot, sunny, tornadoes very cold, windy, cool, frost,

snow, flurries sleet

Colors green, blue, yellow white, grey grey,

orange,
red, purple,
brown

Activitie swimming, sailing, skiing, ice skating, hiking,

s beach, baseball bowling bicycling

 2. State your purpose in the thesis sentence.
Identify the three subjects that you will compare and state whether you
will focus on similarities, differences, or both. The thesis may also indicate which
points you will compare / contrast.

3. Choose a pattern to organize your essay.
The two major patterns for organizing a comparison/contrast essay are:
Subject by Subject (Whole-to-whole). Your write first about one of your
subjects, covering it completely, and then you write about the other, covering it
completely. Each subject is addressed in a separate paragraph. The points of
comparison or contrast will be the same for each subject and will be presented in
the same order.

The following is an example of subject by subject organization:

Introduction
I. Summer
A. Temperature
B. Activities
C. Colors
II. Winter
A. Temperature
B. Activities
C. Colors
III. Autumn
A. Temperature
B. Activities
C. Colors

Conclusion
Point by Point. Each point is addressed in a separate paragraph. You discuss both of your
subjects together for each point of comparison and contrast. Maintain consistency by
discussing the same subject first for each point.

The following is an example of point by point organization:

Introduction
I. Temperature
A. Summer
B. Winter
C. Autumn
II. Activities
 A. Summer
B. Winter
C. Autumn
III. Colors
A. Summer
B. Winter
C. Autumn
Conclusion

4. Use appropriate transitions.

Transitions are important in comparison/contrast writing, especially with the point
by point organization, to avoid confusion. Without transitions, the points you are
comparing/contrasting may blur into one another. Also, a variety of transitions prevent
monotony.

For comparison:
Use words such as like, the same as or similar
For contrast:
Use words such as although, unlike, differ

To evaluate the effectiveness of a comparison/contrast essay, ask the following: Is

the essay balanced? The most common error in a comparison / contrast essay is spending
too much time on one subject and too little on the other. Make sure the essay equally and
thoroughly covers both subjects.

Comparing and contrasting ideas can be difficult. Different structures are possible. For
example, we can compare and contrast using conjunctions, transitional adverbs and
phrases. The grammar is different.

Comparison

To compare ideas, you can use the following structures.

Adverbs

Similarly, likewise, in the same way, also



Phrases

Like, alike, similar, equal, comparable

Verbs

Compare to, resemble, fit, match, mirror, reinforce, reflect etc.

To express contrast, you can use the following adverbs and transitional verbs: In contrast,
on the other hand, however.

The conjunctions though, although and but are also possible.

You must also pay attention to the structure of your sentences.

Notes

A transitional adverb goes between separate sentences.

Some people want a new system. However, not everybody agrees.

A dependent conjunction joins a dependent clause to an independent clause.

Two patterns are possible.

Conjunction + subject + verb, subject + verb

Subject + verb + conjunction + subject + verb

 Although he is a post graduate in physics, he cant even change a bulb.

OR

He cant even change a bulb although he is a post graduate in physics.

Coordinating conjunctions join independent clauses.

Subject + verb + conjunction + subject + verb

He is a post graduate in English, but he cant even change a bulb.

A prepositional phrase normally comes at the beginning of the sentence if the phrase is an
adverb.

Prepositional phrase, subject + verb

Subject + verb + prepositional phrase

Unlike his brother, Stephen is quite interested in their family business.

DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION

A. Fact
A fact is a statement of actuality or occurrence which is based on direct evidence, actual
experience, or observation.
A statement of fact describes the world without interpreting it.
To test whether a fact is accurate or not, you can observe or make an experiment.

Examples:
1. The Nile is the longest river in the world.
2. Jakarta has 7.500.000 population.
3. UKI is an Indonesian private university.
4. Pollution can kill fish and plants that live in rivers.
5. English is the most interesting language in the world.

B. Opinion
An opinion is a statement that expresses an attitude, a belief, or a point of view.
It reveals an authors personal feelings, beliefs, attitudes, or judgments on a particular
subject. It tells you not only what was seen but how it was seen by the author as well.
 Since opinions depend on the personal experience, history, culture, and training of the
people who hold them, though they are sometimes supported by facts, they cannot be
judged true or false, right or wrong.

Examples:
1. The Nile is the most beautiful river in the world.
2. Teenagers are too moody to be trusted.
3. Young people think theyll live forever and cant be hurt.
4. Monas is the most wonderful tower in Asia.

Facts vs. Opinions
Facts Opinions
o Objective o Subjective
o States reality o Interprets reality
o Can be verified o Can NOT be verified
o Presented with unbiased o Presented with value
words words

C. Blend of Fact & Opinion
Many statement use words or phrases that belong to both concrete and abstract language.
Such statement is a blend of fact and opinion.
Example:
1. An extraordinary and imaginative film, Steven Spielbergs Jurassic Park earned several
million dollars in the first weekend of its American debut.
2. Because of a newly formed and largely incompetent national weather service, Mentawai
island, West Sumatra was practically destroyed in a horrifying tsunami that left thousands
dead.

Explanation:
The italicized phrase/clause are opinions, while the rests are facts.

D. Justified Opinion
A justified opinion is the one supported by a number of convincing and relevant facts. It
is worthy of ones serious consideration and could be take to enrich his knowledge.
Unjustified opinions lack of factual support. To take them seriously, one needs to do
further reading on the subject.

Look at the following paragraph!

People in Southeast Asia are living in both traditional and modern culture. In this region,
cities of more than one million peoplesuch as Bangkok, manila, Singapore, and Jakarta
with Western-style high rise buildings and automobile-clogged streetsspread into rise-
growing countryside where peasants still plow with water buffaloes and live in little
 wooden house on stilts. Jet airliners take off from big municipal airports and in a few
minutes are flying over mountains inhabited by tribesmen who wear almost no clothes
and still hunt with poisoned darts. The king of Laos lives in a French-style palace with
western dcor, but for official ceremonies he dons the baggy panung, the pantaloons
worn by his ancestors for a thousand years. On the Indonesian island of Bali, barefoot
men and girls perform elegant traditional dances in dusty village squares and then go see
an American movie at the local theater.

Explanation:

The idea expressed in the topic sentence, that People in Southeast Asia are living in both
traditional and modern culture is supported by a number of convincing and relevant
facts. Thus it is justified.

What about following paragraph?

People of different ethnic backgrounds just cant live harmoniously in the same
neighborhood. A mass chaos can easily occur due to ethnic difference. The disputes
between ethnic differences are common in the world history. In addition, almost
everyone Ive talked to thinks the same way. So we must always be cautious when living
with people of different ethnic backgrounds in a neighborhood.

Explanation:

The idea expressed in the topic sentence, that People of different ethnic backgrounds
just cant live harmoniously in the same neighborhood is truly supported by some
supporting details. However, they are not convincing facts. Thus the idea is unjustified.




READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES: UNDERSTANDING SEQUENCE

THE IMPORTANCE OF SEQUENCE

Anyone who's spent time with high school students has probably been shown a signal or
two that their reading comprehension is not quite up to where it should be. It's time to
signal back and teach them a lesson...on understanding sequence, one of the more critical
reading comprehension strategies necessary for student achievement.

 The best way for teachers to help students understand sequence is to locate signal words
that indicate steps in a process (first, then, add, finally, proceed), order of importance
(above all, the most important, the least significant), or chronological order (first, then,
next). Here are some suggestions:
Teach students to preview the selection and determine whether it tells a story, explain
how something works, or presents information,
Ask students what sequence might work best to suit the author's purpose.
Help students look for clues and signal words.
Teach students to restate the sequence in their own words.
Use graphic organizers.

UNDERSTANDING ORGANIZATION

In order to understand sequence or what signals to look for, students must understand
how the selection is organized.

Chronological order refers to when things take place and is most commonly found in
narrative writing. Chronological organization involves the passage of time, but may include
flashbacks. To understand sequence in a chronologically ordered selection, readers should
look for time cues: before, after, next, today, then, etc.
Spatial order refers to how items are arranged. It is most commonly found in descriptive
writing. Spatial organization includes right to left, left to right, front to back, back to front, or
any other directionally possible description. To understand sequence in a spatially organized
selection, readers should look for spatial cues: next to, to the left, in front of, behind, etc.
Order of importance organization is commonly found in persuasive and informational
writing. It can be arranged from least important to most important or most important to least
important. To understand order of importance organization, readers should look for
comparative cues: more important, less important, greater, lesser, etc.
Cause and effect refers to one event causing another and is commonly found in all types
of writing. It can be organized by listing one cause and several effects or one effect and
several causes. To understand cause and effect organization, students should look for the
following cues: because, as a result, due to, etc.

"Sequencing is one of many skills that contributes to students' ability to comprehend what
they read. Sequencing refers to the identification of the components of a story, such as the
beginning, middle, and end, and also to the ability to retell the events within a given text
in the order in which they occurred," ("Sequencing," 2014). This strategy can be done at
any age and with any subject, but it is usually used with beginning readers,
("Sequencing," 2014).

Steps to Implement Story Sequencing:

1. Select a text that has a clear sequence of events: beginning, middle, end.
2. Inform students before the reading that they will be working on their sequencing skills.
This will allow them to focus on the steps of the story.

3. After the reading, have students write down certain events that occurred during the
reading.

4. Have them put these events in order.

5. At the end, students can write about the story sequence in a journal or discuss the
sequence with another student, ("Sequencing," 2014).

Benefits of this Strategy:

Increases comprehension.

Helps students organize material that has been read.

Helps with problems solving across subjects, ("Story Sequence," 2014).

IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING, AND WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR OWN

SKILLS
The importance of listening extends far beyond academic and professional settings.
Understanding how to practice good communication even in your day to day life, among
friends, family, and significant others, is important for a number of reasons: fostering
good self-esteem, maximizing productivity, improving relationships, and even becoming
a better speaker.

Its easy to mistake listening as a simple, passive task, but it requires more than just the
ability to absorb information from someone else. Listening is a process, and an active
one.

In this guide, well go over the stages that compose the listening process, and the
importance each one plays in your ability to communicate effectively with others.

The Five Steps to Better Listening

The listening process can be broken up into five distinct stages: receiving, understanding,
remembering, evaluating, and responding. This is the model most commonly referred to
when analyzing good communication, because it helps isolate the necessary skills
required at each individual step in the process.

The most important thing to keep in mind though is that listening is, indeed, a process,
and one that requires effort. Once you understand how each part makes up the whole,
youll come out a better thinker, listener, speaker, and communicator. Lets begin.

1. Receiving
This is the first and most basic stage of the listening process: the act of actually absorbing
the information being expressed to you, whether verbally or non-verbally. Not all
communication is done through speech, and not all listening is done with ears.

No matter how youre communicating with another person, the key at this stage is to pay
attention. Focus all of your energy on them, by following these three simple tips:

Avoid distractions. This is obvious. Dont have your cellphone out, or your iPod in, or
the television on. Dont try to divide your attention between the speaker and something
else. You might think youre good at multi-tasking, and perhaps you are, but
 demonstrating a commitment to the act of listening will make you a more respected
person among your peers.

Dont interrupt the speaker. You might want to make an assumption about what the
speaker is saying, or what theyre about to say dont. Its rude, and you may find your
assumption was wrong, which is beneficial to no one. You can, however, practice
nonverbal feedback cue, such as nodding, to demonstrate your attention.

Dont rehearse your response. Not yet. At this stage, your job is only to listen. If you
start to plan a speech while the other person is speaking, youre going to miss certain
points and not be able to respond to their larger message when its your turn to talk.
2. Understanding
This is the point in the listening process where youre able to plan your response.
Understanding takes place after youve received the information from the speaker, and
begin to process its meaning.

You can do this by asking questions, or rephrasing parts of the speakers message. This
allows you to demonstrate your active engagement with their words, and help you better
understand their key points.

3. Remembering
What good would it do in a conversation if you forgot everything the speaker had just
said? This stage of the listening process might seem very similar to the first two, but it
goes beyond merely absorbing and processing information.

Remembering is about retaining that information, and the most effective way to do so in
an important conversation is to move the key elements of a message from your short-term
memory, and into your long-term memory.

There are numerous methods for doing this:

Identify the fundamental points. By converting a collection of small details into a

central theme, youre able to create something potentially complicated into an easy-to-
grasp general concept. The details will remain in your short-term memory, but isolating
the main ideas will help you understand them better, and remember them longer.

Make the message familiar. Relate that main idea to something you already know. This
should be easy to do there arent many new ideas out there, and chances are the
discussion youre having will trigger old memories and past experiences. Use those to
help you retain incoming information.
Improve your memory with these courses on mastering your memory, and easy
techniques to improve your memory today.


4. Evaluating
Its at this stage where you can begin to prepare for your response, but remember: youre
still a listener, not a speaker. After the message has been absorbed, processed, and
remembered, you can begin to sort the information into pieces.

What is fact, and what is opinion?

Was the speaker demonstrating any particular prejudice with their message?

What portions of the message, if any, were exaggerated?

What parts of their message were interpreted, and which parts were unbiased?

What was the speakers intent with their message?

After interpreting the speakers message, through a combination of understanding,
retention, and evaluation, youre ready to form a response.

5. Responding

If youve completed the receiving, understanding, remembering, and evaluating portions

of the listening process, responding should be easier than ever. Youll be prepared to
address the speakers most important points, with an awareness of the circumstances and
context surrounding their words.

Its important to understand the transition between listening and speaking though, and be
aware of the ways responding is still a part of the active listening process.

Dont complete the speakers sentences. This is a presumptuous and rude way to segue
into your own response. It impedes on the receiving process, and will make the original
speaker want to listen to you less.

Address the speakers points. It will make it easier for the speaker to transition into a
listener when they know exactly what part of their message youre addressing.

TYPES OF LISTENING

Discriminative listening

Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening, whereby the difference
between difference sounds is identified. If you cannot hear differences, then you cannot
make sense of the meaning that is expressed by such differences.

We learn to discriminate between sounds within our own language early, and later are
unable to discriminate between the phonemes of other languages. This is one reason why
a person from one country finds it difficult to speak another language perfectly, as they
are unable distinguish the subtle sounds that are required in that language.

Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of emotional variation in another
person's voice will be less likely to be able to discern the emotions the other person is
experiencing.
 Listening is a visual as well as auditory act, as we communicate much through body
language. We thus also need to be able to discriminate between muscle and skeletal
movements that signify different meanings.

Comprehension listening

The next step beyond discriminating between different sound and sights is to make sense
of them. To comprehend the meaning requires first having a lexicon of words at our
fingertips and also all rules of grammar and syntax by which we can understand what
others are saying.

The same is true, of course, for the visual components of communication, and an
understanding of body language helps us understand what the other person is really
meaning.

In communication, some words are more important and some less so, and comprehension
often benefits from extraction of key facts and items from a long spiel.

Comprehension listening is also known as content listening, informative listening and

full listening.

Critical listening

Critical listening is listening in order to evaluate and judge, forming opinion about what
is being said. Judgment includes assessing strengths and weaknesses, agreement and
approval.

This form of listening requires significant real-time cognitive effort as the listener
analyzes what is being said, relating it to existing knowledge and rules, whilst
simultaneously listening to the ongoing words from the speaker.


Biased listening

Biased listening happens when the person hears only what they want to hear, typically
misinterpreting what the other person says based on the stereotypes and other biases that
they have. Such biased listening is often very evaluative in nature.

Evaluative listening

In evaluative listening, or critical listening, we make judgments about what the other
person is saying. We seek to assess the truth of what is being said. We also judge what
they say against our values, assessing them as good or bad, worthy or unworthy.

Evaluative listening is particularly pertinent when the other person is trying to persuade
us, perhaps to change our behavior and maybe even to change our beliefs. Within this, we
also discriminate between subtleties of language and comprehend the inner meaning of
what is said. Typically also we weigh up the pros and cons of an argument, determining
whether it makes sense logically as well as whether it is helpful to us.

Evaluative listening is also called critical, judgmental or interpretive listening.

Appreciative listening


In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate, for example
that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use appreciative listening when we are
listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.

Sympathetic listening

In sympathetic listening we care about the other person and show this concern in the way
we pay close attention and express our sorrow for their ills and happiness at their joys.

Empathetic listening

When we listen empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer understand how

others are feeling. This requires excellent discrimination and close attention to the
nuances of emotional signals. When we are being truly empathetic, we actually feel what
they are feeling.

In order to get others to expose these deep parts of themselves to us, we also need to
demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards them, asking sensitively and in a way
that encourages self-disclosure.

 Therapeutic listening

In therapeutic listening, the listener has a purpose of not only empathizing with the
speaker but also to use this deep connection in order to help the speaker understand,
change or develop in some way.

This not only happens when you go to see a therapist but also in many social situations,
where friends and family seek to both diagnose problems from listening and also to help
the speaker cure themselves, perhaps by some cathartic process. This also happens in
work situations, where managers, HR people, trainers and coaches seek to help
employees learn and develop.

Dialogic listening

The word 'dialogue' stems from the Greek words 'dia', meaning 'through' and 'logos'
meaning 'words'. Thus dialogic listening mean learning through conversation and an
engaged interchange of ideas and information in which we actively seek to learn more
about the person and how they think.

Dialogic listening is sometimes known as 'relational listening'.

Relationship listening

Sometimes the most important factor in listening is in order to develop or sustain a

relationship. This is why lovers talk for hours and attend closely to what each other has to
say when the same words from someone else would seem to be rather boring.

Relationship listening is also important in areas such as negotiation and sales, where it is
helpful if the other person likes you and trusts you.


THE IMPORTANCE OF READING

The ability to read opens countless doors of exploration and learning. Children are taught
to read early on because much of their education comes from reading textbooks and
assignments. It is a skill that, once learned, is continually used and exercised into
adulthood. Reading is one of the best ways to gain a general knowledge of almost
anything.

Reading requires conscious thought and effort on the part of the reader. This can lead to a
natural tendency to think and observe, as well as promoting a better understanding of
how the world works.

Reading can also boost imagination and creativity in both children and adults. It allows
the reader to explore new worlds, people and experiences. Through reading, the reader
may begin to see the world in a fresher, more creative light.

For some people, reading provides an "escape" from the drudgery of day-to-day life. It
allows them to relax and forget their troubles, if only for a few minutes. Those few
minutes can replenish mental strength and help a reader to face life with renewed spirits.

Reading is essential for a childs success. All too often, the barriers faced by children
with difficulty reading outweigh their desire to read and, without proper guidance, they
never overcome them.

Learning to read is a sequential process; each new skill builds on the mastery of
previously learned skills. Early on, for example, children learn to break down words into
 their most basic sounds in a process called decoding. Later, they begin to comprehend the
meaning of words, sentences and, ultimately, entire passages of text.

Decoding creates the foundation on which all other reading skills are built. For many,
decoding comes naturally, quickly becoming an automatic process. For people who
struggle to decode words, however, the process requires such extreme concentration that
they often miss much of the meaning in what they read. Indeed, according to many
experts, decoding problems are at the root of most reading disabilities.

The following medical and educational facts emphasize the importance of recognizing
and addressing a reading problem early on, when a child still has the opportunity to
maximize the development of fundamental skills like decoding, and further underscore
the importance of early intervention:
Roughly 85% of children diagnosed with learning difficulties have a primary problem
with reading and related language skills.
Most reading disabilities are neurodevelopmental in nature.
Neurodevelopmental problems dont go away, but they can be managed.
Most children with reading disabilities can become proficient readers and can learn
strategies for success in school.
When a childs reading disability is identified early, that child is more likely to learn
strategies that will raise his or her reading to grade level.

EXPOSITORY TEXTS

Expository text differs greatly from narrative text in tone, style, structure, and features.
First, expository texts purvey a tone of authority, since the authors possess authentic and
accurate information on the subjects they write about (Fisher &Frey, 2008). Second, these
texts follow a style that is distinctly different from that of narrative text. Expository text
uses clear, focused language and moves from facts that are general to specific and
abstract to concrete.

Another aspect of expository texts is that they utilize specific structures to present and
explain information (Burke, 2000). And, it has long been known that the ability to
recognize text structure enhances the student's ability to comprehend and recall the
information read (Armbruster, Anderson, & Ostertag,1989).The five most common
structures utilized in informational text are cause-effect, comparison-contrast, definition-
example, problem-solution, and proposition support or sequential listing. To help students
recognize and identify these structures, teachers can acquaint them with the signal or cue
words authors utilize in writing each of the structures (See below). In addition,
DougBuehl (2001) has created a series of questions to help guide students in identifying
each specific structure. Finally, see the reproducible masters below for a set of graphic
organizers that students and teachers may use to facilitate structure identification.

Text Structure Signal Words

 Proble
Compariso
Cause- Definition- m- Proposition-
n-
Effect Example Solutio Support
Contrast
n
because
because
since
consequ
ently however consequ
for example for example
ently
If so, but
for instance therefore
then so that
on the other
specifically first, second,
since hand neverth
third
eless
in addition
therefor instead of
before
e a
described as
as well as solution
after
so that
to illustrate
similar to howeve
then
thus r
another
different
finally
as a from therefor
first, second,
result e
third in conclusion
compared to
not in
only, addition
but
as result

A final aspect of informational text is its features or those items that an author uses to
organize the text. Common text features include the following:(1) a table of contents, (2)
a preface, (3) chapter introductions, (4) chapter headings and subheadings, (5) marginal
notes or gloss, (6) chapter summaries, (7) maps, charts, graphs, and illustrations, (8) an
index, and (9) a glossary. As noted above, content reading instruction is most effective
when teachers scaffold their students' learning (Biancarosa & Snow, 2004). While
presenting a structural overview as a scaffolding strategy is a good place to begin,
Garber-Miller (2007) advises, " It is also beneficial to give students a content
overview so they can ponder the many concepts and questions they will encounter
throughout the year. Teachers must help them understand how the ideas in the textbook
are interrelated & quot; (p. 285). She suggests that teachers utilize text previews in order
to accomplish this.

Scaffolding strategies for expository text

 Readence, Bean, and Baldwin (2004) suggest a simple procedure to help students
recognize, identify, and utilize text structure as a way to better comprehend and recall
reading from expository text:

Steps to Recognize Expository Text Structure

1. First, model this strategy for students by working through an assigned text reading that
illustrates a particular text structure and explaining why it is a certain type and how that
type is organized. Make use of the text structure signal words provided above and use a
graphic organizer from among those below that is illustrative of the type of text being
explained.

2. Next, provide students with a practice session so they can utilize the signal words and
graphic organizers for each text structure pattern. This second step allows you to
gradually shift the responsibility of learning about text structures from yourself to the
students.

3. Finally, when students have become proficient at identifying specific text structure
patterns, they should produce examples of the various structures on their own.

In order to further reinforce students' understanding of text structure, you can utilize the
Structured Notetaking procedure (Smith & Tompkins, 1988) to develop study guides
based on the text structure of assigned readings.

Steps for Structured Notetaking

1. Select a section of text and determine the organizational pattern used to convey
information in the text. Common organizational patterns are discussed above.

2. Next, create a graphic organizer that follows this pattern, complete with focusing
questions, and distribute it as a study guide. (Graphic organizer templates are offered
below.)

3. Instruct students to read the chapter and take notes by recording the appropriate
information in the graphic organizer sections.