Section 3

Performance and Input/Output Relationships

A boilers performance relates to its ability to transfer heat from the fuel to the water while
meeting operating specifications. Boiler performance includes all aspects of the operation. The
basic elements are the operating capacity and the boiler efficiency.
Performance specifications include the operating capacity and the factors for adjusting that
capacity, steam pressure, boiler water quality, boiler temperatures, boiler pressures, boiler
drafts and draft losses, flue gas analysis, fuel analysis, and fuel burned. Additional perfor-
mance specifications indicate the fan power requirements (boiler flue gas temperatures and
draft losses) and the fuel supply assumptions.
The result of a calculation involving the performance specification is a calculated effi-
ciency. Boiler efficiency is presented as a percentage ratio of heat supplied to the boiler and
the heat absorbed in the boiler water.

3-1 Capacity and Performance

Packaged firetube boilers generally are described in terms of BoHP (boiler horsepower). *
The BoHP rating of a modern firetube boiler is approximately one fifth of the square footage
of its heating surface. For example, a boiler of 500 BoHP has approximately 2,500 square
feet of heating surface. Although these boilers are described in terms of BoHP, the developed
Btu output can be converted easily to lbs/hr of steam. Because the heat content of a pound of
steam increases as pressure is increased in firetube boilers, the pounds of steam per BoHP
decreases with pressure. Table 3-1 shows this relationship.
Industrial watertube boilers formerly were classified in BoHP by dividing the heating sur-
face by 10. In the past 40 or more years, however, BoHP ratings for new watertube boilers
have disappeared, and boiler capacity ratings are specified in terms of pounds of steam per
hour with feedwater temperature specified. Existing watertube boilers rated in BoHP can be
rated in Ibs/hr by using a conversion factor from Table 3-1. Smaller watertube and firetube
boilers often are rated in terms of maximum Btu input to the burner with efficiency specified.

3-2 Input Related to Output

Boiler energy inputs generally are thought of as the heat content of the fuel used. The flow
of this fuel measured over a period of time multiplied by the heat content of this fuel develops
a total Btu input during the time period. Measuring the energy output of a steam boiler involves
measuring the steam flow in lbs/hr over a period of time and multiplying by the Btu content
of a pound of steam to provide the Btu output. Useful simple relationships of input and out-
put-such as pounds of steam/gallon of fuel oil, pounds of steam/pound of coal, or pounds of
steam/standard cubic foot of gas-can be used to track relative efficiency. These relationships,
however, are not precise because such factors as fuel Btu content, steam Btu content, feed-
water temperature, and blowdown are not considered.
The chief energy loss of most boilers depends on the mass of the flue gases and their
temperature as they leave the boiler. To obtain the net energy loss of the flue gas, however,
the temperatures of the incoming combustion air and fuel must be considered.
When hydrogen in the fuel burns, it forms water, which leaves the boiler in the form of
superheated vapor. The latent heat of this vapor is an energy loss, which is approximately

*The term boiler horsepower started because early boilers were used to drive engines with one engine horsepower
or one boiler horsepower equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated from and at 212 degrees. This equals 33,475
Btu, thermal equivalent of one boiler horsepower.
36 The Control of Boilers

Table 3-1
Conversion Factors-Lbs Steam per BoHP
Btu content
from 212F
Boiler pressure, psig Lbs steam/BoHP (liquid)
50 33.8 999
75 33.6 1005.2
100 33.4 1009.6
125 33.31 1013
150 33.22 1015.6
175 33.16 1017.6
200 33.1 1019.3
225 33.06 1020.6 *

250 33.03 1021.7

nine to ten percent for natural gas, five to six percent for fuel oil, and three to four percent
for coal. The percentage of hydrogren and moisture in the fuel affects this loss.
Although blowdown is not a useful heat output from the viewpoint of boiler efficiency, it
is not considered a loss because the boiler has properly transferred the heat from the fuel to
the water.
The useful energy output of boilers is the heat carried by the steam or hot water. In a steam
boiler this is usually measured as steam flow at the boiler and adjusted for Btu content by
measurements of pressure, temperature, or both. The steam flow can also be obtained by
measuring water flow and subtracting the blowdown. For hot water boilers, water flow is
measured at the boiler outlet and adjusted for Btu content by measurement of the outlet tem-
perature.
Although these procedures provide information about the useful energy outputs, in them-
selves they do not determine precisely the contribution of the boiler to this useful energy. To
determine the contribution of the boiler, the heat in the incoming feedwater must be subtracted
from the heat carried in the boiler output.

3-3 Mass and Energy Balances Involved

The mass balances in a steam boiler are shown in the diagrams of Figures 3-1 through
3-5. For a hot water boiler these diagrams would be slightly different. In Figure 3-1 there is
a simple balance on the water side of the boiler between the mass of the feedwater and the
mass of the steam plus blowdown.
In this balance, steam is normally 90 to 99 percent of the output. The water and steam
plus blowdown is not one to one since the water flow and the steam flow are decoupled by
the boiler drum. This decoupling allows a change in boiler water storage at any point in time
without a change in steam flow.
Figure 3-2 represents the balance between the mass of combustion air plus fuel and the
flue gas and ash output. Ash, of course, would not be present if there were no ash in the fuel.
The combustion air is by far the larger input because it may have a mass of more than twelve
to eighteen times that of the fuel. There is some amount of decoupling between the fuel-plus-
air flow vs. the effluent of total flue product due to the buildup of ash deposits on the boiler
heating surfaces. Such buildup must then be periodically removed by soot blowing.
Chemical input and output on the boiler water side also must be considered as one of the
Performance and Input/Output Relationships 37

Steam (Vapor)

Feedwater A
Boiler

Steam and Water Blowdown (Liquid)

Input f Change In Stored Mass = Output
Stored Mass Decreases With Steaming Rate

Figure 3-1 Steam-Water Mass Balance

mass balances involved. This is shown in Figure 3-3. In this case there is a mass balance of
each individual chemical element present. Steam is expected to be so pure that almost 100
percent of the non-water chemical output is in the boiler blowdown.
The balance of chemical input and output of the combustion process is shown in Figure
3-4. As with the water side chemical balance, this diagram represents a balance of each chem-
ical element although the chemical compounds of the inputs have been changed to different
chemical compounds by the combustion process.
The energy balance of the boiler is shown in Figure 3-5. Energy enters and leaves a boiler
in a variety of ways. Energy in the steam is the only output considered useful. Fuel energy is
by far the major energy input and, unless precise efficiency values are needed, is normally the
only energy input considered.

4
Gas
Fuel
Flue Gas

I
Liquid
Boiler

-.i
Solid
Ash Or
Particulate
(Gas)

Fuel. Air, and Flue Gas

Input = Output k Oeposits In Boiler

Figure 3-2 Fuel, Air-Flue Gas Mass Balance

38 The Control of Boilers

Chemicals In
Water Chemicals Blowdown

input f Change In Stored Chemicals = Output

Adjustable Output Changes Stored Chemicals

Figure 3-3 Water Side Chemical Mass Balance

Hydrogen H2
. Carbon Dioxide C02
CarbonC Fuel ,Flue GgCarbon Monoxide CO
Sulphur S Oxygen 02
Nitrogen N2 Nitrogen Nq
Oxygen 02 Boiler Nitrous Oxides NOX
Water H20 Sulphur Oxides SOX
Ash Hydrogen H2
Air Aldehydes
7 Water Vapor

3-4 Efficiency Calculation Methods

Two methods of calculating the efficiency of a boiler are acceptable. These are generally
known as the input/output or direct method and the heat loss or indirect method. Both methods
will be covered in more detail in Section 6 , Boiler Efficiency Computations.
The input/output method depends on the measurements of fuel, steam, and feedwater flow
and the heat content of each.
Performance and Inputloutput Relationships 39

Total BTU
Fuel
(Grinding power) I (incl Kinetic Energy)

Chemical Energy Flue Gas

Sensible Heat (Fan Power)
Latent Heal Potential Energy
Potential Energy
h *
* Kinelic Energy
Kinetic Energy Unburned Chernical
Latent Heat
Boiler
Combustion Air Sensible Heat
Sensible Heat >
Latent Heat
Potential Energy

I
(Fan Power) Blowiown Sensible heal in ash
Feedwater
Sensible Heat unburned carbon in ash
Total BTU
Latent Heat
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy ..Input + Change in Stored energy = Output
(Pump Power)
. Stored energy increases as liring rate increases
Soot Blowing Loss is periodic

Figure 3-5 Energy Balance-Heat Balance

Heat Added to Incoming Feedwater

Boiler Efficiency =
Heat Input (Fuel) +
Heat Input (Combustion Air)

In this formula, the boiler is credited with the heat added to the blowdown portion of the
feedwater. This method yields a decimal number fraction, which is expressed as percent of
efficiency.
In the heat loss method, the percentage of each of the major losses is determined. To their
total, a small percentage for unaccounted loss is added, and the total obtained is subtracted
from 100 percent.
There are eight major losses:
(1) Sensible heat loss in the dry flue gas
(2) Sensible heat loss from water in the combustion air
(3) Sensible heat loss from water in the fuel
(4) Latent heat loss from water in the fuel
(5) Latent heat loss from water formed by hydrogen combustion
(6) Loss from unburned carbon in the refuse
(7) Loss from unburned combustible gas in the flue gas
(8) Heat loss from radiation

3-5 Boiler Control-The Process of Managing the Energy and Mass Balances
The boiler control system is the vehicle through which the boiler energy and mass balances
are managed. All the boiler major energy and mass inputs must be regulated in order to achieve
40 The Control of Boilers

output
Boiler

r Feedwater control .c-

rl
Fuel
Firing rate
Air demand

the desired output conditions. The measurements of the output process variables furnish the
information to the control system intelligence unit. Figure 3-6 is a block diagram showing
how the parts of the overall control system are coordinated into the overall boiler control
system.
For the energy input requirement, a firing rate demand signal must be developed. This
firing rate demand creates the separate demands for the mass of fuel and combustion air. The
mass of the water-steam energy carrier must also be regulated, and the feedwater control
regulates the mass of water in the boiler. The final steam temperature condition must also be
regulated (for boilers generating superheated steam and having such control capability), and
this is accomplished by the steam temperature control system. The effects of the input control
actions interact, since firing rate also affects steam temperature and feedwater flow affects the
steam pressure, which is the final arbiter of firing rate demand. The overall system must
therefore be applied and coordinated in a manner to minimize the effect of these interactions.
The interactions can be greatly affected by the control system design.