Introduction To Neurobioengineering
Introduction To Neurobioengineering
Introduction To Neurobioengineering
Neurobioengineering
Neurobioengineering is an interdisciplinary area, with
the common goal of analyzing the function of the
nervous system, developing methods to restore
damaged neurological function & creating artificial
neuronal systems by integrating physical, chemical,
mathematical & engineering tools.
Major thrusts include new technology & approaches to
advanced basic research on the nervous system, including
signal processing, modeling & simulation of neural
systems & their functions; development & application of
specialized technology for medical diagnosis, monitoring
& treatment of nervous system disorders; & “neuro
technology” applications such as enhancedperformance
systems designed on the basis of fundamental principles
of nervous systems structure & function.
The Nervous system
The ysytem that controls the various functions of the body and coordinates
them into an integrated living organism is called nervous system.
Composed of the brain, numerous sensing devices, and a high speed
communication network that links all parts of the body, the nervous system
not only influences all the other systems but is also responsible for the
behaviour of the organism. In this broad sense, behaviour includes the
ability to learn, remember, acquire a personality, and interact with its
society and the environment. It is through the nervous system that the
organism achieves autonomy and acquires the various traits that
characterize it as an individual.
Neuron
The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron
which is a single cell with a cell body (called soma), one
or more “input” fibers called dendrites and a long
transmitting fiber called the axon.The human nervous
system consists of billions of nerve cells (or neurons) plus
supporting cells.
Neurons are able to respond to stimuli (such as touch,
sound, light, and so on), conduct impulses, &
communicate with each other.
The nucleus of a neuron is located in the cell body.
Extending out from the cell body are processes called
Dendrites and Axons
Dendrites : Conduct impulses toward the cell
body.
Axons : Conduct impulses away from cell body.The
portion of the axon immediately adjacent to the cell body
is called axon hillock.
Neuron (Contd…)
An unequal distribution of these two ions occurs on the two sides of a nerve cell
membrane because carriers actively transport these two ions: sodium from the
inside to the outside and potassium from the outside to the inside.
As a result of this active transport mechanism (commonly referred to as the
SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP), there is a higher concentration of sodium on the
outside than the inside and a higher concentration of potassium on the inside than
the outside.
The nerve cell membrane also contains special passageways for these two ions that
are commonly referred to as GATES or CHANNELS.
Thus, there are SODIUM GATES and POTASSIUM GATES.
These gates represent the only way that these ions can pass through the nerve cell
membrane.
IN A RESTING NERVE CELL MEMBRANE, all the sodium gates are closed and
some of the potassium gates are open.
AS A RESULT, sodium cannot diffuse through the membrane & largely remains
outside the membrane. HOWEVER, some potassium ions are able to diffuse out.
OVERALL, THEREFORE, there are lots of positively charged potassium
ions just inside the membrane and lots of positively charged sodium ions
PLUS some potassium ions on the outside.
THIS MEANS THAT THERE ARE MORE POSITIVE CHARGES ON
THE OUTSIDE THAN ON THE INSIDE.
In other words, there is an unequal distribution of ions or a resting
membrane potential.
This potential will be maintained until the membrane is disturbed or
stimulated.
Then, if it's a sufficiently strong stimulus, an action potential will occur.
ACTION POTENTIAL
An action potential is a very rapid change in membrane potential that occurs when
a nerve cell membrane is stimulated.
Specifically, the membrane potential goes from the resting potential (typically 70
mV) to some positive value (typically about +30 mV) in a very short period of
time (just a few milliseconds).
What causes this change in potential to
occur ?
All these positivelycharged sodiums rushing in causes the membrane
potential to become positive (the inside of the membrane is now
positive relative to the outside).
The sodium channels open only briefly, then close again.
The potassium channels then open,
and, because there is more potassium
inside the membrane than outside,
positivelycharged potassium ions
diffuse out.
Threshold stimulus & potential
•Action potentials occur only when the membrane in stimulated (depolarized)
enough so that sodium channels open completely. The minimum stimulus needed to
achieve an action potential is called the threshold stimulus.
•The threshold stimulus causes the membrane potential to become less negative
(because a stimulus, no matter how small, causes a few sodium channels to open
and allows some positivelycharged sodium ions to diffuse in).
•If the membrane potential reaches the threshold potential (generally 5 15 mV
less negative than the resting potential), the voltageregulated sodium channels all
open. Sodium ions rapidly diffuse inward, & depolarization occurs.
All-or-None Law
AllorNone Law action potentials occur maximally or not at all.
In other words, there's no such thing as a partial or weak action potential.
Either the threshold potential is reached and an action potential occurs, or it isn't
reached and no action potential occurs.
Refractory periods:
ABSOLUTE –
• During an action potential, a second stimulus will not produce a second
action potential (no matter how strong that stimulus is)
• Corresponds to the period when the sodium channels are open (typically
just a millisecond or less).
RELATIVE –
Another action potential can be produced, but only if the stimulus is greater than
the threshold stimulus.
Corresponds to the period when the potassium channels are open (several
milliseconds)
The nerve cell membrane becomes progressively more 'sensitive' (easier to
stimulate) as the relative refractory period proceeds. So, it takes a very strong
stimulus to cause an action potential at the beginning of the relative refractory
period, but only a slightly above threshold stimulus to cause an action potential near
the end of the relative refractory period.
Absolute Relative
Impulse conduction
An impulse is simply the movement of action potentials along a nerve cell.
Action potentials are localized (only affect a small area of nerve cell membrane).
So, when one occurs, only a small area of membrane depolarizes (or 'reverses'
potential).
As a result, for a split second, areas of membrane adjacent to each other have
opposite charges (the depolarized membrane is negative on the outside & positive on
the inside, while the adjacent areas are still positive on the outside and negative on
the inside).
This 'minicircuit' stimulates the adjacent area and, therefore, an action potential
occurs.
This process repeats itself and action potentials move down the nerve cell
membrane. This 'movement' of action potentials is called an Impulse.
Conduction Velocity:
Impulses typically travel along neurons at a speed of anywhere from 1 to 120
meters per second.
The speed of conduction can be influenced by:
The presence or absence of myelin.
Neurons with myelin (or myelinated neurons) conduct impulses much faster than
those without myelin.
Schwann cells are located at regular intervals along the process
(axons and, for some neurons, dendrites) & so a section of a
myelinated axon would look like this:
Between areas of myelin are nonmyelinated areas called the nodes of Ranvier.
Because fat (myelin) acts as an insulator, membrane coated with myelin will not
conduct an impulse.
So, in a myelinated neuron, action potentials only occur along the nodes and,
therefore, impulses 'jump' over the areas of myelin going from node to node in a
process called saltatory conduction (with the word saltatory meaning 'jumping'):
Because the impulse 'jumps' over areas of myelin, an impulse travels
much faster along a myelinated neuron than along a nonmyelinated
neuron
Types of Neurons the three main types of neurons are:
• Multipolar neurons : are sonamed because they have many (multi)
processes that extend from the cell body: lots of dendrites plus a single axon.
Functionally, these neurons are either motor (conducting impulses that will
cause activity such as the contraction of muscles) or association (conducting
impulses and permitting 'communication' between neurons within the central
nervous system).
Multipolar
Neuron
2. Unipolar neurons : have one process from the cell body.
However, that single, very short, process splits into longer processes (a dendrite
plus an axon).
Unipolar neurons are sensory neurons conducting impulses into the central
nervous system
Unipolar Neuron
• Bipolar Neurons : have two processes one axon & one dendrite.
These neurons are also sensory.
For example, bipolar neurons can be found in the retina of the eye.
Bipolar neuron
Types of Neurons contd:
• Motor Neuron: Motor Neuron have a long axon & short dendrites & transmit
messages from the CNS to the muscles (or to glands).
• Sensory Neuron: Sensory Neuron have a long dendrites & short axon, &
carry messages from sensory receptors to the CNS.
• Interneuron: An interneuron (also called relay neuron or association
neuron or bipolar neuron) is a neuron that communicates only to other
neurons. Interneuron are found only in the CNS where they connect neuron
to neuron, so, it acts as a link between sensory neurons and motor neurons
Synapse
Synapse is point of impulse transmission between neurons; impulses are
transmitted from presynaptic neurons to postsynaptic neurons
Synapses usually occur between the axon of a pre
synaptic neuron & a dendrite or cell body of a post
synaptic neuron.
At a synapse, the end of the axon is 'swollen' and
referred to as an end bulb or synaptic knob.
So, pre and postsynaptic membranes do not actually come in contact.
That means that the impulse cannot be transmitted directly.
Rather, the impulse is transmitted by the release of chemicals called chemical
transmitters (or neurotransmitters).
When an impulse arrives at the end bulb, the end bulb membrane becomes
more permeable to calcium.
Calcium diffuses into the end bulb & activates enzymes that cause the synaptic
vesicles to move toward the synaptic cleft.
Some vesicles fuse with the membrane and release their neurotransmitter.
The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the cleft and fit into receptor sites in
the postsynaptic membrane.
When these sites are filled, sodium channels open & permit an inward diffusion of
sodium ions.
This, of course, causes the membrane potential to become less negative (or, in other
words, to approach the threshold potential).
If enough neurotransmitter is released, and enough sodium channels are opened,
then the membrane potential will reach threshold.
If so, an action potential occurs and spreads along the membrane of the post
synaptic neuron (in other words, the impulse will be transmitted).
Of course, if insufficient neurotransmitter is released, the impulse will not be
transmitted.
Types of neurotransmitters
1. Excitatory :
2. Inhibitory :
Inhibitory neurotransmitters that make membrane potential more negative (via
increased permeability of the membrane to potassium) &, therefore, tend to
'inhibit' (or make less likely) the transmission of an impulse.
One example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter is gamma aminobutyric acid
(GABA).
Medically, GABA has been used to treat both epilepsy and hypertension.
Another example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter is betaendorphin, which
results in decreased pain perception by the CNS.
Types of neurotransmitters contd…
Excitation and Inhibition depend on the properties of the receptor and
NOT the neurotransmitter.
Receptors coupled to Sodium or Calcium channels are excitatory and
produce a depolarization of the post synaptic membrane.
Receptors coupled to Chloride or Potassium channels are inhibitory and
produce a hyperpolarization of the post synaptic membrane.
Paths of information flow:
• Signals between the • Sensory nerves move a
brain and spinal signal towards the brain
cord move to the and spinal cord
body regions by
nerves • Motor neurons move a
signal from the brain or
spinal cord to the body
Conclusion
Neuroscientists Electronic
and Biologists Engineers
Analyze neuronal Reproduce
information neurophysiological
phenomena in silicon
Computer Scientist
and Mathematicians
Modelling of
neuromorphic
systems
Reference :
• Neuroscience, A Mathematical Primer. Author: Alwyn Scott,
Publisher: Spinger
• Bioelectronics Handbook, MOSFETs, Biosensors & Neurons, Author:
Massimo Grattarola, Giuseppe Massobrio, Publisher: Mc Graw Hill.
• From Neuron to Brain ; Author: J C Nicholls, A R Martin, B G
Wallace; Sunderland ,Mass, Publisher: Sinauer Associates
• Neural Engineering (Vol 16); Author: Metin Akay; Publisher: Wiley
/IEEE Press.
• Analog VLSI and neural systems; Author: C Mead; Publisher:
Addison Wesley.