Schaum's Outline Series

Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Geometry

Includes Plane, Analytic, Transformational, and Solid Geometries
Second Edition

Barnett Rich, Ph.D.

Former Chairman, Department of Mathematics

Brooklyn Technical High School
New York City

Revised By

Philip A. Schmidt, Ph.D.

Dean of the School of Education

SUNY College at New Paltz
New Paltz, New York
Disclaimer:
Information has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies from sources believed to be reliable.
However, because of the possibility of human or mechanical error by our sources, The McGraw-Hill
Companies or others, The McGraw-Hill Companies does not guarantee the accuracy, adequacy, or
completeness of any information and is not responsible for any errors or omissions or the results
obtained from use of such information.

Dr. Barnett Rich held a doctor of philosophy degree (Ph.D.) from Columbia University and a doctor of
jurisprudence (J.D.) from New York University. He began his professional career at Townsend Harris
Hall High School of New York City and was one of the prominent organizers of the High School of
Music and Art where he served as the Administrative Assistant. Later he taught at CUNY and
Columbia University and held the post of Chairman of Mathematics at Brooklyn Technical High School
for 14 years. Among his many achievements are the 6 degrees that he earned and the 23 books that he
wrote, among them Schaum's Outlines of Elementary Algebra, Modern Elementary Algebra, and
Review of Elementary Algebra.

Philip Schmidt has a B.S. from Brooklyn College (with a major in mathematics), an M.A. in
mathematics and a Ph.D. in mathematics education from Syracuse University. He was an Associate
Professor at Berea College until 1985 and is currently Dean of the School of Education at SUNY
College at New Paltz.

Copyright 1963 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. under the title Schaum's Outline of Theory
and Problems of Plane Geometry. All rights reserved.

Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of GEOMETRY, 2nd edition

Copyright 1989 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval
system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 BAW BAW 9 9 8

ISBN 0-07-052246-4

Sponsoring Editor, John Aliano

Production Supervisor, Leroy Young

Editing Supervisors, Marthe Grice, Meg Tobin

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rich, Barnett.
Schaum's Outline Of Principles And Problems Of Geometry.
(Schaum's Outline Series)
Includes Index.
1. Geometry. I. Schmidt, Philip A. Ii. Title.
Iii. Series.
Qa445.R53 1989 516 88-13727
Isbn 0-07-0522464
Preface;
Barnett Rich's original Plane Geometry has been reprinted some twenty-two times since it was first
published in 1968. The challenge in revising such a text is to update the material as necessary while
retaining the prose and pedagogy that are responsible for its success. In the case of Plane Geometry, the
challenge was particularly great. Dr. Rich's command of geometry and its pedagogy was enormous.
Conversations I have had with past students and colleagues of Dr. Rich substantiate that his ability to
convey ideas in mathematics was unsurpassable.

In this revision I have attempted to maintain Barnett Rich's "spirit of explanation" while making the text
suitable to the geometry that is currently being taught in schools and colleges. Terminology and
notation have been changed to match the current texts and curriculum. I have switched to the more
common "congruent segments" and "measure of the angle" phrasing and have made textual changes to
support that terminology. A chapter on transformational geometry has been added, outdated material
has been deleted, and the supplementary problems have been modified.

I owe thanks to many people for their assistance during this revision: John Aliano, Senior Editor at
McGraw-Hill, for his great confidence; Brother Neal Golden, for his careful review of the first edition;
Dr. Paul Zuckerman, who introduced me to Jean (Mrs. Barnett) Rich; Mrs. Rich, who gave me access to
Dr. Rich's library and who has helped with support and friendship; my wife Jan Z. Schmidt and my son
Reed Schmidt, who have been loving supporters in all my work; and finally, Dr. Barnett Rich, for
providing me with such a rich text to revise, and for teaching geometry so meaningfully to so many
people.

PHILIP A. SCHMIDT
NEW PALTZ
This page intentionally left blank
Preface to the First Edition
The central purpose of this book is to provide maximum help for the student and maximum service for
the teacher.

Providing Help For The Student:

This book has been designed to improve the learning of geometry far beyond that of the typical and
traditional book in the subject. Students will find this text useful for these reasons:

(1) Learning Each Rule, Formula and Principle

Each rule, formula and principle is stated in simple language, is made to stand out in distinctive type, is
kept together with those related to it, and is clearly illustrated by examples.

(2) Learning Each Set of Solved Problems

Each set of solved problems is used to clarify and apply the more important rules and principles. The
character of each set is indicated by a title.

(3) Learning Each Set of Supplementary Problems

Each set of supplementary problems provides further application of rules and principles. A guide
number for each set refers a student to the set of related solved problems. There are more than 2000
additional related supplementary problems. Answers for the supplementary problems have been placed
in the back of the book.

(4) Integrating the Learning of Plane Geometry

The book integrates plane geometry with arithmetic, algebra, numerical trigonometry, analytic
geometry and simple logic. To carry out this integration:

(a) A separate chapter is devoted to analytic geometry.

(b) A separate chapter includes the complete proofs of the most important theorems together with the
plan for each.

(c) A separate chapter fully explains 23 basic geometric constructions. Underlying geometric principles
are provided for the constructions, as needed.

(d) Two separate chapters on methods of proof and improvement of reasoning present the simple and
basic ideas of formal logic suitable for students at this stage.

(e) Throughout the book, algebra is emphasized as the major means of solving geometric problems
through algebraic symbolism, algebraic equations, and algebraic proof.

(5) Learning Geometry Through Self-study

The method of presentation in the book makes it ideal as a means of self-study. For the able student,
this book will enable him to accomplish the
work of the standard course of study in much less time. For the less able, the presentation of numerous
illustrations and solutions provides the help needed to remedy weaknesses and overcome difficulties
and in this way keep up with the class and at the same time gain a measure of confidence and security.

(6) Extending Plane Geometry into Solid Geometry

A separate chapter is devoted to the extension of two-dimensional plane geometry into three-
dimensional solid geometry. It is especially important in this day and age that the student understand
how the basic ideas of space are outgrowths of principles learned in plane geometry.

Providing Service for the Teacher:

Teachers of geometry will find this text useful for these reasons:

(1) Teaching Each Chapter

Each chapter has a central unifying theme. Each chapter is divided into two to ten major subdivisions
which support its central theme. In turn, these chapter subdivisions are arranged in graded sequence for
greater teaching effectiveness.

(2) Teaching Each Chapter Subdivision

Each of the chapter subdivisions contains the problems and materials needed for a complete lesson
developing the related principles.

(3) Making Teaching More Effective Through Solved Problems

Through proper use of the solved problems, students gain greater understanding of the way in which
principles are applied in varied situations. By solving problems, mathematics is learned as it should be
learnedby doing mathematics. To ensure effective learning, solutions should be reproduced on paper.
Students should seek the why as well as the how of each step. Once a student sees how a principle is
applied to a solved problem, he is then ready to extend the principle to a related supplementary
problem. Geometry is not learned through the reading of a textbook and the memorizing of a set of
formulas. Until an adequate variety of suitable problems has been solved, a student will gain little more
than a vague impression of plane geometry.

(4) Making Teaching More Effective Through Problem Assignment

The preparation of homework assignments and class assignments of problems is facilitated because the
supplementary problems in this book are related to the sets of solved problems. Greatest attention
should be given to the underlying principle and the major steps in the solution of the solved problems.
After this, the student can reproduce the solved problems and then proceed to do those supplementary
problems which are related to the solved ones.

Others Who Will Find This Text Advantageous:

This book can be used profitably by others besides students and teachers. In this group we include: (1)
the parents of geometry students who wish to help their
children through the use of the book's self-study materials, or who may wish to refresh their own
memory of geometry in order to properly help their children; (2) the supervisor who wishes to provide
enrichment materials in geometry, or who seeks to improve teaching effectiveness in geometry; (3) the
person who seeks to review geometry or to learn it through independent self-study.

BARNETT RICH
BROOKLYN TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL
APRIL, 1963
Table of Contents

Ch. 1: Lines, Angles, and Triangles

1.1 Historical Background of Geometry
1.2 Undefined Terms of Geometry: Point, Line, and Plan
1.3 Line Segment
1.4 Circle
1.5 Angle
1.6 Triangle
1.7 Pairs of Angles
Ch. 2: Methods of Proof
2.1 Proof by Deductive Reasoning
2.2 Postulates (Assumptions)
2.3 Basic Angle Theorems
2.4 Determining the Hypothesis and Conclusion
2.5 Proving a Theorem

Ch. 3: Congruent Triangles

3.1 Congruent Triangles
3.2 Isosceles and Equilateral Triangles

Ch. 4: Parallel Lines, Distances, and Angle Sums

4.1 Parallel Lines
4.2 Distances
4.3 Sum of the Measures of the Angles of a Triangle
4.4 Sum of the Measures of the Angles of a Polygon
4.5 Two New Congruency Theorems

Ch. 5: Parallelograms, Trapezoids, Medians, and Midpoints

5.1 Trapezoids
5.2 Parallelograms
5.3 Special Parallelograms: Rectangle, Rhombus, Square
5.4 Three or More Parallels: Medians and Midpoints
Ch. 6: Circles
6.1 The Circle: Circle Relationships
6.2 Tangents
6.3 Measurement of Angles and Arcs in a Circle
Ch. 7: Similarity
7.1 Ratios
7.2 Proportions
7.3 Proportional Segments
7.4 Similar Triangles
7.5 Extending a Basic Proportion Principle
7.6 Proving Equal Products of Lengths of Segments
7.7 Segments Intersecting Inside and Outside a Circle
7.8 Mean Proportionals in a Right Triangle
7.9 Pythagorean Theorem
7.10 Special Right Triangles
Ch. 8: Trigonometry
8.1 Trigonometric Ratios
8.2 Angles of Elevation and Depression
Ch. 9: Areas
9.1 Area of a Rectangle and of a Square
9.2 Area of a Parallelogram
9.3 Area of a Triangle
9.4 Area of a Trapeziod
9.5 Area of a Rhombus
9.6 Polygons of the Same Size or Shape
9.7 Comparing Areas of Similar Polygons

Ch. 10: Regular Polygons and the Circle

10.1 Regular Polygons
10.2 Relationships of Segments in Regular Polygons of 3, 4, and 6 Sides
10.3 Area of a Regular Polygon
10.4 Ratios of Segments and Areas of Regular Polygon
10.5 Circumference and Area of a Circle
10.6 Length of an Arc; Area of a Sector and a Segment
10.7 Areas of Combination Figures

Ch. 11: Locus

11.1 Determining a Locus
11.2 Locating Points by Means of Intersecting Loci
11.3 Proving a Locus
Ch. 12: Analytic Geometry
12.1 Graphs
12.2 Midpoint of a Segment
12.3 Distance between Two Points
12.4 Slope of a Line
12.5 Locus in Analytic Geometry
12.6 Areas in Analytic Geometry
12.7 Proving Theorems with Analytic Geometry
Ch. 13: Inequalities and Indirect Reasoning
13.1 Inequalities
13.2 Indirect Reasoning
Ch. 14: Improvement of Reasoning.
14.1 Definitions
14.2 Deductive Reasoning in Geometry
14.3 Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive of a Statement
14.4 Partial Converse and Partial Inverse of a Theorem
14.5 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

Ch. 15: Constructions

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Duplicating Segments and Angles
15.3 Constructing Bisectors and Perpendiculars
15.4 Constructing a Triangle
15.5 Constructing Parallel Lines
15.6 Circle Constructions
15.7 Inscribing and Circumscribing Regular Polygons
15.8 Constructing Similar Triangles
Ch. 16: Proofs of Important Theorems
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The Proofs

Ch. 17: Extending Plane Geometry into Solid Geometry

17.1 Solids
17.2 Extensions to Solid Geometry
17.3 Areas of Solids: Square Measure
17.4 Volumes of Solids: Cubic Measure

Ch. 18: Transformational Geometry

18.1 Introduction to Transformations
18.2 Reflections
18.3 Reflections and Analytic Geometry
18.4 Translations
18.5 Rotations
18.6 Dilations
18.7 Properties of Transformations
Formulas for Reference
Table of Trigonometric Functions
Table of Squares and Square Roots
Answers to Supplementary Problems
Index
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Abscissa, 199

constant, 208

same, 202

Absolute value, 202

Acute angles, 6

Acute triangles, 10

Adding angles, 8

Addition Postulate, 21

Adjacent angles, 12, 13

Algebraic postulates, 21-22

Alternate interior angles, 49

Altitudes:

medians and, 129

of obtuse triangles, 11

to sides of triangles, 11

Analytic geometry, 199-212

areas in, 210-211

extension of, to three-dimensional space, 271-272

locus in, 208-210

proving theorems with, 211-212

Angle bisectors of triangles, 11

Angle-measurement principles, 100-102

Angle theorems, 26-27

Angles, 5-9

acute, 6

adding, 8

adjacent, 12, 13

base, 74, 252

bisectors of, 7

central, 4, 90, 99-100, 175

combining, 239

complementary, 13

congruent, 7

congruent corresponding, 35

corresponding, 48

of depression, 153-155

dihedral, 262

duplicating, 238-239

of elevation, 153-155

exterior, 48

finding, 9

finding parts of, 8

formulas for, 294

inscribed, 100

interior, 48-49

alternate, 49

kinds of, 6-7

 measuring, 5-6

naming, 5

obtuse, 6

pairs of, 12-15

kinds of, 12-13

principles of, 13-14

plane, 262

reflex, 7

right, 6

straight, 7

subtracting, 8

sum of (see Sum of angles)

supplementary, 13

vertical, 13

Answers to supplementary problems, 298-315

Apothems of regular polygons, 175

Arcs, 4, 90

cogruent intercepted, 100

lengths of, 181

major, 90

minor, 90

Areas, 160-168

in analytic geometry, 210-211

of circles, 180-181

of closed plane figures, 160

of combination figures, 183-184

comparing, of similar polygons, 167-168

 formulas for, 294

of parallelograms, 161-162

of quadrilaterals, 210

ratios of segments and, of regular polygons, 179

of rectangles, 160

of regular polygons, 178-179

of rhombuses, 164-165

of sectors, 181-183

of segments, 181-183

of solids, 272-273

of squares, 160-161

surface, 272-273

of trapezoids, 164

of triangles, 162-163, 210

Arms of right triangles, 10

Assumptions, 21-23, 230

Axioms, 219

inequality, 219-220

Axis of symmetry, 279

Base angles, 74, 252

Bases:

of prisms, 263

of trapezoids, 74

Bisectors:

of angles, 7

constructing, 239-241
 of lines, 3

perpendicular, 7

of sides, perpendicular, 11

of triangles, angle, 11

Centers:

of circles, 4

line of, of two circles, 96

of regular polygons, 175

Central angles, 4, 90, 99-100

of regular polygons, 175

Chords, 4, 90

intersecting, 131

Circle inequality theorems, 221-222

Circles, 4, 90-107

areas of, 180-181

circumferences of, 4, 90, 180-181

circumscribed, 90

concentric, 54, 91

congruent, 4, 91

constructing, 245-247

equal, 91

equations of, 208

externally tangent, 96

great, 265

inscribed, 91

internally tangent, 96
 intersection formulas for, 294

line of centers of two, 96

outside each other, 97

overlapping, 97

segments of, 181

segments intersecting inside and outside, 131-133

small, 265

Circular cones, 264

Circular cylinders, 265

Circumferences of circles, 4, 90, 180-181

Circumscribed circles, 90

Circumscribed polygons, 91

Circumscribing regular polygons, 247-248

Closed plane figures, areas of, 160

Collinear points, 3, 206

Combination figures, areas of, 183-184

Combined volumes, 276

Compass, 237,

navy, 6

Complementary angles, 13

Concentric circles, 54, 91

Conclusions, 28-29

Conditions, necessary and sufficient, 234-235

Cones, 262, 264

circular, 264

frustrums of, 264

right circular, 264

Congruency theorems, 65-68

Congruent angles, 7

Congruent circles, 4, 91

Congruent corresponding angles, 35

Congruent corresponding sides, 35

Congruent intercepted arcs, 100

Congruent segments, 82

Congruent triangles, 35-43

Constructions, 237-248

bisectors and perpendiculars, 239-240

circles, 245-247

parallel lines, 244-245

similar triangles, 248

triangles, 241-244

Continued ratios, 116

Contrapositives of statements, 231

Converses:

partial, of theorems, 233-234

of statements, 28, 231

Coordinate geometry, formulas for, 295

Coordinates, 199

Corresponding angles, 48

Cosine ratios, 150

Cubes, 262, 263

Cubic measure, 273-274

Cubic unit, 263, 273

Curved lines, 1

Cylinders, 262, 265

 circular, 265

right circular, 265

Decagons, 63

Deductions, 19

Deductive reasoning in geometry, 230-231

proof by, 19-20

Defined terms, 229, 230

Definitions, good, 229

Degrees, 5-6

Delta (A), 202

Depression, angles of, 153-155

Diagonals:

of parallelograms, 76

of rectangles, 79

of rhombuses, 79

of squares, 80

Diameter, 4, 90, 91

Dihedral angles, 262

Dilatation, 289

Dilations, 289-290

Direct reasoning, 224

Distance principles, extension of, 267-269

Distances, 53-57

between points, 202-204

Division Postulate, 22

Dodecagons, 63
 Dodecahedrons, 266

Dual statements, 266-271

Duplicating segments and angles, 238-239

Edges of polyhedra, 262

Elevation, angles of, 153-155

Equal circles, 91

Equal products of lengths of segments, 130-131

Equations:

of circles, 208

of lines, 208

Equator, 265

Equilateral-triangle principle, 137

Equilateral triangles, 10, 40-42

Equivalent statements, logically, 232

Experiment, proof and, 20

Exterior angles, 48

Externally tangent circles, 96

Extremes of proportions, 117

Faces:

lateral, of prisms, 263

of polyhedra, 262

Figures, 2

combination, areas of, 183-184

geometric, 237

plane, areas of, 160

 shortest segments between, 53-54

Fixed points, 278

Formulas for reference, 294-295

Fourth proportionals, 117

Frustrums:

of cones, 264

of pyramids, 264

General statements, 19

Geometric figures, 237

Geometric postulates, 22-23

Geometry, 1

analytic (see Analytic geometry)

coordinate, formulas for, 295

deductive reasoning in, 19-20, 230-231

plane, 2, 262-276

solid, 266-272

transformational, 278-290

Graphs, 199-200

points on, 199

Great circles, 265

Greater than symbol, 219

Heptagons, 63

Hexagons, 63

regular, 266

Hexahedrons, 266
Horizontal lines, 153

Horizontal number scale, 199

Hypotenuse, 10,

Hypotheses, 28-29

Icosahedrons, 266

Identity Postulate, 21

If-then statements, 28-29

Images, 278

of points, 279

under reflections, 281-283

of triangles, 279

Inclinations of lines, 205

Indirect reasoning, 224-225

Inequalities, 219-224

Inequality axioms, 219-220

Inequality Postulate, 220

Inequality symbols, 219

Inscribed angles, 100

Inscribed circles, 91

Inscribed polygons, 90

Inscribing regular polygons, 247-248

Intercepting arcs, 90

Interior angles, 48-49

alternate, 49

Internally tangent circles, 96

Intersecting:

chords, 131
 loci, locating points by means of, 194

secants, 132

segments, inside and outside circles, 131-133

tangents and secants, 131

Inverses:

partial, of theorems, 233-234

of statements, 231

Isosceles trapezoids, 74

Isosceles triangles, 10, 40-43

Lateral faces of prisms, 263

Latitude, parallels of, 265

Legs:

of right triangles, 10

of trapezoids, 74

Less than symbol, 219

Line segments, 2-3

combining, 238

Line symmetry, 279-280

Lines, 1

of centers of two circles, 96

curved, 1

equations of, 208

horizontal, 153

inclination of, 205

parallel (see Parallel lines)

 perpendicular (see Perpendicular lines)

reflections in, 279

of sight, 153

slopes of, 204-206

straight, 1

of symmetry, 279

Loci, 191-196

in analytic geometry, 208-210

determining, 191-194

intersecting, locating points by means of, 194

of points, 191

proving, 195-196

Locus principles, extension of, 269-271

Locus theorems, 191-192

Logically equivalent statements, 232

Longitude, 265

Major arcs, 90

Mean proportionals, 117

in right triangles, 133-134

Means of proportions, 117

Measure:

cubic, 273-274

square, 272-273

Measurement, proof and, 20

Medians:

altitudes and, 129

 of trapezoids, 74, 83

of triangles, 11, 83

Meridian, 265

Methods of proof, 19-31

Midpoints:

of segments, 200-202

of triangles and trapezoids, 83

Minor arcs, 90

Minutes, 6

Multiplication Postulate, 22

N-gon, 62-63

Navy compass, 6

Necessary conditions, 234-235

Negative reciprocals, 206

Negative slopes, 205

Negatives of statements, 231

Nonagons, 63

Number scales, 199

Observation, 20

Obtuse angles, 6

Obtuse triangles, 10

Octagons, 63

Octahedrons, 266

Ordinate, 199

constant, 208
 same, 202

Origin of number scale, 199

Overlapping circles, 97

Parallel-Line Postulate, 49

Parallel lines, 48-53

constructing, 244-245

slopes of, 206

Parallelepipeds, 263

Parallelograms, 75-82

areas of, 161-162

diagonals of, 76

Parallels:

of latitude, 265

three or more, 82-83

Partial converses of theorems, 233-234

Partial inverses of theorems, 233-234

Particular statements, 19

Partition Postulate, 21

Patterns in reflections, 283

Pentagons, 9

Perimeters of polygons, 129

Perpendicular bisectors, 7

of sides, 11

Perpendicular lines, 7

constructing, 239-241

slopes of, 206

Pi (p), 180

Plane angles, 262

Plane geometry, 2

extending, into solid geometry, 262-276

Plane surfaces, 2

Planes, 2

transformations of, 278

Point symmetry, 280-281

Points, 1

collinear, 3, 206

distances between, 202-204

fixed, 278

on graphs, 199

images of, 279

locating, by means of intersecting loci, 194

locus of, 191

Polygons, 9, 62-63

circumscribed, 91

inscribed, 90

regular (see Regular polygons)

of same size or shape, 165-167

similar (see Similar polygons)

sum of angles of, 62-65

Polyhedra, 262

regular, 266

Positive slopes, 205

Postulates, 21-23

algebraic, 21-22

geometric, 22-23

Powers Postulate, 22

Prime Meridian, 265

Principles, 26

Prisms, 263

right, 263

Products, equal, of lengths of segments, 130-131

Proof:

by deductive reasoning, 19-20

experiment and, 20

measurement and, 20

methods of, 19-31

Proofs of important theorems, 251-261

Proportional segments, 120-123

Proportions, 117-120

Protractor, 6

Pyramids, 262, 264

frustrums of, 264

regular, 264

Pythagorean Theorem, 134-136

Quadrants, 199

Quadrilaterals, 63

areas of, 210

R

Radius, 4, 90

of regular polygons, 175

Ratios, 116-117

continued, 116

cosine, 150

of segments and areas of regular polygons, 179

of similitude, 129

sine, 150

tangent, 150

trigonometric, 150-153

Rays, 1

Reasoning:

deductive (see Deductive reasoning)

direct, 224

improvement of, 229-235

indirect, 224-225

syllogistic, 19

Reciprocals, negative, 206

Rectangles, 78-82

areas of, 160

diagonals of, 79

Rectangular solids, 263

Reflections, 278-284

images under, 281-283

in lines, 279

patterns in, 283

Reflex angles, 7
Reflexive Postulate, 21

Regular hexagons, 266

Regular polygons, 175-177

apothems of, 175

areas of, 178-179

centers of, 175

central angles of, 175

circumscribing, 247-248

inscribing, 247-248

radius of, 175

ratios of segments and areas of, 179

relationships of segments in, 177-178

Regular polyhedra, 266

Regular pyramids, 264

Rhombuses, 78-82

areas of, 164-165

diagonals of, 79

Right angles, 6

Right circular cones, 264

Right circular cylinders, 265

Right prisms, 263

Right triangles, 10, 150

formulas for, 295

mean proportionals in, 133-134

special, 137-138

Rotational symmetry, 288

Rotations, 8, 286-288
S
Scalene triangles, 10

Secants, 90

intersecting, 132

and tangents intersecting, 131

Seconds, 6

Sectors, areas of, 181-183

Segments, 2, 129

areas of, 181-183

of circles, 181

congruent, 82

duplicating, 238-239

equal products of lengths of, 130-131

intersecting inside and outside circles, 131-133

line (see Line segments)

midpoints of, 200-202

proportional, 120-123

ratios of, and areas of regular polygons, 179

relationships of, in regular polygons, 177-178

shortest, between figures, 53-54

Semicircle, 4, 90

Shape, same, polygons of, 165-167

Sides:

of angles, 5

of polygons, 129

of triangles:

altitudes to, 11

congruent corresponding, 35
perpendicular bisectors of, 11
Similar polygons, 123

comparing areas of, 167-168

Similar triangles, 123-129

constructing, 248

Similarity, 166-139

Sine ratios, 150

Size, same, polygons of, 165-167

Slopes of lines, 204-206

positive and negative, 205

Small circles, 265

Solid geometry, extensions to, 266-272

Solids, 262-266

areas of, 272-273

rectangular, 263

volumes of, 273-274

Space geometry principles, extension of plane geometry principles to, 266-271

Spheres, 262, 265-266

Square measure, 272-273

Square principle, 138

Square roots, table of, 297

Square unit, 160

Squares, 63, 78-82

areas of, 160-161

diagonals of, 80

of numbers, table of, 297

Statements:

contrapositives of, 231

 converses of, 28, 231

dual, 266-271

forms of, 28

general, 19

if-then, 28-29

inverses of, 231

logically equivalent, 232

negatives of, 231

particular, 19

subject-predicate, 28

Straight angles, 7

Straight line segments, 2

Straight lines, 1

Straightedge, 237

Subject-predicate statements, 28

Substitution Postulate, 21

Subtracting angles, 8

Subtraction Postulate, 21

Sufficient conditions, 234-235

Sum of angles:

of polygons, 62-65

of triangles, 58-62

Supplementary angles, 13

Supplementary problems, answers to, 298-315

Surface areas, 272-273

Surfaces, plane, 2

Syllogistic reasoning, 19
Symbols, inequality, 219

Symmetry:

axis of, 279

line, 279-280

lines of, 279

point, 280-281

rotational, 288

Tangent ratios, 150

Tangents, 90

and secants intersecting, 131

Terms:

defined, 229, 230

undefined, 1-2, 230

Tetrahedrons, 266

Theorems, 26, 231

angle, 26-27

congruency, 65-68

important, proofs of, 251-261

locus, 191-192

partial converses of, 233-234

partial inverses of, 233-234

proving, 29-30

with analytic geometry, 211-212

Pythagorean, 134-136

Three-dimensional space, extension of analytic geometry to, 271-272

Transformational geometry, 278-290

Transformations, 278

of planes, 278

properties of, 290

Transitive Postulate, 21

Translations, 284-286

Transversals, 48

Trapezoids, 74-75

areas of, 164

isosceles, 74

midpoints and medians of, 83

Triangle inequality theorems, 220-221

Triangles, 9-12

acute, 10

angle bisectors of, 11

areas of, 162-163, 210

classifying, 10

congruent, 35-43

constructing, 241-244

equilateral, 10, 40-42

images of, 279

isosceles, 10, 40-43

medians of, 11

midpoints and medians of, 83

obtuse, 10

right (see Right triangles)

scalene, 10

sides of (see Sides of triangles)

 similar (see Similar triangles)

special lines in, 11

sum of angles of, 58-62

Trigonometric functions, table of, 296

Trigonometric ratios, 150-153

Trigonometry, 150-155

Undefined terms, 1-2, 230

Understanding, 229

Unequal to symbol, 219

Unit:

cubic, 263, 273

square, 160

Value, absolute, 202

Vertex (see Vertices)

Vertical angles, 13

Vertical number scale, 199

Vertices, 5

of polyhedra, 262

of pyramids, 264

of triangles, 10

Volumes of solids, 273-274

combined, 276

x-axis, 199

x-coordinate, 199
x-value, 202

y-axis, 199

y-coordinate, 199

y-intercept, 208

y-value, 202

z-axis, 271