ASME Ch17 p001-068 1 9-5-08 PDF

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CHAPTER
17
B31.3 PROCESS PIPING
Charles Becht IV
17.1 BACKGROUND AND GENERAL (1) B31.1, Power Piping
INFORMATION (2) B31.2, Fuel Gas Piping (withdrawn in 1988)
(3) B31.3, Process Piping
ASME B31.3 covers process piping. It has the broadest scope (4) B31.4, Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons,
of application of any of the ASME B31 Codes for Pressure Liquid Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohols
Piping. This chapter covers essentially the entire Code, including (5) B31.5, Refrigeration Piping
design, materials, fabrication, assembly, erection, examination, (6) B31.6, Chemical Plant Piping (never published)
and testing. Also included are special topics such as piping for (7) B31.7, Nuclear Piping (moved to BPVC Section III)
Category M and High Pressure Fluid Services, as well as non- (8) B31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
metallic piping. (9) B31.9, Building Services Piping
This chapter is based on the 2006 edition of ASME B31.3, (10) B31.10, Cryogenic Piping (never published)
Process Piping Code. As changes, some very significant, are (11) B31.11, Slurry Piping
made to the Code every year, the reader should refer to the Code
for any specific requirements. This chapter should be considered A draft of the section for Chemical Plant Piping, B31.6, was
to provide background information, and not specific, current Code completed in 1974. However, it was decided to merge this section
rules. into ASME B31.3 because the two code sections were closely
The equations that are numbered in this chapter use the same related. A joint code section, Chemical Plant and Petroleum
numbers as are used in ASME B31.3. Equations that are not num- Refinery Piping, was published in 1976. It was at this time that
bered are either not in ASME B31.3 or are not numbered therein items such as fluid service categories (e.g., Category M), non-
also. metallic piping, and safeguarding were introduced into ASME
References herein to Sections I, II, III, V, VIII, and IX are ref- B31.3.
erences to sections of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel In 1980, the nonmetal portions of the ASME B31.3 Code were
Code. References to a para. are references to a paragraph in gathered and combined into one chapter, Chapter VIII.
ASME B31.3, except when otherwise specified. A draft code for Cryogenic Piping has been prepared by
References are listed at the end of each major section of this Section Committee B31.10 and was ready for approval in 1981.
chapter. Reference documents other than codes, standards, and Again, since the coverage overlapped with ASME B31.3, it was
similar publications are numbered. Codes and standards that are decided to merge the Section Committees and develop a single,
mentioned in each major section, such as those provided by inclusive code. This Code was issued in 1984.
ASME, API, AWWA, and ASTM, are simply listed at the end of In addition, in 1984 another potentially separate code was
each reference section. added as a new chapter to ASME B31.3, High-Pressure Piping,
Chapter IX.
The resulting document is a Code that is very broad in scope. It
17.1.1 History of B31.3 covers fluids as benign as water and as hazardous as mustard gas.
In 1926, the American Standards Institute initiated Project It covers temperatures from cryogenic conditions to 815C
B31 to develop a piping code. ASME was the sole administrative (1500F) and beyond. It covers pressures from vacuum and
sponsor. The first publication of this document, American atmospheric to 340,000 kPa (50,000 psi) and higher. Part of the
Tentative Standard Code for Pressure Piping, occurred in 1935. philosophy of the Code stems from this broad coverage. There is
From 1942 through 1955, the Code was published as the a great deal of responsibility placed with the owner and latitude to
American Standard Code for Pressure Piping, ASA B31.1. It was use good engineering.
composed of separate sections for different industries. With respect to the acronyms that appear in front of B31.3,
These sections were split off, starting in 1955 with the Gas these have been ASA, ANSI, and ASME. It is currently correct to
Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems, ASA B31.8. ASA refer to the Code as ASME B31.3. The initial designation, ASA,
B31.3, Petroleum Refinery Piping Code Section was first pub- referred to the American Standards Association. ASA became the
lished in 1959. A number of separate sections have been prepared, United States of America Standards Institute and then the
most of which have been published. The various section designa- American National Standards Institute (ANSI) between 1967 and
tions are: 1969. Thus, ASA was changed to ANSI. In 1978, the Standards
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2 Chapter 17
Committee was reorganized as a committee operating under The 17.1.3 What is Piping?
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) with ANSI ASME B31.3 covers process piping, but what is within the
approval. Therefore, ASME now appears in front of B31.3. scope of piping? This is defined in the Code in the definitions part
These changes have not changed the committee structure or the of Chapter I.
Code. A piping system is defined as follows.
Interconnected piping subject to the same set or sets of design
17.1.2 Scope of B31.3 conditions.
The ASME B31.3 Code was written with process piping in Piping is defined as follows.
mind. It is very broad in scope since the scope of process piping Assemblies of piping components used to convey, distribute,
services is very broad. While ASME B31 permits the owner to mix, separate, discharge, meter, control, or snub fluid flows. Piping
select the piping code most appropriate to their piping installa- also includes pipe-supporting elements, but does not include sup-
tion, the following are typical examples of the types of facilities port structures, such as building frames, bents, foundations, or any
that the Code is intended to cover: equipment excluded from this Code (see para. 300.1.3).
Piping includes piping components, which are defined as follows.
(1) chemical plants Mechanical elements suitable for joining or assembly into
(2) oil refineries pressure-tight fluid-containing piping systems. Components
(3) loading terminals include pipe, tubing, fitting, flanges, gaskets, bolting, valves, and
(4) bulk processing plants devices such as expansion joints, flexible joints, pressure hoses,
(5) cryogenic piping traps, strainers, in-line portions of instruments, and separators.
Piping also contains pipe, which is defined as follows.
The Code was previously intended to cover all piping within A pressure-tight cylinder used to convey a fluid or to transmit a
the property limits of a process plant, with certain exclusions. The fluid pressure, ordinarily designated pipe in applicable material
ASME B31 Codes now state that it is the owners responsibility specifications. Materials designated tube or tubing in the specifi-
to decide which code is most applicable to their piping system. cations are treated as pipe when intended for pressure service.
However, previously listed exclusions show the intent of the writ- These definitions should be reviewed when determining whether
ers of the Code. The following items were excluded from cover- something is within the scope of the Code. Some examples follow.
age by earlier editions of ASME B31.3: There is often some confusion as to whether instrumentation is
(1) fire protection systems; covered by the Code. However, the definition of piping compo-
(2) sanitary and storm water systems; nents makes it clear that in-line portions of instruments are
(3) plumbing; included in the scope and must comply with ASME B31.3 rules.
(4) piping in property set aside for transportation piping Often, they are qualified as unlisted components.
(B31.4, B31.8, and B31.11); and With respect to piping supports, the supporting elements such
(5) piping within the jurisdiction of Section I of the ASME as shoes, spring hangers, hanger rods, sway braces etc. and their
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (boiler external piping). attachment to the structure (the definition of pipe-supporting
element in the Code includes the structural attachment) are
Certain piping were considered optional. These were included in the scope of ASME B31.3. However, the structures to
which they are attached are not.
(1) steam piping from a boiler that is outside the jurisdiction of
Section I, which could be either B31.1 or B31.3; and
(2) refrigeration piping that is part of a packaged system 17.1.4 Intent
(factory assembled), which could be either B31.5 or The ASME B31.3 Code provides minimum requirements for
B31.3. safety. It is not a design handbook. Further, it is for design of new
piping. While the intent of ASME B31.3 may be considered for
Boiler external piping is the piping between a boiler casing and
evaluating existing piping, piping that has been in service is not
generally the first block valve outside of the boiler. This is within
within the scope of the Code. Other codes such as API 570,
the jurisdiction of Section I, although Section I refers to the rules
Piping Inspection Code, should be considered for use with piping
of ASME B31.1 for this piping. See Chapter 16 for a more
after it has been placed in service. The ASME B31.3 Code does
detailed discussion of boiler external piping.
not address operation or maintenance of piping systems.
While the Code, by prior wording, would include building sys-
The scope of the Code is new piping; it does not include repair.
tems piping (e.g., heating systems) that are on the process plant
However, the issue of replacement is less clear. While an earlier
property, other than items specifically excluded (e.g., sanitary),
interpretation indicated that replacement was covered by ASME
these would be better covered by ASME B31.9. In practice, it is
B31.3, a recent interpretation stated that the subject of replace-
doubtful that many people used ASME B31.3 for their building
ment was not addressed. The wording of the Code scope had been
systems piping in any case.
changed between those two interpretations, and the committee is
The Code excludes low pressure piping system from its scope,
perhaps more rigorous now in issuing interpretations that are
if they meet all of the following conditions:
clearly supported by specific requirements in the Code.
(1) the pressure is less than 105 kPa (15 psi); From a practical standpoint, if an entire piping system is to be
(2) the pressure is not less than zero (i.e. no vacuum condition); replaced, it should be constructed to the current Code and if a
(3) the fluid is nonflammable, nontoxic and not damaging to small portion of a piping system is to be replaced, it should be
human tissue; replaced in kind (as a repair). Where to draw the line between
(4) the temperature is not less than 29C (20); and these two extremes is a matter of judgment. However, in the opin-
(5) the temperature is not greater than 186C (366F). ion of the author, it is prudent in any case to assess the nature of
COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 3
the Code changes that would impact the design of a portion of a responsibility within the ASME B31.3 Code for compliance with
piping system being replaced as a repair. the Code and for establishing the requirements for design, fabrica-
When a new piping system is being attached to an existing pip-ing tion, examination, inspection, and testing. The owner is also
system, the demarcation is at the connection to the existing system. responsible for designating the fluid service if they desire Category
The new piping, exclusive of the attachment to the existing system, is D or M and selecting Chapter IX if they wish it to be used for high-
governed by ASME B31.3. The connection to the existing system is pressure piping.
not considered new construction, but is rather subject to the require- The owner is the individual or organization that will own and
ments of a post construction code, such as API 570. It is for this rea- operate the facility after it is constructed. For example, in turnkey
son that inquiries with respect to hot taps have been have received construction, the owner is not the contractor, but the organization
responses that ASME B31.3 does not apply (see, for example, to which the facility will be turned over.
Interpretation 13-04). With respect to leak testing, the new piping is
required to be pressure tested; it can be leak tested prior to tying it in 17.1.5.2 Designer The designer is responsible to the owner for
to the existing system. For the connection to the existing system, assurance that the engineering design of piping complies with the
alternatives to leak testing are provided in API 570. requirements of the Code and with any additional requirements
Several paragraphs at the beginning of the Code provide basic established by the owner.
intents of the Code. These consist of paragraphs 300(c)(2), Qualifications for the designer were added in the 2000
300(c)(3), and 300(c)(4), which are repeated below. Addendum, as para. 301.1.1. Note that the Designer is the person
in charge of the engineering design of the piping system. This is
300(c)(2) Engineering requirements of this Code, while con-
not the job classification typically called piping designer nor the
sidered necessary and adequate for safe design, gen-
design firm.
erally employ a simplified approach to the subject. A
The qualifications are stated as minimum experience, including
designer capable of applying a more rigorous analy-
some combination of education or professional registration, and
sis shall have the latitude to do so; however, the
experience in the design of related pressure piping. Experience
approach must be documented in the engineering
that includes design calculations for pressure, sustained and occa-
design and its validity accepted by the owner. The
sional loads, and piping flexibility is considered to satisfy this
approach used shall provide details of design, con-
experience requirement.
struction, examination, inspection, and testing for the
Different systems may require more or less experience,
design conditions of para. 301, with calculations
depending on their complexity and criticality. A Designer with
consistent with the design criteria of this Code.
less experience may be acceptable in some circumstances; this is
300(c)(3) Piping elements should, insofar as practicable, con-
permissible with the approval of the owner.
form to the specifications and standards listed in
The number of years of experience is not specified for engi-
this Code. Piping elements neither specifically
neers with Professional Engineering registration. Reliance is
approved nor specifically prohibited by this Code
instead placed on jurisdictional laws that prohibit Professional
may be used provided they are qualified for use as
Engineers from taking responsible charge of work for which they
set forth in applicable chapters of this Code.
do not have the necessary competence.
300(c)(4) The engineering design shall specify any unusual
requirements for a particular service. Where service
17.1.5.3 Manufacturer, Fabricator, and Erector The manu-
requirements necessitate measures beyond those
facturer, fabricator, and erector of piping are collectively respon-
required by this Code, such measures shall be spec-
sible for providing materials, components, and workmanship in
ified by the engineering design. Where so specified,
compliance with the requirements of the Code and of the engi-
the Code requires that they be accomplished.
neering design. Additional requirements specified in the engi-
These statements help one to understand the philosophy of the neering design become requirements of the Code for that piping
ASME B31.3 Code. The Code is not intended to rigorously set forth installation.
every procedure, approve every component, and approve every
material. Rather, procedures are set forth for use of unlisted compo- 17.1.5.4 Owners Inspector The owners Inspector is respon-
nents and unlisted materials. This differs, for example, from the sible to the owner for ensuring that the requirements of the Code
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code requirement that Code Cases be for inspection, examination, and testing are met. The Inspector is
prepared to approve any material for use that is not listed in the Code. the owners representative who oversees the exami-nation and test-
Paragraph 300(c)(2) states that more rigorous analysis methods ing work performed by the contractor. The Inspector, therefore,
may be used; finite element analysis is an example of one such can not be an employee of the contractor, but not a third party
method. However, the designer must be able to demonstrate (to retained by the owner. The Inspector is a rep-resentative of the
the owner) the validity of the more rigorous analysis method. owner, but could be a third party retained by the owner. Required
The same approach can be found throughout the Code. For qualifications of the Inspector are provided in Chapter 5 of the
example, heat treatments other than those specified may be used, Code and are discussed in 17.12.1. Note that the Inspector is not
components in listed standards may be rerated, and the tempera- required to perform examinations or check design.
tures for which allowable stresses are provided may be exceeded.
There is a great deal of freedom for good engineering practice and 17.1.6 How Is ASME B31.3 Developed
a lot of responsibility for owners. and Maintained?
ASME B31.3 is a consensus document. It is written by a com-
17.1.5 Responsibilities mittee that aims to contain balanced representation from a variety
17.1.5.1 Owner The owners first responsibility is to deter- of interests. These include members with the following perspec-
mine which Code Section should be used. The owner has overall tives:
4 Chapter 17
(1) manufacturer (AK) the item to the Section Committee and a second consideration
(2) user (AW) requires two-third approval to pass.
(3) Designer/Constructor (AC) While the Board of Pressure Technology Codes and Standards
(4) Regulatory (AT) reports to the Council on Codes and Standards, the Council does
(5) Insurance/Inspection (AH) not vote on changes to the Code.
(6) General Interest (AF) The final step is a public review process. The availability of
drafts is announced in two publications: ANSIs Standards Action
The members of the committee are not intended to be represen- and ASMEs Mechanical Engineering. Any comments from the
tatives of specific organizations; their membership is considered public are considered by the Section Committee. The described
based on qualifications of the individual and desire for balanced procedures help ensure careful consideration and public review of
representation of various interest groups. any change to the Code.
ASME B31.3 is written as a consensus code and is intended to
reflect industry practice. This differs from a regulatory approach 17.1.7 Code Editions, Errata, and Code Cases
in which rules may be written by a government body. Starting with the 2002 Edition, the long standing practice of
Changes to the Code are prepared by the B31.3 Section issuing addenda was eliminated. Further, the editions were
Committee. Within the Section Committee, responsibility for spe- changed from a three-year cycle to a two-year cycle. This chapter
cific portions of the Code are split among Task Groups. is based on the 2006 Edition. The primary reason for the change
was that the addenda service was incompatible with electronic
(1) Task Group A: Chapters I, II (Parts 3 and 4), IV, and VIII; publishing for ASME.
Appendices G, M, and Q; coordination of Appendices E and Significant changes can occur in each Edition. An engineer
F; technical oversight of Code whose practice includes process piping should keep a current
(2) Task Group B: Chapter II (Parts 1, 2, 5, and 6); Appendices copy of the Code. New Editions may be obtained from ASME.
D, H, V, and X The elimination of addenda service can add an additional year
(3) Task Group D: Chapters II (302.3.1302.3.4 only) and III; between the passing of a Code change and its publication. To
Appendices A and C (metals only) address this, if a Code change is considered to be sufficiently
(4) Task Group E: Chapters V and VI urgent, it may be issued as a Code Case. Code Cases may be used
(5) Task Group F: Chapter VII; Appendices B and C (non- as soon as they are approved; there is no need to wait for publica-
metals only) tion. They will be posted on the ASME B31.3 Section Committee
(6) Task Group G: Chapter IX; Appendix K website. Note that Code Cases are essentially optional rules.
(7) Task Group H: Future Chapter X Errata are corrections to typographical errors and the like. Code
interpretations and errata are posted on the ASME web site.
These task groups can be roughly considered to be A: general
rules; B: design/analysis; D: materials; E: fabrication, examina- 17.1.8 How Do I Get Answers to Questions About
tion, testing, and erection; F: nonmetallics; and G: high pressure. the Code?
Task Group H is preparing a new chapter X on ultra-high purity The B31.3 Section Committee responds to all questions on the
piping. Code via an inquiry process. Instructions for writing a request for
To make a change to the Code, the responsible Task Group pre- an interpretation are provided in Appendix Z. The committee will
pares the change and sends out a letter ballot for the Section provide a strict interpretation of the existing rules.
Committee as a whole to vote on the change. Anyone who votes As a matter of policy, the Committee will not approve, certify,
against the change, i.e., negatively, must state their reason for rate, or endorse anything, nor will it act as a consultant on specific
doing so, which is shared with the entire Section Committee. The engineering problems or the general understanding or application
responsible Task Group usually makes an effort to resolve any of Code rules. Further, it will not provide explanations as to back-
negatives. In fact, it is rare for any change to go forward with ground or reasons for Code rules.
more than a couple of negative votes out of a Section Committee The Section Committee will answer any request for interpreta-
that consists of 50 or more individuals. However, only two-third tion with a literal interpretation of the Code. It will not create
approval is required for the change to move forward to the next rules that do not exist in the Code, and will state that the Code
level of approval, the B31 Standards Committee. does not address an item if it is not specifically covered by rules
Any changes to the Code are forwarded to the B31 Standards written into the Code. Even if the Section Committee disagrees
Committee along with the written reasons for any negative votes. with how the Code is written, it will answer in the manner it is
In this fashion, the Standards Committee is given the opportunity written, and then possibly change the Code.
to see any opposing viewpoints. If anyone on the B31 Standards This strict procedure is considered to be necessary since inter-
Committee votes negatively on a change, on first consideration, pretations are often asked because of disagreements that may be
the item is returned to the Section Committee with written rea- subject to contractual terms or litigation. If the Code is the bind-
sons for the negative vote. The Section Committee must consider ing document, it must be as it was written at the time, not how
and respond to any negatives, either by withdrawing or modifying one may like it to have been written.
the proposed change or by providing explanations that respond to Answering requests for interpretations is one of the highest pri-
the negative. If the item is returned to the Standards Committee orities in the Section Committee meetings. The response is almost
for second consideration, it requires a two-third approval to pass. always prepared at the first Section Committee meeting following
Once an item is passed by the Standards Committee, it is for- receipt of the request, and is then forwarded to the inquirer by
warded to the Board of Pressure Technology Codes and ASME staff.
Standards. The Board is the final level at which the item is voted Interpretations are published and posted on the committee web
on within ASME. Again, any negative votes at this level returns site for the benefit of all Code users.
New interpretations, as well as errata and Code Cases are post- service, it is not treated as such in the following discussion. Less
ed on the ASME B31.3 web site, http://cstools.asme.org/cscon- stringent design, examination, and testing are permitted for fluid
nect/comm:thepages.cfm?Committee-N10020400. Alternatively, service of lower hazard, and more stringent requirements apply
you can go to the ASME web site, www.asme.org; click on Codes for the more hazardous fluid service. These fluid services are nor-
and Standards, click on Committee Pages; click on B31 Code for mal, Category D, and Category M fluid service. All fluid services
Pressure Piping; then click on B31.3 Process Piping Section are normal unless the owner designates them as Category D or
Committee. Category M.
It is the owners responsibility to select fluid service category.
17.1.9 How Can You Change the Code? Selections of Category D or Category M can not be made without
The simplest means to try to change the Code is to write a letter the owners permission. The fluid is assumed to be normal fluid
suggesting a change. Any requests for revision to the Code are service unless a different selection is made. As some owners may
considered by the Task Group responsible for the respective sec- not be familiar with this responsibility, the piping designer should
tion of the Code. Note that the response of the Task Group must inform the owner of the responsibility and may advise him/her
be approved by the full Section Committee. with respect to the selection process.
To increase the likelihood of a suggested change being adopted, Category D fluid service is the less hazardous service. It
the individual should come to the meeting at which the item will includes fluids that are nontoxic, nonflammable, not dangerous to
be discussed. ASME B31.3 Section Committee meetings are open human tissue, are less than 1035 kPA (1 psi), and from 29C
to the public, and participation of interested parties is generally through 186C (20F through 366F). These criteria can be
wel-comed. Having a person explain the change and the need for found in the definitions in Chapter I of the Code, under fluid ser-
it is even more effective than a letter. If you become an active par- vice. Water piping is an obvious candidate for Category D fluid
ticipant and have appropriate professional and technical service. For example, 150 psi steam can be classified as Category D
qualifications, you could be invited to become a B31.3 Section fluid service even though being in a container filled with 150 psi
Committee member. steam would obviously be damaging to human tissue. The impor-
Your request for a Code change may be passed to one of three tant additional distinction is that it is the condition of the fluid on
technical committees under ASME B31. These are the Fabrication leakage, not in the pipe, that must be considered. Rules are pro-
and Examination Technical Committee, the Materials Technical vided in the Code that basically permit less expensive construc-
Committee, and the Mechanical Design Technical Committee. tion for these less hazardous services.
These Technical Committees exist to provide technical advice and Category M fluid service is reserved for extremely hazardous
ensure consistency among the various code sections. fluid services. Examples of fluids that would usually be desig-
nated as Category M include MIC, Phosgene, and nerve gas.
17.1.10 References Fluids such as H2S and Hydrogen Cyanide are not typically des-
API 570, Piping Inspection Code: Inspection Repair, ignated as Category M fluid service. However, it would not be
Alteration, and Rerating of In-Service Piping Systems; The possible to create a list of Category M fluids, since the conditions
American Petroleum Institute. of the installation must be considered in making the classification.
ASME B31.1, Pressure Piping; The American Society of For a fluid service to be Category M, the potential for personnel
Mechanical Engineers. exposure must be judged to be significant. If a piping was double-
ASME B31.3, Process Piping; The American Society of contained, for example, it could be judged that even highly toxic
Mechanical Engineers. fluids such as Phosgene are not Category M since the potential for
ASME B31.4, Liquid Transportation Systems for personnel exposure is not significant. For Category M fluid serv-
Hydrocarbons, Liquid Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia, and ice, the rules for normal service are not applicable. Rather, addi-
Alcohols; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. tional rules that lead to more costly construction, with provisions
ASME B31.5, Refrigeration Piping; The American Society of designed to enhance piping system tightness, are provided in
Mechanical Engineers. Chapter VIII.
ASME B31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping The definition of Category M fluid service comes from the defi-
Systems; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. nition of fluid service in Chapter I of ASME B31.3. Note that all
ASME B31.9, Building Services Piping; The American Society parts of the definition must be satisfied for the service to qualify
of Mechanical Engineers. as being Category M. Category M fluid service is: a fluid service
ASME B31.11, Slurry Piping; The American Society of in which the potential for personnel exposure is judged to be sig-
Mechanical Engineers. nificant and in which a single exposure of a very small quantity of
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section I, Power a toxic fluid, caused by leakage, can produce serious irreversible
Boilers; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. harm to persons on breathing or bodily contact, even when
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section III, Rules for prompt restorative measures are taken.
Construction of Nuclear Power Plant Components; The American Note that the Code considers many very hazardous fluid
Society of Mechanical Engineers. sevices to be normal fluid service. The design and construction
rules for normal fluid service are suitable for hazardous services.
Category M provides a higher level. If higher integrity piping is
17.2 ORGANIZATION OF ASME B31.3 desired by the owner, even though the fluid does not meet the
definition of Category M, the owner can still specify the addi-
17.2.1 Fluid Services tional design, construction, examination, and testing require-
The piping code includes three fluid services that provide a ments that are provided in Chapter VIII. Hydrofluoric acid is
means to differentiate the hazard of the fluid service plus high- one example of a fluid for which many owners specify more
pressure fluid service. While high pressure is considered a fluid stringent requirements than are provided in the Code for normal
6 Chapter 17
fluid service, although it actually would be considered normal Code are not applicable to components manufactured in accor-
fluid service. dance with the documents listed in Table 326.1, unless specifically
Also, it may be desirable to use more stringent rules than those stated in this Code, or the listed document. If there is an excep-
provided in Chapter VIII for Category M fluid substances. For tion, it customarily will be stated in a footnote in Table 326.1.
example, it may be appropriate to perform 100% radiographic
examination rather than 20% (the requirement of Chapter VIII), 17.2.4 Listed Materials
or to double contain a fluid that would otherwise be considered Listed materials are those that are listed in the allowable stress
Category M. tables of the Code and those permitted in component standards
A flowchart is provided in Appendix M, Guide to Classifying listed in the Code, as in Table 326.1 (or A326.1 or K326.1, as
Fluid Services. This Appendix is considered by the Code to provide appropriate).
guidance, not Code requirements. The actual Code requirements for
fluid service classification are the definitions in Chapter I. 17.2.5 Safeguarding
ASME B31.3 incorporates the concept of safeguarding.
17.2.2 Code Organization Safeguarding involves consideration of factors beyond the sim-
The Code consists of nine chapters. The first six chapters are ple design of the pipe in the overall safety of the piping installa-
what is called the base Code, providing the basic piping Code tion. It addresses the consequences of failure and probable
requirements for normal and Category D fluid service metallic sources of damage, which are the risks associated with a piping
piping. installation.
Chapter VII contains rules for nonmetallic piping and addi- Safeguarding is a concept that works well with ASME B31.3
tional requirements for metallic piping lined with nonmetals. because the owner has overall responsibility for all aspects of the
Chapter VIII contains rules for piping in Category M fluid ser- piping system. This differs from the much more limited scope of
vice. responsibilities in ASME B31.1 and the Boiler & Pressure Vessel
Chapter IX contains rules for high-pressure piping. This Code Section VIII, Division 1. Because the owner has complete
Chapter is never a required selection; it is always the option of the responsibility for both design and operation, the owner also has
owner to select use of Chapter IX. While the Code provides a the ability to effectively specify and implement safeguarding
guideline that states high pressure can be considered to be over provisions.
Class 2500 flanges, this is not a requirement, and the base Code ASME B31.3 permits the use of certain components, joining
may be satisfactorily be used to pressures higher than this. methods, etc., when appropriate safeguards are provided. For
The paragraphs in the Code follow a specific numbering example, brazed joints are prohibited from use in piping systems
scheme: all paragraphs are designated in the 300 range. The 300 containing flammable or toxic fluids, unless safeguarded. Because
series paragraphs are exclusive to the ASME B31.3 Code Section the concern with brazed joints is failure of the joint on fire expo-
of the ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping. The paragraph num- sure due to melting of the brazing material, appropriate safe-
bers in the base code are repeated in Chapters VII, VIII, and IX. guards could involve protecting the joints from fire exposure.
Those paragraphs are differentiated by a letter placed in front of A partial list of conditions where safeguarding is required
the paragraph numbers in each case. Chapter VII uses the letter A. includes the following:
Chapter VIII uses the letter M for metallic piping and MA for
nonmetallic piping. Chapter IX uses the letter K. (1) para. 305.2.2, use of ASTM A 134 pipe made from ASTM
Using the same paragraph numbers permits easy cross- A 285 plate and A 139 pipe for other than Category D fluid
referencing between each of the last three chapters and the base service;
Code requirements. The last three chapters refer back to base (2) para. 308.2.4, use of flanges other than weld neck flanges
Code requirements whenever they are applicable. In this setup, meeting certain criteria for severe cyclic conditions;
the same requirements need not be repeated multiple times. Also, (3) para. 313, use of expanded joints when the fluid is toxic or
these three chapters tell the user whenever he or she needs to refer damaging to human tissue;
back to base Code requirements. (4) Table 314.2.1, use of threaded joints in sizes larger than DN
(NPS 2) when the fluid is flammable, toxic, or damaging to
17.2.3 Listed Components human tissue;
Chapter IV of the Code, Standards for Piping Components, (5) para. 314.2.2, use of straight-threaded joints under severe
tabulates the listed standards. Listed piping components are those cyclic conditions when the joint is subject to external
that are in accordance with the standards listed in Table 326.1. moment loadings;
Components that do not comply with those standards are consid- (6) para. 315.2, use of flared, flareless, or compression type tub-
ered to be unlisted components. Note that listed components for ing fittings covered by listed standards, in normal fluid ser-
Chapter VII (nonmetallic) are listed in Table A326.1, metallic vice, subject to severe cyclic conditions;
components for Chapter VIII (Category M) are listed in Table (7) para. 317.2, use of brazed and braze-welded joints in fluid
326.1, nonmetallic components for Chapter VIII are listed in services that are flammable, toxic, or damaging to human
Table A326.1, and components for Chapter IX (high pressure) are tissue;
listed in Table K326.1. (8) para. 318.2.3, use of bell and gland-type joints (other than
Listed components are manufactured in accordance with stan- caulked joints, which are subject to further limitations in
dards that have been reviewed and accepted by the code committee para. 316) under severe cyclic conditions;
for use in ASME B31.3 piping systems. The requirements for pip- (9) para. 323.4.2, use of cast iron other than ductile iron is per-
ing systems in ASME B31.3 do not apply to listed components. As mitted for specified conditions only when safeguarded
stated in paragraph 326.3, The design, materials, fabrication, against excessive heat and thermal shock and mechanical
assembly, examination, inspection, and testing requirements of this shock and abuse;
(10) para. A323.4.1, use of nonmetallic materials in any fluid Examples of engineered safeguards include the following:
service requires safeguarding against excessive tempera-
ture, shock, vibration, pulsation, and mechanical abuse; (a) means to protect piping against possible failures, such as
(11) para. A323.4.2, use of thermoplastics in other than (1) thermal insulation, shields, or process controls to
Category D fluid service; protect from excessively high or low temperature and
(12) para. A323.4.2, use of reinforced plastic mortar (RPM) in thermal shock;
other than Category D fluid service; (2) armor, guards, barricades, or other protection from
(13) para. A323.4.2, use of reinforced thermosetting resin mechanical abuse;
(RTR) piping in toxic or flammable fluid service; and (3) damping or stabilization of process or fluid flow dynam-
(14) para. A323.4.2, use of borosilicate glass and porcelain in ics to eliminate or to minimize or protect against
any fluid service requires safeguarding against large, rapid destructive loads (e.g., severe vibration pulsations,
temperature changes; additionally, general safeguarding is cyclic operating conditions); and
required when they are used in toxic or flammable fluid (b) means to protect people and property against harmful con-
services. sequences of possible piping failure, such as confining and
safely disposing of escaped fluid by shields for flanged
Elsewhere, the following safeguards are also mentioned in the joints, valve bonnets, gages, or sight glasses; or for the
Code: entire piping system if of frangible material; limiting the
quantity or rate of fluid escaping by automatic shutoff or
(1) para. M300(d), requires consideration be given to engi- excess flow valves, additional block valves, flow-limiting
neered safeguards for Category M fluid service, and orifices, or automatic shutdown of pressure source; limiting
(2) para. FA323.4, recommends safeguards for thermoplastic the quantity of fluid in process at any time, where feasible.
piping in aboveground compressed gas (including air)
service. The above serve as examples of what is meant by safeguarding.
They do not, however, represent all the possibilities of how piping
Appendix G discusses the concept of safeguarding and pro- systems can be safeguarded.
vides examples of safeguarding by plant layout and operation, and
engineered safeguards. 17.2.6 References
Safeguarding requires addressing the potential consequences ASME B31.1, Pressure Piping; The American Society of
of failure. Therefore, the hazardous properties of the fluid, the Mechanical Engineers.
quantity of the fluid that could be released by a piping failure, ASME B31.3, Process Piping; The American Society of
the consequences of such a release with respect to personnel Mechanical Engineers.
exposure and equipment damage (which potential additional ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1,
consequences), and the conditions of the environment and their Pressure Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical
effect on the hazards caused by a possible piping failure are all Engineers.
considerations of safeguarding. These address the consequence
aspect of risk. The safety inherent in the piping by virtue of
materials of construction, methods of joining, and history of ser- 17.3 DESIGN CONDITIONS AND CRITERIA
vice reliability, also mentioned, address the probability of fail-
ure aspect of risk. 17.3.1 Design Conditions
Safeguarding by plant layout and operation include the follow- Design conditions in ASME B31.3 are specifically intended for
ing examples: pressure design. The design pressure and temperature are the
most severe coincident conditions. The most severe coincident
(a) plant layout features, such as open-air process equipment conditions are those that result in the greatest pipe wall thickness
structures; spacing and isolation of hazardous areas; slope or highest required pressure class or other component rating.
and drainage; buffer areas between plant operations and Design conditions are not intended to be a combination of the
populated communities; or control over plant access; highest potential pressure and the highest potential temperature,
(b) protective installations, such as fire protection systems; bar- unless such conditions occur at the same time.
ricades or shields; ventilation to remove corrosive or While it is possible for one operating condition to govern the
flammable vapors; instruments for remote monitoring and design of one component in a piping system (and be the design
control; containment and/or recovery facilities or facilities condition for that component) and another to govern the design of
(e.g., incinerators) for emergency disposal of hazardous another component, this is a relatively rare event. If it is encoun-
materials; tered, the two different components in a piping system should
(c) operating practices, such as restricted access to processing have different design conditions.
areas; work permit system for hazardous work; special
training for operating, maintenance, and emergency crews; 17.3.1.1 Design Pressure In determining the design pressure,
(d) means for safe discharge of fluids released during pressure- all conditions of internal pressure must be considered. These
relief device operation, blowdown, cleanout, etc.; and include thermal expansion of trapped fluids, surge, and failure of
(e) procedures for start-up, shutdown, and management of control devices. The determination of design pressure can be
operating conditions, such as gradual pressurization or significantly affected by the means used to protect the pipe from
depres-surization, and gradual warmup or cooldown, to overpressure. Piping systems are permitted to be used without pro-
minimize the possibility of piping failure, e.g., brittle tection of safety relief valves. However, in the event that none are
fracture. provided on the pipe (or attached equipment that would also
8 Chapter 17
protect the pipe), the piping system must be designed to safely lations or test. Note that the heat transfer calculations must con-
contain the maximum pressure that can occur in the piping system, sider the appropriate range of conditions of wind and ambient
including consideration of failure of any and all control devices. temperatures to which the pipe will be subject.
Such a pressure could be, for example, the dead-head pressure of
a pump. Unlike some industry standards, there is no consideration 17.3.1.3 Design Minimum Temperature The design minimum
given to whether the source of failure depends on single versus temperature is required to determine impact test requirements of
double contingency events. ASME B31.3. As the temperature is decreased, the notch tough-
While all these pressures must be considered, they do not nec- ness of the material drops. Thus, impact tests are required under
essarily become the design pressure. The piping Code permits conditions of sufficiently low temperature and high stress to ensure
pressure and temperature variations per para. 302.2.4. If the event that the material has adequate toughness to avoid a brittle fracture.
being considered complies with the Code requirements of para. The minimum temperature must consider the lowest compo-
302.2.4, the allowable stress and/or component pressure rating nent temperature that can be expected in service. This can include
may be exceeded for a short time, as discussed here in para. effects such as autorefrigeration (the cooling that occurs due to
17.3.3. While this is often considered to be an allowable variation depressurization) and low ambient temperatures.
above the design condition, the variation limitations are related to With the inclusion of stress as a consideration in the need to
the maximum allowable working pressure of the piping, not the perform impact testing, it is possible that there may be more than
design conditions, which could be lower than the maximum one minimum temperature, each with different stress conditions,
allowable pressure at temperature. that would require consideration.
17.3.1.2 Design Temperature It is the metal temperature that 17.3.2 Allowable Stress
is of interest in establishing the design temperature. Thus, the The Code provides allowable stresses for metallic piping cov-
design temperature does not necessarily coincide with the temper- ered by the base Code, Chapter VIII (Category M), and metallic
ature of the process fluid. In addition to fluid temperature, other portions of lined pipe covered by Chapter VII, based on criteria
considerations include ambient cooling, ambient heating, solar listed in para. 302.3. These are, with certain exceptions, the low-
radiation, and maximum heat-tracing temperature. est of the following:
For an insulated pipe, the metal temperature is generally con-
sidered to be the fluid temperature, unless some other means of (1) one-third specified minimum tensile strength (which is at
heating is a consideration, such as the presence of steam tracing room temperature)
that could potentially heat the pipe to the steam temperature. (2) one-third tensile strength at temperature (times 1.1)
For an uninsulated pipe, the metal temperature is taken as the (3) two-thirds specified minimum yield strength (which is at
fluid temperature if the temperature is below 65C (1F), unless room temperature)
some other effect such as solar heating of the pipe could result in (4) two-thirds minimum yield strength at temperature
a greater temperature. A commonly assumed potential tempera- (5) average stress for a minimum creep rate of 0.01%/1,000 hr
ture due to solar heating for piping exposed to the sun is C (6) two-thirds average stress for creep rupture in 100,000 hr
(120F); local conditions may dictate a higher temperature. (7) 80% minimum stress for creep rupture in 100,000 hr
For an uninsulated pipe, the Code permits consideration of
ambient cooling effects if the fluid temperature is 65C (1F) or Specified values are the minimum required in the material
greater. Of course, if solar radiation can bring the metal tempera- specifications. For unlisted material, the minimum at tempera-
ture to higher than this temperature, such as in Saudi Arabia, ture is required in para. 302.3.2(f) to be determined by multiply-
ambient cooling effects could only be considered at some higher ing the specified (room temperature) values by the ratio of the
temperature. The metal temperature of the pipe can be determined average strength at temperature to that at room temperature. The
via heat transfer calculations, testing such as measurement of the allowable stresses listed in the Code are determined by the ASME
temperature on a similar system, or based on presumptive values Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Subcommittee II, and are based
provided in the table below. on trend curves that show the effect of temperature on yield and
tensile strengths. (The trend curve provides the aforementioned
ratio.) An additional factor of 1.1 is used with the tensile strength
Assumed Metal Temperature Component at temperature.
An exception to the above criteria is made for austenitic stain-
95% of fluid temperature Components having a wall thick-
less steel and nickel alloys with similar stress-strain behavior,
ness comparable to pipe, such
which can be as high as 90% of the yield strength at temperature.
as valves, pipe, lapped ends,
This is not due to a desire to be less conservative, but is a recogni-
and welding fittings
tion of the differences in behavior of these alloys. The quoted yield
90% of fluid temperature Flanges (except lap joint), strength is determined by drawing a line parallel to the elastic
including those that are on loading curve, but with a 0.2% offset in strain. The yield strength
fittings and valves is the intercept of this line with the stress-strain curve. Such an
85% of fluid temperature Lap joint flanges evaluation provides a good yield strength value of carbon steel and
80% of fluid temperature Bolting alloys with similar behavior, but it does not represent the strength
of austenitic stainless steel, which has considerable hardening and
additional strength beyond this value. However, the additional
These are conservatively high estimates of wall temperature. strength is achieved at the cost of additional deformation.
For an internally insulated pipe, such as a refractory lined pipe, Thus, the higher allowable stresses relative to yield are only
the metal temperature must be determined by heat transfer calcu- applicable to components that are not deformation sensitive.
Thus, while one might use the higher allowable stress for pipe, it 17.3.4 Weld Joint strength Reduction Factors
should not be used for flange design. The allowable stress tables Weld joint strength reduction factors were added to ASME
use a style that lets the Code user know when the allowable stress B31.3 in the 2004 edition. These apply at temperatures above
exceeds two-thirds of the yield strength at temperature, as will be 510C (950F), and are based on consideration of the effects of
described later in 17.10.8. creep. They apply to longitudinal an spiral weld joints in pressure
Use of the higher allowable stress can create some complica- design, and to circumferential weld joints in evaluation of stresses
tions because the Code has limitations in the form of stress in the due to sustained loads, SL. They were added because weldment
piping relative to yield strength. For example, variations above creep rupture strength has been determined to be lower than base
what would otherwise be considered to be the maximum allow- metal creep rupture strength in some circumstances. The designer
able working pressure of the piping are permitted, to as high as may determine the weld joint strength reduction factor for the
33% above the allowable stress. However, the Code requires that specified weldments based on creep rupture test data. This is
the stress not exceed yield stress. Thus, if the pipe was designed encouraged to develop factors specific to the base material/weld
using 90% of yield stress, the allowable variation would be much material combinations used in the design. However, a simplified
less than 33%. Similar circumstances occur in occasional loads factor was provided for use by the designer, in the absence of
(see para. 302.3.6; stress is limited to yield). more applicable data. Because it is impractical at this time to
The allowable stress for bolting is similar, except that it is establish factors for specific materials, a general factor was used.
based on one-fourth of the tensile strength rather than one-third, The factor varies linearly from 1.0 at 510C (950F) to 0.5 at
and special consideration is given to bolting materials for which 815C (1500F).
the strength has been enhanced by heat treatment or strain hard- The Designer can use other factors, based on creep tests. The
ening. They are limited to one-fifth of the specified minimum tests should be full thickness cross-weld specimens with test dura-
tensile strength and one-fourth of the specified minimum yield tions of at least 1000 hours. Full thickness tests are required
strength, unless these are lower than the values for the annealed unless the Designer otherwise considers effects such as stress
material, in which case the annealed material values of allowable redistribution across the weld.
stress are used. The factor is applied to the allowable stress used when calculat-
For cast and ductile iron materials, the behavior is brittle and ing the required thickness for internal pressure and when evaluat-
the allowable stress differs accordingly. For cast iron, the basic ing longitudinal stresses due to sustained loads. The factor is not
allowable stress is the lower of one-tenth of the specified mini- included when evaluating occasional loads because of their short
mum tensile strength (at room temperature) and one-tenth of the durations. A reduction of short term allowable stress based on
minimum strength at temperature, also based on the trend of long term creep strength is not appropriate or required.
average material strength with temperature. For ductile iron, a The weld joint strength reduction factor is not applied to the
factor of one-fifth is used rather than a factor of one-tenth. allowable stress range for displacement stresses, SA, because these
stresses are no sustained. The displacement stresses relax over
time. The allowable stress criteria for displacement stress range is
17.3.3 Quality Factors designed so that the piping system will self-spring so that the
Quality factors are used in pressure design and, in addition for highest level of displacement stresses only occurs at the hot con-
castings, design for occasional loads and displacement stress dition once over the lifetime of the piping system.
range. They are applied at longitudinal and spiral weld joints, and
for castings. 17.3.5 Allowances for Pressure and Temperature
The quality factors for weld joints are provided in Table A-1B Variations
of the Code, and vary from 0.6 to 1.0. The basis for these factors While the Code does not use the term maximum allowable
is summarized in Table 17.3.1. The quality factor for furnace butt working pressure, the concept is useful in discussion of the
weld pipe is the lowest, at 0.60. Note that this quality factor does allowances for variations. Pressure design of piping systems is
not generally effect the thickness of furnace butt weld pipe, since based on the design conditions. However, since piping systems
it is only permitted for Category D Fluid Service, and furnace butt are an assembly of standardized parts, there is quite often
welded pipe comes in standard wall, with a maximum diameter of signifi-cant pressure capacity in the piping beyond the design
DN 100 (NPS 4). conditions of the system. The allowances for variations are rela-
Electric resistance welded pipe has a quality factor of 0.85. tive to the maximum permissible pressure for the system. The
This cannot be improved with additional examination. allowances for variations are not used in sustained (longitudi-
The quality factor for electric fusion welded pipe varies from nal), occasional (wind, earthquake), nor displacement (thermal
0.80 to 1.0, depending upon whether it is a single or double sided expansion) stress evaluations. They are only used in pressure
weld, and the degree of radiographic examination (none, spot, or design.
100%). The quality factor for API 5L spiral weld pipe is 0.95; the Increases in pressure and temperature above the design condi-
welds are 100% UT examined per the specification. tions are permitted for short-term events as long as several condi-
The quality factors for castings are described in para. 302.2.3 tions are satisfied, one of which is that this maximum allowable
of the Code. Due to the conservative stress basis, the casting qual- working pressure is not exceeded by more than some percentage.
ity factor for gray and malleable iron is 1.0. The casting quality Thus, the variation can be much higher than the design condi-
factor for other castings is 0.8, unless supplemental requirements tions, yet remain permissible.
are met. These supplemental requirements involve additional The following conditions are requirements for use of the varia-
examination and/or machining of surfaces to enhance examinations:
tion. Compliance with these supplemental requirements can
increase the quality factor to 0.85 to 1.0, depending upon which (1) the piping system shall not have pressure-containing com-
supplemental examinations are performed. ponents of cast iron or other nonductile metal;
10 Chapter 17
TABLE 17.3.1 TABLE 302.3.4

LONGITUDINAL WELD JOINT QUALITY FACTOR, Ej
(2) the nominal pressure stress (hoop stress for straight pipe or, If a pressure-relieving device is used, ASME B31.3 refers to
for rated components, the pressure divided by the allowable the requirements of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
pressure times two-thirds yield strength) must be less than Section VIII, Division 1. However, there are some exceptions. For
the yield strength of the material; example, design pressure is substituted for maximum allowable
(3) the longitudinal stresses must be within the normally per- working pressure (MAWP) since the latter term is not used in the
mitted limits; piping Code.
(4) the total number of pressure-temperature variations above More significantly, the set pressure requirements of Section
the design conditions must be less than 1,000 over the life VIII, Division 1 are not followed. If they were, then the variations
of the system (note that this is the number anticipated in the could never realistically be permitted, since any variation in pres-
design of the system, not some count taken during operation sure above the design pressure would result in opening of the
of the system; the ASME B31.3 Code is for design of new pressure-relief device. Rather than limit the set pressure to the
piping systems); and design pressure, the piping Code allows the set pressure to be any
(5) the maximum pressure must be less than the test pressure; value, as long as the maximum pressure during the relieving event,
this can be a limitation if pneumatic or alternative leak test- including consideration of potential accumulation (additional pres-
ing was used. sure buildup beyond the pressure at which the valve opens), does
not exceed one of the two alternatives: (a) the maximum relieving
If the above conditions are satisfied, and if the owner approves, pressure permitted by BPVC Section VIII, Division 1; or (b) the
the pressure rating or allowable stress (essentially the maximum maximum pressure permitted in the allowances for variations pro-
allowable working pressure) may be exceeded by 33% for events visions of ASME B31.3. However, the owners approval is
that are not more than 10 hr at any one time nor more than 100 hr required for the set pressure to exceed the design pressure.
per year, and by 20% for events that are not more than 50 hr at For liquid thermal expansionrelief devices, the set pressure
any one time nor more than 500 hr per year. It is clear how a vari- may simply be established at 120% of the design pressure, with-
ation in pressure is handled. There is sometimes confusion rela- out any requirement for owners approval nor any need to comply
tive to variations in temperature. The variation in temperature with the additional requirements necessary to use the allowances
decreases the allowable stress or pressure rating. Thus, the stress for variations. Set pressure can be set at higher than 120%; how-
or pressure may exceed the allowable during a variation in tem- ever, then the other requirements of justifications and approvals
perature, without a change in pressure. explained above must be satisfied.
If the above variations are used, the designer must determine Block valves are permitted in the inlet and discharge lines to
that the piping system, including the effects of the variations, is the relief valve, with certain limitations. These requirements are
safe over the service life of the piping using methods that are outlined in para. 322.6.1.
acceptable to the owner. Note that the pressure test provides such
assurance for piping operating below the creep regime. For piping 17.3.6 References
at elevated temperatures, within the creep regime for the material ASME B31.3, Process Piping; The American Society of
of construction, the pressure test does not ensure long-term pres- Mechanical Engineers.
sure integrity. Therefore, Appendix V was provided to evaluate ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1,
the effect of short-term variations at elevated temperature on the Pressure Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical
life of the piping system. Engineers.
As an alternative to the prior two paragraphs, if the variation is
self-limiting, such as accumulation during a pressure-relieving
event, and lasts no more than 50 hr at any one time nor more than 17.4 PRESSURE DESIGN
500 hr per year, an allowable variation of 20% is permitted with-
out the owners approval and without requiring that the designer 17.4.1 Methods for Internal Pressure Design
determine the piping system is safe with the variations. The ASME B31.3 Code provides four basic methods for design
of components for internal pressure, as described in para. 302.2.
17.3.6 Overpressure Protection
As discussed in the prior section on design pressure, the piping (1) Components in accordance with listed standards for which
system must either be designed to safely contain the maximum pressure ratings are provided in the standard, such as ASME
possible pressure, considering such factors as failure of control B16.5 for flanges, are considered suitable by ASME B31.3
devices and dynamic events such as surge, or be provided with for the pressure rating specified in the standard. Note that
overpressure protection such as a safety relief valve. This basic the other methods of pressure design provided in ASME
requirement is provided in para. 301.2.2, while requirements for B31.3 can be used to rerate such listed components and/or
relief valves are provided in para 322.6, Pressure-Relieving extend their temperature range.
Systems. (2) Some listed standards, such as ASME B16.9 for pipe
For example, if a 600 psi system goes through a pressure let- fittings, state that the fitting has the same pressure rating as
down valve (irrespective of fail-closed features or other safe- matching seamless pipe. ASME B31.3 modifies this sligh-
guards) to a 300 psi system and then through another letdown tly by stating that the fittings are accepted to have the same
valve to a 150 psi system, if no safety relief devices are provided, rating as the matching seamless pipe, considering only
the 150 psi system would have to be designed to safely contain 87.5% of the wall thickness. This takes into consideration
600 psi. This is because both valves must be allowed the possibility the typical mill tolerance for pipe. Note that design calcula-
of failure. There is no provision for double contingency or other tions are not usually performed for these components;
considerations relative to probability of occurrence in the Code design calculations are performed for the straight pipe, and
requirements. matching fittings are simply selected.
12 Chapter 17
(3) Design equations for some components, such as straight t pressure design thickness
pipe and branch connections, are provided in para. 304 of tm minimum required thickness including allowances
ASME B31.3. These can be used to determine the required
wall thickness with respect to internal pressure of compo- For pipe with t D/6, the following basic equation for deter-
nents. Furthermore, some specific branch connection mining pressure design thinkness is provided in the Code.
designs are assumed to be acceptable. PD
(4) Components that are not in accordance with a listed stan- t = (3a)
2(SEW + PY)
dard and for which design equations are not provided in the
where
Code are subject to the directives of para. 304.7.2. This
paragraph provides accepted methods, such as burst testing, D pipe outside diameter (not nominal diameter)
to determine the pressure capacity of unlisted components. E quality factor
P internal design gage pressure
The equations in the Code provide the minimum thickness S allowable stress value
required to limit the membrane, and in some cases bending stre- W weld joint strength reduction factor per para. 302.3.5(e).
sses in the piping component to the appropriate allowable stress. (see Section 17.3.4)
Mechanical and corrosion/erosion allowances must be added to Y coefficient provided in Table 304.1.1 of the Code and
this thickness. Finally, the nominal thickness selected must be Table 17.4.1, herein
such that the minimum thickness that may be provided, per
Note that the equation is based on the outside diameter, versus
specifications and considering mill tolerance, is at least equal to
the inside diameter, which is used in pressure vessel codes. The
the required minimum thickness.
reason for this is that the outside diameter of pipe is independent
Mechanical allowances include physical reductions in wall thick-
of wall thickness. That is, an NPS 6 pipe will have an outside
ness such as due to threading and grooving the pipe. Corrosion and
diameter of 6.625 in. regardless of the wall thickness. Therefore,
erosion allowances are based on the anticipated corrosion and/or
the wall thickness can be directly calculated when the outside
erosion over the life of the pipe. This is based on estimates, experi-
diameter is used in the equation.
ence, or literature such as NACE publications. These allowances
The above equation is an empirical approximation of the more
are added to the pressure design thickness to determine the mini-
accurate and complex Lam equation (circa 1833). The hoop or cir-
mum required thickness of the pipe or component when it is new.
cumferential stress is higher towards the inside of the pipe than
For threaded components, the nominal thread depth (dimension
towards the outside. Hoop stress distributions for D/t ratios of 6 and
h of ASME B 1.20.1, or equivalent) is used for the mechanical
20, and the radial stress distribution for D/t of 6 (it is nearly the
allowance. For machined surfaces or grooves where the tolerance
same for D/t 20) are illustrated in Fig. 17.4.1. The Lam equa-
is not specified, the Code requires that a tolerance of 0.5 mm
tion, provided below, can be used to calculate the stress as a func-
(0.02 in.) on the depth of the cut be assumed.
tion of location through the wall thickness. Equation (3a) is the
Mill tolerances are provided in specifications. The most com-
Boardman equation [1]. While it has no theoretical basis, it pro-
mon tolerance on wall thickness of straight pipe is 12.5%. This
vides a good match to the more accurate and complex Lam equa-
means that the wall thickness at any given location around the cir-
tion for a wide range of diameter to thickness ratios. It becomes
cumference of the pipe must not be less than 87.5% of the nominal
increasingly conservative for lower D/t ratios (thicker pipe).
wall thickness. Note that the tolerance on pipe weight is typically
In the Lam equation for hoop stress on the inside surface of
tighter, so that the volume of metal and its weight may be there
pipe, for internal pressure, the stress is higher on the inside than
although a thin region would control design for hoop stress due to
the outside. This is because strain in the longitudinal direction of
internal pressure.
the pipe must be constant through the thickness, so that any longi-
The appropriate specification for the pipe must be referred to in
tudinal strain caused by the compressive radial stress (due to
order to determine the specified mill tolerance. For example, plate
Poissons effects and considering that the radial stress on the
typically has an undertolerance of 0.25 mm (0.01 in.). However,
inside surface is equal to the surface traction of internal pressure)
pipe formed from plate does not have this undertolerance; it can
be much greater. The pipe specification, which can permit a
greater undertolerance, governs for the pipe. The manufacturer of TALE 17.4.1 VALUES OF COEFFCIENT Y
pipe can order plate that is thinner than the nominal wall thick- (B31.3, TABLE 304.1.1)
ness for manufacturing the pipe, as long as the pipe specification
mill tolerances are satisfied.
17.4.2 Pressure Design of Straight Pipe

for Internal Pressure
Equations for pressure design of straight pipe are provided in
para. 304.1. The minimum thickness of the pipe selected, consid-
ering manufacturers minus tolerance, must be at least equal to tm,
as defined below.
tm t c (2)
where
c the sum of the mechanical allowances plus corrosion and
erosion allowances
FIG. 17.4.1 STRESS DISTRIBUTION THROUGH PIPE

WALL THICKNESS DUE TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
must be offset by a corresponding increase in hoop tensile stress

to cause an offsetting Poissons effect on longitudinal strain.
0.5(D/t)2 - (D/t) + 1
sh = Pc d
(D/t) - 1
where
h hoop stress
The Boardman empirical representation of this simply bases
the calculation of pressure stress on some intermediate diameter,
FIG. 17.4.2 COMPARISON OF LAM AND BOARDMAN
between the inside and outside diameters of the pipe, as follows:
EQUATIONS
d
D - 2Yt
sh = Pc distribution of stress across the pipe wall thickness. Thus, the
2t
where factor Y increases, leading to a decrease in the calculated,
Y 0.4 required wall thickness (for a constant allowable stress).
Simple rearrangement of the above equation and substituting SE Three additional equations were provided by the Code. Two of
for h leads to the Code equation 3a. Inside diameter based for- these were removed to be consistent with ASME B31.1 and sim-
mulas add 0.6 times the thickness to the inside radius of the pipe plify the Code. They may continue to be used. These equations
rather than subtract 0.4 times the thickness from the outside radius. follow.
Thus, the inside diameter based formula in the pressure vessels PD
codes and equations 3a and 3b of the piping Code are consistent. t =
2SE
The additional consideration in the piping Code equation 3b is the
addition of the allowances (internal corrosion increases the inside This equation is the simple Barlow equation , which is based on
diameter in the corroded condition). With this additional consider- the outside diameter and is always conservative. It may be used
ation, equation 3b of ASME B31.3 based on inside diameter pro- since it is always more conservative than the Boardman equation,
vides the same required thickness as equation 3a based on outside which is based on a smaller diameter (except when Y 0).
diameter.
a1 - b
A comparison of hoop stress calculated using the Lam equa- D SE - P
t =
tion versus the Boardman equation 3a is provided in Fig. 17.4.2. 2 A SE + P
Remarkably, the deviation of the Boardman equation from the
Lam equation is less than 1% for D/t ratios greater than 5.1. This equation is the Lam equation rearranged to calculate
Thus, the Boardman equation can be directly substituted for the thickness. While it is not specifically included, it could be used
more complex Lam equation. considering paragraph 300(c)3. However, it should not make a
For thicker wall pipe, ASME B31.3 provides the following significant difference in the calculated wall thickness.
equation for the calculation of the Y factor in the definition of Y The following optional equation remains in ASME B31.3:
in para. 304.1.1. Use of this equation to calculate Y results in
equation 3a matching the Lam equation for heavy wall pipe as P(d + 2c)
t = (3b)
well. 2[SE - P(1 - Y)]
d + 2c where
Y = d inside diameter
D + d + 2c
This equation is the same as 3a but with (d 2c 2t) substi-
The factor Y depends on temperature. At elevated temperatures, tuted for D and the equation rearranged to keep thickness on the
when creep effects become significant, creep leads to a more even left side.
14 Chapter 17
17.4.3 Pressure Design of Straight Pipe Under 17.4.4 Pressure Design of Welded Branch
External Pressure Connections
For straight pipe under external pressure, there is a membrane The pressure design of branch connections is based on a rather
stress check in accordance with equation 3a (or 3b) of ASME simple approach, although the resulting design calculations are
B31.3 (the equation for internal pressure), as well as a buckling the most complex of the design by formula approaches provided
check in accordance with the external pressure design rules of the in the Code. A branch connection cuts a hole in the run pipe. The
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1. metal removed is no longer available to carry the forces due to
Flanges, heads, and stiffeners that comply with Section VIII, internal pressure. An area replacement concept is used for those
Division 1, para. UG-29 are considered stiffeners. The length branch connections that either do not comply with listed standards
between stiffeners is the length between such components. The or with certain designs (see para. 17.4.7). The area of metal
buckling pressure is a function of geometry parameters and mate- removed by cutting the hole, to the extent that it was required for
rial properties. internal pressure, must be replaced by extra metal in a region
Buckling pressure calculations in Section VIII, Division 1 around the branch connection. This region is within the limits of
require first calculation of a parameter A, which is a function of reinforcement defined later.
geometry, and then a parameter B, which depends on A and a The simplified design approach is limited with respect to the
material property curve. The charts that provide the parameter B geometries it is considered to be applicable to. These limitations are:
account for plasticity that occurs between the proportional limit of
the stress strain curve and the 0.2% offset yield stress. The chart (1) The run pipe diameter to thickness ratio is less than 100.
for determination of A is provided in Fig. 17.4.3. A typical chart (2) The branch to run diameter ratio is not greater than one.
for B is provided in Fig. 17.4.4. (3) The angle (angle between branch and run pipe axes) is at
Two equations are provided for calculating the maximum permis- least 45 deg.
sible external pressure. The first uses the parameter B, as follows: (4) The axis of the branch intersects the axis of the run pipe.
4B Where the above limitations are not satisfied, the designer is

p = referred to para. 304.7.2 (see also 17.4.15). Alternatives in that
3D/t paragraph include proof testing and finite-element analysis.
where Paragraph 304.3.5(e) suggests consideration of integral reinforce-
B parameter from material curves in Section II, Part D, ment or complete encirclement reinforcement for such branch
Sub-part 3 connections.
D inside diameter (note that this differs from the B31.3 def- The area A1 is the area of metal removed and is defined as fol-
inition of D, which is outside diameter; this is the pres- lows:
sure vessel code definition of D) A1 = thd1(2 - sinb)
p allowable external pressure
t pressure design thickness where
The second equation is for elastic buckling, and is necessary to d1 effective length removed from run pipe at branch con-
use when the value of A falls to the left of the material property nection
curves that provide B. This equation is as follows: dh pressure design thickness of the header
angle between branch and run pipe axes
4AE For a 90 deg branch connection, d1 is effectively the largest
p =
3 possible inside diameter of the branch pipe. It is the inside diame-
where ter of the pipe if fully corroded and with the full mill tolerance
removed from the inside of the pipe.
A parameter from geometry curves in Section II, Part D, The angle is used in the evaluation because a lateral connec-
Sub-part 3, Fig. G, also included herein as Fig. 17.4.3 tion, a branch connection with a other than 90 deg., creates a
The second equation is based on elastic buckling, so the elastic larger hole in the run pipe. This larger hole must be considered in
modulus is used. A chart of B could be used, with the linear elas- d1. For a lateral, d1 is the branch pipe inside diameter, considering
tic portion of the curve extended to lower values of B, but this mill tolerance and corrosion/erosion allowance, divided by sin.
would unnecessarily enlarge the charts. The charts provided in The (2 sin) term is used to provide additional reinforcement
ASME B31.5 have this form, with the elastic lines extended. that is considered to be appropriate because of the geometry of
The Section VIII procedures include consideration of the allow- the branch connection.
able out-of-roundness in pressure vessels, and use the design margin The pressure design thickness is the pressure design thickness
of 3. Pipe is not generally required to comply with the same out-of- of the run pipe, with one exception. If the run pipe is welded and
roundness tolerance as is required for pressure vessels; this has his- the branch does not intersect the weld, the weld quality factor E
torically been ignored and has not led to any apparent problems. should not be used in calculating the wall thickness. The weld
The basis for the Section VIII approach is provided in refer- quality factor only reduces the allowable stress at the location of
ences [2] through [6]. the weld.
A new buckling evaluation procedure, provided in ASME Only the pressure design thickness is used in calculating the
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Code Case 2286, is more rele- required area since only the pressure design thickness was
vant to piping as it permits consideration of combined loads, required to resist internal pressure. Corrosion allowance and mill
including external pressure, axial load, and gross bending tolerance at the hole are obviously of no consequence.
moment. Presently, it is not explicitly recognized in ASME The area removed, A1, must be replaced by available area
B31.3, but could be considered via para. 300(c)3. around the opening. This area is available from excess wall
FIG. 17.4.3 CHART TO DETERMINE A (SECTION II, PART D, SUBPART 3, FIG. G)

16 Chapter 17
FIG. 17.4.4 TYPICAL CHART TO DETERMINE B (SECTION II, PART D, SUBPART 3, FIG. CS-2)
thickness that may be available in the branch and run pipes as where
well as added reinforcement, and the fillet welds that attach the
Dh outside diameter of header or run pipe
added reinforcement. This metal must be relatively close to the
Tb minimum thickness of branch pipe
opening of the run pipe to reinforce it. Thus, there are limits,
Th minimum thickness of run pipe
within which any metal area must be to reinforce the opening.
c allowance (mechanical, corrosion, erosion)
The areas and nomenclatures are illustrated in Fig. 17.4.5.
The limit of reinforcement along the run pipe, taken as a The limit of reinforcement along the branch pipe measured
dimension from the centerline of the branch pipe where it inter- from the outside surface of the run pipe is L4. L4 is the lesser of
sects the run pipe wall, is d2, as defined by: 2.5 (Th c) and 2.5 (Tb c) Tr, where Tr is the minimum
thickness of reinforcement.
d2 greater of [d1, (Tb c) (Th c) d1/2], but not to The reinforcement within this zone is required to exceed A1. This
exceed Dh reinforcement consists of excess thickness available in the run pipe,
FIG. 17.4.5 BRANCH CONNECTION NOMENCLATURE (B31.3, FIG. 304.3.3)

A2, excess thickness available in the branch pipe, A3, and additional the ASME B31.3 Code differs from the pressure vessel code in
reinforcement, A4. These can be calculated as follows: that strength calculations for load paths through the weld joints
are not required.
A2 = (2d2 - dl)(Th - th - c)
A3 = 2L4(Tb - tb - c)/sinb 17.4.5 Pressure Design of Extruded Outlet Header
The area A4 is the area of properly attached reinforcement and An extruded outlet header is a branch connection formed by
the welds that are within the limits of reinforcement. The Code extrusion, using a die or dies to control the radii of the extrusion.
specifies minimum weld sizes in para. 328.5.4. The designer is Paragraph 304.3.4 provides area replacement rules for such con-
directed to assume that the minimum dimensions specified by the nections; they are applicable for 90 deg. branch connections
Code are provided unless the welder is specifically directed to where the branch pipe centerline intercepts the run pipe center-
make larger welds. The ASME B31.3 Code does not require the line, and where there is no additional reinforcement. Figure 17.4.6
designer to specify branch connection weld size because generally (ASME B31.3 Fig. 304.3.4) shows the geometry of an extruded
acceptable minimum sizes are specified by the Code. Additionally, outlet header.
FIG. 17.4.6 EXTRUDED OUTLET HEADER NOMENCLATURE (B31.3, FIG. 304.3.4)

18 Chapter 17
FIG. 17.4.6 (CONT.)
Extruded outlet headers are subject to minimum external con- pipe in para. 304.2.1. However, this was changed in the 2000
tour radius requirements, depending on the diameter of the branch Addendum. The Lorenz equation (ca. 1910) was included; it pro-
connection. vides a means of calculating the required wall thickness. Note that
A similar area replacement calculation is described in 17.4.4 the prior requirement that simply stated that the thickness should
for fabricated branch connections, except that the required be the same as required for straight pipe was deleted.
replacement area is reduced for smaller branch to run diameter The Lorenz equation is basically the equation for a toroid. If
ratios. The replacement area is from additional metal in the the intrados and extrados had the same wall thickness, the inside
branch pipe, additional metal in the run pipe, and additional metal would be subjected to higher hoop stress than that for a straight
in the extruded outlet lip. pipe and the outside would be subjected to a lower hoop stress
than that for a straight pipe. A simple way to envision this is that
17.4.6 Additional Considerations for Branch the inside has less metal over the curve and the outside has more
Connections Under External Pressure metal over the curve. The Lorenz equation for an elbow or bend is
Branch connections under external pressure are covered in given by
para. 304.3.6. The same rules described in paras. 17.4.4 and
17.4.5 are used. However, only one-half of the area described in PD
t = (3c)
para. 17.4.4, covering welded branch connections, requires SEW
2a + PYb
replacement. In other words, only one-half of the area A1 requires 1
replacement. Also, the thicknesses used in the calculation are the
required thicknesses for the external pressure condition. where the terms are defined in 17.4.2 for equation 3a, except
for I. I is a stress index that accounts for the difference in hoop
17.4.7 Branch Connections That Are Presumed stress due to internal pressure in bends versus straight pipe.
to Be Acceptable On the inside curve of the bend, the intrados,
Some specific types of branch connections are presumed to be
acceptable. This, of course, includes listed fittings (e.g., ASME 4R1/D - 1
I = (3d)
B16.9 tees, MSS SP-97 branch connection fittings). Other accept- 4R1/D - 2
able connections are as follows.
where
(1) For branch connections DN50 (NPS 2) or less that dont R1 radius of bend
exceed one-quarter of the nominal size of the run pipe,
threaded or socket welding couplings or half couplings On the outside of the bend, or the extrados,
(Class 2000 or greater) are presumed to provide sufficient
reinforcement as long as the minimum thickness of the cou- 4R1/D + 1
pling is at least as thick as the branch pipe. I = (3e)
4R1/D + 2
(2) Branch connection fittings qualified per para. 304.7.2.
On the side of the elbow, or the crown, I 1.0 (i.e., the hoop
17.4.8 Pressure Design of Bends and Elbows stress is the same as in straight pipe).
Bends were required to have, after bending, a wall thickness at Elbows in accordance with listed standards, or qualified by
least equal to the minimum required wall thickness for straight para. 304.7.2, are also permitted.
17.4.9 Pressure Design of Miter Bends W weld joint strength reduction factor per para. 302.3.5(c).
Miter changes in direction with an angular offset of 3 degrees c sum of mechanical allowances plus corrosion and ero-
or less (angle in Fig. 17.4.7) do not require design consideration sion allowances
as a miter bend. The required wall thickness for this condition is r2 mean radius of pipe using nominal wall
the same as for straight pipe. Design equations for multiple and angle of change in direction at miter joint (twice the
single miter bends follow. angle of miter cut)
The design equation for determining the required wall thick-
angle of miter cut
ness for internal pressure for multiple miter bends is the lesser of
the following two equations, 4a and 4b. Note that these equations 17.4.10 Pressure Design of Closures
are only valid when the angle
does not exceed 22.5 deg. Closures are covered in para. 304.4.1. Listed components, such
Equation 4c applies for angles
greater than 22.5 deg. as ASME B16.9 pipe caps, can be used for closures. The other
two options provided in ASME B31.3 are to either design the clo-
a b
SEW(T - c) T - c sure in accordance with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Pm = (4a)
r2 (T - c) + 0.643 tanu2r2(T - c) Code Section VIII, Division 1, or to quality it as an unlisted com-
ponent in accordance with para. 304.7.2 (see also 17.4.15).
a b
SEW(T - c) R1 - r2 Specific references to Section VIII, Division 1 paragraphs are pro-
Pm = (4b)
r2 R1 - 0.5r2 vided for ellipsoidal, torispherical, hemispherical, conical, tori-
conical, and flat heads.
Single miters with an angle
not greater than 22.5 deg are Openings in closures are covered in para. 304.17. These
calculated per equation 4a. Otherwise, they are calculated per requirements are summarized below.
equation 4c.
(1) If the opening is greater than one-half of the inside diam-
a b (4a)
SEW(T - c) T - c eter of the closure (as defined in Section VIII, Division 1,
Pm =
r2 (T - c) + 1.25 tanu2r2(T - c) UG-36), it should be designed as a reducer per para.
304.6 if the closure is dished and as a flange per para.
The miter wall thickness, T, used in equations 4a, 4b, and 4c is
304.5 if the closure is flat.
required to extend a distance at least M from the inside crotch of
(2) Small openings and connections using branch connection
the miter end welds.
fittings that comply with para. 304.3.2(b) or (c) are consid-
In the above equations, the following definitions apply:
ered to be inherently adequately reinforced.
E quality factor (3) The required area of reinforcement is determined per the rele-
M greater of 2.5(r2T )0.5 and tan
(R1 r2) vant Section VIII, Division 1 requirements [UG-3(b), UG-
Pm maximum allowable internal pressure for miter bends 38, or UG-39], which depend on the type of closure. For exam-
R1 effective radius of miter bend, defined as the shortest ple, only half of the area requires replacement for a flat head.
distance from the pipe centerline to the intersection of (4) The available area of reinforcement is calculated per the
the planes of adjacent miter joints rules in ASME B31.3, specifically either para. 304.3.3 or
S allowable stress from Table A-1 of ASME B31.3 304.3.4. Note that ASME B31.3 requires that boundaries
T miter pipe wall thickness (measured or minimum per for a curved closure follow the contour of the closure (ver-
purchase specification) sus a chord dimension).
(5) Rules for multiple openings follow para. 304.3.3 and
304.3.4 rules for multiple openings.
17.4.11 Pressure Design of Flanges

Most flanges are in accordance with listed standards, such as
ASME B16.5, and for larger flanges, ASME B16.47. Appendix
Lisprovided in ASME B31.3 to cover aluminum Flanges because
they are not included in ASME B16.5. When a custom flange is
required, design by analysis is permitted by para. 304.5.1. ASME
B31.3 refers to the rules for flange design contained in Section
VIII, Division 1, Appendix 2, but using the allowable stresses and
temperature limits of ASME B31.3. For flanges with metal-to-
metal contact outside of the bolt circle, the rules of Section VIII,
Division 1, Appendix Y are referenced.
17.4.12 Pressure Design of Blind Flanges

Most blind flanges are in accordance with listed standards, such
as ASME B16.5. When designing a blind flange, the rules of
Section VIII, Division 1 para. UG-34 apply.
17.4.13 Pressure Design of Blanks

Blanks are flat plates that get sandwiched between flanges to
FIG. 17.4.7 ILLUSTRATION OF MITER BEND SHOWING block flow. A design equation for permanent blanks is provided in
NOMENCLATURE (B31.3, FIG. 301.7.3) para. 304-5.3, as follows:
20 Chapter 17
3P the manufacturer performs proof tests to qualify a line of piping

tm = dg + c (15) components. Obviously, all the potential future owners inspectors
A 16SEW
could not be gathered for this event. Furthermore, the other meth-
where ods are of at least equal concern, and their review may be more
appropriately done by an engineer rather than an inspector. As a
dg inside diameter of gasket for raised or flat face flanges, or result of these concerns, the requirement was added that docu-
the gasket pitch diameter for ring joint and fully retained mentation showing compliance with the above must be available
gasketed flanges for the owners approval. The review would be by an inspector or
Other terms are as defined in 17.4.2. some other qualified individual for the owner.
ASME B16.48, Steel Line Blanks, was added as a listed stan- While MSS SP-97 and ASME B16.9 provide a clear approach
dard in the 2004 edition. for determining that the rating of a component is equivalent or
Blanks used for test purposes are not subject to these design better to matching straight pipe, they dont provide clear proce-
rules and are often designed to higher allowable stress levels (e.g., dures for determining a rating for a component that may have a
90% of the specified minimum yield strength). unique rating, which may differ from matching straight pipe. The
procedure generally used here is to establish a pressure tempera-
ture rating by multiplying the proof pressure by the ratio of the
17.4.14 Pressure Design of Reducers allowable stress for the test specimen to the actual tensile strength
Most reducers in piping systems are in accordance with listed of the test specimen. An example of this approach is provided in
standards. However, pressure design per para. 304.7.2 and reference [7]. In the proposed ASME B31H Standard, this is
detailed design using rules for conical or toriconical closures are would further reduced by a testing factor that depends on the
permitted. The rules for closures reference Section VIII, Division 1, number of tests.
as described in para. 17.4.10. A new standard is under development by ASME that will even-
tually add to or replace the existing proof test alternatives in para.
17.4.15 Pressure Design of Unlisted Components 304.7.2. This is ASME B31H, Standard Method to Establish
If a component is not in accordance with a listed standard Maximum Allowable Design Pressure for Piping Components.
and/or the design rules provided in para. 304 are not applicable, This Standard provides procedures to either determine that a com-
para. 304.7.2 is applicable. This paragraph requires that some cal- ponent has a pressure capacity at least as great as matching
culations be done in accordance with the design criteria provided straight pipe, or to determine a pressure-temperature rating for a
by the Code, and be substantiated by one of several methods. The component.
primary focus of this paragraph is the substantiation; the calcula-
tions are not as crucial. The methods to substantiate the calculations, 17.4.16 References
and thereby the design, include: 1 Boardman, H. C., Formulas for the Design of Cylindrical and
Spherical Shells to Withstand Uniform Internal Pressure, The Water
(1) Extensive, successful service experience under comparable Tower, vol. 30, 1943.
conditions with similarly proportioned components of the 2 Bergman, E. O., The New-Type Code Chart for the Design of Vessels
same or like material. Under External Pressure, Pressure Vessel and Piping Design,
(2) Experimental stress analysis, such as described in the Collected Papers 1927-1959, The American Society of Mechanical
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 2, Engineers, 1960, pp. 647654.
Appendix 6.
3 Holt, M., A Procedure for Determining the Allowable Out-of-
(3) Proof test in accordance with either ASME B16.9, MSS Roundness for Vessels Under External Pressure, Pressure Vessel and
SP97, or Section VIII, Division 1, UG-101. Note that, of Piping Design, Collected Papers 19271959, The American Society
these standards, ASME B16.9 and MSS SP-97 are more of Mechanical Engineers, 1960, pp. 655660.
applicable to piping components and have a margin of
4 Saunders, H. E., and Windenburg, D., Strength of Thin Cylindrical
safety consistent with other components in the piping Code
Shells Under External Pressure, Pressure Vessel and Piping Design,
[factor of three on burst rather than the factor of four]. Collected Papers 19271959, The American Society of Mechanical
(4) Detailed stress analysis (e.g., finite-element method) with Engineers, 1960, pp. 600611.
results evaluated as described in Section VIII, Division 2,
Appendix 4, Article 4-1. These are the design by analysis 5 Windenburg, D., and Trilling, C., Collapse by Instability of Thin
Cylindrical Shells Under External Pressure, Pressure Vessel and
rules in the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Note that the
Piping Design, Collected Papers 19271959, The American Society
allowable stress from ASME B31.3 is used in the assessment. of Mechanical Engineers, 1960, pp. 612624.
Of the above, the methods normally used to qualify new unlis- 6 Windenburg, D., Vessels Under External Pressure: Theoretical
ted components are proof testing and detailed stress analysis. and Empirical Equations Represented in Rules for the
Construction of Unfired Pressure Vessels Subjected to External
It should be noted that the Code permits interpolation between
Pressure, Pressure Vessel and Piping Design, Collected Papers
sizes, wall thicknesses, and pressure classes, and also permits 19271959, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
analogies among related materials. Extrapolation is not permitted. 1960, pp. 625632.
The issue of how to determine that the above has been done in
a satisfactory manner has been discussed in detail in B31.3 7 Biersteker, M., Dietemann, C., Sareshwala, S., and Haupt, R. W.,
Qualification of Nonstandard Piping Product Form for ASME Code
Section Committee meetings. Earlier editions of the Code
for Pressure Piping, B31 Applications, Codes and Standards and
required only that proof testing be approved by the Inspector. Applications for Design and Analysis of Pressure Vessels and Piping
However, this created concerns that it may be interpreted that the Components, PVP vol. 2101, The American Society of Mechanical
Inspector must witness the proof test, which is not practical when Engineers, 1991.
ASME B1.20.1, Pipe Threads, General Purpose (Inch); The American (8) API 609, Butterfly Valves: Double Flanged, Lug-and
Society of Mechanical Engineers. Water-Type
ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings; The American Society (9) ASME B16.10, Face-to-Face and End-to-End Dimensions
of Mechanical Engineers. of Valves
(10) ASME B16.34, ValvesFlanged, Threaded, and Welding
ASME B16.9, FactoryMade Wrought Steel Bolt Welding Fittings; The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Ends
(11) AWWA C500, Metal-Seated Gate Valves for Water Supply
ASME B16.47, Large Diameter Steel Flanges: NPS 26 Through NPS 60; Service
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. (12) AWWA C504, Rubber-Seated Butterfly Valves
ASME B16.48, Steel Line Blanks; The American Society of Mechanical (13) MSS SP-42, Class 150 Corrosion-Resistant Gate, Globe,
Engineers. Angle, and Check Valves With Flanged and Buttweld Ends
ASME B31.1, Pressure Piping; The American Society of Mechanical (14) MSS SP-70, Cast Iron Gate Valves, Flanged and Threaded
Engineers. Ends
(15) MSS SP-71, Cast Iron Swing Check Valves, Flanged and
ASME B31.3, Process Piping; The American Society of Mechanical
Threaded Ends
Engineers.
(16) MSS SP-72, Ball Valves With Flanged or Buttwelding
ASME B31.5, Refrigeration Piping; The American Society of Mechanical Ends for General Service
Engineers. (17) MSS SP-80, Bronze Gate, Globe, Angle, and Check
ASME B31H, Standard Method to Establish Maximum Allowable Design Valves
Pressures for Piping Components; The American Society of Mechanical (18) MSS SP-81, Stainless Steel, Bonnetless, Flanged, Knife
Engineers (to be published). Gate Valves
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure (19) MSS SP-85, Gray Iron Globe and Angle Valves, Flanged
Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. and Threaded Ends
(20) MSS SP-88, Diaphragm-Type Valves
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section II, Part D, Materials,
(21) MSS SP-105, Instrument Valves for Code Applications
Properties; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Divisions 1 and 2, Listed valves are accepted for their specified pressure ratings.
Code Case 2286, Alternative Rules for Determining Allowable Valves that are not in accordance with one of the listed standards
Compressive Stresses for Cylinders, Cones, Spheres, and Formed Heads; can be accepted as unlisted components in accordance with para.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
302.2.3. Two options are permitted for establishing pressure tem-
MSS SP-97, Integrally Reinforced Forged Branch Outlet Fittings-Socket perature ratings for unlisted valves. These are para. 304.7.2 and
Welding, Threaded, and Buttwelding Ends; Manufacturers Standardization ASME B 16.34, Appendix F. Appendix F provides minimum
Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc. body thicknesses for valves, depending on pressure class, and rat-
ings for valves made of specific materials based on an allowable
17.5 LIMITATIONS ON COMPONENTS stress for the material.
Two additional requirements are provided in para. 307.
AND JOINTS Bolted bonnet valves must be secured by at least four bolts,
17.5.1 Overview except in Category D fluid service. Bonnets secured with less
ASME B31.3 includes limitations on components and joints in than four bolts, or U-bolt bonnets, are only permitted in
the design chapter, Chapter II. These are contained in Part 3, Category D fluid service. A requirement for positive stem
Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Components and Part 4, retention was added to the 2006 edition. The requirement is that
Fluid Service Requirements for Piping Joints. Many of these are the valve stem cannot be removed from the valve, while it is
restrictions for severe cyclic conditions. This section (17.5) com- under pressure, by simply removing the stem seal retiner (e.g.
bines the limitations with pressure design and other considera- packing gland fasteners).
tions, on a component by component basis.
17.5.3 Flanges
17.5.2 Valves Most flanges in ASME B31.3 piping systems are in accordance
Most valves in ASME B31.3 piping systems are in accordance with listed standards. These listed standards are as follows:
with listed standards. These listed standards are as follows:
(1) ANSI B16.1, Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
(1) API 526, Flanged Steel Pressure-Relief Valves (2) ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
(2) API 594, Wafer and Wafer-Lug Check Valves (3) ASME B16.24, Cast Copper Alloy Pipe Flanges and Flanged
(3) API 599, Metal Plug ValvesFlanged, Threaded and Fittings: Classes 150, 300, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500
Welding Ends (4) ASME B16.36, Orifice Flanges, Classes 300, 600, 900,
(4) API 600, Bolted Bonnet Steel Gate Valve for Petroleum 1500, and 2500
and Natural Gas Industry (5) ASME B16.42, Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged
(5) API 602, Compact Steel Gate ValvesFlanged, Threaded, Fittings, Classes 150 and 300
Welding, and Extended Body Ends (6) ASME B16.47, Large Diameter Steel Flanges, NPS 26
(6) API 603, Class 150, Cast, Corrosion-Resistant, Flanged- Through NPS 60
End Gate Valves (7) ASME B16.48, Steel Line Blanks
(7) API 608, Metal Ball ValvesFlanged, Threaded, and (8) AWWA C115, Flanged Ductile-Iron With Ductile-Iron or
Welding Ends Gray-Iron Threaded Flanges
22 Chapter 17
(9) AWWA C207, Steel Pipe Flanges for Water Works (4) ASME B16.11, Forged Fittings, Socket-Welding and
Service, Sizes 4 Inch Through 144 Inch (100 mm Through Threaded
3,600 mm) (5) ASME B16.14, Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings, and
(10) MSS SP-44, Steel Pipe Line Flanges Locknuts With Pipe Threads
(11) MSS SP-51, Class 150LW Corrosion-Resistant Cast (6) ASME B16.15, Cast Bronze Threaded Fittings, Classes
Flanges and Flanged Fittings 125 and 250
(12) MSS SP-65, High-Pressure Chemical Industry Flanges (7) ASME B16.18, Cast Copper-Alloy Solder-Joint Pressure
and Threaded Stubs for Use With Lens Gaskets Fittings
(8) ASME B 16.22, Wrought Copper and Copper-Alloy
Listed flanges are accepted for their specified pressure ratings. Solder-Joint Pressure Fittings
Flanges that are not in accordance with one of the listed standards (9) ASME B 16.26, Cast Copper-Alloy Fittings for Flared
can be accepted as unlisted components in accordance with para. Copper Tubes
302.2.3. If the designer is satisfied that the composition, mechani- (10) ASME B16.28, Wrought-Steel Buttwelding Short Radius
cal properties, method of manufacture, and quality control are Elbows and Returns
comparable to the corresponding characteristics of a listed com- (11) ASME B16.39, Malleable Iron Threaded Pipe Unions,
ponent, pressure design can be performed in accordance with Classes 150, 250, and 300
Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix 2 or Y, as applicable. (12) AWWA C110, Ductile-Iron and Gray-Iron Fittings, 3 Inch
Otherwise, qualification of the flange in accordance with para. Through 48 Inch (75 mm Through 1200 mm), for Water
304.7.2 is required. Paragraph 308 provides additional restrictions and Other Liquids
for flanges. (13) AWWA C208, Dimensions for Fabricated Steel Water Pipe
Slip-on flanges are required to be double welded when the ser- Fittings
vice is: (14) MSS SP-43, Wrought Stainless Steel Buttwelding Fittings
(15) MSS SP-73, Brazing Joints for Copper and Copper Alloy
(1) subject to severe erosion, crevice corrosion, or cyclic loading; Pressure Fittings
(2) flammable, toxic, or damaging to human tissue; (16) MSS SP-75, Specifications for High-Test Wrought Butt
(3) under severe cyclic conditions; or welding Fittings
(4) at temperatures below 100C (1F). (17) MSS SP-79, Socket-Welding Reducer Inserts
(18) MSS SP-83, Class 3000 Steel Pipe Unions, Socket
The designer is cautioned that the use of slip-on flanges should Welding and Threaded
be avoided where many large temperature cycles are expected, (19) MSS SP-95, Swage (d) Nipples and Bull Plugs
particularly if the flanges are not insulated. (20) MSS SP-97, Integrally Reinforced Forged Branch Outlet
A double-welded slip-on flange has a weld between the pipe FittingsSocket Welding, Threaded, and Buttwelding Ends
and the flange hub and between the pipe and the bore of the (21) SAE J513, Refrigeration Tube FittingsGeneral
flange. A single-welded slip-on flange only has the weld to the Specifications
flange hub. (22) SAE J514, Hydraulic Tube Fittings
For double-welded slip-on flanges in hydrogen service, where (23) SAE J518, Hydraulic Flange Tube, Pipe, and Hose
hydrogen can diffuse into the annulus between the inner and outer Connections, Four-Bolt Split-Flanged Type
welds, collect, and pressure it, the flange should be drilled to vent
this space. A precautionary consideration, F308.2, mentions this Listed fittings are accepted for their specified pressure ratings.
concern. Note that some fittings are simply specified to have equivalent pres-
Slip-on flanges have been substituted for lap-joint flanges (both sure ratings to matching straight seamless pipe. As discussed in
B16.5). However, this flange hub for some sizes is undersized for 17.4.1, ASME B31.3 bases this on matching straight seamless pipe
lap-joint applications. As a result, Table 308.2.1 was added to the with 87.5% of the nominal wall thickness. Fittings that are not in
Code. It limits substitution of slip-on for lap-joint flanges to DN accordance with one of the listed standards can be accepted as
300 (NPS 12) or smaller for PN 20 (Class 1 ) flanges, and DN 200 unlisted components in accordance with para. 302.2.3. The relevant
(NPS 8) for PN (Class 300) flanges, unless the pressure design option of this paragraph for fittings is typically para. 304.7.2, since
has been qualified in accordance with the Section VIII, Division 1 the pressure design equations in para. 304 typically are not relevant.
rules. In addition, other requirements are provided relative to the Branch connections are required to be listed components (para.
lap joint in 308.2.1(c). 306.1.1); fabricated branch connections designed per para. 304.3
For flanges attached to the pipe using expanded joints, threaded and welded per para. 311.1 (para 306.5.1); fittings qualified by
joints, and socket-weld joints, the restrictions on those joints, dis- proof testing per ASME B16.9, MSS SP-97, Section VIII,
cussed later in this section, apply. Division 1, UG-101 [para. 306.1.3(a)]; or unlisted components
qualified per para. 304.7.2 (para. 306.1.2).
17.5.4 Fittings, Bends, Miters, and Branch The following fittings are prohibited from use under severe
Connections cyclic conditions:
Most fittings in ASME B31.3 piping systems are in accordance
with listed standards. These listed standards are as follows: (1) MSS SP-43 fittings (para. 306.1.4);
(2) proprietary Type C lap-joint stub-end welding fittings
(1) ASME B16.3, Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings (para. 306.1.4);
(2) ASME B16.4, Gray Iron Threaded Fittings (3) fittings (para 306.1.4); other than forged, wrought, with Ej
(3) ASME B16.9, Factory-Made Wrought Steel Buttwelding 0.90, or cast, with Ec 0.90;
Fittings (4) corrugated or creased bends (para. 306.2.3);
(5) miter bends with angle a 22.5 deg (para. 306.3.3); (3) Low-strength bolting is prohibited from flange joints under
(6) fabricated branch connections with the branch set on (rather severe cyclic conditions. However, since the stresses in a
than set in) the run pipe [i.e., Fig. 3.28.5.4D sketches (2) flanged joint due to piping thermal expansion loads are not
and (4) are permitted (para. 306.5.2)]. normally calculated, it is unclear as to when this would ever
be implemented.
Miter bends with a single joint angle, a 45 deg are only per- The depth of tapped holes is required to be sufficient to provide
mitted for Category D fluid service. a length of thread engagement at least seven-eighths times the
Limitations for fabricated and flared laps, for use with lap-joint nominal thread diameter.
flanges, are provided in para. 306.4. Note that these limitations do
not apply to laps that are in accordance with listed standards, such 17.5.6 Welded Joints
as ASME B16.9. Fabricated laps are constructed by welding; Welded joints are covered by para. 311 and are required to fol-
flared laps are constructed by flaring a pipe section. The outside low the ASME B31.3 rules for fabrication and examination. In
diameter of the lap is required to comply with the dimension addition, the following specific rules are also provided.
specified in ASME B16.9. The lap thickness is required to be at Weld backing rings are generally permitted to be left in.
least equal to the nominal wall thickness of the pipe for fabricated However, if the resulting crevice would be detrimental (e.g., sub-
laps and, for flared laps, 95% of the minimum pipe wall thickness ject to corrosion, vibration, or severe cyclic conditions), para.
(measured or minimum per purchase specification, considering 311.2.3 recommends removal of the ring and grinding the internal
mill tolerance) multiplied by the ratio of the pipe outside radius to joint face smooth. Split backing rings are prohibited under severe
the radius at which the lap thickness is measured (this essentially cyclic conditions.
permits thinning due to the flaring process). Socket-welded joints are generally permitted, with the follow-
For a fabricated lap, the material for the lap must have an ing exceptions. They should not be used in services where crevice
allowable stress at least as great as the pipe material and the mate- corrosion (due to the crevice between the pipe and socket) or
rial must be listed in Table A-1, the allowable stress table. severe erosion (which can cause local erosion at the gap between
Welding must be per ASME B31.3 and typical details are provi- the pipe end and socket) may occur. Socket welds larger than DN
ded in Fig. 328.5.5. Full penetration welds are required (by refer- (NPS 2) are not permitted under severe cyclic conditions. Note
ence to the applicable requirements of para. 328.5.4, which covers that socket welds are generally limited in practice to sizes of DN
branch connections). (NPS 2) or less in any case.
Flared laps are required to have their pressure design qualified The dimensions of the socket joint are required to conform to
in accordance with para. 304.7.2. Thus, they are essentially treat- either ASME B16.5 for flanges or ASME B16.11 for other socket
ed as unlisted components in this regard. The radius of the fillet of welding components (except for socket welding drain or bypass
the flared laps is not permitted to exceed 3 mm (18 in.), and the attachments to components that conform to Fig. 4 of ASME
mating flange is required to be beveled or rounded approximately B16.5). Weld dimensions are required to comply with the fabrica-
3 mm (81 in.) (by reference to para 308.2.5). This prevents inter- tion rules of ASME B31.3 (Figs. 328.5.2B and 328.5.2C). Socket
ference between the lap and the flange at the pipe/lap junction. joints are generally part of listed components so their pressure
design is satisfied by the component standard and compliance
17.5.5 Bolting with the fillet weld size requirements of the fabrication rules of
Requirements for bolting are provided in para. 309. Listed bolt- ASME B31.3.
ing is acceptable. The only relevant component standard is ASME Paragraph 311.2.5 permits fillet welds to be used for the pri-
B1.1, Unified Inch Screw Threads (UN and UNR Thread Form). mary welds to attach socket welding components and slip-on
Requirements for flanged joints relative to bolt strength are flanges. It also permits fillet welds to be used to attach reinforce-
provided as follows. Low strength is considered to be bolts with a ment and structural attachments and to supplement the strength
specified minimum yield strength of 207 Mpa (30 ksi) or less. of, or reduce the stress concentration of, other welds. Fillet welds
may be used for other applications, and the B31 Committee has
(1) Low-strength bolts are not permitted for flanges with ASME interpreted that they are not prohibited for use in other joints,
B16.5 Class 400 or higher ratings, or with flanged joints such as lined pipe sections connected by a metallic sleeve with
using metallic gaskets, unless design calculations have been fillet welds. This is reflected in Interpretation 10-04.
made to show that the bolts have sufficient strength to main-
tain joint tightness. While not specifically stated in ASME Question: Does ASME/ANSI B31.3-1987 Edition and its
B31.3, this should be done per the bolting design require- Addenda permit the use of fillet welds as the primary pressure-
ments in Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix 2. retaining welds for installation of a full encirclement tee-type
(2) Certain flanges are considered to be weaker due to the mate- branch connection?
rial of construction or the flange design. These are flanges Reply: ASME/ANSI B31.3-1987 Edition and its Addenda do
per ANSI B16.1 (cast iron), ANSI B1.24 (bronze), MSS not specifically address rules for fillet welding of full encir-
SP-42, and MSS SP-51. These are required to use low- clement tee-type branch connections.
strength bolting to avoid overloading the flange unless one
of the following is satisfied. Seal welds are permitted to be used to prevent leakage of
(a) The flanges are flat face and use a full face gasket. This threaded joints. However, the seal weld does not contribute to the
essentially prevents excessive flange rotation due to bolt strength of the joint.
load.
(b) The sequence and torque limits for the bolt-up are 17.5.7 Flanged Joints
specified, giving appropriate consideration to the loads Flanges are discussed in 17.5.3. Additional requirements for
and the strength of the flange. flanged joints are provided in para. 312 of ASME B31.3. These
24 Chapter 17
paragraphs give conditions where flanges with different strengths TABLE 17.5.1 MINIMUM THICKNESS
are bolted together. This can be two flanges of the same or differ- OF MALE THREADED COMPONENTS
ent material with different ratings, or a nonmetallic and metallic (B31.3, TABLE 31.4.2.1)
flange bolted together. In both cases, precautions are required to
avoid overloading the weaker flange. Also, the pressure rating of
the joint is limited by the flange with the lower rating.
Precautions are generally required to avoid overtightening the
bolts, which could damage the weaker flange. In addition, for
metallic to nonmetallic flanges, use of full-face gaskets is pre-
ferred to prevent excessive distortion of the nonmetallic flange
due to bolt loads. If full-face gaskets are not used with
metallic/nonmetallic flange joints, the bolt torque is required to be
limited to avoid overloading the nonmetallic flange.
17.5.8 Threaded Joints

Most threaded joints in ASME B31.3 piping systems are made
with taper threads in accordance with ASME B1.20.1. These
threaded joints are generally acceptable for normal fluid service
and Category D fluid service. Limitations with respect to
Category M fluid service are discussed in section 17.15.
Paragraph 314.1(a) states that threaded joints should be avoided
in any service where crevice corrosion, severe erosion, or cyclic
load may occur. Cyclic loading is not defined and this limitation
is rather unclear, since all systems are subject to some cycles and
threaded joints are commonly used in process piping.
As discussed in 17.11.12, threaded joints that are to be seal
welded are prohibited from use of thread-sealing compounds. These listed components are permitted for use in normal fluid
However, when seal welding is not an intent of the design, but service provided that they are used within the pressure-temperature
simply to seal leaks that are detected on hydrotest, threaded joints limitations of the fittings and joint. They are required to be safe-
that have used thread-sealing compound may be seal welded pro- guarded when used under severe cyclic conditions; however, it is
viding the sealing compound is removed from the exposed thread. highly unlikely that this will occur, since it requires the tube joint
The joint does not have to be undone and remade without the to be at over 80% of the allowable displacement stress range.
compound. Unlisted tube fittings must be qualified in accordance with
Threaded joints are prohibited from use in severe cyclic service para. 304.7.2.
except under two conditions. One is the use of threaded compo-
nents of a specialty nature, which are not subject to external 17.5.10 Miscellaneous Joints
moment loading, such as thermometer wells. However, by the Caulked and soldered joints are only permitted in Category D
definition of severe cyclic conditions, if there is no moment, there fluid service. Caulked joints are further limited to a maximum
is no code thermal expansion stress and such a joint can not be in temperature of 93C (200F), and provisions are required to pre-
severe cyclic conditions. The other condition where threaded vent disengagement of the joints and resist the effects of longitu-
joints are permitted in severe cyclic conditions is provided in dinal forces due to internal pressure. With soldered joints, the low
para. 314.2.2, which permits straight thread joints in which the melting point of solder is to be considered where possible expo-
tightness of the joint is provided by a sealing surface other than sure to fire or elevated temperature is involved.
the threads, provided the joint is safeguarded. Brazed and braze-welded joints are permitted to be used in nor-
ASME B31.3 provides minimum thicknesses for male and mal fluid service. However, they are required to be safeguarded in
female portions of threaded joints. For the female portions, it fluid services that are flammable, toxic, or damaging to human tis-
requires that they have equivalent strength of listed components sue (see para. 17.2.5). They are prohibited from use under severe
(in Table 326.1, e.g., ASME B16.11). For the male portion, the cyclic conditions, and the melting point of the brazing alloys is to
minimum thickness is provided in Table 314.2.1, provided herein be considered where possible exposure to fire is involved.
as Table 17.5.1. For other joints, such as bell-type and packed joints, the separa-
tion of the joint must be prevented by a means that has sufficient
17.5.9 Tubing Joints to withstand the anticipated conditions of service. Pressure tends
Tubing joints are covered by para. 315, including flared, flare- to pull these joints apart. Furthermore, if the fluid service is
less, and compression-type tube fittings. ASME B31.3 provides flammable, toxic, or damaging to human tissue, or exposed to
some listed tubing joints; however, many tubing joints used in temperature in the creep range, joint separation must be prevented
process piping are proprietary fittings that are qualified as unlisted by mechanical or welded interlocks. Friction within the joint or
components. The following are the listed standards covering external anchors are not sufficient.
tubing joint: There are provisions that restrict mechanical joints and bell-and
gland-type joints in severe cyclic service. However, since severe
(1) SAE J513, Refrigeration Tube FittingsGeneral cyclic service only applies to those components with a stress
Specifications exceeding 80% of the allowable displacement stress, it is highly
(2) SAE J514, Hydraulic Tube Fittings unlikely that these joints would be in severe cyclic service.
17.5.11 References ASME B16.42, Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Classes 150
and 300; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
ASME B16.1, Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings; American
National Standards Institute. ASME B16.47, Large Diameter Steel Flanges, NPS 26 Through NPS 60; The
API 526, Flanged Steel Pressure Relief Valves; The American Petroleum
Institute. ASME B16.48, Steel Line Blanks; The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
API 594, Wafer and Wafer-Lug Check Valves; The American Petroleum
Institute. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure
Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
API 599, Metal Plug ValvesFlanged and Welding Ends; The American
Petroleum Institute. AWWA C110, Ductile-Iron and Gray-Iron Fittings, 3 Inch Through 48 Inch
(75 mm Through 1200 mm), for Water and Other Liquids; American Water
API 600, Steel Gate ValvesFlanged, Threaded and Butt-Welding
Works Association.
Ends Bolted and Pressure Seal Bonnets; The American Petroleum
Institute. AWWA C115, Flanged Ductile-Iron with Ductile-Iron or Gray-Iron
Threaded Flanges; American Water Works Association.
API 602, Compact Steel Gate Valves Flanged, Threaded, Welding and
Extended Body Ends; The American Petroleum Institute. AWWA C207, Steel Pipe Flanges for Water Works Service, Sizes 4 Inch
Through 144 Inch (100 mm Through 3,600 mm); American Water Works
API 603, Class 150, Cast, Corrosion-Resistant, Flanged-End Gate Valves;
Association.
The American Petroleum Institute.
AWWA C208, Dimensions for Fabricated Steel Water Pipe Fittings;
API 608, Metal Ball Valves Flanged, Threaded, and Butt-Welding Ends;
American Water Works Association.
The American Petroleum Institute.
AWWA C 500, Metal-Seated Gate Valves for Water Supply Service;
API 609, Butterfly Valves: Double Flanged, Lug- and Water-Type; The
American Water Works Associations.
American Petroleum Institute.
AWWA C 504, Rubber-Seated Butterfly Valves; American Water Works
ASME B1.20.1, Pipe Threads, General Purpose (Inch); The American
Association.
Society of Mechanical Engineers.
MSS SP-42, Class 150 Corrosion-Resistant Gate, Globe, Angle, and
ASME B16.3, Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings; The American Society of
Check Valves With Flanged and Buttweld Ends; Manufacturers
Mechanical Engineers.
Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc.
ASME B16.4, Gray Iron Threaded Fittings; The American Society of
MSS SP-43, Wrought Stainless Steel Buttwelding Fittings; Manufacturers
Mechanical Engineers.
ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings; The American Society
MSS SP-44, Steel Pipe Line Flanges; Manufacturers Standardization
of Mechanical Engineers.
Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc.
ASME B16.9, Factory-Made Wrought-Steel Buttwelding Fittings; The
MSS SP-51, Class 150 LW Corrosion-Resistant Cast Flanges and Flanged
Fittings; Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings
ASME B16.10, Face-to-Face and End-to-End Dimensions of Valves; The Industry, Inc.
MSS SP-65, High-Pressure Chemical Industry Flanges and Threaded
ASME B16.11, Forged Steel Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded; The Stubs for Use with Lens Gaskets; Manufacturers Standardization Society
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc.
ASME B16.14, Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings, and Locknuts With Pipe MSS SP-70, Cast Iron Gate Valves, Flanged and Threaded Ends;
Threads; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings
Industry, Inc.
ASME B16.15, Cast Bronze Threaded Fittings, Classes 125 and 250; The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. MSS SP-71, Cast Iron Swing Check Valves, Flanged and Threaded Ends;
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry,
ASME B16.18, Cast Copper-Alloy Solder-Joint Pressure Fittings; The
Inc.
MSS SP-72, Ball Valves With Flanged or Buttwelding Ends for General
ASME B16.22, Wrought Copper and Copper-Alloy Solder-Joint Pressure
Service; Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings
Fittings; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Industry, Inc.
ASME B16.24, Bronze Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Classes 150,
MSS SP-73, Brazing Joints for copper and copper Alloy pressure fittings.
300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500 and Flanged Fittings, Classes 150 and
300; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. MSS SP-75, Specifications for High Test Wrought Buttwelding Fittings;
ASME B16.26, Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for Flared Copper Tubes; The
Inc.
MSS SP-79, Socket-Welding Reducer Inserts; Manufacturers
ASME B16.28, Wrought-Steel Buttwelding Short Radius Elbows and
Returns; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
MSS SP-80, Bronze Gate, Globe, Angle, and Check Valves; Manufacturers
ASME B16.34, ValvesFlanged, Threaded, and Welding End; The
MSS SP-81, Stainless Steel, Bonnetless, Flanged, Knife Gate Valves;
ASME B16.36, Orifice Flanges, Classes 300, 600, 600, 900, 1500, and
2500; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Inc.
ASME B16.39, Malleable Iron Threaded Pipe Unions, Classes 150, 250,
MSS SP-83, Class 3000 Steel Pipe Unions, Socket-Welding and Threaded;
and 300; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc.
26 Chapter 17
MSS SP-85, Cast Iron Globe and Angle Valves, Flanged and Threaded The description can be found in para. 302.3.5(c), which states
Ends, Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings that the sum of the longitudinal stresses in any component in a
Industry, Inc. piping system, due to pressure, weight, and other sustained load-
MSS SP-88, Diaphragm-Type Valves, Manufacturers Standardization ings SL shall not exceed Sh.
Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc. This has been interpreted by the B31.3 Section Committee to
MSS SP-95, Swage (d) Nipples and Bull Plugs, Manufacturers
include stresses due to axial loads as well as bending moments.
Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc. The issue of torsional loads has not been addressed, although it
makes sense to include them. Also, the issue of stress
MSS SP-97, Integrally Reinforced Forged Branch Outlet Fittings Socket intensification factors is left unresolved, except that their inclu-
Welding, Threaded, and Buttwelding Ends; Manufacturers Standardization
sion is not required by the Code.
Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc.
Inclusion of stress intensification factors remains a disputed
MSS SP-105, Instrument Valves for Code Applications, Manufacturers issue. Their origin is in fatigue testing, so their applicability to
Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc. collapse mechanisms of pipe due to sustained loads is question-
SAE J513, Refrigeration Tube Fittings General Specifications; Society of able. While ASME B31.1 requires that 0.75 times the stress inten-
Automotive Engineers. sification factors be used, ASME B31.3 is silent on the issue. In
SAE J514, Hydraulic Tube Fittings; Society of Automotive Engineers.
the absence of explicit guidance, some writers of piping stress
analysis programs have elected to use the full value of the stress
SAE J518, Hydraulic Flange Tube, Pipe, and Hose Connections, Four-Bolt intensification factors in the analysis of sustained loads for ASME
Split Flanged Type; Society of Automotive Engineers. B31.3 piping.
ASME B31.3, para. 302.3.5(c) requires that the thickness of
the pipe used in calculating SL be the nominal thickness minus
17.6 DESIGN FOR SUSTAINED AND the mechanical, corrosion, and erosion allowance. Unlike pres-
sure design, it is not required to account for mill tolerance of the
OCCASIONAL LOADS piping.
17.6.1 Primary Longitudinal While not a specific Code requirement, what is normally done
The wall thickness of pipe is nearly always selected based on is to calculate all the forces, moments, and deflections in a piping
the thickness required for internal pressure and allowances. The system using nominal dimensions. This provides appropriate sup-
piping is then supported sufficiently such that the longitudinal port loads for design. Then, these forces and moments are divided
stress (the stress in the axial direction of the pipe) is within Code by section properties based on nominal thickness minus the
limits and deflection is within acceptable limits. allowances. Inclusion of the metal to be used as corrosion
Deflection limits are not Code requirements but are generally allowance in the weight but not the strength may be viewed as
accepted practices; 13 mm (12 in.) deflection is a generally accep- unduly conservative; however, corrosion could be local and at the
ted guideline for general process plant piping. More stringent lim- highest loaded point, such as at a support. The description of the
its may be required for lines that must avoid pockets caused by general practice was added to para. 302.3.5(c) in the 2000
sagging of the line; greater deflection is generally acceptable from Addenda with the addition of the following sentence: The loads
a mechanical integrity standpoint, if not an operator confidence due to weight should be based on the nominal thickness of all sys-
standpoint. tem components unless otherwise justified in a more rigorous
It is fortunate that the longitudinal pressure stress is half of the analysis.
hoop stress in a cylinder. What this means is that if the pipe is Quality factors, Ej and Ec, are not used in the evaluation of lon-
designed for pressure, at least half of the strength in the longitudi- gitudinal stresses due to sustained loads.
nal direction remains available for weight and other sustained A specific equation for evaluation of longitudinal stress due to
loads. sustained loads was issued as code case 178. Presently it is an
The same basic allowable stress as is used for pressure design optional method, although it may be incorporated into the code in
is used as the limit for longitudinal sustained stresses in piping the future. Stresses due to axial and torsional loads are included
systems. These sustained stresses and the occasional load stresses as well as those due to bending moments. A stress index for sus-
should encompass all of the load-controlled, primary-type stresses tained loads equal to 0.75i, but no less than 1.0, is specified for
the pipe is subjected to. They will either fall in the sustained or use, in the absence of more applicable data. The 0.75 factor was
the occasional category, depending on duration. While the weight included as a pragmatic solution, considering that the benefits of
of the pipe and contents are sustained, forces and moments due to providing a specific, albeit questionable, value outweighs leaving
wind, earthquake, and phenomena such as dynamic loads due to the issue unresolved. The stresses due to axial and torsional loads
water hammer would be considered to be occasional loads. are not intensified.
17.6.2 Sustained Longitudinal Stress 17.6.3 Limits of Calculated Stress due

ASME B31.3 provides a description of what is included in the to Occasional Loads
stress, SL, which is defined as the sum of the longitudinal stresses. The ASME B31.3 Code is consistent with the structural codes
Because no equation is provided and the description is not speci- in the treatment of occasional loads. The sum of all longitudinal
fic with respect to some items such as the application of stress stress, including both sustained and occasional loads, is limited to
intensification factors, it is left to some extent to the interpretation 1.33 times the basic allowable stress. This differs from the
of the user and the programmers of piping stress analysis pro- Section VIII, which uses a factor of 1.2. The treatment of earth-
grams. To provide some guidance, code case 178 was developed quake forces in this manner is generally considered to be extreme-
which provides a specific set of equations for sustained longitudi- ly conservative, and a new Appendix to the Code or additional
nal stress that may be used. Code document with a different treatment may be forthcoming.
The increase in allowable stress is only permitted as long as the

yield strength of the material is not exceeded. This is one of the
areas of the Code where use of the higher allowable stress relative
to yield for austenitic stainless steels and nickel alloys with simi-
lar stress strain properties can result in additional limits.
While quality factors are not generally used in the evaluation of
stresses due to longitudinal loads, occasional loads have an excep-
tion in that the Code requires that the casting quality factor, Ec, be
multiplied by the basic allowable stress when evaluating occa-
sional loads.
A change was been in the 2004 edition to the allowable stress
for occasional loads at elevated temperature, that is, at tempera-
ture where the allowable stresses become controlled by time-
dependent creep properties of the material. These creep properties
are based on 100,000 hr time periods; they are not relevant to
short-term loadings such as earthquakes. Therefore, for occasi-
onal loads of short duration at temperature above 427C (800F),
it is permitted to use 90% of the material yield strength at temper-
ature times a strength reduction factor for materials other than
cast or ductile iron or materials with nonductile behavior. The
yield strength can be from Section II, Part D, Table Y, or can be
determined in accordance with para. 302.3.2(f). FIG. 17.71 LOAD-CONTROLLED VERUS DEFORMATION-
The strength is multiplied by a strength reduction factor. This is CONTROLLED BEHAVIOR
included because some materials, low alloys in particular, undergo
aging at elevated temperatures, which decreases the yield and ten-
sile strength over time. Austenitic stainless steels are not subject based on the calculated strain (or elastically calculated stress
to this effort so no reduction is applied to them. A factor of 0.8 is divided by elastic modulus) for deformation-controlled (e.g., ther-
applied to all other alloys in the absence of more applicable data. mal expansion) loads. This is illustrated in Fig. 17.7.1. Because the
This factor is based on low-alloy data. While this is known to be stress analyses are based on the assumption of elastic behavior, it
conservative for a variety of materials, the benefit of permitting is necessary to discern between deformation-controlled and load-
design for occasional loads based on yield strength greatly out- controlled conditions in order to properly understand the post-
weighs the penalty of the 0.8 factor. yield behavior.
It is desirable for the piping system to behave in a substantially
17.6.4 References elastic manner so that the elastic stress analysis is valid.
ASME B31.1, Power Piping; The American Society of Mechanical Furthermore, having plastic deformation every cycle carries with it
Engineers. uncertainties with respect to strain concentration and can be poten-
ASME B31.3, Process Piping; The American Society of Mechanical tially far more damaging than calculated to be in the elastic analy-
Engineers. sis. One way to accomplish this would be to limit the total stress
range to yield stress. However, this would be overly conservative
and result in unnecessary expansion loops and joints. Rather, the
concept of shakedown to elastic behavior is used in the Code.
17.7 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR THERMAL The allowable thermal expansion stress in the Code is designed to
EXPANSION result in shakedown to elastic behavior after a few number of operat-
ing cycles. The equations provided in the Code are as follows:
17.7.1 Allowable Stress for Thermal Expansion
The allowable stress for thermal expansion and other deformation- SA = f(1.25Sc + 0.25Sh)
(1a)
induced stresses is substantially higher than for sustained loads.
This is due to the differences between load-controlled conditions, where
such as weight and pressure, and deformation-controlled condi- SA allowable displacement stress range
tions, such as thermal expansion or end displacements (e.g., due Sc basic allowable stress at the minimum metal temperature
to thermal expansion of attached equipment). expected during the displacement cycle under analysis
When a load-controlled stress is calculated, it is an actual stress Sh basic allowable stress at the maximum metal temperature
value. It is governed by equilibrium. For example, the stress in a expected during the displacement cycle under analysis
bar when a tensile force is applied to it is the force divided by the f stress range reduction factor
area of the bar. This is not the case for thermal stresses. In the case
of thermal stresses, it is the value of strain that is known. The elas- This is equation 1a of the Code. It assumes that the sustained
tically calculated stress is simply the strain value times the elastic stress consumes the entire allowable sustained stress, and it is
modulus. This makes essentially no difference until the stress simplified in that it is not necessary to know the sustained stress
exceeds the yield strength of the material. In that case, the location to determine the allowable thermal expansion stress.
on the stress-strain curve for the material is determined based on Note that the values of Sc and Sh, above, do not include weld
the calculated stress for load-controlled, or sustained loads. The joint quality factors. However, casting quality factors, Ec, must be
location on the stress-strain curve for the material is determined included.
28 Chapter 17
to point B (yield) to point E. Shutdown results in yielding in the

reverse direction, going from points E to F to D. Returning to the
operating condition again results in yielding, from points D to C
to E. Thus, each operating cycle results in plastic deformation and
the system has not shaken down to elastic behavior.
This twice yield condition was the original consideration.
Since the yield strengths in the operating and ambient conditions
are different, the criteria become that the stress range must be
less than the hot yield strength plus the cold yield strength,
which, due to the allowable stress criteria, must be less than 1.5
times the sum of Sc and Sh (Note that the original ASME B31 cri-
teria limited the allowed stress to 62.5% of yield, so the original
factor that was considered was 1.6.) This 1.5 (1.6 originally) fac-
tor was conservatively reduced to 1.25. This total permissible
stress range is then reduced by the magnitude of sustained longi-
tudinal stress to calculate the permissible thermal expansion
stress range. The resulting equation is equation 1b of the Code.
Equation 1a simply assumes that SL Sh, the maximum permit-
ted value, and assigns the remainder of the allowable stress range
to thermal expansion.
Even though the stress range is limited to result in shakedown
to elastic behavior, there remains the potential for fatigue failure
if there is a sufficient number of cycles. Therefore, the f factor is
used to reduce the allowable stress range when the number of
cycles exceeds 7,000. This is about once per day for twenty years.
Figure 17.7.3 provides the basic fatigue curve for butt-welded
pipe developed by A.R.C Markl [1] for carbon steel pipe. A safety
factor of two on stress was applied to this curve, giving a design
FIG. 17.7.2 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR ILLUSTRATING fatigue curve. It can be observed that the allowable thermal expan-
SHAKEDOWN sion stress range, prior to application of an f factor, intercepts the
Equation 1b of the Code is a more detailed equation that considers design fatigue curve at about 7,000 cycles. For higher numbers of
the magnitude of the sustained longitudinal stress, as follows: cycles, the allowable stress is reduced by the f factor to follow the
fatigue curve per the following equation (1c from the Code).
SA = f[1.25(Sc + Sh) - SL)] (1b)
where f = 6N - 0.2 6 Fm (1c)
SL longitudinal stress due to sustained loadings where
The allowable thermal expansion stress range can exceed the
yield strength for the material, since both Sc and Sh may be as N equivalent number of full displacement cycles during
high as two-thirds of the yield strength. However, it is anticipated the expected service life of the piping system (see the
that the piping system will shake down to elastic behavior if the next section on how to combine different cycles into an
stress range is within this limit. equivalent number of cycles)
This behavior is illustrated in Fig. 17.7.2, which is based on the
assumption of elasticperfectly plastic material behavior.
Consider, for example, a case where the elastically calculated
thermal expansion stress range is two times the yield strength of
the material. Remember, since it is a deformation-controlled con-
dition, one must actually move along the strain axis to a value of
stress divided by elastic modulus. In the material, assuming
elasticperfectly plastic behavior, the initial startup cycle goes
from point A to B (yield) to C (strain value of twice yield). When
the system returns to ambient temperature, the system returns to
zero strain and the piping system will unload elastically until it
reaches yield stress in the reverse direction. If the stress range is
less than twice yield, there is no yielding on the return to ambient
temperature. On returning to the operating condition, the system
returns from point D to point C, elastically. Thus, the cycling will
be between points D and C, which is elastic. The system has
essentially self-sprung and is under stress due to displacement
conditions in both the ambient and operating conditions.
If twice yield is exceeded, shakedown to elastic cycling does
not occur. An example would be if the elastically calculated stress
range was three times the yield strength of the material. In this FIG. 17.7.3 MARKL FATIGUE CURVE FOR BUTT-WELDED
case, again referring to Fig. 17.7.2, the startup goes from point A STEEL PIPE
Fm maximum value of stress range factor: 1.2 for ferrous TABLE 17.7.1 EXAMPLE COMBINATION OF DIFFERENT
materials with a specified minimum tensile strength DISPLACEMENT CYCLES
517 MPa (75 ksi), and at metal temperatures 371C
(700F); otherwise fm 1.0.
In the 2004 edition, the maximum permissible value of f was
increased from 1.0 to 1.2, with certain limitations. A value of 1.2
corresponds to 3125 cycles. The rationale for allowing a factor as
high as 1.2 is that stresses are permitted to be as high as two times
yield when f 1.2. Thus, the desired shakedown behavior is
maintained. This change reduces the conservatism introduced
when the original criteria were developed. The limitations are that
1. the specified minimum tensile strength of the material must
be less than 517 MPa (75 ksi);
2. the maximum value of Sc and Sh are limited to 138 MPa n total number of displacement stress conditions to be con-
(20 ksi) when using an f factor greater than 1.0; sidered
3. the material must be ferrous, and
Following this procedure, the maximum stress range is limited
4. the metal temperature must be less than or equal to 371C
to SA, which satisfies the shakedown limit. Lesser cycles are con-
(700F).
verted into equivalent, with respect to fatigue damage, numbers of
The first and second limitations address a concern regarding the cycles at SE to determine if an f factor less than one is required to
conservatism of the present f factors for high strength steel. There is protect against fatigue failure.
a concern that the present rules overestimate the fatigue life for high Table 17.7.1 provides an example of combining several dis-
strength steel components, so the limitations avoid further reducing placement cycle conditions with different stress ranges and num-
the conservatism. The third limitation addresses a similar concern, bers of cycles. Note that due to the sensitivity of fatigue damage
but for non-ferrous alloys. The f factors were originally developed to stress (the fifth power in the equation), displacement cycles at
based on fatigue testing of carbon steel and austenitic stainless steel significantly lower stress ranges than SE produce very little dam-
piping components; their application to other alloys such as alu- age, or a significantly reduced number of equivalent cycles.
minum and copper are not necessarily conservative. The fourth limi-
tation is included because the rationale for increasing f to 1.2 does 17.7.3 References
not apply to components operating in the creep regime. 1 Markl, A. (1960a). Fatigue Tests of Piping Components, Pressure
In the 2004 edition, the equation for f was also extended from a Vessel and Piping Design, Collected Papers, 19271959, The
maximum of 2,000,000 cycles to an unlimited number of cycles. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, pp. 402418.
The minimum value is f = 0.15, which results in an allowable dis- 2 Markl, A. (1960b). Fatigue Tests of Welding Elbows and Comparable
placement stress range for a indefinitely large number of cycles. Double-Mitre Bends, Pressure Vessel and Piping Design, Collected
The term endurance limit was not used, as it is associated with Papers, 19271959, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
stress amplitude, rather than stress range. pp. 371393.
The development of this methodology is described in refer- 3 Markl, A. (1960c). Fatigue Tests on Flanged Assemblies, Pressure
ences [1] through [4]. Vessel and Piping Design, Collected Papers, 19271959, The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, pp. 91101.
17.7.2 How Do You Combine Different Displacement 4 Markl, A. (1960d). Piping-Flexibility Analysis, Pressure Vessel and
Piping Design, Collected Papers, 19271959, The American Society
Cycle Conditions? of Mechanical Engineers, pp. 419441.
A designer may have more than one thermal expansion of other
displacement cycle condition to be considered. Cycles at lower
stress ranges are substantially less damaging than cycles at higher
stress ranges. ASME B31.3 uses the cycle with the highest stress 17.8 FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
range (full displacement cycle), SE, to compare to the allowable 17.8.1 Flexibility Analysis
stress range, SA. However, cycles with lower stress ranges are con-
In flexibility analysis, the response of the system to loads is
verted into equivalent numbers of full displacement cycles to
calculated. The objectives of flexibility analysis are to calculate
determine the f factor. This procedure, described in para.
stress in the pipe; loads on supports, restraints, and equipment;
302.3.5(d), uses the following equation, 1d in the Code.
and displacement of the pipe. Flexibility analysis is used to deter-
mine the response to thermal loads.
N = NE + a [r 5i Ni] for i = 1, 2, n (1d) Flexibility analysis is essentially a beam analysis model on
pipe centerlines. Some fundamental principles are used in piping
where flexibility analysis that simplify the analysis procedures.
NE number of cycles of maximum computed displacement (1) The analysis is based on nominal dimensions of the pipe.
stress range, SE (2) The effect of components such as elbows and tees on piping
ri Si /SE flexibility and stress are considered by inclusion of flexibil-
Si any computed displacement stress range smaller than SE ity factors and stress intensification factors.
Ni number of cycles associated with displacement stress (3) For thermal stresses, only moment and torsion are typically
range Si included. Stresses due to shear and axial loads are generally
30 Chapter 17
not significant. However, the Code, via para. 319.2.3(c), 17.8.2 When Formal Flexibility Analysis Is Required
directs the analyst to include these stresses in conditions ASME B31.3 requires a formal flexibility analysis unless
where they may be significant. The paragraph states, certain exeption criteria are met, as provided in para. 319.4.1. A
Average axial stresses (over the pipe cross-section) due to formal flexibility analysis does not mean a computer stress analy-
longitudinal forces caused by displacement strains are not sis; it can be by simplified, approximate, or comprehensive meth-
normally considered in the determination of displacement ods. These vary from simple charts and methods such as Kellogs
stress range, since this stress is not significant in typical guided cantilever method to detailed computer stress analysis of
piping layouts. In special cases, however, considerations of the piping system.
average axial displacement stress is necessary. Examples There are three exemptions from formal flexibility analysis.
include buried lines containing hot fluids, double-wall These are the following:
pipes, and parallel lines with different operating tempera-
tures, connected together at more than one point. (1) systems that duplicate or replace, without significant
(4) The modulus of elasticity at 21C (70F) is normally used in change, a system operating with a successful service record;
the analysis. As a result, no elastic modulus adjustment is (2) a system that can be readily judged adequate by comparison
required. For a more detailed discussion, see the subsequent with previously analyzed systems; and
section on Effect of Elastic Modulus Variations Due to (3) a system that satisfies the simplified equation 16, described
Temperature. below.
What temperature should be considered in the flexibility analy- The first exemption is basically a means of grandfathering a suc-
sis? The Code requires that the metal temperature be considered. cessful design. The difficulty comes when trying to determine how
Design temperature is only used in the Code for pressure design. long a system must operate successfully to demonstrate that the
Interpretation 19-41 addresses this. design is acceptable. Considering that some systems may cycle
less than one time per year, and the design criteria is based on
Question: In accordance with ASME B31.3, 2002 Edition, fatigue considerations, the fact that a piping system has not resulted
does the phrase, maximum metal temperature . . . for the in failure for some period of time provides little indication that it
thermal cycle under analysis in para. 319.3.1(a) require the actually complies with the Code or that it will not fail sooner or
use of the design temperature (defined in accordance with later. Interpretation 13-14 was made on this subject, as follows:
para. 301.3) in determining total displacement strains for
computing the stress range, SE? Question: In accordance with para. 319.4.1, how many years
of operation or number of operating cycles are required to
Reply: No. qualify a piping system as having a successful service record?
It is common to evaluate piping flexibility for the design tem- Reply: Such determination is the responsibility of the designer.
perature, but it is not a Code requirement. It is certainly permitted, See para. 300(b)(2).
but in all cases, the worst case temperature conditions must be
evaluated. For example, the temperature may be higher during a This matter is left as a judgement call; as such, a design should
low pressure steam out than the design temperature. Consider not be accepted without careful consideration.
another example with two operating conditions with a carbon steel The second exemption relies on the judgement of an engineer
line, 100 kPa (15 psi) at 315C (600F) and 1400 kPa (200 psi) at or designer who, based on their experience, can determine that a
205C (400F). The design conditions would be 1400 kPa (200 system has adequate flexibility.
psi) at 205C (400F) since those are the coincident conditions that The third exemption uses a simplified equation that has limited
govern the pressure design. However, the 315C (600F) condition applicability. The requirements for use of the equation are that the
would govern in the flexibility analysis. Alternatively, there may system is of uniform size, has no more than two points of fixation,
be additional margin put on the operating temperature to calculate has no intermediate restraints, and satisfies the following equation:
the design temperature; again, it is not a Code requirement that
this higher temperature be used in the flexibility analysis. Dy
Flexibility factors for typical components are included in K1 (16)
(L - U)2
Appendix D of ASME B31.3. The flexibility factor is the length
of straight pipe having the same flexibility as the component where
divided by the centerline length of the component. They can be D outside diameter of pipe, mm (in.)
used in hand calculations of piping flexibility, and are included in Ea reference modulus of elasticity at 21C (70F), MPa (ksi)
all modern piping stress analysis programs. K1 208,000 SA/Ea (mm/mm)2 for SI units listed above 30
Additional flexibility is introduced in the system by elbows. SA/EA (in./ft)2 for U.S. customary units listed above in
Elbows derive their flexibility from the fact that the cross-section parentheses
ovalizes when the elbow is bent. This ovalization reduces the L developed length of piping between anchors, m (ft)
moment of inertia of the pipe cross-section, reducing its stiffness SA allowable displacement stress range per Eq. (1a), MPa
and increasing flexibility. Note that the presence of a flange at the (ksi)
end of an elbow will reduce the ability of the elbow to ovalize, U anchor distance, straight line between anchors, m (ft)
and thus Appendix D provides reduced flexibilities for elbows y resultant of total displacement strains, mm (in.), to be
with flanges welded to one or both ends. absorbed by the piping system; displacements of equip-
Piping stress analysis examples were added, as Appendix S in ment to which the pipe is attached (end displacements of
the 2004 edition. the piping system) should be included
This equation tends to be very conservative. However, there are cussed in the prior section, the analysis is based on nominal pipe
a number of warning statements within the Code regarding limits dimensions, so the calculated stress would be the stress in straight
to applicability. One such warning is for near-straight sawtooth pipe unless some adjustment is made. The stress can be higher in
runs. In addition, the equation provides no indication of the end components such as branch connections.
reactions, which would need to be considered in any case for Stress intensification factors that relate the stress in compo-
load-sensitive equipment. nents to that in butt-welded pipe have been developed from
Markl fatigue testing of piping components. These generally
17.8.3 When Computer Stress Analysis Is Typically follow the procedures developed by A.R.C. Markl [1].
Used As mentioned previously, Markl developed a fatigue curve for
The Code does not indicate when computer stress analysis is butt-welded pipe. These were based on displacement-controlled
required. It is difficult to generalize when a particular piping flexi- fatigue testing, bending the pipe in a cantilever bending mode.
bility problem should be analyzed by computer methods since this Figure 17.8.1 shows a Markl type fatigue test machine. Using a
depends on the type of service, actual piping layout and size, and butt-welded pipe fatigue curve had several practical advantages.
severity of temperature. However, there are quite a few guidelines One is that the methodology was being developed for butt-welded
in use by various organizations that indicate which types of lines pipe, and the stress analyst typically does not know where the
should be evaluated by computer in a project. These tend to welds will be in the as-constructed system. Using a butt-welded
require that lines at higher combinations of size and temperature pipe fatigue curve as the baseline fatigue curve provides that butt
or larger lines that are attached to load-sensitive equipment be welds could be anywhere in the system. Furthermore, from a test-
computer analyzed. One set of recommended criteria is provided ing standpoint, appropriate fatigue curves could not be readily
below. developed for straight pipe without welds in a cantilever bending
mode, since the failure will occur at the point of fixity, where
(1) In the case of general piping systems; computer analysis is effects of the method of anchoring the pipe could significantly
according to the following line size/flexibility temperature affect results.
criteria: The stress intensification factors were developed from compo-
(a) All DN (NPS 2) and larger lines with a design differen- nent fatigue testing. The stress intensification factor is the nomi-
tial temperature over 260C (500F). nal stress from the butt-welded pipe fatigue curve at the number
(b) All DN 100 (NPS 4) and larger lines with a design of cycles to failure in the component test, divided by the nominal
differential temperature exceeding 205C (400F). stress in the component. The nominal stress in the component is
(c) All DN 200 (NPS 8) and larger lines with a design the range of bending moment at the point of failure divided by the
differential temperature exceeding 150C (300F). section modulus of matching pipe with nominal wall thickness. In
(d) All DN 300 (NPS 12) and larger lines with a design a flexibility analysis, it is precisely this nominal stress that is
differential temperature exceeding 90C (200F). calculated. When the nominal stress is multiplied by the stress
(e) All DN 500 (NPS 20) and larger lines at any temperature. intensification factor, and then compared to the fatigue curve for
(2) Computer analyze all DN 75 (NPS 3) and larger lines con- butt-welded pipe, one can determine the appropriate number of
nected to rotating equipment. cycles to failure of the component.
(3) Computer analyze all DN 100 (NPS 4) and larger lines con- Different stress intensification factors are provided in ASME
nected to air fin heat exchangers. B31.3 for in-plane and out-plane loads. The direction of these
(3) Computer analyze all DN 1 (NPS 6) and larger lines con- moments are illustrated in Fig. 17.8.2.
nected to tankage. One of the commonly unknown aspects of piping flexibility
(4) Computer analyze double-wall piping with a design tem- analysis per the ASME B31 Codes is that in piping stress analy-
perature differential between the inner and outer pipe sis, the calculated stress range due to bending loads is about
greater than 20C (40F). one-half of the peak stress range. This is because the stress con-
centration factor for typical as-welded pipe butt welds is two.
Again it is emphasized that the intent of the above criteria is to Since the stresses are compared to a butt welded pipe fatigue
identify in principle only typical lines that should be considered at curve, one-half of the actual peak stresses are calculated. Thus,
least initially for detailed stress analysis. Obviously, the final the theoretical stress, for example, in an elbow due to bending
decision as to whether or not a computer analysis should be loads is two times what is calculated in a piping flexibility
performed should depend on the complexity of the specific piping analysis following Code procedures. This is not significant
layout under investigation and the sensitivity of equipment to when performing standard design calculations since the Code
piping loads. procedures are consistent. However, it can be very significant
Just because a line may pass some exemption from computer when trying to do a more detailed analysis, for example, in a
stress analysis does not mean that it is exempt from other forms of fitness-for-service assessment.
formal analysis, nor that it will always pass the Code criteria if One example occurs in the design of high-pressure piping to
analyzed in detail. What it is intended to be is a screen that sepa- Chapter IX. This chapter requires a detailed fatigue analysis, using
rates the more trouble-free types of systems from those that are polished bar-type fatigue curves (rather than butt-welded pipe
more subject to overload or overstress. The lines exempted from fatigue curves). When calculating stresses due to piping thermal
computer stress analysis are considered to be more likely to be expansion via a flexibility analysis, these calculated stresses must
properly laid out with sufficient flexibility by the designer. be multiplied by a factor of two to arrive at the actual stress range.
This should not be confused with the difference between stress
17.8.4 Stress Intensification Factors range and stress amplitude, which is an additional consideration.
Stress intensification factors are used to relate the stress in a Another commonly misunderstood item is where the peak
component to the stress in nominal thickness straight pipe. As dis- stresses are in an elbow. With in-plane bending (see Fig. 17.8.2
32 Chapter 17
FIG. 17.8.1 MARKL TYPE FATIGUE TEST MACHINE (COURTESY WFI INTERNATIONAL)
for in-plane versus out-plane directions) of an elbow, the highest intensification factors in Appendix D are based on committee
stresses are not at the intrados or extrados; they are in the elbow judgement using available fatigue test data. The B31 Mechanical
side walls (crown). They are through-wall bending stresses due to Design Committee is performing ongoing evaluations of available
ovalization of the elbow. Again, this is not significant in design, and new data to improve these stress intensification factors.
but can be so in failure analysis or fitness-for-service evaluations. A new standard detailing the procedures for performed fatigue
Stress intensification factors were developed for a number of testing to develop stress intensification factors is presently under
common components by Markl around 1950. More recently, as a development. This will be ASME B31J, Standard Method to
result of some findings and in the development of newer products, Develop Stress Intensification and Flexibility Factors for Piping
additional fatigue tests have been performed. Stress intensification Components.
and flexibility factors are provided in Appendix D of ASME
B31.3, which are for use in the absence of more directly applica- 17.8.5 Flexibility Analysis Equations
ble data (see para. 319.3.6). This means that a designer could use ASME B31.3 provides the following set of equations for calcu-
different factors if based on more applicable data. The stress lating the stress due to thermal expansion loads in piping systems.
FIG. 17.8.2 IN-PLANE AND OUT-PLANE BENDING MOMENTS IN BENDS AND BRANCH CONNECTIONS (B31.3, FIG.
319.4.4A AND 319.4.4B)
The displacement stress range, SE, is calculated from the com-

bination of stresses due to bending and shear stresses due to tor-
sion. These are combined per Mohrs circle, as follows:
SE = 2S2b + 4S2t (17)
There are no torsional stress intensification factors in ASME

B31.3, so the shear stress is per the following
Mt FIG. 17.8.3 STRAIN CONCENTRATION TWO-BAR MODEL
St =
2Z
where
St torsional stress
nately. While it may provide an easy way for an analyst to solve
Z section modulus of pipe (this is the section modulus of
an equipment load problem, there are a number of considerations.
matching nominal pipe)
Its implementation in the field is generally difficult to achieve
For other than reducing outlet branch connections, the bending accurately. Also, after the plant has been operated, deliberately
stress, Sb, is calculated per equation 18 of ASME B31.3, as installed cold spring can be misunderstood to be piping misalign-
follows: ment and corrected. Additionally, when evaluating an existing
piping system that is designed to include cold spring, it is highly
2(iiMi)2 + (ioMo)2 (18) questionable what the actual condition is.
Sb = Because of difficulties in accomplishing desired cold spring,
Z ASME B31.3 only permits credit for two-thirds of the cold spring
where that is designed into the system. Equations are provided in para.
Mi in-plane bending moment 319.5.1 to calculate the maximum reaction force or moment,
Mo out-plane bending moment including cold spring, at the operating condition and at the piping
Sb resultant bending stress installation temperature. The equations are limited to a two-
Z section modulus of pipe (this is the section modulus of anchor system without intermediate restraints. Currently, any pip-
nominal matching pipe) ing requiring cold spring would most likely be evaluated using
ii in-plane stress intensification factor computer flexibility analysis. In such an analysis, the load in the
io out-plane stress intensification factor operating condition should be calculated using two-thirds of the
design cold spring, and the load in the ambient condition should
The directions of in-plane and out-plane moments are illustrated be calculated using the full cold spring.
in Fig. 17.8.2.
For reducing branch connections, an equivalent section modu- 17.8.7 Elastic Follow-up/Strain Concentration
lus is used in the calculation of stresses in the branch connection. The analysis procedures in the Code essentially assume that
Ze is substituted for Z. the strain range in the system can be determined from an elas-
tic analysis. That is, strains are proportional to elastically calcu-
Ze = p22Ts lated stresses. The stress range is limited to less than two times
the yield stress, in part to achieve this. However, in some
where systems, strain concentration or elastic followup occurs.
_ Robinson [2] is a classic reference for elastic followup due to
T_b thickness of pipe matching branch creep conditions.
Th thickness of pipe matching run of tee or header, exclu- As an example, consider a cantilevered pipe with a portion
sive of reinforcing
_ _elements adjacent to the fixed end constructed with a reduced diameter or
Ts lesser of Th and ii Tb, effective branch wall thickness thickness pipe or lower yield strength material, with a lateral
r2 mean branch cross-sectional radius end displacement of the free end. The elastic analysis assumes
that strains will be distributed in the system in accordance with
17.8.6 Cold Spring the elastic stiffnesses. However, consider what happens when
Cold spring is the deliberate introduction of a cut short in the the locally weak section yields. As the material yields, a greater
system to offset future thermal expansion. It is used to reduce proportion of additional strain due to displacement occurs in the
loads on equipment; however, it does not affect the strain range. local region because its effective stiffness has been reduced by
As such, the cold spring does not affect the calculation of the dis- yielding of the material. Thus, there is plastic strain concentra-
placement stress range, SE, or the allowable stress range, SA. tion in the local region. In typical systems, this strain concentra-
The range of loads on equipment due to thermal expansion is tion is generally not considered to be significant. However, it
also unchanged by cold spring. However, the magnitude of the load can be highly significant under specific conditions, such as
at any given operating condition can be changed. Cold spring is unbalanced systems. Para. 319.2.2(b) provides warnings regard-
typically used to reduce the load in the operating condition. It does ing these conditions.
this by shifting the load to the nonoperating, ambient condition. An example of a two-bar system under axial compression is
The effectiveness of cold spring is generally considered to be provided to illustrate elastic followup, although the concern in
questionable, but it is occasionally the only reasonable means to piping is generally bending. However, the axial compression case
satisfy equipment load limits. It should not be used indiscrimi- illustrates the problem.
34 Chapter 17
The problem is illustrated in Fig. 17.8.3. The elastic distribu- This avoids plastic strain concentration by keeping the component
tion of the total displacement, , between bar A and bar B is as elastic. While the stresses due to sustained loads such as weight
follows: and pressure usually do not need to be added to those due to ther-
mal expansion when satisfying this limit, proper consideration of
KB
A = this requires a very detailed understanding of the phenomena.
KA + KB Thus, it is generally preferable to conservatively add the stresses
due to sustained loads to the thermal expansion stresses in this
KA type of evaluation.
B =
KA + KB Under creep conditions, elastic followup can have very severe
effects. This is because there is the implicit assumption in the
where Code allowable stress basis that thermal expansion stresses will
AA area of bar A relax. Near yield level stresses cannot be sustained very long at
AB area of bar B the very high temperatures permitted in ASME B31.3 without
EA elastic modulus of bar A rapid creep rupture failures. With elastic followup, creep strain in
EB elastic modulus of bar B the local region does not result in a corresponding reduction in
KA AAEA/LA, elastic stiffness of bar A thermal expansion load/stress. In severe cases of elastic followup,
KB ABEB/LB, elastic stiffness of bar B rapid creep rupture failures can occur, although the calculated
LA length of bar A stresses fall well within Code limits. The most straightforward
LB length of bar B solution to this condition is to design the system such that the
total axial displacement imposed on two bars level of thermal expansion stresses in the local region subject to
A displacement absorbed by bar A elastic followup can be held to Sh.
B displacement absorbed by bar B A well-known circumstance where elastic follow-up can occur
in creep conditions is in refractory lined piping systems with local
Assuming elastic, perfectly plastic behavior of the material, sections that are hot-walled. For example, in fluid catalytic crack-
with a yield stress, y, the stress in bar B cannot exceed yield, so ing units, it is common to use carbon steel pipe with an insulating
the load in bar A cannot exceed yAB. Therefore, after bar B refractory lining to carry high temperature fluid solids and flue
starts to yield, the displacement in each bar is as follows: gas, at temperatures to 760C (1400F) and higher. The metal
temperature is much lower, as a result of the insulating lining.
sy AB However, in some circumstances, hot-wall sections such as hot-
Ae - p = wall valves are included in the system. The wall temperature for
KA
these components is generally the hot process temperature, so
Be - p = - Ae - p they will creep over time. In this circumstance, the thermal strain
in the carbon steel portion of the system gradually transfers to the
where creeping hot walled section. Further, the carbon steel portion of
Aep actual displacement absorbed by A, elastic-plastic case the system acts as a spring, keeping the load on the hot walled
Bep actual displacement absorbed by B, elastic-plastic case section, preventing it from relaxing. The elastic analysis that was
performed in design does not consider this behavior. Thus, piping
The strain concentration is the actual strain in bar B, consider- systems that met the allowable thermal expansion stresses have
ing elastic-plastic behavior, divided by the elastically calculated cracked in service as a result of elastic follow-up. Becht [3]
strain in bar B. Since strain is displacement divided by length, the describes an evaluation of such a system that had failed.
strain concentration is as follows: As an analogous situation, consider a cantilever beam. At the
built-in end, heat up the beam to creep temperatures. The elastic
sy AB
a - b /LB
calculation predicts a distribution of strain over the entire beam.
e-p KA However, during service the strain that was predicted to be in the
B
strain concentration = = low temperature portions of the beam will gradually shift to the
a b/LB
B KA
creeping portion. Further, the low temperature portion of the beam
KA + KB will act as a spring, keeping a load on the high temperature por-
tion, preventing it from relaxing.
This can be rearranged so
sy AB 17.8.8 Effect of Elastic Modulus Variations

strain concentration = a1 + b a1 - b
KB
due to Temperature
KA KA In typical flexibility analysis, the elastic modulus at a reference
If we consider a general region under lower stress or in a temperature of 21C (70F) is used in the analysis. It was changed
stronger condition coupled with a local region under higher stress to this from elastic modulus at installation temperature in the
or with weaker material (e.g., lower y) , the more flexible the 1999 edition to be simpler to apply and theoretically correct.
general region (stiffer the local region) is, the more severe the Fatigue, in terms of strain range versus cycles to failure, is gen-
elastic followup. This can be observed looking at the equations erally considered to be temperature independent at temperatures
above. As the stiffness of bar B increases relative to bar A, the where creep effects are not significant. The Markl fatigue testing
more severe the plastic strain concentration. was done at ambient temperature, and thus an ambient tempera-
For a system subject to plastic strain concentration, the most ture fatigue curve was developed. If one was to calculate the
simple solution in design is typically to limit the thermal expan- stress in a flexibility analysis using the elastic modulus at temper-
sion stress range to less than the yield strength of the material. ature, one would need to divide this by the elastic modulus at
temperature and multiply this result by the ambient temperature where

elastic modulus to compare it to the Markl fatigue curve. Dividing
the stress by hot elastic modulus yields strain, which is then mul- Sa stress due to axial force iaFa/Ap.
tiplied by ambient temperature elastic modulus to yield stress at Fa axial force, including that due to internal pressure.
ambient temperature. This is the procedure used in fatigue analy- ia axial force stress intensification factor. In the absence of
sis per the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, more applicable data, ia 1.0 for elbows and ia io
Division 2. Using the ambient temperature elastic modulus in the from Appendix D for other components.
flexibility analysis accomplishes the same thing directly. Ap Cross sectional area of the pipe.
It is recognized by the Code Committee that the analysis could S SE or Som.
be done with the hot modulus of elasticity, with the calculated Both the maximum operating stress range, SE and the maxi-
stress multiplied by the ratio of the cold modulus to the hot modu- mum operating stress, Som, are limited to SA. The limitation on
lus, and that in some cases it may be preferable to do this. Para. maximum operating stress was included to address concerns
319.2.2(4) was added recently: regarding ratchet.
When differences in the elastic modulus within a piping sys-
tem will significantly affect the stress distribution, the result- 17.8.10 References
ing displacement stresses shall be computed based on the 1 Markl, A., Fatigue Tests of Piping Components, Pressure Vessel and
actual elastic moduli at the respective operating temperatures Piping Design, Collected Papers, 19271959, The American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, pp. 402418, 1960.
for each segment in the system, and then multiplied by the
ratio of the elastic modulus at ambient temperature to the 2 Robinson, E. Steam-Piping Design to Minimize Creep Concentrations,
modulus used in the analysis for each segment. Pressure Vessel and Piping Design, Collected Papers, 19271959, pp.
451466, 1960.
Complex systems involving multiple conditions of operation,
3 Becht IV, C., Elastic Follow-up Evaluation of a Piping System with
with supports responding in different manners, can be rigorously
a Hot Wall Slide Valve, Design and Analysis of Piping, Pressure
evaluated using the Appendix P, whereas significant expertise and Vessels, and Components-1988, PVP-Vol. 139, The American Society
judgment in interpretation of the results are required to otherwise of Mechanical Engineers, 1988.
evaluate such systems.
It should be noted that additional stress that may be caused by ASME B31J, Standard Method to Develop Stress Intensification and
Flexibility Factors for Piping Components; The American Society of
support lift off are included in the stress range (as it adds to the
Mechanical Engineers; under development.
stress variation and fatigue), and are also considered in the sus-
tained stress check. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 2, Pressure
The rules in Appendix P also include stress due to axial loads Vessels, Alternative Rules; The American Society of Mechanical
in the flexibility analysis. These stresses are sometimes signifi- Engineers.
cant, and there is a warning statement in the Code [para. 3.19.2.3
(d)] that they should be included when significant. In Appendix P,
they are always included, so their effect is included in case it is 17.9 SUPPORTS
significant. Note that this change also is consistent with the use of
computer analysis. Prior to computer analysis, inclusion of these 17.9.1 Overview of Supports
axial loads would have been problematic, and really pointless Requirements for supports and other devices to restrain the pip-
extra work in most cases since stress due to axial loads is generally ing are provided in Chapter II of ASME B31.3, specifically in
not significant (relative to bending). With computer analysis, its section 321, Piping Support.
inclusion is essentially effortless to the analyst. ASME B31.3 provides general requirements for piping sup-
One of the problems in including stress due to axial loads is ports, as well as a description of conditions for which they must
determination of what stress intensification factor to use. Based be designed. The support elements (e.g., springs, hanger rods,
on judgment, except for elbows, the user is directed to use the etc.) are within the scope of ASME B31.3, but the support struc-
out-plane SIF for the component, in the absence of more applica- tures to which they are attached are not within the scope of
ble information. This is the higher of the two SIFs that are pro- ASME B31.3. The supports must achieve the objectives in the
vided in Appendix D. It is saying, considering a tee, that the design of the piping for sustained and occasional loads as well as
effect of axial load in the branch is the same as bending, using the thermal displacement.
higher of in-plane and out-plane SIFs. For elbows, again based
on judgment, no SIF is used. This is because axial load on one 17.9.2 Materials and Allowable Stress
side is bending on the other end of the elbow, so that the effect of Pipe support elements may be constructed from a variety of
axial load on fatigue should already be considered. Note also that materials, including the materials listed in the allowable stress
it is the bending that cause the ovalization that causes the increase tables, other metallic materials, steel of unknown specification, as
in stress in elbows. well as wood and other materials. Some specific requirements are
Together with the change in rules, the definition of severe provided in para. 321.1.4 and the allowable stress basis is provided
cyclic service is addressed so that it is consistent with Appendix in para. 321.1.3 [321.1.4(c) for steel of unknown specification].
P. Further, the paragraph on cold spring and support loads is made Material that is bonded or welded to the pipe must be compatible
into a verbal description of the procedure. with the piping and service, and of known specification. Material
The equation for calculating stress is revised to the following, that is not welded directly to the pressure-containing piping compo-
to include stress due to axial loads. nent may be of unknown specification. Material of unknown
specification may also be welded to a pad or sleeve of known
S = 2(|Sa| + Sb)2 + 4S2t (8.12) specification that is welded in turn to the pressure boundary.
36 Chapter 17
Steel of unknown specification is assigned a basic allowable Screw threads are required to be per ASME B1.1 unless other
stress in tension or compression of 82 MPa (12 ksi) and is limited threads are required for adjustment under heavy loads.
to metal temperatures in the range of 29C to 343C (20F to Turnbuckles and adjusting nuts are required to have full thread
650F). engagement and all threaded adjustments are required to be
The allowable stress for other materials, other than springs and provided with a means of locking (e.g., locknut) (para. 321.1.5).
materials for which the criteria are not applicable (e.g., wood), is General requirements for spring supports, constant effort
required to be in accordance with para. 302.3.1. This makes the supports, counterweight supports, and hydraulic supports are pro-
allowable stress for supports (via reference to para. 302.3.2 and vided in paras. 321.2.3 and 321.2.4.
Appendix A) the same as for other piping components. This Paragraph 321.3 requires consideration of stresses in the pipe
includes the limits on shear and bearing, which are 1.6 times the caused by pipe attachments. This includes local stresses due to
basic allowable stress in tension. However, weld joint quality fac- lugs, trunions, and supporting elements welded to the pipe or
tors are not used for supports. Structural stability (i.e., buckling) attached by other means. The stated criteria are performance
must also be given due consideration for elements in compres- based (e.g., shall not cause undue flattening of the pipe, excessive
sion. While there is no specific margin specified for structural localized bending stress, or harmful thermal gradients in the pipe
elements in compression, a design margin of three would be con- wall). Specific criteria are not provided. However, the design by
sistent with other ASME B31.3 stability calculations. analysis rules of Section VIII, Division 2, Appendix 4 would be
Recommendations are made for cast, ductile, and malleable iron considered to be an acceptable approach to evaluating these
with respect to their use in pipe support elements. Cast iron is not stresses. Approaches to evaluating stresses due to loads on attach-
recommended for elements that may be in tension (due to the brittle ments are provided in Bednar [1], WRC 107 and WRC 297.
nature of the material). Cast iron is also not recommended for ser- While not referred to in the pipe support section, there is a ref-
vices where the piping may be subject to impact-type loading erenced component standard for pipe supports in Table 326.1.
resulting from pulsation or vibration. These limitations are not This standard is: MSS SP-58, Pipe Hangers and Supports
applied to ductile or malleable iron. However, para. 321.1.4(c) Materials, Design, and Manufacture. Piping supports per this
specifically permits use of ductile and malleable iron only for pipe standard are acceptable for ASME B31.3 piping systems.
and beam clamps, hanger flanges, clips, brackets, and swivel rings.
17.9.4 Fabrication of Supports
17.9.3 Design of Supports ASME B31.3 does not provide much in the way of require-
ASME B31.3 section 321 provides a discussion of the types of ments for the fabrication of support elements. Supports and
loads and conditions that must be considered. Detailed criteria are restraints that are cold formed to a centerline radius less than
generally not provided, with the exception of the allowable stress. twice the supports or restraints thickness are required to be
The objectives to be satisfied are described in para. 321.1.1, annealed or normalized after forming [para. 321.1.4(a)].
repeated below. Layout and design of piping and its supporting Welded attachments to the pressure boundary are required to
elements shall be directed toward preventing the following: comply with the Code requirements for preheating, welding, and
heat treatment. These are covered in Chapter V of ASME B31.3.
(1) piping stresses in excess of those permitted in ASME
B31.3; 17.9.5 References
(2) leakage at joints; 1. Bednar, H., Pressure Vessel Design Handbook, Van Nostrand
(3) excessive thrusts and moments on connected equipment Reinhold Co., New York, 1986.
(such as pumps and turbines); MSS SP-58, Pipe Hangers and SupportsMaterials, Design, and
(4) excessive stresses in the supporting (or restraining) Manufacture; Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and
elements; Fittings Industry, Inc.
(5) resonance with imposed or fluid-induced vibrations;
WRC 107, Wichman, K., Hopper, A., and Mershon, J. (1979). Local
(6) excessive interferences with thermal expansion and con- Stresses in Spherical and Cylindrical Shells due to External Loadings,
traction in piping, which is otherwise adequately flexible; Welding Research Council, Bulletin 107, New York.
(7) unintentional disengagement of piping from its supports;
(8) excessive piping sag requiring drainage slope; WRC 297, Mershon, J., Mokhtarian, K., Ranjan, G., and Rodabaugh, E.
(1984). Local Stresses in Cylindrical Shells due to External Loadings on
(9) excessive distortion or sag of piping (e.g., thermoplastics)
NozzlesSupplement to WRC Bulletin No. 107, Welding Research
subject to creep under conditions of repeated thermal Council, Bulletin 297, New York.
cycling; and
(10) excessive heat flow, exposing supporting elements to tem-
perature extremes outside their design limits.
17.10 REQUIREMENTS FOR MATERIALS
These are generally requirements for sustained and thermal
loads, stated elsewhere in the Code as well as in the section on 17.10.1 Overview of Material Requirements
supports. The requirements for materials are covered in Chapter III of
The pipe support elements must be designed for all the loads ASME B31.3. Selection of the appropriate material for a given
that they can be subjected to, including surge, thermal expansion, service is not covered by the Code. As stated in para. 323.5,
and weight. In addition, for supports that can slide, the lateral selection of materials to resist deterioration in service is not
load due to friction must be considered [paras. 321.2.1(b) and within the scope of this Code. Practical considerations make it
321.2.2(c)]. impossible for the Code to provide guidance relevant to the essen-
The allowable load for all threaded parts (e.g., rods and bolts) tially unlimited process applications covered by the Code. Some
are required to be based on the root diameter [para. 321.2.2(b)]. precautionary considerations have been included in Appendix F
based on specific experience or interests of Code committee The allowable stress basis is provided in ASME B31.3, para.
members, but this is a very limited list of considerations. 302.3. Using this criteria, allowable stresses can be developed
ASME B31.3 contains listed materials, which are simply those using data obtained from a sound scientific program carried out in
that are included in the allowable stress tables and those that are accordance with recognized technology [para. 323.2.4(b)].
permitted in component standards listed in Table 326.1. However, However, an alternative simpler approach can be used for many
the designer is not precluded from using other materials. ASME materials. If the material is listed in the ASME Boiler and
B31.3 will only list materials in more common use. Also, the Pressure Vessel Code Section II, the allowable stress from that
designer is not generally precluded from using a material at tem- document may be used as follows.
peratures for which allowable stresses are not provided. Rules are The allowable stresses provided for use with Section VIII,
provided in Chapter III for qualification of unlisted materials and Division 2, 2004 edition are based on criteria consistent with
for use of materials outside of the temperature limits for which ASME B31.3 and can be used directly. The allowable stresses
allowable stresses are provided. provided for use with Section VIII, Division 1 are slightly more
Note that the Code typically identifies material by the appropri- conservative for some materials and temperatures and can be used
ate ASTM designation (e.g., A 106) rather than the ASME desig- because of this. Essentially, the only difference is that the margin
1
nation (e.g., SA-106). An SA designation identifies the material on tensile strength is 3.5 (formerly 41 ), versus 13 .
as being ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code material in Recently, the yield and tensile strength tables in Section II have
accordance with specifications listed in Section II, Part A, Ferrous been greatly expanded, so that these material properties may be
Material Specifications. An SB designation identifies the mater- used in the future to directly determine the allowable stresses in
ial as being ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code material in accordance with para. 302.3 for temperatures below that where
accordance with specifications list in Section II, Part B, creep properties govern the allowable stress.
Nonferrous Material Specifications. The SA and SB materials In addition to determining the allowable stress, the Code
typically correspond with ASTM specification designations, and requires consideration of:
can generally be used interchangeably in piping systems.
The editions listed for the material specifications in Appendix (1) applicability and reliability of the data, especially for
E cannot always be the latest edition, if only because of publica- extremes of the temperature range; and
tion schedules. This issue is addressed in part in Appendix E. (2) resistance of the material to deleterious effects of the fluid ser-
Further requirements are being considered, that would clarify vice and of the environment throughout the temperature range.
when the allowable stresses in Appendix A can be used with a
material to a listed specification, but a different edition. This
change would require the designer to verify, for materials not cor- 17.10.3 Use of Materials Above the Highest
responding to the listed edition of the specification, that the mate- Temperature for Which Allowable
rial meet the following listed specification requirements. Stresses are Provided
ASME B31.3 permits use of materials above the highest tem-
(1) chemical composition and heat treatment condition perature for which allowable stresses are provided in Appendix A.
(2) specified minimum tensile and yield stress Furthermore, it permits use of materials above the highest temper-
(3) testing and examination requirements ature permitted in listed standards. For example, ASME B16.5
limits use of Type 304L stainless steel flanges to temperatures at
Detailed rules covering notch toughness requirements for or below 427C (800F); however, ASME B31.3 does not prohibit
materials and exemptions from impact testing are provided in their use at higher temperatures. In fact, Type 304L flanges can be
Chapter III, as well as some specific limitations for some specific used satisfactorily at temperatures higher than 815C (1500F), if
materials such as cast iron. properly designed/rated.
In circumstances such as these, it is the designers responsibility
17.10.2 Qualification of Unlisted Materials to determine the serviceability of the material and the allowable
A listed material is one that is listed in one of the allowable stresses. The allowable stresses are determined the same way as
stress tables and/or one that is permitted in a component standard for unlisted materials (described in the previous section).
listed in Table 326.1 of ASME B31.3. Use of unlisted materials is
covered by para. 323.4, as well as use of materials at temperatures 17.10.4 Low-Temperature Service
above the maximum temperature for which allowable stresses are Appendix A provides allowable stress in a column titled
provided in the Code. In these cases, it is the designers responsi- Minimum Temperature to 100F. This does not mean the mater-
bility to determine the allowable stresses and determine the suit- ial is limited to temperatures above the minimum temperature,
ability of the material for the service. also provided in Appendix A, either directly or by reference to
Per para. 323.1.1, unlisted materials may be used if they con- Fig. 323.2.2. The minimum temperature simply provides a break-
form to a published specification covering chemistry, physical, ing point in impact test requirements for most materials. If a
and mechanical properties, method and process of manufacture, material is used below the minimum temperature, the same allow-
heat treatment, and quality control, they otherwise meet any able stresses as are provided under Minimum Temperature to
applicable requirements of ASME B31.3, and allowable stresses 100F are used. Although materials typically become increasingly
are determined in accordance with the ASME B31.3 Code rules stronger as the temperature is further decreased, the designer is
or a more conservative basis. not permitted to take credit for that.
The first requirement can be satisfied if the material is in accor-
dance with some published standard, such as an ASTM standard. 17.10.5 When Impact Testing Is Required
This would be the primary vehicle for considering materials in The Code requires impact testing when, due to various consid-
accordance with other (non-U.S.) standards, such as DIN. erations, there is a greater risk of brittle fracture . This risk is due
38 Chapter 17
to the combination of material condition, constraint (thickness), design metal temperatures below 48C (55F) and at or above
toughness, and stress. 104C (155F), carbon steel is permitted if the stress ratio
Table 323.2.2 of the Code, duplicated herein as Table 17.10.1, defined in General Note (a) of Fig. 17.10.2 is 0.3 or less. Note
sets forth the requirements for impact testing for various materi- that this last exemption also applies from 29C (20F) down
als. Column A provides requirements when the design minimum to 104C (155F), per note (3) of Table 17.10.1, for austenitic
temperature is at or above the minimum temperature listed in stainless steel, intermediate-alloy steels, high-alloy ferritic steels,
Table A-1 (Appendix A) or Fig. 323.2.2.A of ASME B31.3. and duplex stainless steels.
These are temperatures at which the risk of brittle fracture is con- The stress ratio must consider both hoop-type and longitudinal
sidered to be lower. Column B provides requirements for when stresses. The stress ratio is the maximum of the following:
the design minimum temperature is below the minimum tempera-
ture in Table A-1 or Fig. 323.2.2A. (a) Nominal pressure stress (based on minimum pipe wall
The minimum temperature is listed in the allowable stress thickness less allowances) divided by S at the design mini-
tables for materials other than carbon steels, carbon steels that are mum temperature.
limited to Category D fluid service, materials required to be (b) For piping components with pressure ratings, the pressure
impact tested by the material specifications, as well as castings for the condition under consideration divided by the pres-
and forgings. Category D fluid service must be greater than sure rating at the design minimum temperature.
29C (20F) by definition, and no impact testing is required (c) Combined longitudinal stress due to pressure, dead weight,
for materials used in piping in Category D fluid service. and displacement strain (stress intensification factors are not
Other carbon steel materials used to be assumed to be accept- included in this calculation) divided by S at the design min-
able down to either 29C (20F) or 46C (50F) without imum temperature; in calculating longitudinal stress, the
impact testing. However, it was recognized that these materials in forces and moments shall be calculated using nominal
thicker wall thicknesses could fail in a brittle manner. As a result, dimensions and the stresses shall be calculated using section
a thickness dependence of minimum temperature was provided in properties based on the nominal dimensions less corrosion,
the Section VIII, Division 1 in Fig. UCS-66. A similar chart was erosion, and mechanical allowances.
provided in ASME B31.3 in Fig. 323.2.2A.
Figure 323.2.2A, provided herein as Fig. 17.10.1, in similar to The calculated stress, which is compared to the allowable stress
the Section VIII, Division 1 curve. The primary differences are at the design minimum temperature, is calculated for the loads that
that it provides more detailed treatment of piping materials, and are present at the condition being considered. For example, if a sys-
curve B, which covers many common carbon steel piping materi- tem has a temperature range from 80C to 500C, it is the thermal
als, was shifted so that the minimum temperature was 29C stresses at 80C that would be considered in the stress ratio, not
(20F) through 13 mm (12 in.) wall thickness. the thermal expansion stress range nor the thermal stress at 500C.
The design minimum temperature is the minimum temperature An additional limitation is under consideration that would essentially
that the metal can experience during service, including conditions limit systems subject to these rules to elastic behavior, so that yield-
such as autorefrigeration (see para. 301.3.1). Generally, when the ing at some higher temperature condition does not self-spring the
design minimum temperature is below the minimum temperature system, causing unanticipated stresses in the cold condition.
specified in the Code, impact testing is required. This consists of Stress intensification factors are not required to be included
using impact-testqualified weld procedures and impact-tested when calculating the longitudinal stress in the piping system. The
materials, as set forth in Table 323.3.1. stress is considered to be sufficiently low that even if a crack were
When the temperature is at or above the minimum temperature to be initiated at some local high-stress region, it would be arrested
specified in the Code, there are different requirements listed for (stop advancing) when it entered the general low-membranestress
the base material [column A(a)] and the weld metal and heat- regions of the piping system.
affected zone [column A(b)]. Again, when impact testing is Two additional requirements are provided for systems to be eligi-
required for the weld metal, this is satisfied by impact testing ble for the low-stress exemption. They are now only applied down
done as part of the weld procedure qualification testing. See Note to 48C (55F), but they are equally or more important when
(2) of Table 323.2.2. When impact testing of the base material is the temperature is lower, down to as low as 104C (155F).
required, impact-tested material must be used. These requirements are as follows:
The low-stress [41 MPa (6 ksi)] exemption from impact testing
under certain conditions that was previously provided was (a) The piping shall be subjected to a hydrostatic test at no less
replaced in the 2000 Addenda with a curve similar to AM-218.3 than 1.5 times the design pressure.
in ASME BPVC, Section VIII, Division 2, 2004 edition. This (b) Except for piping with nominal wall thickness of 13 mm
provides a more comprehensive treatment. Note that the Division (1/2 in.) or less, the piping shall be safeguarded (see ASME
2 curve was used rather that the Division 1 curve, because the B31.3, Appendix G) from external loads such as mainte-
Division 2 curve is consistent with the ASME B31.3 allowable nance loads, impact loads, and thermal shock.
stress basis (one-third of tensile strength). This curve is provided
as Figure 323.2.2B of ASME B31.3, reproduced as Fig. 17.10.2 The first requirement recognizes the benefit of warm pre-stress
here. that a hydrotest provides. This tends to blunt cracks that may be
Figure 17.10.2 provides a reduction in the minimum tempera- present in the system and leaves crack tips under compression.
ture, without impact testing, for carbon steel material when the The second addresses a concern regarding unanticipated loads,
stress in the piping is less than the maximum allowable stress. For such as maintenance loads. There has been, for example, a failure
minimum design metal temperatures of 48C (55F) and incident involving the use of a wrench to try to open a small-bore
above, the temperature reduction provided in Fig. 17.10.2 may be drain valve that had been subject to autorefrigeration (breaking
applied to the minimum permissible temperature. For minimum the valve off), leading to a fatality. The first clause of (b), limiting
TABLE 17.10.1 B31.3 TABLE 323.2.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR LOW TEMPERATURE TOUGHNESS TESTS FOR METALS
These Toughness Test Requirements Are in Addition to Tests Required by the Material Specification
40 Chapter 17
FIG. 17.10.1 B31.3, FIG. 323.2.2A MINIMUM TEMPERATURES WITHOUT IMPACT TESTING FOR CARBON STEEL MATERI-
ALS (See Table A-1 for Designated Curve for a Listed Material)
(See Table 323.2.2A for tabular values)
safeguarding considerations to thicker pipe, is not appropriate and (55F) or the minimum temperature listed in Table A-1,
should be ignored, in the opinion of the author. whichever is less for carbon steel and other alloys listed in the
Another exemption deals with when the material is sufficiently third row of Table 323.2.2A.
thin. Thinner sections are less susceptible to brittle fracture The temperatures 46C (50F) and 101C (150F) were
because of the reduced constraint. When the maximum obtainable generally changed to 48C (55F) and 104C (155F) in the
Charpy specimen has a width along the notch of less than 2.5 mm 2000 Addenda, consistent with changes to ASME BPVC, Section
(0.098 in.), impact testing is not required. However, the exemp- VIII. This is because there is no significant difference in material
tion is limited to design minimum temperatures above 48C performance between the previous and revised temperatures, yet
FIG. 17.10.2 B31.3, FIG. 323.2.2B REDUCTION IN MINIMUM DESIGN METAL TEMPERATURE WITHOUT IMPACT TESTING
making the change permits inclusion of propylene within the 17.10.6 Impact Test Requirements
48C limit and ethylene within the 104C limit. Impact testing is required to be performed in accordance with
There are no impact testing requirements for welded attach- ASTM A 370. This is Charpy V-notch impact testing. Each set of
ments to the pipe. The only requirements are in 321.3.2 (... mater- impact test specimens consists of three standard bars with the
ial shall be good weldable quality ... preheating, welding and heat standard 10 mm (0.394 in.) square cross-section Charpy V-notch
treatment shall be in accordance with Chapter V ...) and 321.1.4. configuration. In a standard test, a weight on a pendulum swings
These do not prescribe impact test requirements. In the view of through the sample, fracturing it. The initial stored potential energy
the author, this is more of an oversight than a deliberate omission. of the pendulum is consumed partly in fracturing the specimen,
Consideration is being given to address impact test requirements and the remaining energy can be measured by how high the pen-
for welded attachments, making them the same as for other piping dulum swings up after fracturing the specimen. The initial stored
components. The impact test exemption rules were not written energy minus the energy remaining after breaking the specimen is
with structural attachments in mind; Section VIII could be used the energy consumed in fracture, which is a measure of the notch
for guidance. toughness of the material.
42 Chapter 17
The specimen must be cooled so that it is at or below the Materials in Table A-1 are first grouped by general alloy con-
design minimum temperature during the impact test. tent. They are separated into iron, carbon steel, low and interme-
Another measure of notch toughness used in ASME B31.3 for diate alloys, stainless steel, copper and copper alloy, nickel and
some materials is the lateral expansion of the specimen (after the nickel alloy, titanium and titanium alloy, zirconium and zirconium
fracture) opposite the notch. The greater the lateral expansion, the alloy, and aluminum alloy. Within each alloy grouping they are
greater the ductility of the fracture. separated into pipes and tubes, plates and sheets, forgings and
Reduced-size specimens may be used, if required because the fittings, bar, and castings, as applicable.
material shape or thickness does not permit machining a full-size In addition to the designation of the material by alloy content
specimen. However, smaller-size specimens exhibit improved and specification number, additional information is provided.
toughness properties. To compensate for this, the test temperature This includes the P-Number or S-Number as well as the
is reduced for subsize specimens in accordance with Table specified minimum tensile and yield strengths. All the numbers
323.3.4. For example, if the Charpy impact specimen width along in the P-No. column are P-Numbers unless they are preceded
the notch is 2.5 mm (0.098 in.), which is one-fourth of the full by an S. The specified minimum strengths are from the material
size, the test must be performed at a temperature that is 27.8C specification.
(50F) below the design minimum temperature. The P-Numbers are grouping of alloys for weld procedure
The acceptance criteria for the tests are provided in Table qualification purposes; they group materials based on composi-
323.3.5. For carbon and low alloy steels with specified minimum tion, weldability, and mechanical properties. These are assigned
tensile strengths below 656 MPa (95 ksi), the acceptance criteria by Section IX of the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. For materi-
is based on energy absorption. A minimum acceptable average for als that are not ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code materials
the three specimens and a minimum value for any of the three (i.e., listed in Section II), S-Numbers are assigned. The
specimens are provided. For higher strength carbon and low alloy S-Numbers correspond to the P-Numbers in other respects. See
steels and other materials, it is based on lateral expansion oppo- para. 328.2.1(f) and para. 17.11.2.
site the notch. The minimum acceptable lateral expansion value is Notes are typically provided. Prior to using a material, the
0.38 mm (0.015 in.). notes should be reviewed. For example, Note (28) for Type 304
Under limited circumstances, described in para. 323.3.5, retest- stainless steel indicates that the allowable stresses that are listed
ing is permitted when the initial set of Charpy specimens fails to for temperatures above 1000F are only valid if the material has a
meet the acceptance criteria. carbon content of 0.04% or higher. There have been instances of
systems designed to these allowable stresses without the procured
17.10.7 Fluid Service Limitations material meeting the minimum carbon content requirements.
Limitations on specific materials with respect to their use for Notes (4) through (7) provide specific guidance on features of
pressure-containing parts are provided in para. 323.4. These the allowable stress tables, as follows.
include the following for iron materials; A single bar in Table A-1 (refer to Table 17.10.2) indicates
that use of the material at the designated temperature is affected
(1) temperature limitations with respect to use of ductile iron; by a referenced note. It is a warning. If the bar is to the right of
(2) prohibition of the use of welding for fabrication, repair, or the table entry, it affects use of the material at a temperature
assembly of ductile iron components; greater than the temperature of that entry. If the bar is to the left
(3) prohibition of the use of cast, malleable, or high silicon iron of the table entry, it affects use of the material at a temperature
in severe cyclic service; below that of the entry.
(4) pressure-temperature limitations with respect to use of cast A double bar is a prohibition. It prohibits use of the material
or malleable iron in flammable fluid service; above or below some temperature. When the double bar is adja-
(5) minimum temperature limit for malleable iron; and cent to a stress value in the table, it means that use of the material
(6) prohibition of the use of high silicon iron in flammable fluid above the corresponding temperature, or above some lower tem-
service. perature, is prohibited. The meaning of the placement, to the left
or right of the table entry, has the same meaning as with a single
In all cases, the Code requires that cast iron, malleable iron, bar. A note will indicate the specific temperature limitation. When
and high silicon iron be safeguarded against excessive heat and the double bar is to the left of the Minimum Temperature col-
thermal shock and mechanical shock and abuse. umn, it indicates that use of the material below the minimum tem-
Lead, tin, and their alloys are prohibited from use in flammable perature is prohibited.
fluid services because of their low melting points. Double bars indicate requirements that are listed elsewhere in
Determination of the allowable stresses for cast aluminum the Code; they do not add prohibitions that are not listed else-
alloys that are subject to the heat of welding or thermal cutting is where. For example, double bars are used for materials that are
the designers responsibility. These are hardened materials, and only permitted for use in Category D fluid service. This is
the welding process results in a reduction of the material strength. because the definition of Category D fluid service requires that
the temperature is between 29C (20F) and 186C (366F),
17.10.8 How to Use the Allowable Stress inclusive.
Tables in Appendix A For materials that are permitted to exceed two-thirds mini-
The allowable stresses for use with the metallic materials in mum yield strength at temperature, the tables indicate where the
accordance with the base Code are listed in Appendix A, Table values exceed this. Allowable stress values printed in italics
A-1 for metals other than bolting, and Table A-2 for bolting. An exceed two-thirds yield strength but are less than 90% of the
illustration of a typical page of allowable stress values is con- expected minimum yield strength at temperature. Values printed
tained in Table 17.10.2. in bold are at 90% of the expected minimum yield strength at
temperature.
TABLE 17.10.2 TYPICAL APPENDIX A ALLOWABLE STRESS TABLE

44 Chapter 17
TABLE 17.10.2a (CONT.)
The designer is permitted to linearly interpolate between tem- 17.10.9 References

peratures for which allowable stresses are listed. As previously ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings; The American Society
discussed, use of materials above the maximum temperature for of Mechanical Engineers.
which allowable stresses are provided is permitted as long as it is ASME B31.3, Process Piping; The American Society of Mechanical
not specifically prohibited (e.g., by a double bar). Engineers.
TABLE 17.10.2b (CONT.)
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section II, Part A, Materials, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 2, 2004
Ferrous Material Specifications; The American Society of Mechanical edition, Pressure Vessels, Alternative Rules; The American Society of
Engineers. Mechanical Engineers.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section II, Part B, Materials, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section IX, Welding and Brazing
Nonferrous Material Specifications; The American Society of Mechanical Qualifications; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Engineers.
ASTM A 106, Standard Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure for High-Temperature Service; American Society for Testing and
Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Materials.
46 Chapter 17
TABLE 17.10.2c (CONT.)
17.11 FABRICATION, ASSEMBLY, 17.11.2 General Welding Requirements

AND ERECTION A variety of welding processes are used with piping. These
include shielded-metal arc weld (SMAW), gas-tungsten arc weld
17.11.1 Overview of Chapter V (GTAW or TIG), gas-metal arc weld (GMAW or MIG), sub-
Chapter V covers the ASME B31.3 base Code rules for fabri- merged arc weld (SAW), and flux-cored arc weld (FCAW).
cation, assembly, and erection. It includes requirements for Welding involves a welding procedure specification (WPS) that
welding, details for specific types of welded joints, preheat, heat has been qualified by a procedure qualification test, which is a
treatment, bending and forming, brazing and soldering, assembly, document in a procedure qualification record (PQR). Welders are
and erection. required to pass a performance qualification test in order to be
qualified to perform Code welding. This is documented in the for joining and for special applications such as hard-facing overlay
welder qualification records (WQR). and corrosion-resistant overlay.
Materials are categorized by P-Numbers, which are groupings
of alloys for weld procedure qualification purposes; they group 17.11.4 Welding Procedure Qualification Record
materials based on composition, weldability, and mechanical The purpose of procedure qualification testing is to determine or
properties. P-Numbers are assigned in Section IX of the Boiler demonstrate that the weldment proposed for construction is capable
and Pressure Vessel Code. Qualification of a weld procedure for a of providing the required properties for its intended application.
particular base material qualifies that procedure for any other base It is presupposed that the welder or welding operator performing
material with the same P-Number. On the other hand, if a material the welding procedure qualification test is a skilled worker. That is,
does not have a P-Number, it requires its own procedure the welding procedure qualification test establishes the properties
specification. This is one of the problems users have with materi- of the weldment, not the skill of the welder or welding operator.
als that are in accordance with foreign specification A Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) includes a record of
There are materials listed in ASME B31.3 that are not listed in the welding data used to weld a prescribed test coupon in accor-
Section II. Since Section IX does not provide P-Numbers for such dance with a WPS and the results of specified mechanical and
materials, the B31.3 Section Committee had previously assigned other tests. The complete PQR must document all essential and,
P-Numbers for the convenience of the users. Since doing this, when required, supplementary essential variables of Section IX.
Section IX has addressed such alloys by assigning them Section IX, QW-483 gives a suggested format for a PQR.
S-Numbers, which are now listed in ASME B31.3, Appendix A. If any changes are made in the WPS that involve essential vari-
The S-Number grouping of materials is the same as the P-Number ables or, when required, supplementary essential variables, a new
grouping (e.g., plain carbon steels may be P-1 or S-1). procedure qualification test and a new PQR are required in order
Per Section IX, qualification of a weld procedure with a base to document the changes and support a revision of the WPS or
material of a certain P-Number qualifies the procedure for base issuance of a new WPS.
materials with the same S-Number. However, qualification of a The details of preparing a weld test assembly or assemblies, test-
procedure with a material of a certain S-Number does not qualify ing of the weld, and test results required for procedure qualification
the procedure for use with the corresponding P-Number. are given in Section IX. Customary tests for qualification of joint
welding procedures are tensile tests and bend tests.
17.11.3 Welding Procedure Specification
Welds are conducted in accordance with welding procedure 17.11.5 Welder Performance Qualification
specifications (WPS). A WPS is a written qualified welding pro- The manufacturer or contractor is responsible for conducting
cedure prepared to provide direction for making production welds tests to qualify welders and welding operators in accordance with
to specified requirements. The WPS or other documents may be qualified welding procedure specifications that the organization
used to provide direction to the welder or welding operator to employs in the construction of weldments built in accordance
ensure compliance with Code or other specification requirements. with the Code. The purpose of welder and welding operator
The WPS references one or more supporting Procedure qualification tests is to ensure that the manufacturer or contractor
Qualification Record(s) (PQR). The ASME Boiler and Pressure has determined that his/her welder(s) and welding operator(s) fol-
Vessel Code Section IX, QW-482 gives a suggested format for lowing the procedures are capable of developing the minimum
Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS). requirements specified for an acceptable weldment. Performance
The WPS consists of a number of items, called variables, that qualification tests are intended to determine the ability of welders
define the application of a welding process or combination of and welding operators to make sound welds.
processes. Examples of variables are: welding process, base metal Section IX lists and defines essential variables for each welding
type and thickness, filler metal type, welding position, preheat, process for performance qualification of welders and welding
postheat, electrical characteristics, and type of shielding gas. operators. It should be noted that the essential variables for per-
Variables are divided into three types: essential, nonessential, and formance qualification are in many cases quite different from the
supplementary essential. variables for procedure qualification, discussed in 17.11.3. For the
An essential variable is one which, if changed to a value that is SMAW process, for example, the essential variables for perfor-
outside the limits permitted by the original procedure qualification mance qualification are: elimination of backing, change in pipe
test, requires a new procedure qualification test. diameter, change in base material P-Number, change in filler
Nonessential variables include items in the WPS that may have metal F-Number, change in thickness of the weld deposit, addi-
to be changed in order to satisfy a particular welding application, tion of welding positions beyond that originally qualified, and
but which do not affect the properties of the weld. An example is change in direction of weld progression for vertical welding. A
a change in the groove design. A change in a nonessential vari- change in an essential variable for performance qualification,
able requires revision or amendment of the WPS or a new WPS; beyond prescribed limits, requires requalification testing and
however, requalification testing is not required. issuance of a new qualification record.
A supplementary essential variable is one that comes into con- The details of preparing the weld test assembly or assemblies,
sideration when a particular fabrication code, such as Section VIII testing of the weld, and the test results required for welder and
or ASME B31.3, for example, requires supplementary testing in welding operator performance qualification are given in Section
addition to the customary tensile and bend tests required for pro- IX. Customary tests for performance qualification are visual and
cedure qualification (e.g., impact testing for low temperature bend tests. However, for some base materials and welding
service). processes there are also alternate provisions for examination of
Section IX, Article II, lists the essential, nonessential, and sup- the weld(s) by radiography in lieu of bend tests.
plementary essential variables for welding procedure specifications Section IX, QW-484 gives a suggested format for recording
and procedure qualification testing for each welding process used Welder/Welding Operator Performance Qualification (WPQ).
48 Chapter 17
A welder or welding operator performance qualification for a and improved ductility, toughness, corrosion resistance, and
specific process expires when he/she has not welded with that dimensional stability.
process during a period of six months or longer. Heat treatment requirements are provided in para. 331 of
Within a six-month period prior to expiration of a performance ASME B31.3. The Code requires heat treatment after certain
qualification, a welder who welds using a manual or semiauto- welding, bending, and forming operations. Specific requirements
matic process maintains all of his/her qualifications for manual or for post-weld heat treatment are provided in Table 331.1.1 (Table
semiautomatic welding with that process. For example, assuming 17.11.2). This table specifies the heat treatment time and tempera-
that a welder is qualified for manual SMAW welding of both car- ture based on the P- or S-Number, material chemistry, wall thick-
bon steel and stainless steel but welds only carbon steel with ness, and specified minimum tensile strength of the base material.
SMAW during a six-month period, he/she maintains his/her Requirements for heat treatment after bending or forming are
qualification for SMAW of stainless steel as well as for SMAW of stated in para. 332.4. These depend on the material P-Number,
carbon steel. This highlights the importance of keeping timely whether the material is hot or cold bent or formed, and, for cold-
records of the welding process(es) used during a welders produc- bent or formed material, the fiber elongation.
tion welding assignments. Heat treatment in an enclosed furnace, local flame heating,
When there is a specific reason to question the ability of a electric resistance, electric induction, or exothermic chemical
welder or welding operator to make welds that meet the reactions are all permitted methods of supplying heat. However,
specification, his/her performance qualification that supports that the method is required to provide the required metal temperature,
welding can be revoked. Other qualifications that are not in ques- metal temperature uniformity, and temperature control. Similar to
tion remain in effect. preheat, the metal temperature must be verified. The Code
Renewal of performance qualification that has expired may be requires that at least 25 mm (1 in.) on either side of the weld or
made for any process by welding a single test coupon of either bent or formed section be brought up to temperature.
plate or pipe, of any material, thickness, or diameter, in any posi- Brinell hardness testing after the heat treatment is performed is
tion, and by testing that coupon by bending or by radiography [if required for low alloy steel as a means of quality control, to
the latter is permitted by Section IX for the process and material ensure that the metal has been properly tempered. Hardness test-
involved (see QW-304)]. Alternatively, where radiography is a ing is performed both on the weld metal and the heat-affected
permissible method of examination (QW-304), the renewal of zone. Where hardness testing is required, 10% of the welds, hot
qualification may be done on production work. bends, and hot-formed components in each furnace heat-treated
batch are to be tested. When local heat treatment is performed,
17.11.6 Preheating 100% are required to be hardness tested.
Preheating requirements are provided in para. 330 of ASME ASME B31.3, para. 331.2, permits exceptions to the heat treat-
B31.3. Preheating is used, along with heat treatment, to minimize ment requirements of Table 331.1.1 where warranted based on
the detrimental effects of high temperature and severe thermal knowledge or experience of the service conditions.
gradients in welding and to drive out hydrogen that could cause
weld cracking, and improve metallurgical properties. The effect of Normalizing, or normalizing and tempering, or annealing
reducing hydrogen cracking is accomplished by a variety of factors, may be used in lieu of the heat treatment of Table 331.1.1 pro-
including driving off moisture, reducing the cooling rate, and vided the material properties of the weld and base material
increasing the rate of hydrogen diffusion in the material. The meet the specification requirements after heat treatment. This
reduced cooling rate can also improve material properties; in some requires approval of the designer.
materials, too rapid a cooling rate results in brittle microstructural
constituents. More- or less-stringent heat treatment may be specified by the
The preheat requirements, which are applicable to all types of designer. If less-stringent heat treatment is performed, the
welding including tack welds, repair welds, and seal welds of designer must demonstrate to the owner that the heat treatment
threaded joints, are provided in Table 330.1.1, provided herein as is adequate, and the welding procedure qualification tests must
Table 17.11.1. The requirements for preheat are a function of the be conducted with the heat treatment that will be used.
P- or S-Number of the base material, the nominal wall thickness,
and the specified minimum tensile strength of the base metal. One of the reasons for selecting a lower heat-treatment temper-
Both required and recommended preheat temperatures are provided. ature is mentioned in para. F331.1 of Appendix F. It states the
If the ambient temperature is below 0C (32F), the recommended following:
preheat temperatures become required preheat temperatures. When
welding dissimilar metals, the higher preheat temperature should Heat treatment temperatures listed in Table 331.1.1 for some
be used. Preheat for unlisted materials shall be as specified in the P-No. 4 and P-No. 5 materials may be higher than the mini-
welding procedure specification. mum tempering temperatures specified in the ASTM specifi-
The preheat zone is required to extend at least 25 mm (1 in.) cations for the base material. For higher-strength normalized
beyond each edge of the weld. The temperature must be obtained and tempered materials, there is consequently a possibility of
prior to, and maintained during, the welding. The temperature is reducing tensile properties of the base material, particularly if
required to be verified by checking with temperature-indicating long holding times at the higher temperatures are used.
crayons, thermocouple pyrometers, or other suitable means. There are differences between the ASME B31.3 heat-treatment
temperatures and those specified in Section VIII, Division 1. For
17.11.7 Heat Treatment example, the metal temperature range for P4 materials is
Postweld heat treatment is performed to temper the weld- 704746C (13001375F) in ASME B31.3 and 593C (1100F) in
ment, relax residual stresses, and remove hydrogen. The conse- Section VIII, Division 1. Also, the Pressure Vessel Code does not
quential benefits are avoidance of hydrogen-induced cracking require hardness testing after heat treatment. This can occasionally
TABLE 17.11.1 PREHEAT TEMPERATURES

(B31.3, TABLE 330.1.1)
cause problems when the Pressure Vessel Code heat treatment is joint (presumably the nominal pipe wall thickness) or the pipe
used; the desired tempering, as measured by hardness, may not be thickness. Two special cases are branch connections and fillet
achieved. For example, ASME B16.34, which covers valves, weld joints.
refers to Section VIII, Division 1 heat treatment requirements For branch connections, it is the thickness of the weld that is
rather than ASME B31.3. If the higher piping Code heat treat- considered. Only half of the thickness of the weld is used as the
ment and hardness testing is required, as it sometimes is for cor- governing thickness (or, as stated in the Code, the thickness
rosion reasons, it must be specified in the engineering design. through the weld is compared to twice the minimum material
thickness requiring heat treatment in Table 331.1.1). This includes
17.11.8 Governing Thickness for Heat Treatment the dimension through the penetration weld joining the run and
When using Table 331.1.1, the thickness to be used is generally branch pipe and reinforcement, if any, as well as the cover fillet
the thicker of the two components, measured at the joint, that are weld. Specific guidance for determining the weld thickness is pro-
being joined by welding. For example, if a pipe is welded to a vided in para. 331.1.3(a). Note that for the cover fillet, the throat
heavier wall valve, but the valve thickness is tapered to the pipe dimension is used.
thickness at the welded joint, the governing thickness will be the It is actually required to also consider the thickness of the parts
greater of the valve thickness at the end of the taper at the weld joined by welding in branch connections as well as the weld
50
51
52 Chapter 17
metal; however, metal added as reinforcement, whether an inte- Solderers are required to follow the procedures in the Copper
gral part of a branch fitting or attached by welding, need not be Tube Handbook of the Copper Development Association.
considered. Since branch connections are required by the Code to Aside from these requirements, general good practice require-
be full-penetration welded, it is unlikely that a circumstance will ments for brazing and soldering are specified in para. 333 of
arise where the base material is thicker than the weldment. For ASME B31.3.
example, while integrally reinforced branch connection fittings
often have substantial thickness, the weld size would govern since 17.11.11 Bolted Joints
the additional thickness of the fitting is entirely reinforcement. Proper assembly of bolted joints is essential to avoid leakage
For fillet welds at slip-on and socket weld joints DN 50 (NPS during service. This includes not only visible leaks, but also mini-
2) and smaller, for seal welding of threaded joints in piping DN mizing fugitive emissions, which are an important consideration
50 (NPS 2) and smaller, and for attachment of external non-pres- in the United States as a result of environmental regulations.
sure parts such as lugs, the heat treatment is based on the larger of Information on flange bolting is provided in Appendix S of
either the thickness through the weld or the thickness of the parts Section VIII, Division 1. An ASME guideline on flange bolt-up
that are joined by the weld, with certain exeptions. As with procedures, PCC-1, Guidelines for Pressure Boundary Bolted
branch connections, when evaluating the weld, it is based on half Flange Joint Assembly, was published in 2001.
of the thickness (or the thickness through the weld is compared to ASME B31.3 provides some good practice with respect to
twice the thickness in Table 331.1.1). For larger pipe, only the flange bolt-up in para. 335. This includes requiring repair or
base material thickness, not the weld thickness, is considered. replacement of flanges with damaged gasket seating surfaces, uni-
The exceptions permit consideration of the weld only, neglect- formly compressing the gasket during flange bolt-up, and use of
ing the base material thickness. These exceptions, which exempt only one gasket between seating surfaces.
certain fillet welds from heat treatment (per para. 331.1.3), are as Paragraph 335.2.3 requires that the bolts extend completely
follows: through their threads. However, it provides that the nut is consid-
ered to be acceptably engaged if it is short of being completely
(1) P-No. 1 materials with weld throat thickness 16 mm through the nut by one thread or less. Thus, if the owner wishes to
(58 in.). have the nuts completely engaged, as many do, that would have to
(2) P-Nos. 3, 4, 5, or 10A with weld throat thickness 13 mm be specified in the engineering design.
(12 12 in.) when the recommended preheat is applied and the Perhaps one of the most violated provisions of the Code is the
specified minimum tensile strength of the base material is flange alignment tolerance in para. 335.1.1(c). This requires that,
less than 490 MPa (71 ksi). before bolting up, flange faces shall be aligned to the design plane
1
(3) When the base material is ferritic and welds are made with within 1 mm in 200 mm (16 in./ft) measured across any diameter;
filler metal that does not air harden, such as austenitic mate- and that bolt holes shall be aligned within 3 mm (81 in.) maximum
rial (note that the weld material must also be suitable for the offset. The first requirement relates to cocking of one flange rela-
service conditions). tive to the other and the second relates to offset or torsional mis-
alignment. This means that each flange can be misaligned relative
17.11.9 Pipe Bends to each other by as much as double the amount. Furthermore, the
Pipe may be hot or cold bent. For cold bending of ferritic materi- design plane for each flange is not required to be the same (e.g.,
als, the temperature must be below the transformation range. For hot in a system where there is intentional misalignment to achieve
bending, the temperature must be above the transformation range. cold spring). However, this would have to be the intention of the
The thickness after bending must comply with the design engineering design.
requirements. Previously per para. 304.2.1, this was required to be This requirement became an issue on a project where the gaps
the thickness required for straight pipe. However, with the addi- between flanges for small-bore [e.g., DN 50(NPS 2)] pipe flanges
tion of the Lorenz equation to ASME B31.3, as discussed in were being measured with feeler gages to check the misalign-
17.4.8, the required thickness must be calculated. ment. Interpretation 15-07 resulted, with the following question
When pipe is bent, it tends to ovalize or flatten. Paragraph and reply.
332.2 requires that the flattening (the difference between the max-
Question: In accordance with ASME B31.3c-1995 Addenda,
imum and minimum diameters at any cross-section) not exceed
para. 335.1.1(c), prior to bolting up a flanged joint, may the
8% except when the pipe may be subject to external pressure, in
flange faces be out of alignment from the design plane by
which case the limit is 3%. While this has often been treated as an 1
more that 16 in./ft (0.5%), provided the misalignment is con
absolute limit, the B31.3 Committee has deemed it acceptable to
sidered in the design of the flanged assembly and attached
perform a detailed calculation in the engineering design per para.
piping in accordance with para. 300(c) (3)?
300(c)(3) to establish a different, perhaps higher, limit. For exam-
ple, a heavy wall, small-diameter pipe may have a very substantial Reply: Yes.
margin against buckling even if the 3% flattening is significantly
exceeded. Thus, some greater misalignment can be tolerated if it is pro-
See 17.11.7 for heat treatment after bending. vided for in the engineering design. It is quite reasonable to
expect that greater misalignment than permitted by para.
17.11.10 Brazing and Soldering 335.1.1(c) can be accepted in small-bore piping, particularly if it
Brazing procedures, brazers, and brazing operators are required is not connected to load-sensitive equipment. On the other hand,
to be qualified in accordance with Section IX, Part QB. An excep- the Code alignment provisions are generally not tight enough for
tion is for piping in Category D fluid service with a design tem- larger piping connected to load-sensitive equipment. An appropri-
perature not exceeding 93F (200F); for this condition, the owner ate test of whether the alignment is acceptable is to check the
can waive the requirements for such qualifications. machinery alignment with and without the piping bolted to it.
FIG. 17.11.1 TYPICAL DETAILS FOR DOUBLE-WELDED SLIP-ON AND SOCKET WELDING FLANGE ATTACHMENT WELDS
(B31.3, FIG. 328.5.2B)
17.11.12 Welded Joint Details cause problems is questionable, and fatigue testing has shown that
Welded joint details, including socket weld joints, socket weld socket welds that are welded after jamming the pipe into the sock-
and slip-on flanges, and branch connections are provided in et have longer fatigue lives than ones welded with a gap. There is
Chapter V. no requirement for a gap after welding, and weld shrinkage can
Standard details for slip-on and socket welding flange attach- close a gap that was present prior to welding.
ment welds are provided in Fig. 328.5.2B, provided herein as Fig. Some owners require random radiographic examination to
17.11.1. A couple points worth noting are the fillet weld size, ensure proper socket welding practice. One of the items checked
which is 1.4 times the nominal pipe wall thickness (or the thick- for is the presence of a gap. An argument for doing this is that it is
ness of the hub, whichever is less), and the small gap shown not possible to determine if there was a gap prior to welding
between the flanges face and the toe of the inside fillet for slip-on unless there is a gap shown by radiography. If desired, the
flanges. The small gap is intended to avoid damage to the flange requirement that there be a gap after welding should be specified
face due to welding. It indicates a gap, but there is no specific as an additional requirement of the engineering design. It is not a
limit. This differs from Section VIII, Division 1, which specify Code requirement.
the gap to be 41 in., and some pipeline codes that have limits. Acceptable details for branch connections are provided in Fig.
The question arose as to whether a specific limit to the gap 328.5.4D, provided herein as Fig. 17.11.3. ASME B31.3 does not
between the fillet weld and flange face was appropriate. Studies, include calculations for required weld sizes for these connections;
including finite element analysis [1] and earlier Markl fatigue rather, the minimum weld sizes are specified in this figure.
testing, indicated that it essentially did not matter how much the
pipe was inserted into the flange. Insertion by an amount equal to 17.11.13 Miscellaneous Assembly Requirements
the hub height was optimal for fatigue life, but there was not a Threaded joints should generally be lubricated with a suitable
significant different. To minimize future confusion, inclusion of thread compound or lubricant that is suitable for the service con-
minimum insertion depth has been recommended and may be ditions, and that does not react unfavorably with either the service
specified in a future edition of B31.3. fluid or the piping material. However, if the joint is intended to be
The required fillet weld size for socket welds other than socket seal welded, the use of thread compound or tape is prohibited.
weld flanges is specified in Fig. 328.5.2C, provided herein as Fig. The material can result in a poor-quality seal weld. There is one
17.11.2. In this figure, the specified fillet weld size is inadequate exception to this. If a joint is made up with thread tape or com-
for general applications and impractical. It will most probably be pound and it leaks during the leak test, it can be seal welded with-
revised in a future edition of the Code. It is specified to be 1.25t out dissembling it, provided that all the material is removed from
but not less than 3 mm (18 in.). The dimension t is the pressure
design thickness, which can be on the order of hundredths of an
inch for small-bore piping, even though the pipe may be required
to be XS or XXS due to corrosion and mill tolerance considera-
tions. While a 3 mm (18 in.) weld may be perfectly adequate for
pressure, it is highly questionable for thermal expansion loads
that may be present in heavy wall, small-bore piping. The welder
and inspector are very unlikely to know the pressure design thick-
ness. Changing this dimension from 1.25 times the pressure
design thickness, t, to 1.25 times the nominal thickness of the
pipe, or the width of the flat face of the socket, whichever is less,
is under consideration.
A second issue with this figure that has caused considerable
1
controversy is the 1.5 mm (16 in.) approx. gap before welding
indicated on the figure. This is a requirement for a gap before FIG. 17.11.2 MINIMUM WELDING DIMENSIONS FOR
welding, so that weld shrinkage will be less likely to cause small SOCKET WELDING COMPONENTS OTHER THAN
cracks in the root of the fillet weld. Whether or not such cracks FLANGES (B31.3, FIG. 328.5.2C)
54 Chapter 17
FIG. 17.11.3 ACCEPTABLE DETAILS FOR BRANCH ATTACHMENT WELDS (B31.3, FIG. 328.5.4D)
the exposed threads. As discussed in the design section, seal The examiner is required to be an individual that is qualified to
welds are not considered to contribute to the joint strength. Per perform the examination work. They are required to have training
para. 328.5.3, seal welds are required to cover all exposed threads. and experience commensurate with the needs of the specified
Various good practice requirements are provided in para. 335 examination, with records of such qualifications maintained by
for assembly of straight threaded joints, tubing joints, caulked their employer. While there are no specific requirements, ASME
joints, expanded joints, and packed joints. B31.3 refers to SNT-TC-1A, Recommended Practice for Non-
destructive Testing Personnel Qualification and Certification, as
17.11.14 References an acceptable guide.
1. Becht, C., Chen, Y. and Benteftifa, C., Effect of Pipe Insertion on The owners Inspector oversees the work performed by the
Slip-On Flange Performance, Design and Analysis of Pressure examiner. It is the Inspectors responsibility to verify that all the
Vessels, Piping, and Components-1992, PVP-Vol. 235, The American required examinations have been completed and to inspect the pip-
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1992. ing to the extent necessary to be satisfied that it complies with all
of the applicable examination requirements of the Code and of the
Engineers. engineering design. Note that the process of inspection does not
relieve the manufacturer, fabricator, or erector of their responsibili-
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure ties for complying with the Code.
Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The owners Inspector is also required to be qualified to per-
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section IX, Welding and Brazing form the work. Per para. 340.4, the minimum requirements are
Qualifications; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. one of the following:
ASME PCC-1, Guidelines for Pressure Boundary Bolted Flange Joint
Assembly, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2001. (1) ten years of experience in the design, fabrication, or inspec-
tion of industrial pressure piping; or
The Copper Tube Handbook; The Copper Development Association, New
(2) a combination of engineering education and experience,
York, 1995.
with each 20% of the completion of an engineering degree
recognized by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and
Technology counting as one year of experience, up to a
17.12 EXAMINATION maximum of five years.
17.12.1 Overview of Examination Requirements The owners Inspector may be an employee of the owner, or an
ASME B31.3 requires that examination of the piping be per- employee of an engineering or scientific organization, or of a rec-
formed by the piping manufacturer (for components only), fabrica- ognized insurance or inspection company, acting as the owners
tor, and/or erector as a quality control function. These examinations agent. Unless the owner happens to be the manufacturer, fabrica-
include radiography, for which ultrasonic examination or in-progress tor, or erector, the Inspector can not be an employee of the owner.
examination can be used as substitutes, visual examination, and, To be so would create a conflict of interest.
under certain conditions, magnetic-particle or liquid-penetrant Requirements for the examination processes are described in
examination. Section V of the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, with limited
exceptions and additions. Section V is referenced by ASME and reexamined. Note that once a weld is found to be defective, it
B31.3. The required degree of examination and the acceptance must be repaired and reexamined until it passes the examination.
criteria for the examinations are provided in Chapter VI of ASME However, defects found in the repaired weld do not count as addi-
B31.3. The examiner is required to have a written procedure for tional defects in the progressive examination procedure.
their examination work (para. 343). It would generally be a poor decision, except for rather small
It is not the intent of ASME B31.3 that the examination will projects, to include all of the work in one lot or to wait until the
ensure that the constructed piping system will be free of defects, end of the construction to perform the random radiography. One
even ones that are rejectable if found. Nor is it required that welds possible result is the rejection of all of the welds. Also, perform-
that are not examined be free of rejectable defects. Rather, the ing the examinations as the work progresses can help eliminate
examination work is part of an overall quality assurance proce- poorly performing welders earlier in the project. Interpretation 2-
dure. The leak test is used to test the overall system. Interpretation 25 addresses lot sizes.
5-18, issued on May 5, 1987, addresses this point.
Question (1): A certain piping system has 100 welds made by
Question (2): Assuming the Engineering Design requires fab- the same welder and welding procedure. Ten percent radiog-
rication to ANSI/ASME B31.3, requiring the minimum 5% raphy was required. Ten welds were radiographed, of which
visual examination and random radiography of girth butt one was defective. The subsequent second and third progres-
welds, what is the minimum weld quality required by the sion groups also had defective welds. Does ASME B31.3
Code for butt welds which have not been individually exam- require radiographic examination, repair, and radiographic
ined, but were represented by a successful random visual and reexamination of all the welds other than the 9 found accept-
radiographic examination? able or of the 10 welds represented by the one original defec-
tive weld?
Reply (2): The Code accepts such welds subject to leak test-
ing. Note: The Code assumes that the 5% which were Reply (1): The first alternative is correct if the lot size has
required to be examined will be representative of the entire been established as 100 and the selection is truly random. The
lot, but a guarantee of such is a contractual matter to be second is correct if the lot size has been established as 10 and
specified by the engineering design. each is represented by 1 of the 10 welds radiographed at
random.
If a piping system passes the examination requirements of the
The welds, the work of each welder or welding operator, must
Code, it is accepted (complies with the Code) if it passes the leak
be included in the random examination. This may affect the
test. If additional examinations are performed that reveal defects,
selected lot size and/or the percentage of the welds that must be
it is beyond Code requirements; the system has already complied
examined. For example, if there are six welders that have worked
with the Code, and the issues of whether to repair these defects
on a lot of 100 welds, with only one welder working on any given
and who is to pay for the repair is purely a contractual issue. The
weld, a minimum of six welds would have to be examined for
defects can be left in and the piping system will still comply with
normal fluid service, or 6%. If there were five or fewer welders,
Code. Of course, it would be judicious to at least perform a
only five welds would have to be examined.
fitness-for-service evaluation of the defect if it is intended to be
Random examination will not detect every defect. It is a quality
left unrepaired.
control procedure that is intended to produce an appropriate level
Records of the examination procedures and examination per-
of quality in welds. Part of the effectiveness of the procedure is
sonnel qualifications are required to be retained for at least five
the welders knowing that some of their welds will be radi-
years, unless otherwise specified in the engineering design.
ographed and not knowing which ones will be examined.
17.12.2 Progressive Examination 17.12.3 Types of Examination

ASME B31.3 includes the concept of progressive examination. Visual examination (VT) means using the unaided eye (except
The concept applies to all random examinations, but will be dis- for corrective lenses) to inspect the exterior and readily accessible
cussed here in the context of random radiography. In such exami- internal surface areas of piping assemblies or components. It does
nations, the items to be examined (e.g., welds to be radiographed) not include nor require remote examination such as by the use of
are separated into lots. This separation is normally done in time, boroscopes. Visual examination is used to check materials and
with some number of welds included in each lot as the fabrica- components for conformance to specifications and freedom from
tion/erection continues. Some percent (e.g., 5% of girth welds for defects; fabrication including welds; assembly of threaded,
normal fluid service) of the items are selected at random and bolted, and other joints; piping during erection; and piping after
examined. For each item found to be defective, two more are erection. Furthermore, visual examination can be substituted for
selected from the same lot and given the same type of examina- radiography, as described later, which is called in-process exami-
tion. These two additional samples must be of the same kind (if nation. Requirements for visual examination are provided in
welded or bonded joints, by the same welder, bonder, or opera- Section V, Article 9. Records of visual examinations are not
tor). For these additional items, for each one of them that is found required other than those of in-process examination.
to be defective, two additional items of the same kind must be Radiographic examination (RT) means using x-ray or gamma-
examined. At that point, if any defects are found, the entire lot ray radiation to produce a picture of the subject part, including
that is being randomly examined is rejected and must be 100% subsurface features, on radiographic film for subsequent interpre-
examined, repaired, redone, or replaced. tation. It is a volumetric examination procedure that provides a
If, at any of the above steps, no further defective work was means of detecting defects that are not observable on the surface
found, the entire lot would be accepted contingent on successfully of the material. Requirements for radiographic examination of
passing the leak test. The defects that were found must be repaired welds are provided in Section V, Article 2.
56 Chapter 17
Ultrasonic examination (UT) means detecting defects using Hardness testing is required after heat treatment under some
high-frequency sound impulses. The defects are detected by the circumstances, as specified in Table 331.1.1 of ASME B31.3.
reflection of sound waves from them. Ultrasonic examination is Hardness testing is not required for carbon steel (P-1), ferritic and
also a volumetric examination method that can be used to detect austenitic stainless steel (P-7, P-8), high nickel alloys (P-9A, P-
subsurface defects. It can be used as an alternative to radiography 9B), as well as some less commonly used alloys. It is required in
for weld examination. The requirements for ultrasonic examination some circumstances for low and intermediate alloy steels. For
of welds are provided in Section V, Article 4, with an alternative for welds, the hardness check includes both the weld and the heat-
basic calibration blocks provided in para. 344.6 of ASME B31.3. affected zone. It is a quality control procedure to make sure that
The acceptance criteria for ultrasonic examination in para. the heat treatment was effective.
344.6.2 are based on the amplitude of the reflected sound wave. In addition to the above, ASME B31.3 permits increasing the
This type of criteria is suitable for pulse-echo type ultrasonic quality factor for castings with supplementary examination of the
examination. While more advanced techniques, such as time of casting. Liquid penetrant, magnetic-particle, ultrasonic, and radi-
flight diffraction are permitted by the Code, via its reference to ographic examinations may be used in these supplementary exam-
Section V for examination methods, appropriate acceptance crite- inations. In this case, the requirements for the examination and
ria were not provided. Ultrasonic methods that actually size the acceptance criteria are stated and/or referenced in para. 302.3.3 of
indication require an acceptance criteria based on the dimensions ASME B31.3.
of the indication.
Code Case 181 was issued to provide specific rules to facilitate 17.12.4 Required Examination
the use of these more advanced ultrasonic techniques. The Code The required examination depends on the category of fluid ser-
Case also requires that the examination be automated and demon- vice. Different degrees of examination are required for Category
strated on a qualification block(s). Automated ultrasonic examina- D, Normal, and Category M fluid services. More examination is
tion has a much greater probability of detection than manual UT. required for more hazardous services. Piping under severe cyclic
In-process examination is a visual examination of the entire conditions and piping that will be subjected to an alternative leak
joining process, as described in para. 344.7 of ASME B31.3. It is test require even more examination.
applicable to welding and brazing for metals and bonding for Table 17.12.1 summarizes the required examination for metal-
nonmetals. Since radiographic examination is not considered to lic piping.
provide useful results in brazing and bonding, in-process exami-
nation is used for these instead of radiography. For welding, it is Notes:
permitted as a substitute for radiographic examination if specified
in the engineering design or specifically authorized by the (1) Severe cyclic conditions essentially only applies to normal
Inspector. In-process examination, however, is not as effective a fluid service. There are no provisions in ASME B31.3 for
quality control procedure as random radiography, and it should Category M fluid service under severe cyclic conditions;
only be used for welds when special circumstances warrant. Category D piping is highly unlikely to be under severe
Liquid-penetrant examination (PT) means detecting surface cyclic conditions and there are no provisions in ASME
defects by spreading a liquid dye penetrant on the surface, remov- B31.3 to cover that event.
ing the dye after sufficient time has passed for the dye to pene- (2) Sufficient materials and components to satisfy the examiner
trate into any surface defect, and applying a thin coat of developer that they conform to specifications and are free from defects.
to the surface, which draws the dye from defects. The defects are (3) For welds, each welders or welding operators work must
observable by the contrast between the color of the dye penetrant be represented.
and the color of the developer. Liquid-penetrant examination is (4) Except those in components made in accordance with a
used for the detection of surface defects. It is used in the examina- listed specification.
tion of socket welds and branch connections in severe cyclic ser- (5) Assembly of threaded, bolted, and other joints.
vice that cannot be radiographed; and for the examination of all (6) Examination during erection of piping, including checking
welds, including structural attachment welds, that are not radi- of alignment, supports, and cold spring.
ographed when the alternative leak test (ASME B31.3, para. (7) Examination of erected piping for evidence of defects that
345.9) is used. Liquid-penetrant examination of metallic bellows would require repair or replacement, and for other evident
is required by Appendix X, para. X302.2.2. The requirements for deviations from the intent of the design.
liquid-penetrant examination of welds and components other than (8) Circumferential butt and miter groove welds.
castings are provided in Section V, Article 6. (9) Branch connection welds that are not or can not be radi-
Magnetic-particle examination (MT) employs either electric ographed.
coils wound around the part or prods to create a magnetic field. A (10) 100% PT or MT is required if the alternative leak test is to
magnetic powder is applied to the surface and defects are revealed be performed.
by patterns that the powder forms in response to the magnetic (11) Visual examination to the extent necessary to satisfy the
field disturbances caused by defects. This technique reveals sur- examiner that components, materials, and workmanship
face and shallow subsurface defects. As such, it can provide more conform to the requirements of ASME B31.3 and the engi-
information than liquid-penetrant examination. However, its use is neering design.
limited to magnetic materials. Magnetic-particle examination is (12) In-progress examination, if used, must be supplemented by
an alternative to liquid-penetrant examination wherever such an other nondestructive examination.
examination is required in ASME B31.3 (except in the case of (13) 100% VT is required if pneumatic testing is to be per-
metallic bellows). The requirements for magnetic-particle exami- formed.
nation of welds and components other than castings are provided (14) 100% RT is required if the alternative leak test is to be per-
in Section V, Article 7. formed.
TABLE 17.12.1 REQUIRED EXAMINATION
NP not permitted additional requirement for 100% visual examination of all

RT radiographic examination (UT is always an acceptable fabrication as well as all bolted and mechanical joints.
alternative and IP is an acceptable alternative if specified
in the engineering design or approved by the inspector) Because radiography is not a generally accepted practice for
UT ultrasonic examination nonmetallics, 5% in-process examination is substituted for 5% ran-
MT magnetic-particle examination dom radiography for normal fluid service. Again, for nonmetallics
PT liquid-penetrant examination in Category M fluid service, the same in-process examination
VT visual examination requirement applies. Except it is increased to 20%.
IP in-process examination
NA no additional requirements (beyond otherwise specified 17.12.7 References
VT) ASME B31.3, Process Piping; The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
17.12.5 Acceptance Criteria ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section V, Nondestructive
The acceptance criteria for the various examination techniques Examination; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
are provided in Table 341.3.2 for normal fluid service, severe cyclic SNT-TC-1A, Recommended Practice for Nondestructive Testing Personnel
conditions, and Category D fluid service. The acceptance criteria Qualification and Certification; Society for Nondestructive Testing.
for Category M fluid service is the same as for normal fluid service.
The difference between the acceptance criteria for severe cyclic
conditions and normal fluid service relate to the potential for fatigue
failure. For example, while some undercutting is permitted for nor- 17.13 PRESSURE TESTING
mal fluid service, none is permitted for severe cyclic conditions. 17.13.1 Overview of Pressure Test Requirements
ASME B31.3 requires leak testing of all piping systems other
17.12.6 Examination of Nonmetallics than Category D systems. For piping in Category D fluid service,
Nonmetallic piping systems have the same visual examination the piping may (at the owners option) be put in service without a
requirements as the base Code, as follows: leak test and examined for leakage during the initial operation of
the system. This is an initial service leak test. For all other piping,
(1) VT requirements for normal fluid service follow the base the following options are available:
Code.
(2) VT requirements for Category D fluid service follow the (1) hydrostatic test,
base Code. (2) pneumatic test,
(3) VT requirements for Category M fluid service follow the (3) hydropneumatic test, and
base Code requirements for normal fluid service plus an (4) alternative leak test.
58 Chapter 17
An alternative leak test is only permitted by ASME B31.3 when: The ratio of ST/S in the above equation can not be less than one
and can not exceed 6.5. Use a value of 6.5 or ratios that are higher
(1) exposure of the piping to water via a hydrostatic test would than that.
damage the linings or internal insulation, or contaminate a If the test pressure determined in equation 24 results in a nomi-
process that would be hazardous, corrosive, or inoperative nal pressure stress or longitudinal stress in excess of the yield
in the presence of moisture; and strength of the material at the test temperature or a pressure more
(2) a pneumatic test is considered by the owner to entail an than 1.5 times the component rating at the test temperature, the
unacceptable risk due to the potential release of stored test pressure may be reduced. It would be reduced to a value such
energy in the system (the danger of a pneumatic test that these limits are not exceeded.
ncreases with the pressure and contained volume); or If the piping leak test is combined with a pressure vessel, it is
(3) a hydrostatic test or pneumatic test would present the dan- also permitted to reduce the test pressure if it is necessary to do so
ger of brittle fracture due to low metal temperature during to avoid overpressuring the vessel when it is not practicable to
the test. isolate the piping from the vessel for the purpose of testing them
separately and if the owner approves. In that case, the test pres-
The leak test is required to be conducted after any heat treat- sure may be reduced to the vessel test pressure, but must be at
ment has been completed. If repairs or additions are made follow- least 77% of the hydrotest pressure required by equation 24.
ing the leak test, the affected piping must be retested unless the The springs should generally be left with their travel stops in
repairs or additions are minor and the owner waives retest. place through the hydrotest. Also, if the line normally contains
All joints and connections except those previously tested, must vapor or a fluid with a lower density than water, the need for sup-
be left uninsulated and exposed for the leak test. ASME B31.3 plemental temporary supports must be considered due to the high-
permits painting of the joints prior to the test except when the er fluid weight than normal operation.
joint is to be sensitive leak tested; however, paint can effectively
seal small leaks to extremely high pressures. These small leaks 17.13.3 Pneumatic Test
can then, in fact, start leaking in service if the paint film fails such A pneumatic test is considered to potentially entail a significant
as due to the presence of solvents in the line. hazard due to the amount of stored energy in the compressed gas.
The pressure is required to be held for at least 10 min and as A rupture could result in an explosive release of this energy. For
long as is required to completely examine the piping system. All example, an explosion of 60 m (200 ft) of NPS 36 line containing
joints and connections must be visually inspected for leakage. air at 3500 kPa (500 psi) can create a blast were roughly equiva-
There is no provision presently in ASME B31.3 for substituting a lent to 35 kg (80 lb) of TNT. The hazard is proportional to both
monitoring of pressure decay for the 100% visual examination of the volume and the pressure.
the pipe joints during the hydrotest. Intent interpretation 1924 Because of this concern, the pneumatic test pressure is specified
states that structural attachment welds are included in the joints to be at 1.1 times the design pressure. Specific precautions are
requiring visual examination during leak testing. required. These include provision of an adequate pressure-relief
Piping subassemblies may be tested either separately or as device to prevent pressurizing the line to too high a pressure. An
assembled piping. This permits, for example, testing subassem- intemediate hold at the lesser of half of the test pressure or 170
blies and insulating them prior to leak testing the entire system. kPa (25 psi) with a visual inspection of all joints is required prior
Interpretation 20-11 states that a piping component may be con- to bringing the pressure gradually up to the full test pressure.
sidered to be a piping subassembly.
Test records are required per para. 345.2.7 of ASME B31.3, but 17.13.4 Hydropneumatic Test
need not be retained after completion of the test if a cortication by A hydropneumatic test entails having part of the system filled
the Inspector that the piping has satisfactorily passed pressure with water and part of the system filled with pressurized air.
testing as required by ASME B31.3 is retained. Basically, the portions of the system filled with water can be test-
ed at a higher pressure than would be permitted for a pneumatic
17.13.2 Hydrostatic Test test. The portions of the system filled with compressed gas are
A hydrostatic test is generally the preferred alternative because subjected to the limitations and requirements for a pneumatic test.
it is conducted at a higher pressure, which has beneficial effects
such as crack blunting and warm prestressing, and entails sub- 17.13.5 Alternative Leak Test
stantially less risk than a pneumatic test. These reduce the risk of An alternative leak test is permitted, with the owners approval,
crack growth and brittle fracture after the hydrotest when the pipe when neither a hydrostatic nor pneumatic leak test would be possi-
is placed in service. The test is generally conducted at a pressure ble or safe. An alternative leak test contains the following elements:
of 1.5 times the design pressure times a temperature correction
factor. The temperature correction factor compensates for the fact (1) Detailed inspection of all weld joints, including 100% radi-
that the test may be conducted at a lower temperature, at which ographic or ultrasonic examination of all circumferential
the material has higher strength than at the design condition. The and longitudinal seam welds and liquid-penetrant or mag-
equation is as follows: netic-particle examination of all welds, including structural
attachment welds, that can not be radiographed.
ST
PT = 1.5P (24) (2) A formal flexibility analysis is required.
S (3) A sensitive leak test is required.
where
17.13.6 Sensitive Leak Test
ST allowable stress at test temperature A sensitive leak test is a required part of an alternative leak test
S allowable stress at design temperature and is also required for Category M fluid service piping. This is a
test performed at low pressures to test for leaks. Methods for per- Closure welds are not used in the Code in the context of a con-
forming this type of test are described in Section V, Article 10. nection to an existing pipe, since that weld is considered to be
One approach is to pressurize the piping system with air and outside of the scope of ASME B31.3 (although you could look to
check for leaks using a bubble test solution. the closure weld requirements for guidance). Rather, it is a con-
The test pressure for the sensitive leak test is required to be at nection between new components. For example, consider a large
least 105 kPa (15 psi) or 25% of the design pressure, whichever is diameter vapor line, for which providing additional support for
less. Similar to a pneumatic test, the pressure is to be increased the fluid weight in a hydrotest is impractical, and for which a
gradually up to an intermediate hold at the lesser of half of the pneumatic test would entail undue hazard. The line could be pres-
test pressure or 170 kPa (25 psi), at which point a preliminary sure tested, as a subassembly, at grade, erected, and connected to
check for leaks must be made. The pressure is then to be gradual- equipment with a closure weld.
ly increased to the test pressure, at which point the sensitive leak
test is performed. 17.13.10 Requirements for Nonmetallic Piping
In addition to the above Code-required circumstances, a sensi- The leak test rules in the base Code, described in the prior para-
tive leak test is used by some owners as a supplemental tightness graphs, are generally applicable to nonmetallic piping, with a few
check of other piping systems prior to placing them in operation, exceptions. The hydrotest pressure for nonmetallics other than ther-
and/or to check for leaks in piping systems assembled from shop- moplastics (e.g., RTR, fiberglass pipe) and metallic piping lined
fabricated and -tested subassemblies. with nonmetals are 1.5 times the design pressure, but not more than
1.5 times the maximum rated pressure of the lowest-rated compo-
17.13.7 Jacketed and Vacuum Piping nent in the system. There is no temperature correction factor. It is
Piping that is designed for external-pressure conditions is gen- particularly important not to overpressure fiberglass piping systems.
erally tested with internal pressure. The test pressure is required Excessive hydrotest pressures in fiberglass systems have caused
to be the greater of 1.5 times the design differential pressure or subsequent failures in service. The overload condition can damage
105 kPa (15 psi). the material without evidence of a leak during the test itself. This
Jacketed or other double-wall piping requires leak testing of damage has led to subsequent failures in service.
both the inner pipe and the jacket. The test of the inner pipe is For thermoplastic piping, a temperature correction factor is used,
based on the more severe of the internal-pressure or jacket- the same as for metallic piping except that the allowable stresses for
pressure condition. The inner pipe welds must be visible for this thermoplastics in Appendix B of ASME B31.3 are used.
leak test, which creates a very significant consideration in the For metallic piping lined with nonmetals, the Code test pres-
design of these systems. The jacket is tested as normal piping based sures for the metallic portion of the pipe apply.
on its design pressure, unless otherwise specified in the engineering Some thermoplastics can behave in a brittle manner when they
design. The inner pipe is normally designed to carry the jacket pres- fail under compressed-gas service. The Code specifically pro-
sure with no internal pipe pressure, without buckling. hibits PVC and CPVC from pneumatic testing because of this
The requirement that all joints be visually observed during a hazard. The owners approval is required for pneumatic testing of
leak test can be problematic for jacketed or double containment any other nonmetallic piping system.
piping. Code Case 180 provides some relief in the form of alter- The alternative leak test is not permitted for nonmetallic piping
native rules. For welded joints and connections on the inner pipe, and piping lined with nonmetals.
it is not required to visually observe the joints during the leak test
if 1) the leak test is otherwise conducted in accordance with code 17.13.11 References
rules and 2) an additional sensitive leak test is conducted to ASME B31.3, Process Piping; The American Society of Mechanical
demonstrate the leak tightness of the joints that were not visually Engineers.
examined during the leak test of 1). ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section V, Nondestructive
Examination; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
17.13.8 Initial Service Leak Test
For piping in Category D fluid service, ASME B31.3 permits
an initial service leak test in lieu of other leak tests such as hydro-
static or pneumatic. In this test, the system is pressurized with the 17.14 NONMETALLIC PIPING SYSTEMS
process fluid and the joints are inspected for leaks.
17.14.1 Organization
If the process fluid is a vapor, provisions for gradual increase in
The rules for nonmetallic piping and piping lined with non-
pressure, with an inspection at an intermediate pressure, similar to
metals are located in Chapter VII of ASME B31.3. These para-
pneumatic test requirements, apply. For piping filled with liquid,
graphs follow the same paragraph numbering of the base Code,
ASME B31.3 requires that the pressure be gradually increased to
Chapters I through VI, but start with the letter A. If requirements
the operating pressure.
located elsewhere in the Code apply to these piping systems, they
All joints and connections must be observed for leakage.
are referenced from a paragraph in Chapter VII.
The behavior of nonmetallic piping is more complex than metal-
17.13.9 Closure Welds lic piping, and the design criteria are significantly less well devel-
In the 1996 edition, addenda c (1998), closure welds were oped. As a result, the designers are left to use their best judgment in
added [para. 345.2.3(c)] as an acceptable exemption from leak many circumstances. For example, while a formal flexibility analy-
testing. A closure weld is a final weld connecting piping system sis is required, no methods are provided for performing one.
or component that has been successfully leak tested. The closure For metallic piping lined with nonmetals, the base Code
weld does not require leak testing if it passes 100% radiographic requirements for metallic piping are applied to the metallic por-
or ultrasonic examination and is in-process examined. tion. Supplemental rules are provided for the nonmetallic lining.
60 Chapter 17
References [1] and [2] provide background on Chapter VII. WRC material is established to be suitable for the increased conditions
415 provides a literature search on codes and standards for plastic through prior successful service experience or tests under compa-
piping. rable conditions.
The equations that are available for sizing nonmetallic compo-
17.14.2 Design Conditions nents are very limited in ASME B31.3. These equations relate to
The base Code requirements with respect to design pressure straight pipe, flanges, and blind flanges. The use of the referenced
and temperature are generally applicable. However, no credit is flange design method (per Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix 2) is
permitted for ambient cooling for uninsulated components. In questionable for many nonmetallics. As a result, for pressure design
other words, the design temperature is not permitted to be less most nonmetallic piping components must be either per a listed
than the fluid temperature. standard (i.e., listed in Table A326.1) or qualified per A304.7.2.
Paragraph A304.7.2, Pressure Design of Unlisted Components
17.14.3 Allowable Stress and Joints, differs from the base Code in that neither experimental
Various nonmetals have different, established methods of deter- stress analysis nor numerical analysis (e.g., finite element) are
mining allowable stresses. Some limited allowable stress values are listed as acceptable alternatives for qualifying components. The
provided in Appendix B for thermoplastic and reinforced thermoset- two methods that are considered acceptable for substantiating the
ting resin pipe. For the most part, allowable stresses or pressure rat- pressure design are extensive successful service experience under
ings must be determined from tests performed by the manufacturer. comparable design conditions with similarly proportioned compo-
Allowable pressures are provided for reinforced concrete pipe in nents made of the same or like material, or a performance test.
Table B-4 and borosilicate glass pipe in Table B-5. The performance test must include the effects of time, since fail-
The methods of determining the allowable stresses in thermo- ure of nonmetallic components can be time dependent.
plastics and reinforced thermosetting resins are provided in For straight pipe, equations 26a for thermoplastic, 26b for
ASTM specifications, as follows: RTR-laminated pipe, and 26c for RTR filament-wound and RPM
centrifugally cast pipe are provided in ASME B31.3. They are of
(1) Thermoplastic: hydrostatic design stress (HDS) is deter- the following form:
mined in accordance with ASTM D 2837. The strength is
determined based on time-dependent properties [long-term PD
tests extrapolated to longer design times (100,000 hr and t = (26)
2SF + P
50 years)]. This is because creep is significant for this mate-
rial even at ambient temperature. Additionally, the strength where
of this material is highly sensitive to temperature.
(2) Reinforced Thermosetting Resin (Laminated): design stress D outside diameter of pipe
(DS) is taken as one-tenth of the minimum tensile strengths F service factor, which is only used for filament-wound and
specified in Table 1 of ASTM C 582. This is also called centrifugally cast pipe
hand lay-up. The strength of RTR is not particularly tem- P internal design gage pressure
perature sensitive in the range of application, so this allow- S design stress from applicable Table in Appendix B of
able stress is considered to be valid from 29C (20F) ASME B31.3
through 82C (180F). t pressure design thickness
(3) Reinforced Thermosetting Resin and Reinforced Plastic
Mortar (Filament Wound and Centrifugally Cast): hydrostat- 17.14.5 Limitations on Components and Joints
ic design stress (HDS) used in design is the hydrostatic design Fluid service requirements for nonmetallic piping components
basis stress (HDBS) times a service factor, F (often taken as are covered in Part 3 of Chapter VII. Fluid service requirements for
0.5), which is selected in accordance with ASTM D 2992. nonmetallic piping joints are covered in Part 4 of Chapter VII. For
The HDBS is determined in accordance with ASTM D 2992. the most part, the requirements are similar to the base Code
The HDBS is determined from long-term testing. requirements, with relevant paragraphs on nonmetallic components
and joints substituted for paragraphs on their metallic counterparts.
17.14.4 Pressure Design
The philosophy of the base Code with respect to metallic piping 17.14.6 Flexibility and Support
applies to nonmetallic piping. The primary differences are that the Rules regarding flexibility and support for nonmetallic piping
table of listed components for nonmetallic piping is Table A326.1 are provided in Part 5 of Chapter VII. ASME B31.3 does not pro-
rather than 326.1, and there are substantially fewer pressure vide detailed rules for evaluation of nonmetallic piping systems
design equations provided in the Code. for thermal expansion. However, it requires a formal flexibility
Listed components with established ratings are accepted at analysis when the following exemptions from formal flexibility
those ratings. Listed components without established ratings, but analysis are not met:
with allowable stresses listed, can be rated using the pressure
design rules of A304; however, these are very limited. In the cases (1) Duplicates, or replaces without significant change, a system
of listed components without allowable stresses or unlisted com- operating with a successful service record.
ponents, components must be rated per para. A304.7.2. (2) Can readily be judged adequate by comparison with previ-
The variations permitted in the base Code (para. 302.2.4) are ously analyzed systems.
not permitted for nonmetallic piping. The pressure is not permit- (3) Is laid out with a conservative margin of inherent flexibility,
ted to exceed the maximum permissible pressure, even during or employs joining methods or expansion joint devices, or a
relief, considering accumulation. However, variations are permit- combination of these methods, in accordance with manu-
ted for metallic piping with nonmetallic lining provided the lining facturers instructions.
As in metallic piping, a formal analysis is not necessarily a the allowable for pressure stress is one-tenth of the tensile
computer analysis. It can be any appropriate method, including strength, and a commonly used allowable for longitudinal stress
charts and simplified calculations. The objectives in the design of due to combined loads is one-fifth of the tensile strength.
a piping system for thermal expansion are the same as for metallic While the behavior of thermoplastics is generally not brittle, so
piping systems. Specifically, they are to prevent: that the shakedown concepts of metallic piping may be applica-
ble, this technology is not developed. Thus, the allowable for lon-
(1) failure of piping or supports from overstrain or fatigue; gitudinal stresses due to combined loads is often taken conserva-
(2) leakage at joints; and tively as the allowable stress for internal pressure.
(3) detrimental stresses or distortion in piping or in connected Some methods have been developed for evaluation of plastic
equipment (pumps, for example), resulting from excessive piping. A literature survey is provided in WRC 415.
thrusts and moments in the piping (ASME B31.3 para. With respect to support, ASME B31.3 highlights some specific
A319.1.1). concerns for nonmetallic piping in para. A321.5. In nonmetallic
piping that has limited ductility (e.g., generally with RTR and
One of the significant differences from metallic systems is that always with borosilicate glass), avoidance of point loads can be
fully restrained designs are commonly used. That is, systems where critical to system performance. While local loads may be accom-
the thermal expansion is offset by elastic compression/extension of modated in ductile systems by local plastic deformation, such
the piping between axial restraints. This is possible because of the loads can result in brittle fracture in materials that are brittle.
relatively low elastic modulus of plastic piping. The resulting loads Another consideration is that deformation can accumulate over
are generally reasonable for the design of structural anchors. Note, time due to creep. Support spacing must be sufficiently close to
however, that in performing a computer flexibility analysis of such avoid excessive long-term sagging due to creep.
systems, the axial load component of thermal expansion stress must
be included. See 17.8.1 for a discussion of stresses due to axial 17.14.7 Materials
loads in flexibility analysis. Thermoplastic materials may only be used for flammable fluid
Other significant differences from metallic piping include the service when they are underground. In any use other than
following: Category D fluid service, thermoplastic piping is required to be
safeguarded. See para. 17.2.5 for information on safeguarding.
(1) Most RTR and RPM systems are nonisotropic. That is, the PVC and CPVC are prohibited from compressed air or other com-
material properties are different in different directions, pressed-gas service due to the potential for brittle failure.
depending on the orientation of the reinforcing fibers. Reinforced Plastic Mortar (RPM) piping is required to be safe-
(2) Axial extension of the pipe due to internal pressure can be guarded when used in other than Category D fluid service.
significant and should be considered. Note that fiber-wound Reinforced Thermosetting Resin (RTR) piping may be used in
RTR pipe can either extend or contract due to internal pres- toxic or flammable fluid service, but requires safeguarding. It is
sure, depending on the orientation of the reinforcing fibers. generally acceptable for other services, subject to suitability of
(3) Plastic materials creep at ambient temperature. For exam- the material.
ple, a plastic pipe that is fully restrained, and is compressed Borosilicate glass and porcelain are brittle materials and are
as it heats up, can experience compressive creep strain dur- therefore required to be safeguarded against large, rapid tempera-
ing operation. When it cools back to ambient temperature, ture changes (i.e., thermal shock). Further, these materials are
this can result in tension in the pipe and a load reversal on required to be safeguarded when used in toxic or flammable fluid
the restraints. services.
(4) In plastic piping, particularly RTR systems, the limiting Note that the above limitations only apply when the material is
component is often a fitting or joint. For such systems, the used as the outer pressure-containing element. They do not apply
results of the flexibility analysis can be an evaluation of the to materials used as linings within metallic piping.
loads versus the allowable loads on components, rather than Recommended maximum and minimum temperatures are
a comparison of stress with allowable stress. generally provided. However, similar to the base Code, the max-
(5) Material properties, even for nominally the same material, imum temperature may be exceeded (unless there is a specific
are often manufacturer specific. Thus, design of plastic sys- prohibition), if the designer verifies the serviceability of the
tems generally requires interaction and consultation with material at the temperature. If a material is to be used at a tem-
the manufacturer of the pipe and information on the resin. perature below the minimum temperature listed in Appendix B,
This is particularly so for RTR and RPM piping, which also the designer must have some test results at or below the lowest
includes the consideration of the fiber reinforcing. use temperature that ensure that the materials and bonds will
(6) Stress intensification factors have not been developed for have adequate toughness and are suitable at the design minimum
nonmetallic piping. For many nonmetallic components temperature. Unlike metallic materials, specific tests such as
(RTR in particular), the design is manufacturer specific, so Charpy are not specified.
the development of industry standard stress intensification
factors is problematic. 17.14.8 Bonding of Plastics
One of the key elements to successful construction of a plastic
In general, design of RTR and RPM piping allows for the mate- piping system is the joints. ASME B31.3 requires a formal
rial to be brittle. Thus, there is essentially no difference between process of developing, documenting, and qualifying bonding pro-
stresses due to thermal expansion and those due to weight or pres- cedures and personnel performing the bonding. The joints in plas-
sure. An allowable stress that is comparable to that permitted for tic (RTR, RPM, and thermoplastic) piping are called bonds. The
pressure is commonly used as an allowable for the total weight requirements are similar to the requirements for qualification of
plus pressure plus thermal expansion stress. For laminated RTR, welds and welders.
62 Chapter 17
The first step is to have a documented bonding procedure maintaining records of the specifications and test. Under certain cir-
specification (BPS). The specification must document the proce- cumstances as described in ASME B31.3, including approval of the
dures for making the joint, as set forth in para. A328.2.1. This (owners) Inspector, use of bonding procedure specifications
procedure must be qualified by a bonding procedure qualification qualified by others, and bonders qualified by others is permitted.
test. Once it is so qualified, it may be used by personnel to bond If a bonder or bonding operator has not used a specific bonding
nonmetallic ASME B31.3 piping systems. Those bonders, howev- process for a period of three months, requalification is required.
er, must also be qualified to perform the work. Again, similar to welding, the bonds that are made are required
Bonders are qualified in a performance qualification test. The to be identified with a symbol that indicates which joints are made
qualification test for the bonding procedure and the bonder are the by which bonder. As an alternative, appropriate records that pro-
same. The bonder must fabricate an assembly including at least vide this information may be used instead of physically marking
one pipe to pipe joint and one pipe to fitting joint, and the bonder each joint.
must pressure test it. There are two options for the pressure test. General requirements are provided in para. A328.5 for hot-
The first is a burst test in accordance with ASTM D 1599. This gas-welded joints in thermoplastic piping, solvent-cemented
requires increasing the pressure uniformly at a rate that will result joints in thermoplastic piping, heat-fusion joints in thermoplastic
in failure in 60 to 70 sec. The acceptance criteria, when using this piping, electrofusion joints in thermoplastic piping, adhesive
burst test procedure to qualify a bond, is that the failure must ini- joints in RTR and RPM piping, and butt-and-wrapped joints in
tiate outside of the joint (the joint must not be the weak link). The RTR and RPM piping.
second option is a hydrostatic test with a duration of 1 hr, with no
leakage or separation of joints. 17.14.9 Other Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection
The hydrostatic test pressure depends on the material of con- Requirements
struction. For thermoplastics, it is calculated based on the short- Requirements for fabrication of piping lined with nonmetals
term (about 1 min) and long-term (50 yr) burst strengths. These (para. A329), joining of nonplastic piping (e.g., borosilicate glass)
are interpolated by equation 27 in a manner appropriate to evalua- (para. A334), and assembly and erection of nonmetallic piping
tion of thermoplastic creep data to arrive at a 1 hr strength. This is (para. A335) are provided in ASME B31.3. These are not com-
used to test the pipe. Prior rules that used an arbitrary factor of prehensive requirements, but rather they address some specific
three times the manufacturers rated pressure did not work considerations that apply to nonmetallic piping in addition to the
because quite often the pipe would not satisfy this test, so the base Code requirements.
bond could not be tested. The factor for RTR and RPM remains at Welding of metallic piping lined with nonmetals generally fol-
three times the manufacturers allowable pressure. lows the base Code requirements for welding of metallic piping.
Precautions are provided in para. A329. For example, precautions
PT = 0.80Tq a b
Ss + SH are required to avoid damage to the nonmetallic lining. If such
(27)
D - Tq damage occurs, it must be repaired. Qualification of a welder or
welding operator for a WPS for lined pipe is specific to the lining;
where
a different qualification test is required for each lining material.
D outside diameter of pipe This, of course, only applies to pipe that has already been lined,
PT hydrostatic test pressure not welding of piping prior to lining it.
SH mean long-term hydrostatic design strength (LTHS) in
accordance with ASTM D 2837; use twice the 23C 17.14.10 Examination and Testing
(73F) HDB design stress from Table B-1 if listed or The nondestructive examination techniques for nonmetallic
use manufacturers data piping are not nearly as well developed as for metallic piping. As
Ss mean short-term burst stress in accordance with ASTM a result, the techniques that are used are visual and in-process
D 1599, from Table B-1 if listed, otherwise from manu- examination. Specific examination requirements for nonmetallic
facturers data piping are included with the discussion of examination for metal-

T nominal thickness of pipe lic piping in para. 17.12.6.
Leak testing requirements for nonmetallic piping are covered in
Under some circumstances, it is not possible to pass a para. 17.13.9.
qualification test using the hydrostatic test method because the
components fail at a pressure that is lower than the test pressure; 17.14.11 References
thus, it is not possible to test the joint at the test pressure. In this 1. Short II, W. E., Overview of Chapter VII, Nonmetallic Piping and
circumstance, the burst test method should be used. With the burst Piping Lined with Nonmetals in the ASME B31.3 Chemical Plant &
test method, it is only necessary to demonstrate that the joint is Petroleum Refinery Piping Code, Codes and Standards and
stronger than the weakest component; i.e., the criterion is that Applications for Design and Analysis of Pressure Vessel and Piping
failure initiates outside of any bonded joint. Components-1989, ASME PVP-Vol. 161, American Society of
To qualify the bonding procedure specification (BPS), at least Mechanical Engineers, 1989.
one of each joint type covered by the BPS must be included in the 2. Short II, W. E., Coverage of Non-Metals in the ASME B31.3
test(s). With respect to size, if the largest joint is 110 mm (NPS 4) Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping Code, Journal of
or smaller, the test assembly is required to be the largest size to be Process Mechanical Engineers, IMechE Vol. 206, pp. 6772, Institute
joined. If the largest pipe to be joined is greater than 110 mm of Mechanical Engineers, May 1992.
(NPS 4), the size is required to be 110 mm (NPS 4) or 25% of the ASME B31.3, Process Piping; The American Society of Mechanical
largest pipe to be joined, whichever is greater. Engineers.
The employer of the bonder is responsible for performing the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure
bonding procedure qualification test, qualifying bonders, and Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
ASTM C 582, Standard Specification for Contact-Molded Reinforced Another consideration that is often missed is that the definition
Thermosetting Plastic (RTP) Laminates for Corrosion-Resistant requires the fluid to be toxic. Dangerous fluids are not necessarily
Equipment; American Society for Testing and Materials. Category M. According to the definition, exposure to a very small
ASTM D 1599, Standard Test Method for Short-Time Hydraulic Failure quantity is required to cause serious irreversible harm. Thus, the
Pressure of Plastic Pipe, Tubing, and Fittings; American Society for presence of H2S in the system would not be considered to make the
Testing and Materials. system be potentially considered to be in Category M Fluid Service.
ASTM D 2837, Standard Test Method for Obtaining Hydrostatic Design Examples of systems for which personnel exposure may be
Basis for Thermoplastic Pipe Materials; American Society for Testing and judged to be insignificant include double-containment piping with
Materials. leak detection and piping systems that people may not be exposed to
by virtue of isolation or other means of personnel protection. As
ASTM D 2992, Standard Practice for Obtaining Hydrostatic or Pressure
Design Basis for Fiberglass (Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Thermosetting-
such, chemicals such as phosgene and MIC, which may be classified
Resin) Pipe and Fittings; American Society for Testing and Materials. as Category M in a single-wall piping system, may be classified as
normal fluid service in a double-containment piping system.
WRC 415, Literature Survey and Interpretive Study on Thermoplastic and Another key consideration is that only the owner has the right
Reinforced-Thermosetting-Resin Piping and Component Standards, W. E.
and responsibility to select the fluid service.
Short II, G. F. Leon, G. E. O. Widera, and C. G. Zui, The Welding
Research Council, September, 1996.
17.15.2 Organization of Chapter VIII
Chapter VIII follows the same paragraph numbering as the
base Code, Chapters I through VI. However, the paragraphs start
17.15 CATEGORY M PIPING with M for metallic piping in accordance with Chapter VIII and
MA of nonmetallic piping in accordance with Chapter VIII.
17.15.1 When to Use the Rules for Category M Fluid To determine the rules for piping systems in Category M fluid
Service service, simply refer to Chapter VIII. If rules elsewhere in the
The rules in Chapter VIII of ASME B31.3 are used when the Code apply, they will be referred to in Chapter VIII. In general,
owner designates a piping system to be in Category M fluid ser- Chapter VIII refers to the base Code for metallic piping and
vice. The owner is guided in the classification for the piping sys- Chapter VII for nonmetallic piping.
tem by the definition of Category M fluid service in Chapter I of Chapter VIII makes no provision for severe cyclic conditions,
ASME B31.3. This definition is the Code rule relative to as stated in para. M300(e). Severe cyclic conditions should be
classification. A guide to the application of these rules is provided avoided by design in these systems. This simply requires, for sys-
in Appendix M, which contains a flow chart to assist the owner in tems with greater than 7,000 equivalent cycles, the inclusion of
classifying fluid services. enough flexibility to reduce the thermal expansion stress range to
All criteria must be satisfied for the service to meet the 80% or less of the allowable. If, for some reason, this is not feasi-
definition of Category M. The definition of Category M fluid ser- ble, ASME B31.3 requires that the engineering design specify any
vice is as follows: necessary provisions.
a fluid service in which the potential for personnel exposure 17.15.3 Overview of Metallic Rules
is judged to be significant and in which a single exposure of The metallic rules prohibit the use of certain components con-
a very small quantity of a toxic fluid, caused by leakage, can sidered to have lower integrity, and they require additional design
produce serious irreversible harm to persons on breathing or considerations, additional examination, and additional testing.
bodily contact, even when prompt restorative measures are The measures are intended to result in a piping system that is less
taken. likely to leak.
The following are highlights of some of these requirements. It
Note that the Code considers many very hazardous fluid ser-
is not an all-inclusive list; refer to ASME B31.3 for the complete
vices to be normal fluid service. The design and construction rules
requirements.
for normal fluid service are suitable for hazardous services.
Category M provides a higher level. If higher integrity piping is
(1) The presumptive degree of ambient cooling (e.g., 5% for
desired by the owner, even though the fluid does not meet the def-
uninsulated pipe) provided in the base Code is not permit-
inition of Category M, the owner can still specify the additional
ted. Rather, the design metal temperature, if less than the
design, construction, examination, and testing requirements that
fluid temperature, must be substantiated by heat transfer
are provided in Chapter VIII. Hydrofluoric acid is one example of
calculations confirmed by tests or by experimental mea-
a fluid for which many owners specify more stringent require-
sures.
ments than are provided in the Code for normal fluid service,
(2) Increased pressure temperatures for short-term variations
although it would be considered normal fluid service.
(allowances for variations) are not permitted.
A key part of the definition that is often neglected are the words
(3) Lower integrity piping and components are prohibited.
in which the potential for personnel exposure is judged to be
(4) Special consideration is required for prevention of valve
significant. A piping system for which the exposure of personnel
stem leakage to the environment. Specific requirements are
to the fluid is judged to be insignificant would not satisfy the
provided for valve bonnet or cover plate closures. (M307.2)
definition of Category M. Two different piping systems contain-
(5) Single-welded slip-on, expanded-joint, and threaded (with
ing the same fluid may be judged to be in different fluid services,
certain exceptions) joint flanges are prohibited. (M308.2)
one normal and the other Category M. Thus, there cannot be a list
(6) Expanded joints are prohibited. (M313)
of chemical compounds that states the fluid service irrespective of
(7) Additional limitations are provided for threaded joints.
the conditions of installation.
(M314)
64 Chapter 17
(8) Joints such as caulked (M316), soldered and brazed generally spend a great deal of time on this section. However, the
(M317), and bell-type joints (M318) are prohibited. rules may not be sufficient for the extremely dangerous chemicals
(9) Pipe supports are required to be constructed of listed mate- that fit the definition of Category M. Additional precautions
rials. (M321) should be considered, such as 100% radiography or double con-
(10) Specific provisions for instrument piping [e.g., limiting tainment (which could be considered to remove the piping system
tubing to 15 mm (58 in.) diameter maximum, accessible from Category M).
block valves required to be available to isolate the instru-
ment piping from pipeline]. (M322.3) 17.15.6 Reference
(11) The design pressure is not permitted to be exceeded by ASME B31.3, Process Piping; The American Society of Mechanical
more than 10% during pressure relief. (M322.6.3) Engineers.
(12) The low-stress exemption from impact testing is not per-
mitted. (M323.2)
(13) Cast iron and ductile iron are not permitted for pressure
containing parts, and lead and tin may only be used as lin- 17.16 HIGH-PRESSURE PIPING
ings. (M322.4.2)
(14) Less-stringent heat treatments than required in Table 17.16.1 Scope of Chapter IX, High-Pressure Piping
331.1.1 are not permitted. (M331) Chapter IX of ASME B31.3 only applies when the owner
(15) Additional examination is required. While the acceptance specifies its use. It applies to piping in high-pressure fluid service.
criteria of the base Code are applicable, the amount of Note that the definition of high-pressure fluid service simply
radiography is increased from 5% to 20% and random requires that the owner specify use of Chapter IX. Some guidance
visual examination is generally increased to 100% visual is provided in K300(a), which states that High pressure is con-
examination. See 17.12 for specific requirements. sidered to be pressure in excess of that allowed by the ASME
(16) In addition to the testing required for normal fluid service, B16.5 PN 420 (Class 2500) rating for the specified design temper-
an additional sensitive leak test is required to ensure that ature and material group. This is not a requirement, and the base
the piping is free from small leaks. See 17.13 for specific Code may be satisfactorily used at pressures higher than ASME
requirements. B16.5 PN 420 (Class 2500). However, the base Code rules
become increasingly conservative and, in fact, impossible to use
17.15.4 Overview of Nonmetallic Rules as the pressure approaches the allowable stress (including quality
The nonmetallic rules prohibit the use of certain components factors). See para. 17.16.3 for a discussion of pressure design of
considered to have lower integrity, and they require additional straight pipe. By the same token, Chapter IX may be used at
design considerations, additional examination, and additional test- lower pressures; it has been used with high-strength steels with
ing. The measures are intended to result in a piping system that is pressures as low as 28,000 kPa (5,000 psi).
less likely to leak. These rules generally refer to Chapter VII. The rules provide a combination of considerations. While
The following are highlights of some of these requirements. It reduced wall thicknesses and provisions that are specific to the
is not an all-inclusive list; refer to ASME B31.3 for the complete needs of high pressure (e.g., not including thread depth as an
requirements. allowance under specific conditions), additional material tough-
ness, analysis during design, inspection, and testing are required.
(1) The piping is not permitted to exceed the design pressure A background paper on these rules by Sims [1] is listed in the ref-
under any circumstance, including pressure-relief condi- erences.
tions. This is the same as the rule for nonmetallic piping. Chapter IX makes no provision for Category D and M fluid ser-
(MA 302.2.4) vice classifications. Considering the pressure, Category D is not
(2) Nonmetallic fabricated branch connections are prohibited. applicable. There are no provisions for Category M Fluid Service.
(MA 306.5) The concept of severe cyclic conditions is not used in Chapter IX;
(3) Nonmetallic valves and specialty components are prohibit- however, the rules are more stringent than the base Code rules for
ed. (MA 307) severe cyclic service. Therefore, the additional consideration of
(4) Hot-gaswelded, heat-fusion, solvent-cemented, and adhe- severe cyclic service is unnecessary.
sive-bonded joints are not permitted except in linings. The criteria consider limit load failure and fatigue. Elevated
(MA311.2) temperature creep effects are not included; thus, the use of
(5) Expanded, nonmetallic threaded, and caulked joints are pro- Chapter IX is limited to temperatures below the creep regime for
hibited. (MA313, MA314, MA316) the materials of construction.
(6) Thermoplastics and reinforced plastic mortar are permitted Nonmetallic parts, other than gaskets and packing, are not per-
only as linings and, for thermoplastics, gaskets. (MA323.4.2) mitted.
(7) The examination and testing rules of Chapter VII apply This section provides an overview of Chapter IX. See the
except that 100% visual examination of all fabrication as ASME B31.3 Code for specific requirements.
well as bolted and mechanical joints is required and Section VIII, Division 3, Pressure Vessels, Alternative Rules
in-process examination is increased from 5% to 20%. for Construction of High Pressure Vessels, was completed after
Chapter IX. As a result, there are various references to the
17.15.5 General Comments requirements of Section VIII, Division 2 that have been changed
The rules of Chapter VIII are intended to provide greater assur- to either include Division 3 as an acceptable alternative or to sim-
ance of leak tightness. An example is the requirement that a sensi- ply require the Division 3 rules rather than the Division 2 rules.
tive leak test be performed in addition to the standard leak test The Division 3 rules are generally more applicable, as they were
(e.g., hydrotest). The ASME B31.3 Section Committee does not developed for high-pressure equipment.
17.16.2 Organization of Chapter IX The external thread on pipe can be neglected in the mechanical
Chapter IX follows the same paragraph numbering as the base allowances when, for straight-threaded connections, the following
Code, Chapters I through VI; however, the paragraphs start with are satisfied:
K for high-pressure piping in accordance with Chapter IX.
To determine the rules for high-pressure piping systems, simply (1) the thread depth does not exceed 20% of the wall thickness;
refer to Chapter IX. If rules elsewhere in the Code apply, they are (2) the ratio of outside to inside diameter, D/d, is greater
referenced in Chapter IX. than1.1;
(3) the internally threaded attachment provides adequate rein-
17.16.3 Pressure Design of High-Pressure Piping forcement; and
Beyond a certain pressure, it is not possible to design piping in (4) the thread plus the undercut area, if any, does not extend
accordance with the basic wall thickness equation, equation 3, in beyond the reinforcement for a distance more than the nom-
the base Code. Assuming Y is equal to zero (note that Y inal wall thickness of the pipe.
approaches zero as the inside diameter approaches zero; see
definition of Y in para. 304.1.1), the required wall thickness is This recognizes that the threaded fitting, typically a threaded
equal to the outside radius of the pipe when the pressure is equal flange, to which the pipe is attached can effectively reinforce the
to the allowable stress times the quality factor (SE, see para. pipe for internal pressure under certain conditions.
17.4.1). However, heavy wall pipe has substantial pressure capaci- Figure 17.16.1 provides a comparison of the base Code pressure
ty beyond the point where the circumferential stress at the bore design rules with those of Chapter IX. It provides the ratio of allow-
reaches yield. For high internal pressure, the radial stresses due to able pressure to allowable stress as a function of the D/t ratio. It can
the surface traction of internal pressure significantly affect yield- be observed that the base Code provides a higher allowable pres-
ing of the material on the inside of the pipe, considering the Von sure for D/t ratios greater than about 4. However, because the
Mises or Tresca yield theory. allowable stress in Chapter IX is based on yield strength and not
Equation 34 in Chapter IX provides the required thickness for tensile strength, there will be a greater advantage with respect to
high-pressure straight pipe. Rather than being based on maximum wall thickness to use Chapter IX for steels with high yield to tensile
circumferential stress, as in the base Code, it is based on limit strength ratios. This is because the base Code allowable stress
load pressure. The following equations for calculation of required would be controlled by one-third the tensile strength.
wall thickness are provided. Equations 35a and 35b in the Code Similar to but more limited than the base Code, provisions for
provide the allowable pressure based on available thickness. design of specific types of components are provided, and listed
components are accepted. The table of listed components is Table
tm = t + c (33) K326.1.
The comparable paragraph to 304.7.2 is K304.7.2, Unlisted
c1 - exp a bd
D - 2co -P Components and Elements. The options for proving the pressure
t = (34a)
2 S design of unlisted components are more limited than in the base
Code. Extensive service experience, performance testing, or
cexp a b - 1 d
d + 2c1 P
t = (34b) detailed stress analysis (with the results evaluated in accordance
2 S with BPVC Section VIII, Div 3, Article KD-2) are permitted to
where qualify components. The performance testing must substantiate
both the static pressure design and the fatigue life.
D outside diameter of pipe (maximum permitted by
specifications)
S allowable stress from Table K-1
c cI co
cI sum of internal mechanical plus corrosion and erosion
allowances
co sum of external mechanical plus corrosion and erosion
allowances including, except under certain conditions,
thread depth
d inside diameter of pipe (maximum permitted by
specifications)
t pressure design wall thickness
tm minimum required wall thickness including mechanical,
corrosion, and erosion allowances
These equations provide a margin of 1.732 (which is 13) rela-
tive to through-thickness yielding, based on von Mises theory, and
elastic-perfectly plastic material behavior when the allowable
stress is based on two-thirds yield. When the allowable stress is
based on 90% of the yield strength, the factor is reduced to as low
as 1.5 at elevated temperatures.
There is not a quality factor included since the minimum per-
mitted quality factor in Chapter IX is 1.0.
When the mechanical allowances are not specified to be inter- FIG. 17.16.1 COMPARISON OF WALL THICKNESS
nal or external, they are assumed to be internal. REQUIRED BY EQUATION 3 VERSUS EQUATION 34
66 Chapter 17
Short-term variations above the design pressure and tempera- (2) Fatigue analysis per Section VIII, Division 2 deals with
ture are not permitted except accumulation during pressure- stresses at a point, whereas the flexibility analysis rules of
relieving events. ASME B31.3 do not inform the designer as to the location
and direction of stresses that are calculated. For example,
17.16.4 External Pressure the stresses in an elbow due to in-plane bending are through
Buckling due to external pressure is not generally a concern for wall bending and greatest in the circumferential direction,
high-pressure piping. However, the limit pressure determined and should be directly added to the pressure stress; whereas
using equations 34 and 35 is not always conservative for external the stresses due to bending in straight pipe are gross bend-
pressure on straight pipe, considering buckling and, under rare ing on the pipe section and longitudinal, and should be com-
circumstances, when external pressure does not cause axial combined with the pressure stress to determine Tresca stress
pression of the pipe. In the latter case, collapse can be predicted intensity.
by triaxial stress states and yield theory. (3) The stresses due to internal pressure vary through the thick-
When D/t 3.33 and at least one end of the pipe is exposed to ness; this should be considered in determining what pres-
full external pressure, which produces compressive axial stress, sure stress to combine with the deflection stresses (e.g., bore
equations 34 and 35 for internal pressure can be used. In all other stress should be considered for an elbow and the outside
circumstances, the base Code rules for external pressure design of stress should be considered for a threaded joint).
straight pipe are used. (4) The radial stress through the wall of the pipe [compressive
and equal to internal pressure on the inside surface and
17.16.5 Design for Sustained and Occasional Loads generally considered to be zero on the outside surface (for a
The criteria for sustained loads is the same as the base Code. pipe under intenral pressure)] can be a significant compo-
The longitudinal stress due to pressure, weight, and other sus- nent of the Tresca stress intensity.
tained loads must be less than Sh.
The criteria for occasional loads is more conservative than the All these mean that a designer tackling a fatigue analysis for
base Code. A factor of 1.2 times the allowable stress is used (the Chapter IX piping should be an expert, intimately familiar with
same as Section VIII, Division 1) rather than a factor of 1.33. the stress distributions in thick-wall piping components.
ASME B31.3 provides the equation below for the stress inten-
17.16.6 Design for Thermal Expansion and Fatigue sity on the inside surface of straight pipe due to internal pressure.
Flexibility analysis is conducted similar to the base Code. Note that this is not likely to be the controlling location in the sys-
However, only the more conservative equation for SA, which tem. As such, its usefulness is limited. Also note that this equa-
assumes that SL Sh, is used (equation 32). The allowable stress- tion is only considered to be valid if the calculated stress per this
es from Appendix K are used rather than the allowable stresses equation does not exceed three times the allowable stress from
from Appendix A. These will be higher when tensile strength Table K-1 (this is two times the yield strength). If this stress is
controls the allowable stresses in Appendix A. exceeded, an inelastic analysis is required to determine the strain
Chapter IX (para. 304.8) requires a detailed fatigue analysis in range due to internal pressure. This provision assumes that the
addition to the flexibility analysis provided in the base Code. For pipe will shake down to elastic action if the stress intensity range
this analysis, the allowable stress amplitude from the fatigue is less than two times the yield strength.
curves in Section VIII, Division 2, Appendix 5 are used or the
fatigue analysis is based on ASME BPVC, Section VIII, Div 3. PD2
S = (37)
The fatigue analysis should include the typically high strains 2(T - c)[D - (T - c)
due to internal pressure, in particular those at the bore of the pipe,
as well as the stress due to thermal expansion. Since the calcu- where
lated stress is compared to the polished bar fatigue curve, rather
than a butt-welded pipe fatigue curve, the stresses calculated in D outside diameter
accordance with the flexibility analysis rules of ASME B31.3 in P pressure (definition in nomenclature is not correct, as a
most cases need to be multiplied by a factor of two. All compo- variety of pressure conditions may be considered)
nents with stress intensification factors greater than one and pipe S stress intensity on inside surface of pipe (definition in
at girth welds should have the stresses multiplied by two. The rea- nomenclature is not correct.
son for doing this is explained in 17.8.4. c sum of mechanical allowances
The requirements for fatigue analysis pose some challenging
problems to the designer. Some of these are highlighted below. 17.16.7 Materials
The allowable stress is provided in Appendix K, Table K-1. It
(1) The designer must consider both pressure and displacement is two-thirds of the material yield strength, to be consistent with
cycles. Thus, a load histogram and a procedure such as the pressure design equation. For solution-heat-treated austenitic
rainflow counting is appropriate to determine the variety of stainless steels and certain nickel alloys with similar stress-strain
stress ranges and numbers of cycles at each stress range that behavior, the minimum of two-thirds the specified minimum yield
the piping must be designed for. For example, there may be strength and 90% of the yield strength at temperature is used.
normal pressure cycles, which may be more numerous than Similar to the base Code, this is because the material has
thermal displacement cycles, and also pressure pulsations. significant strength beyond the nominal 0.2% offset yield stress.
There will be some number of cycles at a maximum stress The same as the base Code, these higher stress values provided
range, which could be the normal pressure plus pulsation for stainless steel and similar material are not recommended for
plus displacement stress, plus many cycles with smaller flanges and similar components where slight deformation can
stress ranges to consider. cause leakage or other malfunction.
The impact test requirements are a very important part of the The acceptance criteria for welds are provided in Table
material requirements in Chapter IX for high-pressure piping. K341.3.2.
Essentially all high-pressure piping materials and welds must be
impact tested to determine that they have sufficient notch tough- 17.16.10 Testing
ness for any temperture condition at which stresses exceed All elements, including all components and welds, of a high-
41 MPa (6 ksi). Impact test requirements are provided in para. pressure piping system, except for bolting and gaskets used dur-
K323.3. Transverse specimens are required, unless the component ing final system assembly, are required to be subjected to a full
size or shape does not permit cutting transverse (to longitudinal pressure test. This pressure test need not be performed on the
axis of pipe or maximum direction of elongation during rolling or installed piping system, but can be done on piping subassemblies
direction of major working during forging) specimens. In that prior to erection. The full pressure test is the base Code hydrotest
case, longitudinal specimens may be used; however, the required pressure (1.5 times the design pressure times the temperature
impact energy absorption is higher. correction factor, see 17.13.2), except that there is no limitation
For materials, at least one set per lot is required. For impact on the temperature correction factor. Furthermore, if this test is
tests on welds, significantly more testing is required than the base performed as a pneumatic test, the same full pressure, as for a
Code. Whereas the base Code only requires impact testing as part hydrotest, is required. However, the test pressure can be reduced,
of the weld procedure qualification, Chapter IX requires impact if necessary, to limit the pressure to that at which through-
testing for each welder, welding procedure, type of electrode, or thickness yielding (calculated based on specified minimum yield
filler metal, and each flux to be used. For tests on welds, separate stress) occurs in any component.
tests are not required for each lot of material. Test specimens for After the piping is assembled, an additional leak test of the
the welds and heat-affected zones are required. installed piping system is required. This is conducted at 110% of
The minimum permissible temperature for a material is the the design pressure. However, if the full pressure test described in
minimum temperature at which an impact test that satisfies the the prior paragraph was performed on the installed piping, the
Code requirements was performed. The only exception to this is additional leak test is not required.
the 41 MPa (6 ksi) exemption, but that exemption may only be
used down to 46C (50F). Impact testing, regardless of 17.16.11 Records
stress, is required for use at temperatures below that temperature. Chapter IX contains more substantive requirements for record
transfer to the owner and the retention of records than the base
17.16.8 Fabrication Code. For example, the base Code does not contain requirements
Requirements for qualification of welding procedures and relative to documentation of the engineering design. However,
welders or welding operators follow Section IX. However, there Chapter IX requires records of the following to be provided to the
are additional requirements and limitations, including the follow- owner or the (owners) Inspector:
ing:
(1) the engineering design;
(1) Qualification test weldments are required to be made using (2) material certifications;
the same specification and type or grade of base metal(s), (3) procedures used for fabrication, welding, heat treatment,
and the same specification and classification of filler examination, and testing;
metal(s) as will be used in production welding. (4) repair of materials including the procedure used for each,
Qualification by testing weldments made with materials and location of repairs;
with the same P number is not permitted. (5) performance qualifications for welders and welding opera-
(2) Test weldments are required to be subjected to essentially tors;
the same heat treatment, including cooling rate and cumula- (6) qualification of examination personnel;
tive time at temperature, as the production welds. (7) records of examination of pipe and tubing for longitudinal
(3) Mechanical testing is required for all performance defects as specified in paras. K344.6.4 and K344.8.3.
qualification tests; testing by radiography is not permitted.
These records are required to be retained by the owner for at
Branch connection fittings are required to be designed to permit least five years after they have been received.
100% radiography. Acceptable details are provided in Fig.
K328.5.4 of ASMEB31.3. 17.16.12 References
General fabrication requirements pertaining to end preparation, 1. Sims, J., Development of Design Criteria for a High Pressure Piping
alignment, welding, preheat, and postweld heat treatment are pro- Code, High Pressure TechnologyDesign, Analysis, and Safety of
vided. They are largely similar to the base Code with some varia- High Pressure Equipment, PVP-Vol 110, Ed. D. P. Kendall, The
tions. For example, the recommended preheat temperature, per American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1986.
Table 330.1.1, in the base Code is required for Chapter IX. ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings; The American Society
of Mechanical Engineers.
17.16.9 Examination
In general, Chapter IX requires 100% examination. This
Engineers.
includes 100% visual examination of materials and components;
fabrication; threaded, bolted, and other joints; piping erection; ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure
and pressure-containing threads. Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
All girth, longitudinal, and branch connection welds are ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 2, Pressure
required to be 100% examined by radiography. Ultrasonic and in- Vessels, Alternative Rules; The American Society of Mechanical
process examination are not acceptable alternatives. Engineers.
68 Chapter 17
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 3, Pressure (6) The stress tables will be converted to metric, in the future,
Vessels, Alternative Rules for Construction of High Pressure Vessels; The Their format will also be changed at the same time.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. (7) The weld size requirement for socket welds is being consid-
ASTM A 106, Standard Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe ered for revision. The size should be based on the nominal
for High-Temperature Service; American Society for Testing and thickness of the pipe, not the pressure design thickness.
Materials. (8) Specification of minimum pipe insertion depths are being
considered for socket and slip-on flanges.
(9) Alternative pressure test requirements that would permit
17.17 WHATS BEING CONSIDERED FOR monitoring of pressure decay rather than visual examina-
tion of all joints is being considered. This would be very
FUTURE EDITIONS OF ASME B31.3 helpful for double wall piping systems and buried systems.
There are other items being considered for future additions, or, (10) Clarification of the hydrotest pressure requirements are
in the view of the author, they should be considered. These being considered. These would address test pressure for
include the following: rated components, and clarify treatment of systems com-
posed of more than one material.
(1) The f factors, which are based on fatigue test data of carbon (11) Expanded treatment of mechanical type joints made after
steel (A106 Grade B) and stainless steel pipe, may not be hydrotest are being considered. These permit these joints
appropriate for high strength carbon steels and other mate- to be made after the hydrotest when either the conse-
rials, such as copper and aluminum. It would be desirable quences of leakage during initial operation are acceptable,
to develop material specific factors for some of these other or when an additional sensitive leak test is performed prior
alloys; however, this item requires research in the form of to operation to check for system tightness.
component fatigue tests. There is very limited work being (12) While this is unlikely to change, in the opinion of this
done in this area, essentially limited by availability of author, the radiography requirements for Category M Fluid
research funding. Service should change from 20% random radiography to
(2) The stress intensification factors for branch connections in 100%.
general, and specifically reducing branch connections, (13) The rules for severe cyclic service should be totally
needs to be updated based on the findings of research over reviewed and revised, to be consistent with the committee
the past decade. view that they only apply to specific components in the
(3) The rules with respect to determining the governing thick- system in which the calculated stress is over 80% of the
ness for impact test exemption rules should be expanded, allowable stress.
similar to BPVC Section VIII, Div 1. (14) Significant advances remain to be made in the area of flexi-
(4) The rules with respect to additional precautions when bility analysis of non-metallic piping systems.
using Fig. 323.2.2B for exemption from impact testing (15) New understanding regarding the fatigue behavior of
should be revised. metallic bellows expansion joints needs to be developed
(5) Additional requirements for welded attachments to low into Code revisions for Appendix X.
temperature piping, for which impact testing is required, (16) A new chapter X covering ultra-high purity piping is being
are being considered. prepared.

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What is the history and scope of ASME B31.3?

What is the history and scope of ASME B31.3?

What are some of the major changes that have been made to ASME B31.3 over time?

What are some of the major changes that have been made to ASME B31.3 over time?

ASME_Ch17_p01-68.

qxd 8/19/08 5:15 PM Page 1

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 3

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 5

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 7

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 9

TABLE 17.3.1 TABLE 302.3.4

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 11

17.4.2 Pressure Design of Straight Pipe

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 13

FIG. 17.4.1 STRESS DISTRIBUTION THROUGH PIPE

must be offset by a corresponding increase in hoop tensile stress

4B Where the above limitations are not satisfied, the designer is

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 15

FIG. 17.4.3 CHART TO DETERMINE A (SECTION II, PART D, SUBPART 3, FIG. G)

FIG. 17.4.5 BRANCH CONNECTION NOMENCLATURE (B31.3, FIG. 304.3.3)

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 17

FIG. 17.4.6 EXTRUDED OUTLET HEADER NOMENCLATURE (B31.3, FIG. 304.3.4)

FIG. 17.4.6 (CONT.)

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 19

17.4.11 Pressure Design of Flanges

17.4.12 Pressure Design of Blind Flanges

17.4.13 Pressure Design of Blanks

3P the manufacturer performs proof tests to qualify a line of piping

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 21

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 23

17.5.8 Threaded Joints

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 25

17.6.2 Sustained Longitudinal Stress 17.6.3 Limits of Calculated Stress due

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 27

The increase in allowable stress is only permitted as long as the

to point B (yield) to point E. Shutdown results in yielding in the

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 29

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 31

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 33

The displacement stress range, SE, is calculated from the com-

SE = 2S2b + 4S2t (17)

There are no torsional stress intensification factors in ASME

sy AB 17.8.8 Effect of Elastic Modulus Variations

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 35

temperature and multiply this result by the ambient temperature where

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 37

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 39

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 41

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 43

TABLE 17.10.2 TYPICAL APPENDIX A ALLOWABLE STRESS TABLE

TABLE 17.10.2a (CONT.)

The designer is permitted to linearly interpolate between tem- 17.10.9 References

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 45

TABLE 17.10.2b (CONT.)

TABLE 17.10.2c (CONT.)

17.11 FABRICATION, ASSEMBLY, 17.11.2 General Welding Requirements

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 47

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE 49

TABLE 17.11.1 PREHEAT TEMPERATURES