SRI SHAKTHI

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

COIMBATORE 641062
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Student Observation Notebook

REGULATION 2013

ANALOG AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS LAB0RATORY

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS LAB0RATORY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

SL. PAGE.
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
NO NO

DIGITAL EXPREMENTS
1 Study of Logic gates
2 Design and Implementation of code converters using Logic gates
Design and Implementation of4 bit binary Adder / Subtractor and BCD adder
3
using IC 7483
Design and Implementation of Multiplexer and Demultiplexer using Logic
4
gates
5 Design and Implementation of Encoder and Decoder using Logic gates.
Construction and verification 4-bit ripple counter and Mod-10/ Mod-12 Ripple
6
counters
7 Design and Implementation of 3-bit synchronous up/down counter
8 Implementation of SISO, SIPO, PISO and PIPO shift registers using Flip-flops

ANALOG EXPREMENTS

9 Frequency response of CE Amplifier

10 Frequency response of CC Amplifier
11 Frequency response of CB Amplifier
12 Frequency response of CS Amplifier
13 Design of Darlington amplifier circuit
14 Design of differential amplifier circuit
15 Cascode Amplifier
16 Determination of bandwidth of Single stage and multistage Amplifier
MINI Project
17

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 01 STUDY OF LOGIC GATES
AIM:
To study about logic gates and verify their truth tables.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

SL No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QTY
1. AND GATE IC 7408 1
2. OR GATE IC 7432 1
3. NOT GATE IC 7404 1
4. NAND GATE 2 I/P IC 7400 1
5. NOR GATE IC 7402 1
6. X-OR GATE IC 7486 1
7. NAND GATE 3 I/P IC 7410 1
8. IC TRAINER KIT - 1
9. PATCH CORD - 14
THEORY:

Circuit that takes the logical decision and the process are called logic gates. Each gate has one or
more input and only one output.
OR, AND and NOT are basic gates. NAND, NOR and X-OR are known as universal gates. Basic
gates form these gates.

AND GATE:
The AND gate performs a logical multiplication commonly known as AND function. The output
is high when both the inputs are high. The output is low level when any one of the inputs is low.

OR GATE:
The OR gate performs a logical addition commonly known as OR function. The output is high
when any one of the inputs is high. The output is low level when both the inputs are low.

NOT GATE:
The NOT gate is called an inverter. The output is high when the input is low. The output is
low when the input is high.

NAND GATE:
The NAND gate is a contraction of AND-NOT. The output is high when both inputs are low and
any one of the input is low .The output is low level when both inputs are high.

NOR GATE:
The NOR gate is a contraction of OR-NOT. The output is high when both inputs are low. The
output is low when one or both inputs are high.

X-OR GATE:

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The output is high when any one of the inputs is high. The output is low when both the inputs are low and
both the inputs are high.

PROCEDURE:
(i) Connections are given as per circuit diagram.
(ii) Logical inputs are given as per circuit diagram.
(iii) Observe the output and verify the truth table.

AND GATE:

SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM:

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OR GATE:

NOT GATE:

SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM:

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X-OR GATE :

SYMBOL : PIN DIAGRAM :

2-INPUT NAND GATE:

SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM:

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3-INPUT NAND GATE :

NOR GATE:

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8|Page
RESULT:
The Logic gates have been studied and their truth table has been verified.

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 02 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF CODE CONVERTOR
AIM:
To design and implement 4-bit
(i) Binary to gray code converter
(ii) Gray to binary code converter
(iii) BCD to excess-3 code converter
(iv) Excess-3 to BCD code converter

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QTY.

1. X-OR GATE IC 7486 1
2. AND GATE IC 7408 1
3. OR GATE IC 7432 1
4. NOT GATE IC 7404 1
5. IC TRAINER KIT - 1
6. PATCH CORDS - 35

THEORY:

The availability of large variety of codes for the same discrete elements of information results in
the use of different codes by different systems. A conversion circuit must be inserted between the two
systems if each uses different codes for same information. Thus, code converter is a circuit that makes the
two systems compatible even though each uses different binary code.

The bit combination assigned to binary code to gray code. Since each code uses four bits to
represent a decimal digit. There are four inputs and four outputs. Gray code is a non-weighted code.
The input variable are designated as B3, B2, B1, B0 and the output variables are designated as
C3, C2, C1, Co. from the truth table, combinational circuit is designed. The Boolean functions are
obtained from K-Map for each output variable.

A code converter is a circuit that makes the two systems compatible even though each uses a
different binary code. To convert from binary code to Excess-3 code, the input lines must supply the bit
combination of elements as specified by code and the output lines generate the corresponding bit
combination of code. Each one of the four maps represents one of the four outputs of the circuit as a
function of the four input variables.

A two-level logic diagram may be obtained directly from the Boolean expressions derived by the
maps. These are various other possibilities for a logic diagram that implements this circuit. Now the OR
gate whose output is C+D has been used to implement partially each of three outputs.

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LOGIC DIAGRAM:
BINARY TO GRAY CODE CONVERTOR

K-Map for G3:

G 3 = B3

K-Map for G2:

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K-Map for G1:

K-Map for G0:

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TRUTH TABLE:
| Binary input | Gray code output |

B3 B2 B1 B0 G3 G2 G1 G0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
LOGIC DIAGRAM:
GRAY CODE TO BINARY CONVERTOR

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K-Map for B3:

B3 = G3
K-Map for B2:

K-Map for B1:

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K-Map for B0:

TRUTH TABLE:

| Gray Code | Binary Code |

G3 G2 G1 G0 B3 B2 B1 B0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

LOGIC DIAGRAM:

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BCD TO EXCESS-3 CONVERTOR

K-Map for E3:

E3 = B3 + B2 (B0 + B1)

K-Map for E2:

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K-Map for E1:

K-Map for E0:

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TRUTH TABLE:
| BCD input | Excess 3 output |
B3 B2 B1 B0 G3 G2 G1 G0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 x x x x
1 0 1 1 x x x x
1 1 0 0 x x x x
1 1 0 1 x x x x
1 1 1 0 x x x x
1 1 1 1 x x x x

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LOGIC DIAGRAM:
EXCESS-3 TO BCD CONVERTOR

K-Map for A:

A = X1 X2 + X3 X4 X1
K-Map for B:

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K-Map for C:

K-Map for D:

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TRUTH TABLE:

| Excess 3 Input | BCD Output |

B3 B2 B1 B0 G3 G2 G1 G0

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

PROCEDURE:
(i) Connections were given as per circuit diagram.
(ii) Logical inputs were given as per truth table
(iii) Observe the logical output and verify with the truth tables.

RESULT:

Hence designed and implemented 4-bit

(i) Binary to gray code converter
(ii) Gray to binary code converter
(iii) BCD to excess-3 code converter
(iv) Excess-3 to BCD code converter

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 03 DESIGN OF 4-BIT ADDER AND SUBTRACTOR

AIM:
To design and implement 4-bit adder and subtractor using IC 7483.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QTY.

1. IC IC 7483 1
2. EX-OR GATE IC 7486 1
3. NOT GATE IC 7404 1
3. IC TRAINER KIT - 1
4. PATCH CORDS - 40

THEORY:

4 BIT BINARY ADDER:

A binary adder is a digital circuit that produces the arithmetic sum of two binary numbers. It can
be constructed with full adders connected in cascade, with the output carry from each full adder
connected to the input carry of next full adder in chain. The augends bits of A and the addend bits of B
are designated by subscript numbers from right to left, with subscript 0 denoting the least significant bits.
The carries are connected in chain through the full adder. The input carry to the adder is C 0 and it ripples
through the full adder to the output carry C4.

4 BIT BINARY SUBTRACTOR:

The circuit for subtracting A-B consists of an adder with inverters, placed between each data input
B and the corresponding input of full adder. The input carry C 0 must be equal to 1 when performing
subtraction.

4 BIT BINARY ADDER/SUBTRACTOR:

The addition and subtraction operation can be combined into one circuit with one common binary
adder. The mode input M controls the operation. When M=0, the circuit is adder circuit. When M=1, it
becomes subtractor.
4 BIT BCD ADDER:
Consider the arithmetic addition of two decimal digits in BCD, together with an input carry from
a previous stage. Since each input digit does not exceed 9, the output sum cannot be greater than 19, the 1
in the sum being an input carry. The output of two decimal digits must be represented in BCD and should
appear in the form listed in the columns.
ABCD adder that adds 2 BCD digits and produce a sum digit in BCD. The 2 decimal digits,
together with the input carry, are first added in the top 4 bit adder to produce the binary sum.

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PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC 7483:

LOGIC DIAGRAM:
4-BIT BINARY ADDER

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LOGIC DIAGRAM:
4-BIT BINARY SUBTRACTOR

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LOGIC DIAGRAM:
4-BIT BINARY ADDER/SUBTRACTOR

TRUTH TABLE:

Input Data A Input Data B Addition Subtraction

A4 A3 A2 A1 B4 B3 B2 B1 C S4 S3 S2 S1 B D4 D3 D2 D1

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

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PROCEDURE:
(i) Connections were given as per circuit diagram.
(ii) Logical inputs were given as per truth table
(iii) Observe the logical output and verify with the truth tables.

RESULT:
Hence designed and implemented 4-bit adder and subtractor using IC 7483

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 04 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF MULTIPLEXER AND DEMULTIPLEXER

AIM:
To design and implement multiplexer and demultiplexer using logic gates and study of IC 74150
and IC 74154.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QTY.

1. 3 I/P AND GATE IC 7411 2
2. OR GATE IC 7432 1
3. NOT GATE IC 7404 1
2. IC TRAINER KIT - 1
3. PATCH CORDS - 32

THEORY:

MULTIPLEXER:
Multiplexer means transmitting a large number of information units over a smaller number of
channels or lines. A digital multiplexer is a combinational circuit that selects binary information from one
of many input lines and directs it to a single output line. The selection of a particular input line is
controlled by a set of selection lines. Normally there are 2n input line and n selection lines whose bit
combination determine which input is selected.

DEMULTIPLEXER:
The function of Demultiplexer is in contrast to multiplexer function. It takes information from one
line and distributes it to a given number of output lines. For this reason, the demultiplexer is also known
as a data distributor. Decoder can also be used as demultiplexer.
In the 1: 4 demultiplexer circuit, the data input line goes to all of the AND gates. The data select
lines enable only one gate at a time and the data on the data input line will pass through the selected gate
to the associated data output line.

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR 4:1 MULTIPLEXER:

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FUNCTION TABLE:

S1 S0 INPUTS Y
0 0 D0 D0 S1 S0
0 1 D1 D1 S1 S0
1 0 D2 D2 S1 S0
1 1 D3 D3 S1 S0

Y = D0 S1 S0 + D1 S1 S0 + D2 S1 S0 + D3 S1 S0

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR MULTIPLEXER:

TRUTH TABLE:

S1 S0 Y = OUTPUT
0 0 D0
0 1 D1
1 0 D2
1 1 D3

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BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR 1:4 DEMULTIPLEXERS:

FUNCTION TABLE:

S1 S0 INPUT
0 0 X D0 = X S1 S0
0 1 X D1 = X S1 S0
1 0 X D2 = X S1 S0
1 1 X D3 = X S1 S0

Y = X S1 S0 + X S1 S0 + X S1 S0 + X S1 S0

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LOGIC DIAGRAM FOR DEMULTIPLEXER:

TRUTH TABLE:
INPUT OUTPUT
S1 S0 I/P D0 D1 D2 D3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1

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PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC 74150:

PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC 74154:

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PROCEDURE:
(i) Connections are given as per circuit diagram.
(ii) Logical inputs are given as per circuit diagram.
(iii) Observe the output and verify the truth table.

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RESULT:
Hence designed and implemented multiplexer and demultiplexer using logic gates and study of IC
74150 and IC 74154

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 05 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ENCODER AND DECODER

AIM:
To design and implement encoder and decoder using logic gates and study of IC 7445 and IC
74147.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QTY

1. 3 I/P NAND GATE IC 7410 2
2. OR GATE IC 7432 3
3. NOT GATE IC 7404 1
2. IC TRAINER KIT - 1
3. PATCH CORDS - 27

THEORY:

ENCODER:
An encoder is a digital circuit that perform inverse operation of a decoder. An encoder has 2 n
input lines and n output lines. In encoder the output lines generates the binary code corresponding to the
input value. In octal to binary encoder it has eight inputs, one for each octal digit and three output that
generate the corresponding binary code. In encoder it is assumed that only one input has a value of one at
any given time otherwise the circuit is meaningless. It has an ambiguila that when all inputs are zero the
outputs are zero. The zero outputs can also be generated when D0 = 1.

DECODER:
A decoder is a multiple input multiple output logic circuit which converts coded input into coded
output where input and output codes are different. The input code generally has fewer bits than the output
code. Each input code word produces a different output code word i.e there is one to one mapping can be
expressed in truth table. In the block diagram of decoder circuit the encoded information is present as n
input producing 2n possible outputs. 2n output values are from 0 through out 2n 1.

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PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC 7445:

BCD TO DECIMAL DECODER:

PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC 74147:

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LOGIC DIAGRAM FOR ENCODER:

TRUTH TABLE:
INPUT OUTPUT
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7 A B C
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

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LOGIC DIAGRAM FOR DECODER:

TRUTH TABLE:

INPUT OUTPUT
A B D0 D1 D2 D3
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1

PROCEDURE:

(i) Connections are given as per circuit diagram.

(ii) Logical inputs are given as per circuit diagram.
(iii) Observe the output and verify the truth table

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RESULT:
Hence designed and implemented encoder and decoder using logic gates and study of IC 7445
and IC 74147.

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06 CONSTRUCTION AND VERIFICATION OF 4 BIT RIPPLE COUNTER AND MOD 10/MOD
12 RIPPLE COUNTER

AIM:
To design and verify 4 bit ripple counter mod 10/ mod 12 ripple counter.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QTY

1. JK FLIP FLOP IC 7476 2

2. NAND GATE IC 7400 1

3. IC TRAINER KIT - 1

4. PATCH CORDS - 30

THEORY:
A counter is a register capable of counting number of clock pulse arriving at its clock input.
Counter represents the number of clock pulses arrived. A specified sequence of states appears as counter
output. This is the main difference between a register and a counter. There are two types of counter,
synchronous and asynchronous. In synchronous common clock is given to all flip flop and in
asynchronous first flip flop is clocked by external pulse and then each successive flip flop is clocked by
Q or Q output of previous stage. A soon the clock of second stage is triggered by output of first stage.
Because of inherent propagation delay time all flip flops are not activated at same time which results in
asynchronous operation.

PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC 7476:

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LOGIC DIAGRAM FOR 4 BIT RIPPLE COUNTER:

TRUTH TABLE:

CLK QA QB QC QD
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 0
3 1 1 0 0
4 0 0 1 0
5 1 0 1 0
6 0 1 1 0
7 1 1 1 0
8 0 0 0 1
9 1 0 0 1
10 0 1 0 1
11 1 1 0 1
12 0 0 1 1
13 1 0 1 1
14 0 1 1 1
15 1 1 1 1

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LOGIC DIAGRAM FOR MOD - 10 RIPPLE COUNTER:

TRUTH TABLE:

CLK QA QB QC QD
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 0
3 1 1 0 0
4 0 0 1 0
5 1 0 1 0
6 0 1 1 0
7 1 1 1 0
8 0 0 0 1
9 1 0 0 1
10 0 0 0 0

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LOGIC DIAGRAM FOR MOD - 12 RIPPLE COUNTER:

TRUTH TABLE:

CLK QA QB QC QD
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 0
3 1 1 0 0
4 0 0 1 0
5 1 0 1 0
6 0 1 1 0
7 1 1 1 0
8 0 0 0 1
9 1 0 0 1
10 0 1 0 1
11 1 1 0 1
12 0 0 0 0

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PROCEDURE:

(i) Connections are given as per circuit diagram.

(ii) Logical inputs are given as per circuit diagram.
(iii) Observe the output and verify the truth table.

RESULT:
Hence designed and verified 4 bit ripple counter mod 10/ mod 12 ripple counter.

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 07 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF SHIFT REGISTER

AIM:
To design and implement
(i) Serial in serial out
(ii) Serial in parallel out
(iii) Parallel in serial out
(iv) Parallel in parallel out

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QTY.

1. D FLIP FLOP IC 7474 2
2. OR GATE IC 7432 1
3. IC TRAINER KIT - 1
4. PATCH CORDS - 35

THEORY:

A register is capable of shifting its binary information in one or both directions is known as shift
register. The logical configuration of shift register consist of a D-Flip flop cascaded with output of one
flip flop connected to input of next flip flop. All flip flops receive common clock pulses which causes the
shift in the output of the flip flop. The simplest possible shift register is one that uses only flip flop.
The output of a given flip flop is connected to the input of next flip flop of the register. Each clock pulse
shifts the content of register one bit position to right.

PIN DIAGRAM:

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LOGIC DIAGRAM:

SERIAL IN SERIAL OUT:

TRUTH TABLE:
Serial in Serial out
CLK

1 1 0
2 0 0
3 0 0
4 1 1
5 X 0
6 X 0
7 X 1

LOGIC DIAGRAM:
SERIAL IN PARALLEL OUT:

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TRUTH TABLE:
OUTPUT
CLK DATA
QA QB QC QD
1 1 1 0 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 0
3 0 0 0 1 1
4 1 1 0 0 1

LOGIC DIAGRAM:
PARALLEL IN SERIAL OUT:

TRUTH TABLE:

CLK Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 O/P
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 0

3 0 0 0 0 1

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LOGIC DIAGRAM:
PARALLEL IN PARALLEL OUT:

TRUTH TABLE:

DATA INPUT OUTPUT

CLK
DA DB DC DD QA QB QC QD

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

PROCEDURE:

(i) Connections are given as per circuit diagram.

(ii) Logical inputs are given as per circuit diagram.
(iii) Observe the output and verify the truth table.

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RESULT:
Hence designed and implemented
(i) Serial in serial out
(ii) Serial in parallel out
(iii) Parallel in serial out
(iv) Parallel in parallel out

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54 | P a g e
 08 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF 3 BIT SYNCHRONOUS UP/DOWN COUNTER

AIM:
To design and implement 3 bit synchronous up/down counter.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. COMPONENT SPECIFICATION QTY.

1. JK FLIP FLOP IC 7476 2
2. 3 I/P AND GATE IC 7411 1
3. OR GATE IC 7432 1
4. XOR GATE IC 7486 1
5. NOT GATE IC 7404 1
6. IC TRAINER KIT - 1
7. PATCH CORDS - 35

THEORY:

A counter is a register capable of counting number of clock pulse arriving at its clock input.
Counter represents the number of clock pulses arrived. An up/down counter is one that is capable of
progressing in increasing order or decreasing order through a certain sequence. An up/down counter is
also called bidirectional counter. Usually up/down operation of the counter is controlled by up/down
signal. When this signal is high counter goes through up sequence and when up/down signal is low
counter follows reverse sequence.

K MAP

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STATE DIAGRAM:

CHARACTERISTICS TABLE:
Q Qt+1 J K
0 0 0 X
0 1 1 X
1 0 X 1
1 1 X 0

LOGIC DIAGRAM:

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TRUTH TABLE:

Input Present State Next State A B C

Up/Down QA QB QC QA+1 Q B+1 QC+1 JA KA JB KB JC KC

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 X 1 X 1 X
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 X 0 X 0 X 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 X 0 X 1 1 X
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 X 0 0 X X 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 X 1 1 X 1 X
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 X X 0 X 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 X X 1 1 X
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 X 0 X 1 X
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 X 1 X X 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 X X 0 1 X
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 X X 1 X 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 X 0 0 X 1 X
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 X 0 1 X X 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 X 0 X 0 1 X
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 X 1 X 1 X 1

PROCEDURE:

(i) Connections are given as per circuit diagram.

(ii) Logical inputs are given as per circuit diagram.
(iii) Observe the output and verify the truth table.

RESULT:

Hence designed and implemented 3 bit synchronous up/down counter.

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58 | P a g e
 09 FREQUENCY RESBONSE OF COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

AIM:
To design and construct a common emitter amplifier circuit and to determine its bandwidth and
cut off frequency.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BC 547 1
2 RPS (0-30)V 1
3 Resistor 3.3 K 1
4 Resistor 520 K 1
5 Capacitor 1 uf 2
6 Bread Board - 1
7 Single strand Wires - -
8 CRO (0 - 30) MHz 1
9 CRO Probes - 3
10 Function Generator (0 - 3) MHz 1

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. Set Vs = 50mV using signal generator.
3. Keep the input voltage constant; vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding output voltage.
5. Plot the graph gain Vs frequency.
6. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.

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THEORY

An amplifier is used to increase the signal level; the amplifier is use to get a larger signal output
from a small signal input The transistor can be used as a amplifier, if it is biased to operate in the active
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region, i.e. base-emitter junction is to be forward biased, while the base collector junction to be reverse
biased. Common-emitter amplifier is constructed using fixed bias circuit. The resistors R C and RB are
biasing resistors. The input AC signal is given to the base of the transistor. The capacitors Ci and Co are
coupling capacitors. The output is taken between the collector terminal and ground.

DESIGN OF FIXED BIAS COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

Design parameters

Vcc=12V, Ic =Ie=2mA, hfe () =100, Vbe =0.7V, VCE = 6V

To find Rc

Apply KVL to collector loop

Vcc-IcRc-Vce = 0
Rc = Vcc-Vce / Ic
Rc = 12 - 6 / 4x10-3
Rc = 3 k

To find RB

Apply KVL to base loop

Vcc-IbRb-Vbe = 0
Rb = Vcc-Vbe / Ib
Rb = 12 0.7 / 20x10-6
Rb = 565 k

To find Ci (Input capacitor)

XCi =RB || hie / 10

XCi = 565K || 1.3 K

XCi = (565K * 1.3 K / 565K +1.3 K) / 10
XCi = 129
XCi =1 / 2 f Ci
Let f=1000 hie = re (where re internal emitter resistance)
C i = 1 / 2 f XCi re = 26mV / IE
C i = 1 / 2* *1000* 129 re = 26mV / 2mA
C i = 1.2 f use approx 1 f re = 13
TABULATION hie = re
hie =100 * 13 =1300
Vin = __________ hie = 1300 or 1.3 K

61 | P a g e
 Frequency Output Voltage Gain = 20 log (Vo / Vi)
SL.NO
(Hz) (Vo) (db)

To find CO (Output capacitor)

Assume RL =4.7 K
XCO =RC || RL / 10
RC =3 K & RL = 4.7 K
XCO = (3K * 4.7 K / 3K +4.7 K) / 10
XCO = 183
XCi =1 / 2 f CO

62 | P a g e
Let f=1000
C O = 1 / 2 f XCO
C O = 1 / 2* *1000* 183
C O = 0.83 f use approx 1 f

RESULT

Hence designed and constructed the Common Emitter Amplifier using fixed bias and calculated
the band width and cut-off frequency.

63 | P a g e
64 | P a g e
 10 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER

AIM:
To design and construct a common collector amplifier and to calculate the bandwidth and cut off
frequency.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BC 547 1
2 RPS (0-30)V 1
3 Resistor 150 K 2
4 Resistor 10 K 1
5 Resistor 4.7K 1
6 Resistor 1.2 K 1
7 Capacitor 1 uf 2
8 Bread Board - 1
9 Single strand Wires - -
10 CRO (0 - 30) MHz 1
11 CRO Probes - 3
12 Function Generator (0 - 3) MHz 1

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. Set Vs = 2V using signal generator.
3. Keep the input voltage constant; vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding output voltage.
5. Plot the graph gain Vs frequency.
6. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.

65 | P a g e
66 | P a g e
THEORY

The d.c biasing in common collector is provided by R 1, R2 and RE .The load resistance is
capacitor coupled to the emitter terminal of the transistor.

When a signal is applied to the base of the transistor , V B is increased and decreased as the
signal goes positive and negative, respectively. Considering V BE is constant the variation in the V B
appears at the emitter and emitter voltage VE will vary same as base voltage VB . Since the emitter is
output terminal, it can be noted that the output voltage from a common collector circuit is the same as its
input voltage. Hence the common collector circuit is also known as an emitter follower.

DESIGN OF COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER

Design parameters

Vcc=12V, Ie=2mA, hfe () =100, Vbe =0.7V, S=10, RL4.7 k

Design specifications
Vcc VCE-VE =0
VCE =50% of Vcc
VCE =0.5 * 12 =6 V
VE=12- 6
VE=6V

To find Reff
VE = IE*Reff
Reff = VE / IE
Reff = 6 / 2x10-3
Reff= 3 K

To find RE
Reff = RE || RL
3 K = RE*4.7K / RE+4.7K
RE = 8.2 K use approx 10 K

67 | P a g e
TABULATION

Vin = __________

Frequency Output Voltage Gain = 20 log (Vo / Vi)

SL.NO
(Hz) (Vo) (db)

For determining the values of R1 & R2 (RB = R1|| R2 ) following steps should be followed
Step 1 : Calculate RB
Step 2 : Calculate VTH

Let

68 | P a g e
RB = R1|| R2
RB = R1*R2 / R1+R2----------------- (1)
VTH= Vcc*R2 / R1+R2--------------- (2)

Calculation of RB
From Approx analysis
S = 1+ ( RB / RE )
10 = 1 + RB / 8.2 K
9*8.2 K = RB
RB =73 K

Calculation of VTH
VTH VBE VE =0
VTH = VBE +VE
VTH = 0.7 + 6
VTH = 6.7 V

From eqn (2)

VTH / Vcc = R2 / R1+R2
6.7 / 12 = R2 / R1+R2
0.558 = R2 / R1+R2----------------- (3)

To find R1
From (1)
RB = R1*R2 / R1+R2
7300 = 0.558 * R1
R1 = 130 k use approx 150 k

To find R2

From (3)
0.558 = R2 / R1+R2
0.558 (R1+R2) = R2
0.558 (130x103 + R2) = R2
R2 = 162 k use approx 150 k

69 | P a g e
CALCULATION

70 | P a g e
RESULT

Hence designed and constructed the Common collector Amplifier and calculated the band width
and cut-off frequency.

71 | P a g e
72 | P a g e
 11 DESIGN OF COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

AIM:
To design and construct a Common Base amplifier circuit using and to calculate its bandwidth
and cut off frequency.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BC 547 1
2 RPS (0-30)V 1
3 Resistor 22 K 1
4 Resistor 4.7 K 1
5 Resistor 330 1
6 Resistor 1.2 K 1
7 Capacitor 1 uf 3
8 Bread Board - 1
9 Single strand Wires - -
10 CRO 30 MHz 1
11 CRO Probes - 3
12 Function Generator (0 - 3) MHz 1

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. Set Vs = 50mV using signal generator.
3. Keep the input voltage constant; vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 3 MHz in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding output voltage.
5. Plot the graph gain Vs frequency.
6. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.

73 | P a g e
THEORY

An amplifier is used to increase the signal level; the amplifier is use to get a larger signal output
from a small signal input The transistor can be used as a amplifier, if it is biased to operate in the active
region, i.e. base-emitter junction is to be forward biased, while the base collector junction to be reverse
74 | P a g e
biased. Common-Base amplifier is constructed using self-bias circuit. The resistors R 1, R2 and RE are
biasing resistors. Acts as a potential divider. Due to the change in the temperature or , the base current
increases so this makes to increase the collector current I C, therefore a Reverse Leakage Current ICO
increases hence this affects the stability of transistor. By providing an emitter resistor R E, it creates a
voltage drop across RE therefore the increased emitter current due to IC starts to flow through RE to
ground and this makes in the reduction of Base Emitter Voltage V BE. Due to reduction in VBE, base current
IB reduces and hence collector Current IC also reduces and the output remains constant.
For the common base amplifier the AC Input resistance is typically low from 10 to 100. The
output resistance of CB amplifier is typically high from 50K to 1M. Typical values of voltage
amplification (Av) for CB amplifier vary from 50 to 300. The current amplification is always less than
1.The basic CB amplifying action was proposed for transferring the current from low resistance to high
resistance circuit.

DESIGN OF COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER

Design parameters

Vcc=12V, Ic =Ie=4mA, hfe () =100, Vbe =0.7V, S=10

Design specifications
Vcc =12V
VRE =10% of Vcc
VRC =40% of Vcc
VCE =50% of Vcc
Ic =Ie
Ib =Ic /

VRE =10% of Vcc

VRE =0.1 * 12 =1.2 V

VRC =40% of Vcc

VRC =0.4 * 12 =4.8 V

VCE =50% of Vcc

VCE =0.5 * 12 =6 V
To find RE
RE = VRE / Ie
RE = 1.2 / 4x10-3
RE = 300

75 | P a g e
TABULATION

Vin = __________

Frequency Output Voltage Gain = 20 log (Vo / Vi)

SL.NO
(Hz) (Vo) (db)

To find Rc

Apply KVL to collector loop

Vcc-IcRc-Vce IeRe = 0 IeRe =VRE
Vcc-IcRc-Vce VRE = 0
Rc = Vcc-Vce VRE / Ic
Rc = 12 - 6 1.2 / 4x10-3
Rc = 1.2 k

76 | P a g e
For determining the values of R1 & R2 (RB = R1|| R2 ) following steps should be followed
Step 1 : Calculate RB
Step 2 : Calculate VTH

Let
RB = R1|| R2
RB = R1*R2 / R1+R2----------------- (1)
VTH= Vcc*R2 / R1+R2--------------- (2)

Calculation of RB
From Approx analysis
S = 1+ ( RB / RE )
10 = 1 + RB / 300
9*300 = RB
RB =2700

Calculation of VTH
VTH VBE VRE =0
VTH = VBE +VRE
VTH = 0.7 + 1.2
VTH = 1.9V

From eqn (2)

VTH / Vcc = R2 / R1+R2
1.9 / 12 = R2 / R1+R2
0.158 = R2 / R1+R2----------------- (3)

Sub (3) in (1)

RB = R1*R2 / R1+R2
2700 = 0.158 * R1
R1 = 17 k use approx 22 k
From (3)
0.158 = R2 / R1+R2
0.158 (R1+R2) = R2
0.158 (17 x103 + R2) = R2
R2 = 3.2 k use approx 4.7 k

To find Ci (Input capacitor)

XCi =RB || hie / 10

XCi = 4.1K || 1.3 K

XCi = (4.1K * 1.3 K / 4.1K +1.3 K) / 10
XCi = 98
XCi =1 / 2 f Ci
Let f=1000
C i = 1 / 2 f XCi
C i = 1 / 2* *1000* 98
77 | P a g e
C i = 1.6 f use approx 1 f

To find CO (Output capacitor)

XCO =RC || RL / 10
Let RC =1 K & RL = 4.7 K
XCO = (1K * 4.7 K / 1K +4.7 K) / 10
XCO = 82
XCi =1 / 2 f CO
Let f=1000
C O = 1 / 2 f XCO
C O = 1 / 2* *1000* 82
C O = 1.9 f use approx 1 f

78 | P a g e
RESULT

Hence designed and constructed the Common Base Amplifier and calculated the band width and
cut-off frequency.

79 | P a g e
80 | P a g e
 12 COMMON-SOURCE AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To design and construct a common-source amplifier circuit and to determine its frequency
response.
COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENT RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BFW 10 1
2 RPS (0-30)V 1
3 Signal Generator (0-3)MHz 1
4 CRO (0-30)MHz 1
5 Bread Board - 1
6 Resistors 10K, 2.2K, 3.3M 1
7 Capacitors 0.1uf 2
8 Single strand Wires - -

9 CRO Probes - 3

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set Vi = 50mV, using the signal generator.
3. Keeping the input voltage constant, Vary the frequency from 0 Hz to 1 MHz in regular steps and
note down the corresponding output voltage.
4. Plot the graph: Gain (dB) vs Frequency (Hz)
5. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.

THEORY :
The common source configuration for a FET is similar to the common emitter bipolar transistor
configuration, The common source amplifier can provide both a voltage and current gain. Since the input
resistance looking into the gate is extremely large the current gain available from the FET amplifier can
be quite large, but the voltage gain is generally inferior to that available from a bipolar device. Thus FET
amplifiers are most useful with high output-impedance signal sources where a large current gain is the
primary requirement. The source by-pass capacitor provides a low impedance path to ground for high
frequency components and hence AC signals will not cause a swing in the bias voltage.A basic common-
source amplifier circuit containing an N-channel JFET. The characteristics of this circuit include high
input impedance and a high voltage gain. The function of the circuit components are C1 and C2 are the
input and output coupling capacitors. Rg is the gate return resistor.

81 | P a g e
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER

Design Specifications
VDD=12V, VGS=-2V, for N-Channel JFET (BFW10) Ro=40K, and gm=2.5mA/V at ID=2mA, and VP=8V
Design of Rg
Select Rg=1M (since voltage across Rg assumed to be 0V)

82 | P a g e
Design of RD
VRD=45% of VDD = 5.4V
VRD=Id*RD
RD= VRD/Id= 2.7K

Design of RS
Rs=VRS/IS =VRS/ID (ID=IS=2mA)
VRS=Vg-VGS
VRS =0-(-2V) =2V
RS=2/2*10-3=1K

Design of RL
Gain of CS amp A=gm(RD || RL)
The required gain=15
RL=4.7K

To find CS (Bypass capacitor)

XCS =RS / 10 =1000 /10 =100
XCS =100
XCS =1 / 2 f CS
Let f=1000
C S = 1 / 2 f XCS
C S = 1 / 2* *1000* 100
C S = 1 f

To find Ci (Input capacitor)

XCi =Rg /10=0.1M
XCi =1 / 2 f Ci
Let f=1000
C i = 1 / 2 f XCi
C i = 1 / 2* *1000* 0.1M
C i = 0.001 f

To find CO (Output capacitor)

XCO =RS / 10 = 100

XCO =1 / 2 f CO
Let f=1000
C O = 1 / 2 f XCO
C O = 1 / 2* *1000* 1000
C O = 1.5 f use approx 1 f

83 | P a g e
TABULATION:

Frequency in Hz Vo in Volts Gain : 20 Log(Vo/Vin)

S.NO

84 | P a g e
RESULT:
Thus the common source amplifier has been constructed, and frequency response of the amplifier
has drawn.

85 | P a g e
86 | P a g e
 13 DARLINGTON AMPLIFIER

AIM:
To design and construct a darlington amplifier and to calculate the bandwidth and cut off
frequency.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BC 547 2
2 RPS (0-30)V 1
3 Resistor 150 K 2
4 Resistor 10 K 1
5 Resistor 4.7K 1
6 Capacitor 1 uf 2
7 Bread Board - 1
8 Single strand Wires - -
9 CRO (0 - 30) MHz 1
10 CRO Probes - 3
11 Function Generator (0 - 3) MHz 1

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. Set Vs = 2V using signal generator.
3. Keep the input voltage constant; vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding output voltage.
5. Plot the graph gain Vs frequency.
6. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.

87 | P a g e
THEORY

In Darlington connection of transistors, emitter of the first transistor is directly connected to

the base of the second transistor .Because of direct coupling dc output current of the first stage is (1+h fe )
Ib1.If Darlington connection for n transitor is considered, then due to direct coupling the dc output current

88 | P a g e
foe last stage is (1+hfe ) n times Ib1 .Due to very large amplification factor even two stage Darlington
connection has large output current and output stage may have to be a power stage. As the power
amplifiers are not used in the amplifier circuits it is not possible to use more than two transistors in the
Darlington connection.
In Darlington transistor connection, the leakage current of the first transistor is amplified by the
second transistor and overall leakage current may be high, Which is not desired.

DESIGN OF DARLINGTON AMPLIFIER

Design parameters

Vcc=12V, Ie=2mA, hfe () =100, Vbe =0.7V, S=10, RL4.7 k

Design specifications
Vcc VCE-VE =0
VCE =50% of Vcc
VCE =0.5 * 12 =6 V
VE=12- 6
VE=6V

To find Reff
VE = IE*Reff
Reff = VE / IE
Reff = 6 / 2x10-3
Reff= 3 K

To find RE
Reff = RE || RL
3 K = RE*4.7K / RE+4.7K
RE = 8.2 K use approx 10 K

89 | P a g e
TABULATION

Vin = __________

Frequency Output Voltage Gain = 20 log (Vo / Vi)

SL.NO
(Hz) (Vo) (db)

For determining the values of R1 & R2 (RB = R1|| R2 ) following steps should be followed
Step 1 : Calculate RB
Step 2 : Calculate VTH

90 | P a g e
Let
RB = R1|| R2
RB = R1*R2 / R1+R2----------------- (1)
VTH= Vcc*R2 / R1+R2--------------- (2)

Calculation of RB
From Approx analysis
S = 1+ ( RB / RE )
10 = 1 + RB / 8.2 K
9*8.2 K = RB
RB =73 K

Calculation of VTH
VTH VBE VE =0
VTH = VBE +VE
VTH = 0.7 + 6
VTH = 6.7 V

From eqn (2)

VTH / Vcc = R2 / R1+R2
6.7 / 12 = R2 / R1+R2
0.558 = R2 / R1+R2----------------- (3)

To find R1
From (1)
RB = R1*R2 / R1+R2
7300 = 0.558 * R1
R1 = 130 k use approx 150 k

To find R2

From (3)
0.558 = R2 / R1+R2
0.558 (R1+R2) = R2
0.558 (130x103 + R2) = R2
R2 = 162 k use approx 150 k

CALCULATION

91 | P a g e
92 | P a g e
RESULT

Hence designed and constructed the darlington Amplifier and calculated the band width and cut-
off frequency.

93 | P a g e
94 | P a g e
 14 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
AIM

To construct a differential amplifier circuit for single input balanced output in the common mode
and differential mode configuration and study the output waveform and to find Common Mode Rejection
Ratio (CMRR).

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BC 107 2
2 Dual trace Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
3 Resistor 10 K 2
4 Resistor 4.7 k 1
5 Function Generator (0-3)MHz 1
6 Bread Board - 1
7 Single strand Wires - -
8 CRO (0-30)MHz 1
9 CRO Probes - 4

PROCEDURE

Differential mode configuration :

1. Connections are given as per circuit diagram

2. Set Vs =50 mV, using signal generator
3. Keeping the input voltage constant vary the frequency from 50Hz to1MHz in regular steps
4. Observe both input and output on the CRO (sine wave)
5. The differential gain is calculated at mid frequency range where the magnitude of the sine wave is
maximum.
6. The differential gain is calculated by Ad = Vo / Vi

Common mode configuration

1. Connections are given as per circuit diagram

2. Set Vs =50 mV, using signal generator
3. Keeping the input voltage constant vary the frequency from 50Hz to1MHz in regular steps
4. Observe both input and output on the CRO (sine wave)
5. The common mode gain is calculated at mid frequency range where the magnitude of the sine
wave is maximum.
6. The Common mode gain is calculated by Ac = Vo / Vi

CMRR

1. CMRR is calculated by substituting the practical values of Ad and Ac in the formula

CMRR = 20 log (AD / Ac)

95 | P a g e
THEORY

The Differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input signals. The
transistorized differential amplifier consists of two ideal emitter biased circuits. The differential amplifier
96 | P a g e
circuit is obtained by connecting the two emitter terminals E 1 and E2. Hence RE is the parallel
combination of RE1 and RE2. The output is taken between the two collector terminals C 1 and C2.Hence we
say this connection as balanced output or double ended output. It works in two modes of operation.
Differential mode operation
In the differential mode operation two input signals (V 1 and V2) are different in magnitudes and
opposite in phase and it produces the difference between the two input signals (V 1~V2).The differential
mode gain (AD) can be calculated by AD =Rc * / 2* hie.
Common mode operation
In the common mode operation two input signals are same in magnitude and phase. At emitter
resistance RE both the input signal appears across RE and adds together since it just acts like an emitter
follower .Therefore RE carries a signal current and provides a negative feedback. This feedback reduces
the common mode gain of the differential amplifier. The Common mode gain Ac can be calculated by |
Ac| = Rc * / hie + (2Re [1+ ] )
CMRR
CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio) is defined as the ratio of differential gain to common
mode gain. Ideally the CMRR should be infinity. CMRR = 20 log (AD / Ac)

97 | P a g e
TABULATION

DIFFERENTIAL MODE

Practical
Input Output Theoretical
Differential gain
S.NO Amplitude (Vi) Amplitude (Vo) Differential
(Vo / Vi)
(Volts) (Volts) gain (Ad)
(Ad)

COMMON MODE

Practical
Input Output Theoretical
Differential gain
S.NO Amplitude (Vi) Amplitude (Vo) Differential
(Vo / Vi)
(Volts) (Volts) gain (Ac)
(Ac)

CMRR
S.NO Theoretical CMRR Practical CMRR = 20 log (AD / Ac)

98 | P a g e
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Design parameters
Vcc=12V, Vee = -12V, Ic1 = Ic1 = 2mA, Ie=4mA, hfe () =300, Vbe =0.7V, hie =4.7k

To find Rc
NOTE
Apply KVL to collector loop
Vcc-IcRc-Vce-IeRe Vee =0
Vcc =12V
Rc = {Vcc- Vce - VRE - Vee }/ Ic
VRE =10% of Vcc =0.1 * 12 = 1.2 V
= {12-6 -1.2 (-12)} /2x10-3
VRC =40% of Vcc =0.4 * 12 = 4.8 V
Rc = 8.7k use approx 10 k
VCE =50% of Vcc =0.5 * 12 = 6 V
Ic1 = Ic1 = 2mA
To find Rc

Apply KVL to collector loop

Vcc-IcRc-Vce-IeRe Vee =0
Re = {Vcc- VRC Vce - Vee}/ Ie
= {12 - 4.8 6 (-12)} /4x10-3
Re = 3.3 k use approx 4.7k

Differential gain

AD =Rc * / 2* hie
AD =8.7x103 * 300 / 2* 4.7 x103
AD = 265

Common mode gain

|Ac| = Rc * / hie + (2Re [1+ ] )

Ac = 8.7k * 300 / 4.7 k + (2 * 3.3 k [1+ 300] )
Ac = 1.2

CMRR
Theoretical CMRR = 20 log (AD / Ac)
= 20 log (265 / 1.2)
= 46

CALCULATION:

99 | P a g e
100 | P a g e
RESULT

Thus constructed a differential amplifier circuit for single input balanced output in the common
mode and differential mode configuration and studied the output waveform, also its CMRR has been
determined and verified practically.

Differential mode : _______________

Common mode : _______________

CMRR : _______________

101 | P a g e
102 | P a g e
 15 CASCODE AMPLIFIER

AIM:
To design and construct a cascode amplifier circuit and to draw its frequency response graph.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BC 547 2
2 RPS (0-30)V 1
3 Resistor 1.2K, 33 K,22K, 12K 1
4 Resistor 680 1
5 Capacitor 1 uf, 2.2uf 2
6 Bread Board - 1
7 Single strand Wires - -
8 CRO (0 - 30) MHz 1
9 CRO Probes - 3
10 Function Generator (0 - 3) MHz 1

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. Set Vs = 50mV using signal generator.
3. Keep the input voltage constant; vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding output voltage.
5. Plot the graph gain Vs frequency.
Calculate the bandwidth from the graph

THEORY

A cascode amplifier comprises of a common emitter amplifier and a common base amplifier
stages in cascade. In the circuit diagram Q1 common base configuration and Q2 is common emitter
configuration. Principal advantage of this circuit is its low internal capacitance which is a limiting factor
gain at high frequencies. Cascode amplifier can able to amplify wide range of frequencies than that is
possible with CE amplifier. This is because no high frequency feedback occurs from the output back to
input through the miller capacitance as it occurs in transistor CE configuration. Cascode amplifier
provides same voltage gain of CE amplifier but in wide range of frequencies. The advantage of CE and
CB stages are put together in cascode connection.

CASCODE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

103 | P a g e
DESIGN OF FIXED BIAS COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

Design parameters
Vcc=12V, Ic =2mA, hfe () =100, Vbe =0.7V,
VCE1= VCE2=35% of Vcc = 4.2V
VRE=10% of VCC =1.2V
VRC=20% of VCC=2.4V

To find Rc

VRC =Ic*Rc =2.4V

104 | P a g e
Rc=1.2K

To find RE

VRE =IE*RE =1.2V

RE=600

To find R1, R2 and R3

Vcc-VR1-VBE1-VCE2-VRE=0
VR1=Vcc-VBE1-VCE2-VRE
VR1=12-0.6-4.2-12= 6V
IB=Ic/Hfe = 20A
If 10IB assumed flowing through R1 we get
R1= VR1/10 IB = 30K

Vcc-VR1-VR2-VBE2-VRE=0
VR2=Vcc- VR1 -VBE2-VRE
VR2=12- 6-0.6-1.2= 4.2V
IB=Ic/Hfe = 20A
If 9IB assumed flowing through R2 we get
R2= VR2/9 IB = 23K

VR3-VBE2-VRE=0
VR3= VBE2+VRE
VR3= 0.6+1.2= 1.8V
IB=Ic/Hfe = 20A
If 8IB assumed flowing through R3 we get
R3= VR3/8 IB = 11.2K

To find CE (Bypass capacitor)

XCE =RE / 10
XCE = 600 /10 =60
XCE =1 / 2 f CE Let f=1000
C E = 1 / 2* *1000* 60 =2.2 f

105 | P a g e
TABULATION

Vin = __________

Frequency Output Voltage Gain = 20 log (Vo / Vi)

SL.NO
(Hz) (Vo) (db)

106 | P a g e
RESULT

Hence designed and constructed Cascode amplifier and plotted its frequency response.

107 | P a g e
108 | P a g e
 16 DETERMINATION OF BANDWIDTH OF SINGLE STAGE AND MULTISTAGE
AMPLIFIERS USING BJT

AIM:
To determine the bandwidth of single stage and multistage amplifier circuit using bjt and to plot its
frequency response.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY

1 Transistor BC 547 2
2 RPS (0-30)V 1
3 Resistor 22 K 2
4 Resistor 4.7 K 2
5 Resistor 330 2
6 Resistor 1.2 K 2
1 uf, 3
7 Capacitor
4.7uf 2
8 Bread Board - 1
9 Single strand Wires - -
10 CRO 30 MHz 1
11 CRO Probes - 3
12 Function Generator (0 - 3) MHz 1

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. Set Vs = 50mV using signal generator.
3. Keep the input voltage constant; vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding output voltage.
5. Plot the graph gain Vs frequency
6. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph

SINGLE STAGE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT USING BJT

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MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT (CASCADE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT)

THEORY
Single Stage amplifier
An amplifier is used to increase the signal level; the amplifier is use to get a larger signal output
from a small signal input The transistor can be used as a amplifier, if it is biased to operate in the active
region, i.e. base-emitter junction is to be forward biased, while the base collector junction to be reverse

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biased. Common-emitter amplifier is constructed using self bias circuit. The resistors R1, R2 and RE are
biasing resistors.

The resistors R1 and R2 act as a potential divider giving a fixed voltage to the base of the
transistor. Due to the change in the temperature or , the base current increases so this makes to increase
the collector current IC, therefore a Reverse Leakage Current ICO increases hence this affects the stability
of transistor. By providing an emitter resistor RE, it creates a voltage drop across RE therefore the
increased emitter current due to IC starts to flow through RE to ground and this makes in the reduction of
Base Emitter Voltage VBE. Due to reduction in VBE, base current IB reduces and hence collector Current I C
also reduces and the output remains constant.

Multistage amplifier

Rc coupled amplifier usually employed for voltage amplification. It consists of a coupling

capacitor which is used to connect the output of the first stage to the base (ie input) of the next stage. The
resistors R1, R2, RE forms the biasing and stabilizing network. The emitter bypass capacitor offers low
resistance path to the signal. Without it, the voltage gain of the each stage would be lost. The coupling
capacitor blocks DC and allows AC therefore this prevents the DC interference between the various
stages and the shifting of operating point.
When AC signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it appears in the amplified form
across its collector load Rc. the amplified signal developed across Rc is given to the next stage through
coupling capacitor. The second stage does further amplification of the signal, in this way the cascaded
stages amplify the signal and the overall gain is considerably increased and the bandwidth decreases.

DESIGN OF COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

Design parameters

Vcc=12V, Ic =Ie=4mA, hfe () =100, Vbe =0.7V, S=10

Design specifications
Vcc =12V
VRE =10% of Vcc
VRC =40% of Vcc
VCE =50% of Vcc
Ic =Ie
Ib =Ic /

VRE =10% of Vcc

FREQUENCY RESPONSE BETWEEN SINGLE STAGE AND MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER

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VRE =0.1 * 12 =1.2 V

VRC =40% of Vcc

VRC =0.4 * 12 =4.8 V

VCE =50% of Vcc

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VCE =0.5 * 12 =6 V

To find RE

RE = VRE / Ie
RE = 1.2 / 4x10-3
RE = 300

To find Rc

Apply KVL to collector loop

Vcc-IcRc-Vce IeRe = 0 IeRe =VRE
Vcc-IcRc-Vce VRE = 0
Rc = Vcc-Vce VRE / Ic
Rc = 12 - 6 1.2 / 4x10-3
Rc = 1.2 k

For determining the values of R1 & R2 (RB = R1|| R2 ) following steps should be followed
Step 1 : Calculate RB
Step 2 : Calculate VTH

Let
RB = R1|| R2
RB = R1*R2 / R1+R2----------------- (1)
VTH= Vcc*R2 / R1+R2--------------- (2)

Calculation of RB
From Approx analysis
S = 1+ ( RB / RE )
10 = 1 + RB / 300
9*300 = RB
RB =2700

Calculation of VTH
VTH VBE VRE =0
VTH = VBE +VRE
VTH = 0.7 + 1.2
VTH = 1.9V

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TABULATION
SINGLE STAGE AMPLIFIER

Vin = __________

Frequency Output Voltage Gain = 20 log (Vo / Vi)

SL.NO
(Hz) (Vo) (db)

TABULATION
SINGLE STAGE AMPLIFIER

Vin = __________

Frequency Output Voltage Gain = 20 log (Vo / Vi)

SL.NO
(Hz) (Vo) (db)

From eqn (2)

VTH / Vcc = R2 / R1+R2
1.9 / 12 = R2 / R1+R2
0.158 = R2 / R1+R2----------------- (3)

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Sub (3) in (1)
RB = R1*R2 / R1+R2
2700 = 0.158 * R1
R1 = 17 k use approx 22 k
From (3)
0.158 = R2 / R1+R2
0.158 (R1+R2) = R2
0.158 (17 x103 + R2) = R2
R2 = 3.2 k use approx 4.7 k

To find CE (Emitter capacitor or Bypass capacitor)

XCE =RE / 10 =330 /10 =33

XCE =33
XCE =1 / 2 f CE
Let f=1000
C E = 1 / 2 f XCE
C E = 1 / 2* *1000* 33
C E = 4.7 f

To find Ci (Input capacitor)

XCi =RB || hie / 10

XCi = 4.1K || 1.3 K

XCi = (4.1K * 1.3 K / 4.1K +1.3 K) / 10
XCi = 98
XCi =1 / 2 f Ci RB =R1 || R2
Let f=1000 RB = 33k* 4.7k / 33k* 4.7k
C i = 1 / 2 f XCi RB = 4.1K
C i = 1 / 2* *1000* 98
C i = 1.6 f use approx 1 f hie = re (where re internal emitter resistance)
re = 26mV / IE
To find CO (Output capacitor) re = 26mV / 2mA
XCO =RC || RL / 10 re = 13
Let RC =1 K & RL = 4.7 K
XCO = (1K * 4.7 K / 1K +4.7 K) / 10 hie = re
XCO = 82 hie =100 * 13
hie = 1300 or 1.3 K

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XCi =1 / 2 f CO
Let f=1000
C O = 1 / 2 f XCO
C O = 1 / 2* *1000* 82
C O = 1.9 f use approx 1 f

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RESULT

Hence designed and constructed the single stage and multistage Amplifier and calculated its band
width and cut-off frequency.

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