Packaging Technology Beer Stabilisation

Module 3 Beer Stabilisation

Objectives of the Module At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Recall the theory of pasteurisation.

2. Recall the operating principles and design features of

tunnel and flash pasteurisers and sterile filtration
systems.

3. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the

various methods of pasteurisation.

Module Contents This module covers the following:

1. Pasteurisation Theory

2. Tunnel Pasteurisers

3. Flash Pasteurisers

4. Sterile Filtration

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INTRODUCTION:

Louis Pasteur was the first recognised scientist to focus on the problem of thermal
deactivation of micro organisms and the microbiological control in food products, starting
with the stabilisation of wine. There were other previous scientists who had carried out
similar work, but the credit mostly went to Pasteur.

Progress was made from tunnel pasteurisers with walking beams to continuous conveyors
and pasteurisation unit (PU) control and then came bulk pasteurisation (Flash pasteurisers)
with plate heat exchangers.

In principle, there other methods are available but they are mostly not practical.
Electromagnetic radiation is effective but not practical and safe. Chemical agents and
antibiotics are effective but are legally restricted for food industry in most countries and do
effect major quality changes in beer anyway.

PASTEURISATION THEORY:

The aim of pasteurisation is to prolong the products shelf life through the deactivation of
micro organisms that spoil the product, and enzymes which cause undesirable chemical
damages.

In beer we want to achieve a biological stability (commercial sterility) with minimal effect on
the physical stability of the beer. Pasteurisation aims to achieve this by utilising the minimum
heating requirements.

Pasteurisation should not be confused with sterilisation. Pasteurisation achieves a statistical

kill rate of specific micro organisms using heat treatment. This is especially achievable in
beer, as firstly there are no known pathogens that can grow in beer and secondly, beer has
natural bacteriostatic properties due to its alcohol and hop contents.

Achieving absolute sterility will give a shelf life of a number of years at a cost of changing the
physical properties of the product.

The following factors have an effect on the inactivation of micro organisms:

Temperature
Time
Infection type
Rate of infection
Beer composition

The quality parameters of smell, taste, brightness, colour and foam stability must not be
affected by pasteurisation.

The level of pasteurisation is determined by the thermo-tolerance of the specific micro

organisms that are trying to be killed. This is determined by the following two factors:

1. The D value - decimal reduction time (minutes)

This is the time needed at a given temperature to inactivate 90% of the viable micro
population. This varies for each type of organism present. Typical values for beer spoilers are
a D60 = 1-5 minutes, with 2 minutes being a typical average.

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2. The Z value temperature dependence (C)

This is the increase in temperature required to reduce the D value by 90%. This also varies
for each type of micro organism. Typical values for beer spoilers are Z = 3-8 C, with 6.4 C
being a typical average.

In theory, these two values should be determined for each micro-organism present and
combined to give an overall D and Z value for each product. In practice, as the types can
change daily, this would require so much analysis that the beer would become spoilt during
the time it took to do the calculation!

So therefore typical values are used with the pasteurisation formula as per Louis Pasteurs
theory. He was the first to relate the thermal deactivation of micro-organisms to increased
stability and shelf life. He described the relationship between time and temperature as
Pasteurisation Units (PUs), where 1 PU is equivalent to holding the product at 60 C for 1
minute. The PU formula is shown below:

PU = t x 1.393(T-60)

Where PU = number of pasteurisation units

t = holding time in minutes
T = holding temperature in C
1.393 = 10 1/Z
Z = Temperature increase to reduce D-value by 90% (C)
D = Decimal reduction time (time at a given temperature to deactivate 90%
of viable micro organisms

From this, there are some useful rules of thumb, which can be used on a routine basis:

A 2 C increase doubles the number of PUs for the same holding time.
A 7 C increase increases the PU tenfold for the same holding time.
A PU of 20 means that there is a statistical chance of 1 in 10 billion micro-organisms
surviving. A PU of 30 is 1 in a million-billion micros surviving!

The lethal rate curve (Del Vecchio curve) is shown below and describes the number of PUs
per holding time period.

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The term "PU" is understood as a technical unit of measure. It is determined by the

temperature and the time required for the temperature to have an effect on the beverage. A
certain number of "PUs" must have an effect on the beverage in order to ensure the
destruction of beverage contaminating micro-organisms and to assure product preservation
and quality.

The time the product is held at greater than 59,9 oC is equal to the number of effective PUs
the product receives, not the total number of PUs, as these are cumulative. This is also
dependent on the temperature of the beer itself and NOT the temperature of the container
nor the water sprays in a tunnel pasteuriser. The beer in the centre of the container takes
longer to warm and cool. This has given rise to the cold spot. This is the theoretical
position that the probe of the thermograph should be placed as the worse case scenario.

These organisms can be killed at lower temperatures (better for beer quality) but require
longer times and for every 7 oC increase, the actual temperature exposure time can be
reduced by 10 times. For example;

50 minutes @ 53 oC
5 minutes @ 60 oC
0,5 minutes @ 67 oC
0,05 minutes @ 74 oC

All of the above give 5 PUs. Thus if the beer was kept at 67 oC for 5 minutes, this would give
a result of 50 PUs which would adversely effect beer quality. Keeping beer at 53 oC for 50
minutes would not have such an adverse effect on quality because of the lower temperature,
but some micro with higher temperature thresholds may survive, due to the exposure to a
lower level of lethal PUs (i.e. below 60 oC for beer). Also remember that PUs are cumulative
and are started to be accumulated at the lower temperatures and not just within the
superheat and pasteurising (holding) zones.

Here is a list of some of the typical micro organisms and their PU tolerances:

Micro Organism Typical Thermo-tolerance

Brewers Yeast 1 PU
Pediococcus sporidium 1 PU
Lactobacillus sporidium 5 PU
Wild yeasts 10 PU

It is important to state the required PU in terms of the line and pasteuriser design. This
varies around the world. There is however a tendency to get the upstream processes more in
control so that there is less reliance on downstream processes to do any corrections. For the
pasteuriser this would mean a decreased infeed load and therefore reduced pasteurisation
times. Most pasteurisers are also designed for an over-kill situation, which actually is an
over design but this is to ensure that the machine is effective in stabilising the beer!

The relationship between temperature, pressure and CO 2 content is especially important with
regards to plate (flash) pasteurisation, as gas break out can occur if the pressure drop
through the flash pasteuriser is too high. We will look at this relationship further in the next
module on Process Gases.

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TUNNEL PASTEURISERS:

The tunnel pasteuriser is an in-package pasteurisation method post the filler, and therefore it
can compensate for poor hygienic conditions upstream to a certain extent. It therefore
makes tunnel pasteurisation an attractive proposition to ensure a longer shelf life and
preventing any infected beer from getting into the market.

However, in comparison with plate pasteurisers there are some important considerations:

For a 60,000 bph line, a saving of 200 m2 floor space can be saved.
Revenue costs are about 15% of a tunnel pasteuriser
Saving of an estimated 1/hl running costs
Capital cost of about 700 000 can be saved
The product will taste fresher with less heat damage.

One of the measures of heat damage is TIU (Thermal Impact Units). This is a measure of the
total heat impact on the product rather than the pasteurisation effect on the micro.

TIU is assessed by the temperature / time relationship based on Arrhenius Law that states
for each 10 oC increase in temperature, the rate of reaction is doubled.

If we plot temperature versus time (see graph below) you will see that the TIU is 92% less
for a flash pasteuriser as compared to a tunnel pasteuriser, for the same PU effect.

The thermal impact profiles for a tunnel and flash pasteurisers.

However on the negative side, the cleaning regime for all contact points on the line after the
plate pasteuriser needs to be extremely strict. This results in lost production time (and
therefore line efficiency) as cleaning and CIP is extremely important e.g. stopping the filler
every 2 3 hours and giving the filler an external clean for about 10 minutes and a full CIP
would be required after each product change and at a frequency of at least once every 48
hours.

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Principles of design:

An in-line (tunnel) pasteuriser is essentially a series of connected water tanks piped to feed
overhead sprays, which progressively heat up and cool down in-package product sufficiently
in order to kill the micro-organisms.

The following design factors need to be considered:

1. Materials of construction: Considerations include the structure and the weight, with
mild steel being heavier than stainless and plastic conveyors lighter than steel ones.
Corrosion can be normal (rusting or chemical attack) or stress corrosion (chlorine).
Insulation is not done on pasteurisers as the cost savings does not warrant it. Stainless
steel is much more aesthetically pleasing. Cleaning and maintenance is easier with
stainless.

2. Transport systems: These can be walking beams (series of hydraulic grates that cycle,
lifting the bottles or cans forward) or continuous belt (chain conveyors favouring plastic
these days). Continuous is preferred especially as containers become thinner and taller
and less stable.

3. Spray systems: These can be vortex or spray pans. Vortex spray systems are a series
of spray bars, and spray the product with a jet of water.

It is vital to maintain sprays and screens (strainers). Spray pans are dimpled trays
(Sander Hansen pasteurisers).

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4. Temperature balance: All modern tunnel pasteurisers are totally regenerative. This
means cool bottles at the infeed are used to cool the warm water which is used to cool
the bottles at discharge.

5. Heating methods: Old machines used steam coils in the preheat, superheat and
pasteurisation zones, which can take up to 90 minute to heat! Maintenance and failure
cause problems. Direct steam injection can be used but condensate is lost. More
common is the use of shell and tube heat exchangers, allowing pasteurisation to start
within 20 minutes of opening the steam.

6. PU control: A standard on most new machines and an easy retrofit for older models.
Basically consists of a form of cross flow and cold water addition after long stops. The
higher the spec, then the greater the range. (NAB are 40-65PU; alcohol beers are 15-
30PUs and widgetted beers are 25-45PUs).

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The tunnel pasteuriser process:

The filled bottles are transported through the pasteuriser on a conveyor or on walking
beams. As they do so, they are sprayed with water at varying temperatures to affect the
heating and cooling. Water is a good and a convenient heat transfer medium, being easy to
control. The gradual heating and cooling is important in terms of minimising bottle breakage
due to thermal shock.

The machine is divided into different zones, each operating at a different temperature. In
controlling the temperature of each zone and the transit time, it is therefore possible to
accurately control the degree of heat treatment received by the containers. Interconnection
between zones is also important in terms of energy conservation by affecting a heat
exchange to heat and cool containers. The water is circulated in base tanks, via sieves to the
spray nozzles or pans above the zones that spray onto the containers. Easy access for
cleaning should be designed in. Tunnel pasteurisers maybe single, double or triple deck
machines. Level in the tanks is maintained by balance pipes and level controls. The
regenerative heating and cooling maintains the temperature balance, however the
superheating and pasteurising zones have stand alone temperature control. The last cooling
zone ensures that the bottles exit at temperatures less than 30 oC, which is important in
terms of labelling efficacy.

The containers pass into the pasteurisation zone and are held for the time to affect the
required kill rate. These two zones are stand alone zones in that they have their own
independent heating source to ensure the pasteurisation temperature is reached and
maintained. The bottles then pass through the cooling zones. These zones are regenerative
from the cooling water system that has been heated by the discharging bottles and used in
the heating zone to warm the bottles and visa versa. There can be a variation of the number
of zones, but the number of heating and cooling zones is the same (for the regenerative
capability). The containers are then gradually cooled via the cooling zones and the bottles
are discharged at the lowest temperature that is operationally possible, typically around 25-
30 oC. To keep the machines clean, pasteurisers periodically undergo a boil out to clear any
slime.

The temperature control is thus vital in ensuring the right amount of heat treatment. The
control loop consists of temperature sensors and transmitters, controllers and control valves.
A temperature differential between the spray water and the container contents of 22-25 oC in
the heating zones and 18-30 oC in the cooling zones is suitable for most glass bottles.

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There is pressure build up with the containers as the beer gets heated. This depends on the
headspace in the containers, which should typically not be less than 3%.

During downstream stoppages the water is recirculated within the superheat and holding
zone tanks so as not to keep spraying and accumulating PUs to the standing containers, or
cold water is introduced to the cooling zones for upstream stoppages. This is part of one type
of automated PU control in modern pasteurisers.

The cold spot and thermograph probe positioning is shown below.

A = Product level
B = Measurement point at 1/3 product level
C = Measurement The cold spot

Tunnel pasteurisers also need to be environmentally cleaned, as organisms such as

pseudomonas will grow and quickly block spray nozzles and filters, causing the pasteuriser to
under perform. This can also create an environment for sulphate reducing bacteria to
flourish, causing corrosion and legionella.

For bacterial treatment of the pasteuriser, oxidising and non-oxidising reagents maybe used.
Non-oxidising biocide such quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) can be used instead of
chlorine. However they are expensive and can cause decolouration of crowns and cans.
Bromine is now used at 1-3ppm. Chlorine dioxide is now also being used.

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FLASH PASTEURISERS:

The heart of the plate pasteuriser is the heat exchanger and the key to effective
pasteurisation is the control of the heat input and flow rate. It is essential to have a plate
heat exchanger which is hygienically designed, is responsive to temperature control changes
and is robust, since pasteurisation takes place at high temperatures and pressures. Accurate
PU control is then achieved with appropriate software and instrumentation.

The heat exchanger consists of a pack of corrugated plates clamped to a stainless steel
frame, hygienically made from a single block. The plates are formed from a pressing tool
from thin sheets of metal and fitted at the periphery with rubber gaskets which form a tight
seal with the next plate. For most brewery applications the plates are made from AISI 316
stainless steel, 0.6m thick, which will withstand pressures of 20 bar gauge.

A typical plate heat exchanger for beer (flash) pasteurisation is divided into 4 sections:

Heat regeneration
Heating
Holding cell
Cooling

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The heating medium is usually hot water (heated by steam) and the cooling medium cold
water or gycol (propylene glycol) depending on the required product outlet temperature. The
sections are separated by a connection plate which allows fluids to enter or exit the plate
packs. Supporting points on the corrugations hold the packs apart so that thin channels are
formed between them. These channels are pressed with two different chevron angles which
gives different heat transfer characteristics allowing an exact match of surface area to the
thermal design requirements. The liquids enter and leave via gasketed holes in the corners of
the plates.

Product Type Typical PU Level Typical Holding Time (s)

Temperature (C)

Keg Beer 15 - 25 72 25
Low Alcohol Beer 50 100 75 30
Cider > 1000 85 30

Design factors:

There are some key parameters which affect the design of the heat exchanger and since the
calculations are intricate, they are normally done with the aid of computers.

Product flow rate

Physical properties of the liquid
Temperature programme
Permitted pressure drops
Hygiene
Cleanability requirements
Heat exchanger type

These parameters are normally defined by the end user requirements. However, from a
design perspective, the selection of the appropriate type of heat exchanger is crucial.

The flash pasteuriser shown above is used for bulk beer pasteurisation, before packaging.
Due to its relatively quick pasteurisation time at higher temperatures (typically 20 seconds at
72 oC) the term flash pasteurisation has become common terminology for this plate heat
exchanger methodology of pasteurisation. Beer from filtration @ approx. 1-4 oC, enters the
regeneration section, cooling the pasteurised beer, which in turn heats the incoming beer.

Steam supplied to the heating section heats the beer to the required pasteurisation
temperature before it passes to the holding cell to hold the beer at that temperature for the
required amount of time to affect the required kill rate (PUs). Pressure is important so as the
beer maintain its carbon dioxide concentration.

The beer then passes to the cooling section with an exit temperature of around 4 oC. The
subsequent filling and closing operations must also be sterile, as there is no further
treatment downstream. Exit temperatures can be far greater than 4 oC reaching up to 15 oC.
This is good for subsequent labelling as there is reduced condensation on the bottles.

This process provides a significant opportunity for heat recovery, since product is heated
from the BBT storage at 4 oC to pasteurisation temperature of 72oC and then cooled to 4 oC
prior to filling. Typically, 90 - 95% of the heat can be recovered economically in the heat
regeneration section.

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The level of heat regeneration is calculated from the formula:

The pasteuriser system should include dynamic PU monitoring in the form of temperature
sensing at the end of the holding cell. Should the temperature drop beneath the set point for
a certain time, then the product will stop being pumped forward. This can either be returned
to the pasteuriser for re-pasteurising or more commonly now is to pump treated water into
the pasteuriser to correct the conditions. Any unpasteurised product will be captured for
reprocessing.

At pasteurisation temperatures which are highly carbonated, nitrogenated or mixed gassed,

the saturation pressure required to keep the gases dissolved in the product becomes
significant. This pressure is in the range of 10 -14 bar (g). This is also important in terms of
achieving the correct and even pasteurisation throughout the product. Any gas bubbles
produced could indeed shield micro organisms. The saturation pressure is determined using
Henrys Law.

The highest pressure is for carbonated drinks, at 3 vol/vol.

Gas saturation levels

There is also the requirement to design in product protection. The pasteurised product is at a
higher pressure (typically 0.5 bar) so as it cannot be contaminated with unpasteurised
product nor service liquids.

The holding cell design must ensure that the temperature is maintained. There are generally
3 design types:

Spiral tubular design

Straight sections joined by 1800 bends
Wide gap plates in a pack

For heat loss, the wide gap gives the less and the straight sections give the most. The spiral
design is insulated or at least shrouded. The spiral design gives the most consistent
residence times, typically <5% variance. The straight section tubes gives <12% variance,
but the wide gap gives about 20% variance in the holding tube.

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The combination of these factors mean that the spiral tube design gives the best
performance as a holding cell in modern pasteuriser systems with accurate PU control.

The demand for flash pasteurisers to be used in combination with small packs is becoming
ever more popular, to the detriment of tunnel pasteurisers, due to the following factors:

Thermal impact on the product

Capital operating and maintenance costs
Space
Availability of sterile bottle fillers
Reduction of downstream infection risks

Considering these main issues:

1. Thermal impact - is the effect of heat not on micro organisms but on the product itself.
Arrhenius Law states that for each 10 oC raise in temperature the rate of reaction is
doubled. When comparing tunnel and plate, plate has a 92% less impact than tunnel for
the same PU effect. The most sensitive component in terms of off flavours is oxygen. To
avoid stale and papery flavours, DO levels must be kept to a minimum throughout the
packaging process.

2. Downstream infection risk - the main risks are insufficient container washing;
airborne infection; process gases; poor pipe work and vessel cleaning. All, except
airborne, are controllable with effective CIP/sterilisation. Modern sterile fillers should not
be at risk with airborne infection. Thus complete sterility is not essential in small pack
and hence flash pasteurisers are providing a good and successful alternative to tunnel
pasteurisers.

3. Possible plate pasteurisers problems - this entails calibrations, plate failure, fobbing
and SCADA monitoring speed. Plate failure is a serious problem, causing thermal shocks,
pressure shocks, and corrosion. Integrity testing needs to be carried out regularly using
hydraulic pressure, gas detection (helium) or chemically. A double wall plate is now
designed to avoid cross contamination.

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STERILE FILTRATION:

The most important alternative to pasteurisation is sterile filtration. The two main types of
sterile filtration in practice today are:

Multiple filtration with kieselguhr and sheet filters or,

Membrane filtration.

This is an alternative method to pasteurisation to achieve the required microbiological

stability in package. This removes the micro organisms that would spoil the beer and thus it
increases the beer shelf life by doing so. It has the advantage of avoiding heat treatment of
the beer and thus any possible negative flavour effects.

Like flash pasteurisation, sterile filtration occurs before the product is put into package and
thus there are risks of infection still occurring downstream of the sterile filler.

The process requirements need to be defined for the product concerned;

Maximum micro and non-micro load of the feedstock (concentrations; particle size)
Maximum micro concentration of the filtrate and product spoilage organism types
Product viscosity and flow characteristics

Micro load reduction from the feedstock to filtrate is often referred to as the Log Reduction
Value (LRV). Sterile filters should be capable of reducing micro loads by 99.9999999999%.

Removal efficiency is better defined as the Titre Reduction (or Tr)

Tr = No of organisms at inlet
No of organisms at outlet

= 1012
10

= 1011

Filtration mechanisms:

Cartridge filtration uses 4 mechanisms for separating suspended solids from liquids:

1. Direct interception
2. Charge effects
3. Inertial impaction
4. Diffusional interception

The last mechanism mainly works where the fluid is a gas. Direct impaction occurs where the
pore size is smaller than the particles. Particles tend to carry a negative charge, thus if the
filter medium can be induced to have a positive charge (zeta potential) then the particle is
electrostatically attracted and retained by the fibre. Asbestos used to be an effective filter
medium until the health risks were realized. Kieselguhr has a weak charge and is sometimes
used for this purpose, as is nylon (e.g. N66 posidyne).

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Inertial impaction occurs due the tendency of particles to travel in a straight line as
compared to the fluid which takes the path of least resistance through the media and will
divert around the fibre. The particle thus impacts with the fibre where it remains. This
mechanism occurs less as the differential densities of the particle and fluid decrease. Hence
this is more effective for gases than liquids.

Diffusional interception utilises the random movement of particles (Brownian motion) to

enable the particle to deviated from the direct path through the septum and to collide with
the media where the particle is retained. This mainly happens when the fluid is a gas and
even with a gas, this effect can be negated if the channel in the media is filled with liquid.

Thus the key features, which effect filtration, are:

Pore geometry
Membrane thickness
Surface charge

For example, doubling the membrane thickness will double the LRV.

Filter types:

A wide range of cartridge types are available. The cartridges can either have a cylindrical or
disc format, and are sometimes back-washable.

There are two main concepts for filter media design:

1. Non-fixed pore filter media

2. Fixed pore filter media

Fixed pore filters are made up of either several layers of filter medium or a single thick layer.
These filters work mainly on direct interception with some adsorption by inertial impaction
and mainly with gases by diffusional interception. The pore size can be larger than the
removal rating; however the pore size is controlled during manufacture. This combined with
sufficient depth enables release of collected particles to be minimised.

Membranes are produced by casting nylon based material. Bubbles come out during the
solidificaton process, leaving channels. The optimum membrane rating is 0.4 and 0.45
absolute. Some membrane filters consists of two layers of membrane materials of the same
rating and others of different ratings, e.g. the first in 0.65 and the second is 0.45.
Membranes are usually made of Nylon 66, polyethersulfone (PES), polyvinyldene flouride
(PVDF) of polyaramid. During the last 10 years, improvements in manufacturing techniques
have lead to a four fold increase in throughputs of some membrane cartridges.

Removal ratings:

Unfortunately there is no generally accepted rating system, which can lead to confusion. The
frequently quoted ratings are:

1. The Nominal rating has been defined by the National Fluid Power Association (NFPA)
as An arbitrary micron value assigned by the filter manufacturer, based upon removal of
some percentage of a given size or larger. The lack of proper definition and poor
reproducibility makes this rating of dubious use.

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The general method is for a contaminant to be introduced upstream of the filter element
and the effluent flow downstream of the filter is analysed. This method is gravimetric
rather than a particle count test and gives no indication of the sizes of particles which
have passed through the filter. These can sometimes be considerably larger than
expected.

The test results can be distorted if the contaminant loading is considerably higher than
that to be presented to the filter during normal operations. In this case the filter
efficiency at the lower infeed loading can be lower than that indicated by the rating.
Typically the absolute micron rating of a cartridge is at least 10x and sometimes 30x
higher than the comparable nominal rating.

A micron rating comparison

2. The Absolute rating is defined by the NFPA as the diameter of the largest hard
spherical particle that will pass through a filter under specified test conditions. It is an
indication of the largest opening in the filter element.

This rating can only be assigned to an integrally bonded medium. There are several
recognised tests for establishing the absolute rating. These tests are known as challenge
tests, as they are destructive. It involves pumping a suspension of a readily recognised
contaminant (e.g. glass beads or a bacterial suspension) through the filter. After the test,
the glass beads are analysed and the largest one determined, giving the absolute rating
of the filter. More recently, a test has been devised using automatic particle counters
before and after the filter.

The Beta () rating system test measures the total particle count change across the filter
with a contaminant suspension of several different particle sizes, The Beta value is
defined as;

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The percent removal efficiency at a given particle size can be obtained directly from the
beta value, using the calculation below

% Removal Efficiency = 1 x 100

This relationship is illustrated below:

% Removal
1 0
2 50
10 90
100 99
1000 99.9
10000 99.99
100000 99.999

Usually a of 5000 to 10000 can be used as the operational definition of the absolute rating.
This approach enables a good comparative method for different cartridges.

The curves of 3 cartridges:

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Filter flow characteristics:

The key factors effecting flow rate and cartridge life, are:

Pressure drop
Surface area

On a new cartridge, as the flow rate or product viscosity increases, so will the pressure drop.
The pressure drop across the filter will also increase as as the pores become blocked. This
increase in pressure drop is normally linear until close to the dirt capacity of the filter, when
the increase becomes exponential. The dirt capacity is measured using a reproducible
contaminant, which is usually AC Fine Test Dust, which is a graded naturally occurring dust,
composed of 68% SiO2, 16% Al2O3 and 4.6% Fe2O3. The fine grade has 39% of its mass as
fine particles of less than 5 and 73% of particles less than 20. It is also important to be
aware of the minimum filter outlet pressure requirements, e.g. is the receiving tank
pressurised? and what is the pressure drop between filter and receiving tank?

In order to increase the flow rate, either reduce the pressure drop or increase the cartridge
surface area. In fact, doubling the area at a constant flow can increase the dirt capacity up to
a factor of 4. This is why filters are usually pleated, and or have a large voidage space.

The life span of the filter can be increased by installing a pre-filter so as to reduce the load
onto the primary filter. For beer the prefilter could be 1.5 absolute and the primary filter
0.45 absolute.

Stainless steel cartridge housings are the most common used, as they are generally crevice
free and easy to maintain and clean. It should be filled quietly and vented from the top,
which is also used for blow down to clean and prevent beer loss. Overall it must be of a
sanitary design and prevent air ingress.

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Diaphragm pressure gauges are placed on either side of the filter to monitor the pressure
drop. If cleaning involves back washing, then there may be a need to filter the CIP fluid as
well to prevent damage to the filter medium. If steam is used it also may require filtering.
The housing design must account for the close seal of the filter cartridge in order to exclude
air and contaminants from entering and also potentially bypassing the filter.

Integrity testing:

Pasteurisation can be monitored with feedback during the process by measuring temperature
and time at that temperature. A similar method is required with sterile filtration, as
retrospective feedback from micro results is not satisfactory. In order to meet this
requirement, non-destructive integrity tests have been developed which enable cartridges to
be tested before the start of a run and after CIP and sterilisation. This uses an integrity
tester dedicated to that particular filter housing or group of housings. A gas supply is
connected to the tester and the tester is connected to the inlet side of the housing, usually
the top. The outlet side is then opened to atmosphere and gas is the introduced with the
housing pressure on the inlet side being carefully monitored automatically by the integrity
tester. The tests include; bubble point, pressure decay and forward flow pressure decay. The
bubble point test involves measuring the pressure, which overcomes the surface tension
resistance of the liquid in the pores of the cartridge. The pressure is a function of the size of
the largest pore. The test is qualitative rather than quantitative, but it gives an indication of
the size of the largest pores in the membrane.

Pressure decay with forward flow involves pressurising the inlet side of the housing to a set
pressure, adjusting the gas flow to maintain that pressure and allowing the system to
stabilise with constant flow and pressure, followed by stopping the inlet gas flow and
measuring the rate of pressure decay. For that type of filter and housing the acceptable
decay is known and thus the actual is compared to this. A faster rate of decay suggests that
the pores are larger than they should be and thus fail the test.

CIP and sterilisation:

The objectives of the CIP are not only to remove any material embedded in the filter
medium, but also to sanitise the filter itself. Some trap filters are now designed so that they
can be backwashed at flow rates up to 1.5 x the standard filtration rate. Also as stated the
cleaning fluid itself may need to be filtered of any particles. Alternatively these filters can be
cleaned in the forward flow mode, either with hot water or sodium hydroxide. It is important
not to force particles through the filter media such that they are released into the product
stream during subsequent filtrations. Filters should either be sanitised with steam or with a
sanitizer during the CIP final rinse. In the case of pleated cartridges it is important to ensure
the correct glue is used which is capable of withstanding CIP temperatures. If steaming is
used then the steaming life of the cartridge should be known.

When sizing the filtration area for a sterile filtration system, it is absolutely essential to
specify not only the maximum pressure drop across the filters and the flow rate required but
also the filtration run length in between the CIP/sterilisations. In order to set this
specification, consideration must be made as to the filterability variation from product to
product. If the product goes to a bright beer tank then it is less disastrous as compared to
the filtrate going directly to the filling lines. The CIP/sterilisation is not only being carried out
to clear material from the filter but it is also ensuring that the system downstream is clear
and sterile. More of sterile filters have a backwashing programme at flow rates greater than
the forward flow.

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Packaging Technology Beer Stabilisation

Sterilisation of the membrane filter can be affected using steam, hot water or chemically. The
steaming life of some membrane filters can be as low as 16 hours with each cycle lasting 20
minutes at 1210C. The steam should also be filtered clear of particulate matter. Steaming will
therefore dictate the life of these expensive filters, which may have to be replaced after 48
cycles. If hot water is used then this should be at around 85 0C and chemical usage can
combine caustic at 0.1 0.2%; plus 100-200ppm of chlorine, or peracetic acid at 150-
200ppm or sodium metabisulphite at 250ppm. A combination of chlorine and alkali will
ensure the breakdown of proteinaceous deposits on the membrane.

Cross Flow Filtration:

This involves the pumping of the unfiltered product tangentially to a membrane which allows
the product to pass through and stops product solids i.e. protein, yeast and bacteria.

The early membranes were ceramic and were designed to have a high pressure drop across
the membrane, of around 4 bar, leading to high energy costs plus heat input. Polypropylene
membranes were then developed with reduced pressure drops of around 1 bar. At the same
time ceramic membrane development using small ceramic particles in the wall of the
membrane backed up by larger particles, enabled a reduction in pressure drop in these
membranes as well.

The ideal membrane pore size is around 0.5. Early membranes of 0.2 were available
resulting in a loss of head retention. Polypropylene also has the disadvantage that the
maximum temperature for CIP is 50 oC. The use of PTFE could withstand 280 oC.One of the
key problems has been fouling of the membrane leading to increased energy costs and
reduced fluxes. Reverse flow pulses do improve the situation. Methods of improving
turbulence around the membrane pores have been developed using vibration from a torsion
spring. As a filter septum which must have a higher integrity than a cartridge filter, cross flow
could well be the ideal method of producing sterile product. Further work is required with
respect to the reliability and repeatability of the process and the membrane life must be an
important factor in the cost-effectiveness of this method of filtration. The latest
developments are proving successful and Norit and Pall filters are becoming more common,
not only for sterilising but also for primary filtration requirements. The Pall-Westphalia
system places a centrifuge in front of the membrane thereby significantly reducing the filter
load and extending the life of the membrane. Centrifuge technology has also developed such
that the operating costs are more than comparable to other forms of filtration.

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A COMPARISON BETWEEN TUNNEL, FLASH PASTEURISATION and STERILE

FILTRATION:

The pasteurisation of bottles and cans are identical, accept that bottles are susceptible to
thermal shock. Cans can therefore be heated and cooled a lot quicker and thus have
faster pasteurisation transit times. Returnable bottles are thicker and thus have longer
heating and cooling times as compared to non-returnable glass.

Container overfills cause higher internal pressures and cause bottle explosions or cause
can peaking. This can also be caused by damaged containers.

Tunnel pasteurisers are probably the most reliable and efficient way of achieving
microbiological stability as well as product quality. Also because it occurs after filling and
closing it kills all micro infections from the BBT and introduced at filling and closing and
thus represents the most effective way to treat packaged product. Heating beer will
always however have a detrimental effect on beer quality and so keeping pasteurising
time and temperatures to a minimum helps to minimise this negative impact. In package
pasteurisation requires stronger containers to withstand the increased internal pressures,
thus increasing production costs. Operating costs and environmental impacts are high
with tunnel pasteurisers, in terms of energy and water consumption. Installation and
maintenance costs are generally quite high for tunnel pasteurisers.

Flash pasteurisers are simpler in design and operation. The heat exchanger achieves
more uniform pasteurisation temperatures and produces lower discharge temperatures
with no cold spots! The lower oxygen levels and shorter pasteurisation times minimise
beer quality impacts due to oxidation effects. Flash pasteurisers have lower installation
and operating costs, with little maintenance and smaller space requirements. Also a
variety of containers can be used, including plastic as the container is not forced to
undergo the rigours of pasteurisation temperatures.

The biggest disadvantage of flash pasteurisation is that the downstream processes (filling
and closing) also have to be sterile, including possible UV treatment of crowns! There is a
tendency to have condensation form on the containers which can lead to labelling
problems. Stop-start filling operations are very detrimental to flash pasteurisers and the
equipment needs to be regularly and thoroughly cleaned.

Sterile filtration replaces pasteurisation and thus all negative effects of heating the beer.
It has low capital and operating costs requiring less floor space and less robust
containers. The disadvantages are the same as for flash pasteurises in terms of
downstream sterility requirements, plus there are generally shorter production runs due
to the necessity of filter cleaning and set up.

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