Music

"T h is is an im m en sely v alu ab le b o o k an d o n e w h ich is clearly

designed to appeal to all m u sician s n o t ju st string p la y e rs . . .
M r. B lu m h as captu red in g reat detail the little things th at so
nffen malfP a
tparhpr T wnuld .tT~.r'gly rpcr.mmgnd tbic
b o o k to an \ o n t vwlh an in te ie st in the A rt o f In lerp retatio n
Ju lin Lloyd W ebber in M usic feai hcr

T h e \olum e b elo n g s to an cx cep tio n al class o f litei atu re t is to

be w elco m ed a s a sig n ih can t co n tn b u tio n In his Forew ord,
A n to n v H op kin s in a m o st tlo q u e n t w ay m akes us fu lly aw are
o f o u r p o ssible g reat loss h ad the su bject m aterial fo rm in g this
b o o k n o t been p r i s e n e d fo r p o sterilv th rou gh o u t the b o o k
o n e rem am s n o t only an ab so rb ed rtad er, b u t v e ry m uch an a c
tive p articip an !
Jan o s S ch o lz in V iolom elle Socicty N ew sletter

'N o w we h a v e an a u th o rita tiv e guide to this g re at a rtist s ap-

p ro ach to in le rp re tatio n a b o o k w hich should b e com p u lsory
reading fo r ev ery player, co n d u cto r and teach er '
B ern ard K u l i in M t- h 01 ti ot lln
h icorp i i i S r 1/ W Mu n un

Blum h as e leg an tly co n ib in e d p r u i s i nui.il luniinolox,\ m th

m eticu lou s m u sical exam p les lo present lucid and revealing de-
tails o f interpretation that can be qu ickly and easilv giaspPed IJ . O n h
su p erlativ es ap p ly to this b o o k , and all sen o u s m u sicians would
fin d im m ense pleasu re and m u sical p rofit fro m read m g this j
w o rk H ighly recom m end ed a t a ll levels

The Author
D a v id B lu m , b o rn m L os A n g eles in 1935, is prm cip ally k n o w n
a s co n d u c to r o f N ew Y o rk 's E sterh azy O rch e stra H is re c o rd in g s '
o f H ay d n sy m p h o m es w ith th is ensem ble a n d o f M o z a rt w>
w ith th e Enghsh C h am b er O rch estra h av e w o n him interna
acclaim C asals to o k a w arm m terest in D av id B lu m 's m
activities and in 1961 b ecam e H o n o rary President o f the Es
O rch e stra T h e n o tes fo r the b o o k w ere taken t inm
reh earsals a n d m aster tla s s e s in P rad es, S a n Ju a n , M a r lB p r ,
Z e rm a tt, the U m v ersity o f C a lifo rn ia and elsew here, as wgll as \
m m a n y p rv a te d iscu ssion s w ith C asals. D a v id B lu m noyv.lives
in S w itm la n d , g u is t cond u i t s in F aro p e, and is d ir tc tn i o f l O r-
ches^re Sy m p h o m q u e G e n e v o is and o f l'O rch e stre Sym ph oru qu e ,

IN IV I'R S m Of C A I 11 O K N 1 A P R S S

BERKELEY 94720
 CASALS
AND THE ART
OF
INTERPRETARON
DAVID BLUM

W ith
An Introduction by Paul Tortelier
and
A Foreword by Antony Hopkins

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

BERKELEY, LOS ANGELES, LONDON
 University of California Press
Berkeley and Los Angeles, California
University of California Press, Ltd.
London, England
CONTENTS
David Blum 1977
Intrduction b y Paul T ortelier v
First California Paperback Edition 1980
F o rew o rd b y A n to n y Hopkins v ii
ALL RIGHTS RESER VED
Preface x
Libraty of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

I T h e First Principie i

II Finding the Design 15

III D iction for Instrumentalists 50
Blum, David.
Casals and the art of interpretation. IV P erceivin g T im e Relationships 69

Ineludes ndex. V Insights for String Players 10 1

1. Casals, Pablo, 1876-1973. 2. Music -
Performance. I. Tille. VI Casals and Bach 138
ML418.C4B6 780'.92'4 77-1444
ISBN 0-520-04032-5 V II A Casals Rehearsal: The Pastoral Sym phony 164
3456789 E pilogu e 208

Principal References 2 11

Index to M usical W orks 2 14

Theauthor and publisher are grateful to Novello & Company Ltd. for
permission to reprint musical examples from the Elgar Cello Concert,
and to E. P. Dutton & Co., Etc. and Hutchinson & Co., Ltd. for General Index 218
permission to quote extraets from Conversalions with Casals by Jos
Mara Corredor. Copyright 1956 by E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc.

ILLUSTRATIONS
T h e musical exam ples hav been draw n b y M alcolm Lipkin.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AM ERICA

 INTRODUCTION
by

P A U L T O R T E L IE R

I w ill say on jy elemental things, nothing com -

plicated - as everyth in g ought to be, beginning
w ith Ufe. B u t y o u must k n o w that the simplest the com m unication
things are the ones that count. O f the dead is tongued w ith fire beyond the language o f the livin g.
T. S. E liot
Pablo Casals
It takes as much audacity as faith to w rite such a book as this.
D a vid B lu m has lacked neither o f these qualities and has thus
succeeded in achieving the impossible. T h ere is no page, indeed,
in w hich those w h o kn ew Casals do not feel his presence or
hear his vo ice; there is nothing that is not perfectly trae. In
sum m ary, it is at one and the same time a film o f the rehearsals,
a detailed and minute analysis o f the technique o f interpretation
(elucidated b y means o f clearly illustrated musical quotations),
a com m entary structured in such a manner that the thoughts
o f Casals are transmitted without loss o f continuity in all their
richness, strength and luminous sim plicity. Fin ally, there is no
tendency tow ards any sort o f dogmatism, but on the contrary
the demonstration that the art o f Casals, elabrate as it m ay seem
on cise analysis, w as never separated from the warm th o f the
soul and the heart, and alw ays retained the spontaneous character
o f im provisation.
P ablo Casals, the greatest cellist o f all time, ow ed the
superiority o f his interpretations to the quality o f his convictions
resulting from an exceptional musical intuition, based upon a
broad kn ow ledge and ever-strengthened b y the sacred fire o f
exaltation.
VI
IN T R O D U C T IO N

W e must h ave exaltation, Casals told the musicians around

him - this, in reference to variations (exaltation o f a theme),
to trills (exaltation o f a note), in fact, in regard to everything.
A s he w o u ld say: I f there is no exaltation it is not g o o d . A nd FOREWORD
the fire o f exaltation in w hich he forged his convictions w as fed by
b y the constant w onder em anating from his contem plation o f
A N T O N Y HOPKINS
nature.
I f w ell understood, the teaching o f Casals m ay offer m uch,
not only to those concerned w ith the interpretation o f music, O be a legend in on es lifetime . . . The phrase has become
but also to com posers w h o , w hen entering into the depth o f
Casals thinking, w ill becom e aw are o f the infinite variety o f
T a clich, debased b y the ease w ith w hich the media today
can create legends for a public ever hungry fo r n ew idols to w o r-
nature and w ill rediscover at the same time their innate ship. Y e t such legendary figures do exist and have existed, figures
originality. whose stature is m ore enduring than that o f the televisin inter-
R eturning to the interpreter, let it not be forgotten that real vie w e r, the newspaper columnist or the pop star. The true
m usical feeling, through w hich one can find the appropriate creators, w riters, painters, sculptors and composers are ultim ately
character o f a g ive n page, can on ly tru ly com e from within. It ju d g ed b y the valu posterity places upon their w o rk ; thus the
w o u ld be a m istake to hope that it is possible to recreate the W o rk is in the lon g run more important than its M aker. Tastes
w orks o f the great masters in all their beauty and truth b y a m erely m ay change; the critical esteem in w hich a composer is held m ay
theoretical application o f C asals principies. It seems that in the decline o ver a couple o f decades, as it has w ith Sibelius, or be
realm o f m usical creation and recreation, m ore are being called enhanced as it has w ith Janacek. The music lives on, renew ing its
and few er chosen. T o rem edy this situation, one needs to climb vitality through perform ance. Bu t w hat o f the perform er? Is his
b eyond the dangerous slope o f mere facility and o f quick recom contribution to music too evanescent to be preserved? Recordings
pense so contrary to art.1 Y o u n g musicians must honour again today have reached a sufficient perfection for us to be able to con-
the study o f m usical com position, fo llo w in g the exam ple o f the vince ourselves that legendary performances o f our time can n o w
great interpreters o f the past, not excludin g Casals w h o , in fact, be captured fo r generations to come, as though b y some miracle
devoted time to com position all o f his life. w e w ere able to hear the actual sound o f Liszt or C hopin across
M a y D a vid B lu m s w o rk inspire the musical reader to d raw the g u lf o f years. A lread y w e m ay feel a sense o f aw e as w e listen
strength again from nature, as did B eeth oven and Schubert to records (or pianola rolls) o f Busoni, G o d o w sk y, K reisler or
w henever th ey had the possibility, or to contm plate some Chaliapin. T h e machine conjures up the long-dead sounds, but
M ou n t C an ig o u as Casals often did at sunrise. T h en ones though w e m ay m arvel at the performance itself or at the tech-
interpretations w ill be livin g and authentic because they w ill n o lo gy that makes its resurrection possible, it remains a perfor
spring from deep sources, as w ith Casals, w h o , w hen once asked, mance o f the dead, and as w e listen, our room is filled w ith their
H o w do y o u count here, M aestro? answ ered: W ith m y sou l. spectral presence. Instinctively and unavoidably w e measure them
1 A work o f art is never completed; it is only abandoned. Paul Valry
against the yardstick o f our contem porary giants, and because the
latter are still w ith us, because they w ill p lay or sing fo r us again
viii FOREWORD
FOREWORD 1X
next w eek, next year, they have the p o w er to put the ghosts in fall into the trap o f saying that the book is not for m e; to do so
their place, to m ake them truly pass. w o u ld be as foolish as it w ould have been to have turned Casals
I o n ly heard Casis once. O f course one says it was unforget- aw a y from m y door had he miraculously appeared there. In these
table, and so, in a w a y , it was. As lon g as I live I shall remember pages there is something more important than memories o f
the sight o f that hom ely almost dum py little figu re, m ore like a Casals, reminders o f performances, annotations to recordings.
village organist than an internationally renow ned soloist; as long H ere is the means w hereby that legend in his lifetim e m ay be
as I live I shall rem em ber the atmosphere he created around him, kept alive so that every youn g musician m ay feel Casals in spirit
the uncanny hush as six thousand o r m ore people in the A lbert
standing b y his side, exhorting, cajoling, teaching.
H a ll seemed to hold their breath fo r the entire duration o f the There have been other examples o f such books; Johnson had his
B a ch sarabande he played as an encore. B u t can I truly say it was B o sw e ll, Stravinsky his Robert C raft; yet there is a danger that
unforgettable? D o I rem em ber every nuance, ev e ry bow -change, i f the disciples notebook is too readily in evidence, the master
ev ery accent? In all honesty I must say N o . Say to me Listen to m ay becom e too self-consciously aw are o f posterity. D avid B lu m
the records then , and I w ill reply that it is not enough. I could
had his notebook to hnd but he never forced him self upon
listen a thousand times and since each repetition w o u ld be Casals as a chronicler; he never even planned to w rite a book at
identical so w o u ld the m arvellous spontaneity o f his interpreta-
the time. H e sim ply wanted to treasure for his ow n use every-
tion seem to diminish. G radually the m achine w o u ld take over thing that he could gather o f Casals experience and w isdm .
and that treasured visual m em ory o f an actual occasion m ight O n ly an intellectual miser w ould w ant to keep such riches to
even g ro w less viv id . Casals w ould cease to be the legend in his him self; it is our go od fortune that this quiet observer has chosen
lifetim e and becom e a legend in his death, and the taint o f death to share this w ealth w ith us so that w e too m ay com e under the
w o u ld lie upon him as he join ed those other ghosts I have
spell o f Pablo Casals and kn ow him as a musician and teacher
mentioned.
supreme.
A n d so w e com e to the purpose o f this book. T w o years ago I
B elgrad e,Ju n e 1976
spent. a h appy d ay in G eneva at the delightful hom e o f D avid
B lu m . T h e conversation turned to Casals and such w as D a v id s
enthusiasm as he spoke o f him that I h a lf expected that never-
forgotten figu re to w alk in from the garden, take out his cello
and p lay for us. Casals was no longer in a b o x o f dises or im -
prisoned betw een the plstic covers o f a record-sleeve. H e was
there, alive again, speaking through anothers voice its true, but
nearer to me than he had ever been in life. W as there a place
for a book about Casals, D avid asked m e, a book for musicians,
detailed enough to g o into the fundamental aspeets o f his art? M y
answ er was an em phatic Yes, since here I felt was a man whose
devotion to Casals was such as to ensure a fidelity to truth
musical truth. N o t being a string-player m yself I m ight easily
 PREFACE xi

playin g, Liszt s description o f C h opin s perform ance, the treatises

o f W agn er. I f Casals ideas sometimes seemed startlingly n ew , it
was, as he pointed out, because the od natural rules have been
PREFACE
forgotten .
W h ile Casals the cellist is a household expression, some
w ords m ay be in order about Casals, the conductor. Conducting
w as for him not an occasional avocation as it has often been for
M A G I N E ! P ab lo Casals once said. T h e y cali me a great m any famous instrumentalists. I f I have been happy scratching

I cellist. I am not a cellist; I am a musician. Th at is m uch more

im portant.
aw ay at m y cello , he once wrote to Ju liu s Rntgen, h o w shall I
feel when I can possess the greatest o f all instruments the
D u ring the last decades o f his life, Casals rarely appeared as a orchestra? His conducting career, w hich began w ith the
soloist; he devoted him self principally to conducting Lam oureux O rchestra in 1908, extended over sixty-five years. In
and teaching, passing on the depth and scope o f a k n ow led ge 1920 he founded the Orquestra Pau Casals in Barcelona, w hich
and understanding culled over a lifetim e dedicated to the art o f he conducted until the outbreak o f the Spanish civil w ar. Sir
interpretation. H e repeatedly stressed certain fundam ental con- A drin B o u lt, w ho attended Casals rehearsals in 19 23, com -
cepts w hich he sometimes called law s o f m usic or law s o f ments, . . . the rehearsals were really lessons . . . every member
nature concepts w hich he considered to be essential elements o f the orchestra was made to feel the passage him self in its in
o f m eaningful interpretation and applicable to all form s o f evitable relation to the expression o f the moment and the style o f
musical expression. M y purpose in w ritin g this book is to the w hole w o r k . . . . W e all kn ow Casals playing o f the classics.
provide a study o f these principies and, by g iv in g selected ex- Casals, the conductor, is no less great an artist. D u rin g this
amples from the repertoire, to d raw a portrait o f Casals the in- period, Casals also made frequent appearances as guest conductor
terpreter at w ork. Thus this book is not a b iography, although w ith such ensembles as the London Sym phony O rchestra and the
the luminous strength o f personality w hich so animated Casals V ienna Philharm onic. From 1950, his principie form o f public
and replenished his art cannot be entirely excluded from its perform ance w as in the capacity o f conductor, whether at the
pages; or is it a manual for cellists, although it does incorprate Prades or M arlboro Festivals or w ith the Festival Casals Orchestra
the basic features o f Casals teaching in regard to string playin g. o f Puerto R ico , an ensemble draw n from am ong the finest o f
It is an attempt to record in print the oral tradition o f C asals A m ericas musicians, m any first-desk players in m ajor orchestras
teaching o f interpretation, to preserve this heritage for a n ew taking secondary positions for the p rivilege o f playing under his
generation o f musicians to whom he is n o w a legend. direction. A t no time did Casals com m unicate his ideas about
Casals w ou ld sometimes refer to the innovations in technique music more clearly or eloquently than w hen rehearsing an
w hich he had introduced ideas w hich revolutionized cello orchestra. For this reason I have devoted much space to this
playing in the tw entieth century. H o w e ver, he did not consider aspect o f his m usic-m aking. The rehearsals in question, unless
his musical concepts to be innovations. He was, in fact, in the his- otherwise stated, took place when he w as conducting the Festival
torical mainstream o f great interpreters. Casals teaching shares Casals or M arlboro Festival orchestras.
much in com m on w ith the w ritings o f C . P. E . B ach , Q uantz, In planning the form at o f this book I have divided the m aterial
the M ozarts, father and son, C z ern y s account o f B eeth o ven s under chapter headings w hich are, I believe, representative o f the
 xi PREFACE PREFACE xiii

m ain aspects o f Casals teaching. M usic being w hat it is, m uch o f Casals indications other difficuties arse. There is, in any case,
the material is interrelated, and some overlapping is unavoidable. the general problem posed when one attempts to transate a liv -
T o cite but one instance, the principies o f clarity o f articulation, ing re-creation into signs and symbols. Furtherm ore, Casals
as set out in C hapter III, are closely related to string technique, interpretations w ere not set in an inflexible m ould, bow in gs and
discussed in C hapter V . The final chapter, A Casals Rehearsal:
fingerings w ere frequently thanged; expressive inflections w ere
T h e Pastoral Sym phony , provides an exam ple o f h o w the subject to subtle variation. T o the extent that an im perfect
: various elements o f interpretation, w hich are dealt w ith in- system o f notation permits, I have endeavoured to indcate Casals
d ivid u ally during the course o f the book, jo in together in perfor interpretation as it w as at a given point in time. The reader
i mance. should take the bracketed markings to be butterflies observed for
T h e musical exam ples are taken in nearly equal proportion a m om ent w hile on the w in g not w hen pinned dow n in the
from am ong the cello and orchestral w orks w hich Casals taught
lepidopterists case.
and perform ed. If, in w ritin g this book, I have been obliged to The great m ajority o f Casals statements quoted m this book
select on ly a lim ited num ber o f musical quotations w h ich I w ere originally spoken in English; his use o f this language, w hile
thought w o u ld best exem p lify the text, the reader is not so sometimes im perfect, was alw ays expressive and com pelhng.
bound. Th is book cou ld serve no better purpose than to stimulate O n ly in those few places where I felt that his gram m atical usage
the reader to discover for him self, am ong the vast repertoire o f left his m eaning unclear have I slightly m odified the syntax. The
great music, the w a y in w h ich C asals principies m ay find epigraph placed b elo w each chapter title is quoted from Casals.
extensive application. W hen, in the progress o f the text, a piece A lthough I began to w rite this book in 1975 w as, in a sense,
o f music is exam ined in a n e w context, I have occasionally born tw en ty-tw o years previously when, as a student, I first visited
repeated an exam ple rather than im pose a frequent need fo r cross- Prades. M y notes w ere taken at rehearsals and master classes in
referencing. Since not e v e ry music lover is w ell versed in the C Prades, Zerm att, San Ju an , M arlboro, the U n iversity o f C alifo r
clefs, the musical exam ples are quoted in the G o r F clef; (cellists nia, in prvate discussions with Casals and at chamber music
w ill, I hope, forgive m e). T h e music o f transposing instruments rehearsals at his hom e. B u t this has been for me m ore than note-
has been w ritten at actual pitch. takin g . Casals brought a love and dedication to every phrase he
Casals interpretative indications are contained w ithin curved played; he transmitted an aura o f tangible jo y in his music-
brackets that they m ay be distinguished from com posers m ark- m aking w h ich touched one not on ly at a cerebral level. O ne can-
v :
i ings, w hich remain unbracketed. G en erally, w here C asals indi not w rite o f these things in a spirit o f abstraction and I make no
cations elabrate upon those o f the printed score, I have left the ap ology if, in setting dow n these recollections, I have not
tw o sets o f m arkings standing side b y side. The insertion o f the w ithheld m y o w n enthusiasm. H o w e ver, it goes w ithout saying
composers m arkings has presented certain problem s, since unani- that the inform ation presented about Casals teaching is recorded
m ity is often lacking am ong the various sources. W here possible, as faithfully and accurately as possible.
I have consulted LJrtext editions. (O ne notable exception is the As w ith all great artists, Casals approach to a given w o rk
Boccherini B b m ajor C oncert w hich Casals payed in the could be h igh ly individual. O bviou sly there w ill be m ore than
Griitzm acher edition the on ly one available during the first ne w a y to interpret any piece. H o w e ver, it is the aim o f this
part o f this century, and w hich, despite the publication o f an book to set forth C asals ideas as clearly as possible, and it is
authentic score, is still popular today am ong cellists.) W ith beyond its province to discourse extensively upon alternative
;!

L
XIV PREFACE

w ays o f taaching and perform ing.

W h at Casals left to us was not a doctrinaire System but an open
d oor to ou r o w n experience. The strength o f his spirit w orked
CHAPTERI
not to confine but to librate; he guided a youn ger generation
not tow ards a rig id cop ying o f his w ays, but tow ards an enriched
T H E FI RST P R I N C I P L E
understanding o f the art o f interpretation. H e show ed us,
through his exam ple, h o w w e m igh t open a musical score even
fo r the hundredth time and yet n ever lack courage - as Shelley T ec hniq ue, w o n d e rfu l sound . . . a ll o f this is sometimes astonishing
expressed it to feel that w h ich w e perceive, and to im agine
b u t i t is n o t enough.
that w hich w e k n o w .

A s W estern students o f O riental culture have discovered, the

I w ish to express m y gratitude to A n to n y H opkins w ithout
w hose encouragem ent this book m ight n ever have been w ritten ; X X First P rincipie does not lend itself to precise translacin,
to Peter Gras for his discerning attention given to m y literary said m y Chnese friend, an art historian. It is something defimte,
effort; to B ern ard Greenhouse fo r his invaluable musical advice; yet it is indescribable. It is how yo u feel w hen you enter a room
and to E m ile E llb erger, Beaum ont Glass and G eo ffrey Sutton for and sense that everything in it is som ehow harm om ous;
their m any helpful suggestions. A m o n g others w ho have k in d ly y o u k n o w that y o u are at peace there. It is h o w yo u r lile
provided counsel or assistance are O rlanda B ru gn o la, Isidore suddenly seems to change when you fall in love. It is the w a y in
w hich y o u r spirit comes into subtle accord w ith the m ovem ent of
C oh n , P ro f. V incent D uckles, C liv e Fairbairn, Sidney H arth,
M ichael K en n ed y, N ath an K ro ll, A u ro ra N atola-G inastera, life around you ; at the same time it is an experience w tthm yo u r-
M enahem Pressler, Franz W alter and W o lfg a n g Zuckerm ann. s e l f - at the very centre. It is active and passive, em bracm g and
T h e photographs o f Casals teaching w ere taken b y Perren - releasing; it is a profound sense o f being.'
W e w ere discussing chi-yn, the first o f the S ix Principies set
B arberin i, Z erm att, and provided b y Constant Cachin.
Fin ally, I w ish to thank M ary W orth in gto n o f H einem ann dow n b y the art critic Hseih H o in the fifth century A.D. m w hat
is thought to be the arliest document statmg the fundamental
Educational B o o k s for patiently seeing this volum e through
canons o f Chinese painting. It w as maintained that m order to
e v e ry editorial stage; and m y w ife a musician in her o w n right
becom e a master, the artist must prove him self m the fo lio w in g
and also a friend to Casals fo r g ivin g this w o rk the benefit o f
her perceptive criticism. skills: vitality o f brushstroke, accuracy in portrayal, versatility in

Vandceuvres, David B lum colouring, care in arrangement o f com position, transm isin o
tradition through co p yin g the w orks o f earlier masters. B u t the
Sw itzerland 19 7 6
foremost task lay in the fulfilm ent o f the First Principie, w hich
has sometimes been defm ed as breath-resonance life-m otion .
N ote : the English terms m inim , crotchet , qu aver , semi-
q u a v e r and dem isem iquaver are equivalent to the A m erican For on ly b y com ing into harm ony w ith the vital cosmic spirit or
h a lf n ote, quarter note , eighth n ote , sixteenth n ote and breath could the painter convey through the m ovem ent of his
thirty-second note respectively; w hile sem itone and tone brush the mysterious vitality o f life itself.
correspond to h a lf step and w h ole step (or w h o le ton e).
 T H E FIRST P R IN C IP L E 3
2 CASALS A N D THE ART OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N

T h e other five principies m ay be acquired through study and tow ards its clim ax. A t the entrance o f the horn cali Casals

perseverance, said m y friend, but ch i-yn comes from w ithin. It stopped, desperate fo r w ords; finally he blurted out: J o y l It is the
develops in the silence o f the sou l. announcement o f the birth o f his son. H e is so happy.
I have never heard anyone so utterly express the m eaning o f a
given w o rd as did Casals. ^5^hen he said jo y . . . lo v e ly . . .
I recall one m orning when Casals rehearsed W a g n e rs tender . . . each w o rd conveyed a resonance o f feeling, as did his
Siegfried Id y ll - the sym phonic birthday greeting to his p layin g o f a phrase b y Bach. N o person meeting Casals fo r the
Cosim a from her R ichard , w ritten in com m em oration o f their first time w ou ld com e aw ay unm oved - i f not unshaken - b y
son s birth. A fter the opening bars had been played very these simple w ords w hich had not lost their connection w ith
i 'i i b eau tifu lly, Casals stopped the orchestra, closed his eyes, and their origin in spirit. W h o else could risk saying B e sincere and
) i
quietly clasped his hands together. For a lon g m om ent he became
strike to the heart s core?
quite still, absorbed in contem plation. His transfigured expres- Th is sense o f w on der, o f touching upon an original experi-
sion reflected a oneness w ith the spirit from w h ich this music is ence, w as the essence o f Casals art; the manner in w h ich this
orn. infinite devotion, profoundest love. Then, w ith out a single w onder was crystallized into supreme m usic-m aking w as the
w o rd , he indicated that the orchestra should begin again. A w a re
secret o f his greatness.
or not o f h o w or w h y they had been m oved, the musicians Far from the bliss o f the Siegfried Id y ll is the Schumann C ello
brough t to their p layin g a more in w ard quality o ffe e lin g , draw n C oncert, a w o rk o f feverish unrest and dark foreboding. C lara
from a source o f deep tenderness; and from this source the entire Schumann recounts the harrow ing scene in w hich her husband,
w o rk sang as i f shim m ering from a golden m irror, A lth ou gh h aving been torm ented b y the alternating visitations o f angels
Casals paused to rehearse points o f detail, the continuity o f feel- and demons, began correcting his C ello C oncert, hoping that
ing rem ained unbroken. The lon g transitional passage has never this w o u ld deliver him from the perpetual sound o f the voices .
1 1 T 1 .......................... .................A A 0 A A V -V ^ J .

been m ore delicately w oven : the trills w ere suspended like In keeping w ith his usual teachng procedure Casals first asked his
threads o f m agic light; there was alchem y in the air. T h e w o o d - student to p lay through a large section o f this w o rk , after w hich
w ind and strings, in turn, gave gentle invocation to the new he made appropriate comments about intonation, im proved
theme: fingering and other pertinent matter. A s alw ays, his explan -
Ex. i ations w ere b rie f and directly to the point. Casals then began to
p lay, taking the student through the piece phrase b y phrase. A s
L e ic h t bew eg t
ll L S*rS - , __________________ he did so, he becam e increasingly immersed in the em otional
atmosphere o f the w o rk . Pain, p a in . . . he called out. A ll is
pain the poor m a n ! In one passage Casals b o w slashed upon
the string and then forged a hair-raising crescendo, culm m ating
A lth ou gh it is pianissimo, Casals said, every note must sin g! in a sforzando that had the intensity o f a shriek; the answ ering
T h e pulse quickened; the music flo w e d ardently in evitably phrase carne as an inconsolable lament:
 T H E F IR S T P R 1 N C 1 P LE 5
4 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
T h e Saint-Sans C ello Concert in A m inor presented another
Ex. 2 kind o f drama. Casals reminisced: T h is w o rk is an o d fn en d o f
Nicht zu schnell m ine; I played it w ith Saint-Sans w hen 1 w as tw elve. Saint-
Sans explained to me that this concert w as mspired b y t e
Pastoral Sym phony o f Beethoven. It opens w ith a storm, then

come moments o f calm. . i t

Here, where the theme comes m D major, we begin o

(espr.)

Ex. 4
= r n jp ) s Allegro non troppo

Within the space o f a few minutes the lesson had imperceptibly

transformed itself from a fascinating account o f cello playing into
a uniquely moving human experience. D oloroso. . . doloroso! A nd, as in Beethoven, there is a peasants dance; here w e must
Casals voice rose almost in a wail. Everything in this concert is play ligh tly and sim ply - w ith v ery little vibrato :
espressivo.
For Casals, the formulation o f feeling and the interpretation o f
Ex. 5
music emanated from a single source and flowed together in a
Allegretto con moto
single stream. Notes which stood apart from this stream were
Vlc.Solo
coid without meaning.
Announce the hero! he exclaimed, when a student was about
to begin the Dvork Concert. This was no mere rhetoric.
Dvorks work was, to Casals, an heroic drama, passing through
every vicissitude o f expression. The tale o f Casals refusal to per-
form the concert with a conductor who disparaged it is no myth
but a true instance o f his deep involvement. Towards the end o f
the last movement where the cello subsides in a long diminuen N o t all his descriptions w ere so precise. Sometimes no m ore
do, Casals conceived the moment o f final expiration as portray- than a few w ords, barely spoken above a whisper w ou ld give
ing the death o f the hero. hint o f the inner visin -w h ich illum inated the re-creative

Ex. 3 process. r ,
A s in a dream , he said, when rehearsing a passage from the
Andante rit. slow m ovem ent o f Beeth oven s Fourth Sym phony:

' At which time the composer called Casals performance the finest he had ever
X>X> m o lto creso.
heard.
 6 T H E FIRST P R IN C IP L E 7
C A SA LS A N D THE A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

Ex. 6 Sym p h o n y, the rom antic longing in the A d agio fro m the
F are w e ll Sym phony. W h en reading through the scoe o f the
M o u rn in g Sym ph o n y (N o . 44) he exclaim ed to me: H ayd n
could do an yth in g!
Som e musicians w ou ld restrict and categorize the degree o f ex
pression w h ich m ay be brought to the perform ance o f music o f
the classical period. Casals was not the person to w ithhold the
First Principie from any musical interpretation. H e did not
undervalue the depth o f feeling- w ith w h ich our ancestors
experienced the music that they com posed and perform ed. Those
livin g in the eighteenth century did not regard their art as
A t the beginning o f the third m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s D
m ajor C ello Sonata: classical ; it w as a livin g event.
W o u ld y o u like to kn ow h o w I h ave expressed and even m -
Ex. 7 dicated the beating, lovin g heart? w rote M ozart. B y tw o violins
playin g in octaves . . . . Y o u feel the trem bling - the faltering -
Allegro
y o u see h o w the throbbing breast begins to heave; this I have
IV >
indicated b y a crescendo. Y o u hear the w hispering and the
s ig h in g . . . '
leggiermente W h en Casals conducted M ozarts Sym phony N o . 40, ( the
he com mented, These are not notes - they are on ly a first im - m ood o f impassioned agitation spoke to us im m ediately. W e
pression, they seem to say w hat comes n o w ? m ystery, must not be afraid to g ive expression, Casals exclaim ed. There
m y s t e r y ... are v e ry fe w m arkings o f course. M ozart kn ew all that was in the
Casals did not consider the fococo ' style, as foun d for. instance piece. H e was the com poser; he w as the one w h o suffered. W here
in works^ o f H ayd n and Boccherini, to be an archaic remnant o f the second subject comes in G minor (E x . 8), Casals gave voice to
the past. W e must p lay this m usic w ith all its grace - it is so free, the feeling inherent in the phrase w ith but a single w o rd : G rief!
fresh and lo vely. N o t one note d r y ! In the first m ovem ent o fth e - indicating w ith his baton that the initial note should com e like
H ayd n D m ajor C oncert, he assigned leading operatic roles: a heartw ound. T h e descending chrom atic notes w ere allow ed
here, in the lo w register, the cello w as to sing lke a basso can time to speak their sorrow . In the fifth bar carne a new w ave o f
tante there, in the upper register, w ith the elegance o f a prim a expression, m ore intensive than the first. A t the conclusin o f
donna . T h e v e ry highest notes w ere form ed into enchanting each phrase there arse lesser w aves o f unstilled anguish:
arabesques: A lw a y s something lo v e ly , alw ays singing . . .
B m Casals w ell understood that the w o rld o ft h e rococo was
1 In this, Mozart showed himself to be a true son to his father, for Leopold once
but one side o f H ayd n s art. His interpretations brought to v iv id
wrote: It is as clear as sunlight that every effort must be made to put the player m the
realization the contrasts o f dark and light in the S ym p h o n y o . mood which reigns in the piece itself, in order thereby to pentrate the souls o the
95. the interplay o f charm and rusticity in the Surpris listeners and to excite their emotions.
 CASALS AND THE ART OF INTERPRETA TIO N
T H E F IR S T P R IN C IP L E 9
x. 8

Molto allegro a score, in his advanced years sat on a chair, and approached the
conductor s art w ith true simplicity. H e w o u ld often begin a
rehearsal b y w o rk in g in detail; a quarter o f an hour cou ld be
devoted to tw o or three phrases. His aixn exceeded technical
prfection; it w as to reveal the pow er o f life inherent in music.
For exam ple, the opening bars o f B a ch s First O rchestral Suite
are easy to play, but, as Casals pointed out, they can just as easily
sound h eavy and m onotonous . Rehearsing w ith care that each
sem iquaver be given dynam ic gradation, he shaped a lyric con-
When, m the coda, the first subject is passed from one instrumen- tour. E v e ry note has to have a different son ority, he insisted; it
al group to another Casals urged that the phrases be sung with is a song.
fervent mtensity: I hear only notes - no despair!
Ex. 9
Ex. io
Ouve f ture

T h e phrase w as gone o ver repeatedly, each time gaining in elo-

quence and vitality. Fin ally Casals said, Som ething like that
(h ow often w ere these w ords heard from h im !), m eaning that the
goal, though elusive, had been touched upon. N o w , stopping less
often, he gave the orchestra rein to play through longer sections,
the musicians, already brought to a high pitch o f awareness and
sensibility, responding to his every indication o f expression.
___ L Casals rehearsals w ere challenging, Creative experiences for all
present. H avin g played as principal cellist under both Toscanini
and Casals, Frank M iller comments: Casals, such a great musi-
f i Vla- cian both as cellist and conductor, w ou ld seek out the essential
m eaning o f a w o rk as did Toscanini, but each in his o w n w ay,
for they w ere such different personalities. L ik e Toscanini, Casals
tolerated nothing less than the complete reveltio n o f the m usics
Casals gestures when conducting were never riaiA heart and soul and inspired the profoundest respect from the
meChn ! Ca ; thCl W,ent WA the mUSCal Phrase ^ d had a L u r a musicians w h o played under his direction.
ofbeam y wh.ch o school o f c o A i g ach. H d Casals com m unicated an unreserved jo y in the process o f
m usic-m aking. A s a cellist he kn ew full w ell that one must some-

iC'Z-'-yW;
tri I.

10 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N T H E F IR S T P R 1 N C IP L E 11

times take risks to be expressive. T o encourage the horns to w ords to the end o f a phrase w hich had to con vey a sense o f com -
produce an uninhibited crescendo in a difficult passage from the pleteness:
third m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s E ro ica , he said: Let us m ake
the crescendo right to the end o f the phrase. P la y w ithout fear. I f Ex. 13 Beethoven: Symphony No. 4, 2nd mvt.
the note doesnt com e out, y o u re w elcom e all the sam e.

Ex. n

to semiquavers w hich should be stated directly and sim ply:

Ex. 14 Dvorak: Cello Concert, 2nd mvt.

T h e note did com e out, and w ith rousing vig o u r.

In the Andante con m oto from M o zarts S ym p h o n y N o . 39, at
the arrival o f the fo llo w in g forte passage:
Ex. 12 to the forte chord w h ich follow s each lyrical phrase at the open-
ing o f the Andante cantabile from M ozarts J p iter Sym phony:
Strs. Andante con moto
Ex. 15

Casals called out, Full f u l l f H e rose from his chair and spread T o p lay fran k ly is not to eschew subtlety and refmement.
out his arms in a great gesture o f openness and acceptance, It is to play, w here the music so demands, forthrightly, w ith
saying, L ik e this like this! T h e musicians responded w ith out sentimentality; to State w hat w e feel unashamedly and
p layin g o f lum inous warm th. T h eir capacity fo r expression had unhesitatingly.
suddenly been enlarged b y Casals fidelity to the vo ice o f his o w n H o w can one do justice in w ords to the range o f Casals ex
feeling. pression? N o musician could evoke m ore sense o f p o w er from an
A rem ark that Casals often made, and w hich typified him as instrument or declaim a passage w ith m ore intensity. His perfor
man and musician, was p lay fran k ly . H e w o u ld apply these m ance o f the Finale o f Brahm s E m inor C e llo Sonata w as a
 12 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F I N T E R P R E T A T IO N
T H E F IR S T P R IN C IP L E 13
titanio expenence; relentless in its drive, the quavers fell like hail- be said that the work has never before sounded so eloquent, so
stones. Give all your strength, he said, when teaching the
beautifully and so finely composed as now . . . . The slow move
lollowmg passage from the first movement o f Beethovens D
ment put some o f us for a while under an obligation not to
major Sonata:
breathe. The falling sequences o f the coda, one o f the most
Ex. 16
heartfelt in existence and one of the most original in shape ,
were as though sorrow and sympathy stood before us wringing
Allegro con bro their hands. Some critics complained that Casals approach
lacked a certain austerity ; it was too foreign (i.e. emotional).
Elgar had thught differently. He valued Casals interpretation,
he said, because Casals had made the concert sound like such a
big work.
Break your cello! It is better to have character in what you play Such a big work but Casals was such a small man, and a
than to have a beautiful sound. simple man. The music carne not from histrionics, flourishes,
It was a different Casals teaching the second movement o f the excesses, but from the way it moved him in his inner life.
Lalo Concert: Such was the richness o f his soul that, on the one hand, his music
Ex. 17 touched the peasant earth with all its indomitable strength
and exuberance; on the other, it held discourse with the
sublime.
An indelible impression: Casals playing a slow movement o f
Bach, his eyes closed, his concentration removed from all daily
anxieties and ambitions. He seems surrounded by a vast, un-
fathomable silence from which emerges the voice o f his cello. He
plays for himself and yet not only for himself; for each o f us is, in
his own way, alone with that voice, speaking to us in tones o f
inexpressible purity.
Lovely, lovely - there is nothing o f violence here. It is so
e egant, so Spanish. With grace - beautiful, poetic! I havent
played that for thirty-five years at least, and I still remember.1 While the painters o f ancient China agreed that the indispens
Casals brought to the Elgar Concert an intensity o f feeling able attribute o f a great artist was his ability to convey the in-
and wealth o f mflection which had not hitherto been associated definable quality embodied in the First Principie, it was also
wtth that work. Neville Cardus describes Casals performance: understood that an artist will not succeed in expressing the First
' ' I16, qUef,t10" f the evenmg was whether the so-called Principie until he has mastered each o f the requisite skills. Form
Enghshness o f Elgar would elude him . . . Jet it emphatically remains lifeless when not animated by spirit; yet, lacking
knowledge and method, the energy o f spirit will not be trans-
' It was with this work that Casals made his dbut Pars on November l899.
mitted to the work o f art.
H C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

In subsequent chapters w e w ill lo o k at the m ain features o f

C asals teaching, the canons o f his artistry, each o f w h ich is
related to a u n ifyin g goal, that w h ich the C hnese cali chi-yn. CHAPTER II
Casals once said: Y o u w ill see w here to malte the vibrato, the
crescendo, the dim inuendo o f the notes - all those things yo u F1NDING THE DESIGN
have to have present, but present m ore in y o u r feelings. N o t pre-
sent on ly h ere, he said, as he tapped on his head, because it is not
profound enough; but here and he drew his hand to his heart. Remember that all music, ingeneral, is a succession of rainbows.

first encounter is often the most m em orable. T h e year was

A 19 53; the setting: the venerable ab bey o f St-M ichel-de-

C u x a in the foothills o f the Pyrenees; the w o rk : M ozarts
Sym phony N o . 39 in E \> major. O n that occasion Casals was
rehearsing the second movement.
A t the beginning o f the principal theme, M ozart has provided
the indication piano', there is no change in dynam ic m arking for
tw enty-nine bars. I had heard this passage perform ed, even b y
eminent conductors, w ith so little dynam ic nuance as to verge
upon the m onotonous, and by virtue o f these interpretations I felt
the theme som ehow to fall short o f being tru ly beautiful and
deeply stirring. I w anted to be m oved b y it m ore than I actually
was; the m elody rem ained for me something o f an enigma. W hat
solution m ight Casals offer, I wondered.
A lth ou gh on ly piano is w ritten, he said, w e must fo llo w the
line o f the music; w e must fm d the d esign ! H e began to
conduct.
T h e b rie f opening phrase was indeed played piano, nobly and
sim ply, falling a w a y at the end in diminuendo. H e then in-
dicated that the ascending .line should develop in a gradual
crescendo, the demisemiquavers p rovidin g a life-com m unicating
pow er o f m ovem ent.1 A s the theme approached its summit,
Casals rose from his chair, greeting the clim ax w ith open arms,

' See Chapter IV on the vitality of dotted rhythms.

15
16 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A D O N
F IN D 1 N G T H E D E S IG N 17
lingering w ith heartfelt tenderness on the crotchet before a llo w -
piano or forte for entire periods, since the master, who conducted the
ing it to expire like a sigh. rehearsals, could give spoken direction as to details, and, by singing
E x. 18 his themes, communicate the proper expression to the players. . . .
The traditions o f such casual performances are completely lost. N o
trace is preserved, except the scantily-marked scores. And these
classical relies o f a once warmly vibrating work are now accepted,
with mistaken trust, as the sol guide towards a new living perfor
mance . . . . Let us examine a particular case for example, the first
eight bars o f the second movement o f Mozarts celebrated
Symphony in Eb. Take this beautiful theme as it appears on paper,
with hardly any marks o f expression faney it played smoothly and
complacently, as the score apparently has it and compare the result
with the manner in which a true musician would feel and sing it!
How much o f Mozart does the theme convey, i f played, as in nine
B ars 58 w ere sim ilarly transfigured into a flo w in g w a v e a cases out o f ten it is played, in a perfectly colourless and lifeless way?
w a v e w hich fb llow ed a natural urge towards its crest, attained Poor pen-and-paper music, without a shadow o f soul or sense.
fulfilm ent and then subsided w ith ineffable loveliness.
T h e manner in w hich a true musician w o u ld feel and sing it !
T h is w as the first musi lesson I received from Casals and it
w ent through me like lightning. A lth ou gh dynam ic inflections C o u ld a better description be found o f Casals, the interpreter?
are not ndicated in the score, Casals had allo w ed the intensity o f Lest it be thought that W agn er and Casals w ere view in g
M ozart through the spectacles o f w hat is sometimes called nine-
expression to evolve organ ically w ith the m elodic curve. T h e
phrasing seemed inevitable, logical and perfectly natural. T h e teenth-century rom anticism , let us take note o f some com m en-
theme w as revealed in all its splendour - classical in the beauty o f taries on interpretation set dow n b y composers livin g in the

its proportions, rom antic in its declaration o f feeling. eighteenth century.

It w as not until some years later that I w as to read R ichard
W a g n e rs com m entary upon M ozart interpretation w ith its Leopold M ozart:
reference to this v e ry theme.
Every care must be taken to find and to render the affect which
Take Mozart s instrumental pieces . . . two things are at once ap- the composer wished to have brought o u t . . . . Indeed, one must
parent: the melodies must be beautifully sung\ yet there are very few know how to change from soft to loud without directions and o f
marks in the score to show how they are to be sung. It is well known ones own accord, each at the right time; for this, in the familiar
that Mozart wrote the scores o f his symphonies hurriedly, in most language o f painters, means light and hade.
cases simply for the purpose o f performance at some concert he was
about to give; on the other hand, it is also well known that he made
Gem iniani:
great demands upon the orchestra in the matter o f expression. Ob-
viously he trusted to his personal influence over the musicians. In the One o f the principal Beauties o f the Violin is the swelling or encreas-
orchestra parts it was thus sufficient t note the main tempo and
ing and softening the Sound.
18 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A T IO N FIN D IN G TH E D ESIG N 19

Q uantz: engendered by habit and routine. T h e y recalled to m ind the kin-

ship betw een music and the elemental forces around and w ithin
Good execution must be diversified. Light and shadow must be con-
us.
tinuously interchanged. For in truth you will never move the listener
N ature is permeated w ith an unceasing ebb and flo w , manifest
if you render all the notes at the same strength or the same weakness;
in the change o f seasons, the alternation o f day and night, the
if you perform, so to speak, always in the same colour, or do not
m ovem ent o f tides. Perpetual oscillation is at the core o f
know how to raise or modrate the tone at the proper time.
biological life the beating o f our hearts, the rhythm o f our
breathing. o r are these fluctuations restricted to physical
C . P. E. B ach :
phenomena. O u r thoughts, fantasies, emotions, dreams flo w in
Play from the soul, not like a trained bird !.1 w aves, expanding to v ary in g points o f culm ination before sub-
siding. N ature never stays at one le v e l, Casals reflected; there is
Expressive inflection as an indispensable element in musical a constant vibration .
perform ance, and the introducton o f expressive m arkings into M usic, too, partakes in this ebb and flo w in the interplay
m usical scores, are historically tw o different m atters.2 T h e m anu- betw een tonality and m odulation, in the counter-poise o f unity
script o f the E lg a r C ello C o ncert is liberally m arked w ith in and diversity w hich together comprise form . W ith in the large
dicad ons o f dynam ic nuance; that o f a B ach solo cello suite structural spans there are smaller w aves - expressive o f m elodic,
contains not a single one. Y e t both these w orks confess secrets o f rhythm ic and harm onic intensities - w herein is contained the
the heart; both abound in a subtlety and variety o f inflection that m om ent-to-m om ent life o f music.
surpass b y far the most fastidious o f interpretative m arkings. Casals has stated, Each note is like a lin k in a chain - important
V a rie ty , Casals w ou ld say, is a great w o rd in music as in in itself and also as a connection between w hat has been and w hat
everyth in g; variety is a laW o f nature. G o o d m usic has never w ill b e . W h en he p layed, these links becam e livin g art. E v e ry
m onotony. I f it is m onotonous it is our ow n fault i f w e dont play phrase w as borne upon a m ovem ent o f energy w hich flo w e d
it as it has to be played . . . . W e must g ive to a m elo d y its natural from one note through the next, go in g tow ards a point or
life. W h en the simple things and natural rules that are forgotten com ing from another, ever in flu x, ever form ulating a contour.
are put in the m usic then the m usic com es o u t! A fundamental aim o f his teaching w as to show h o w the inter-
These natural rules , w hich he con veyed tim e and again in his preter m ay com e to recognize the expressive im plication o f
teaching, w ere born o f logic based upon intuition. T h e y expressed each phrase, and h o w he can bring that expression to full realiza-
elemental truths often hidden fro m us b y the fam iliarity tion b y the use o f dynam ic variety, rhythm ic flexib ility, tone
colour, intonation. O f these, dynam ic variety is perhaps the most
' All who have heard [C. P. E.] Bach play the clavichord must have been struck by immediate and elemental w a y in w hich the perform er m ay give
the endless nuances o f shadow and light that he casts over his performance. C. F.
Cramer, Magazin der Musik; Hamburg 1 7 8 3 . to a m elody its natural life .1
2 Bernard Shaw, recounting that Oscar W ilde sent the MS o f An Ideal Husband to Let us look at the theme o f the A d agio from H a yd n s D m ajor
the Haymarket Theatre without taking the trouble to note the entrances and exits of C e llo C oncert, observing the manner in w hich Casals revealed
the persons on the stage, comments: There is no degree o f carelessness that is not
credible to men who know that they will be present to explain matters when serious
its design b y means o f dynam ic inflection:
work begins. 1 The other factors, mentioned above* will be dealt with in Chapters IV and V,
re

20 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N F IN D IN G T H E D E S IG N 21
An immediate repetition should provide contrast a little more forte
or piano; a change o f colour. Otherwise it is not music. Variety - the
art consists in that!
' A n d the principie w hich embraced all the others:

; When we see piano, the composer means in the range o f piano. The
range o f piano extends all the way to forte and the range o f forte ex-
tends all the way to piano. One has to follow the line o f the music. If
it goes up you have to give more, despite the piano. Otherwise it is
something that is not ffee not what the music intends.

In Casals hands, these simple things , these natural rules w ere

A nalysis o f C asals interpretacin tells us the fo llo w in g : ; -i lice the trusted tools o f an od w ood-carver w h o knew w e ll their
T h e dynam ic lev el does not rem ain constant; w ith in the forte form ative pow er. Let us observe Casals at Work w ith these tools,
there is room fo r the nuances to ev o lv e fle x ib ly . delineating those timeless features w h ich stir w ithin us an im -
Repetitions bring about a subtle variance in intensity, w hether f 3 ; medate sense o f recognition.
in the reiteration o f the same note (for exam ple, the tw o E s in W e w ill begin by considering the first o f the concepts stated
B a r i) or the repetition o f a phrase (B ar 2, w h ich restates B a r i .'
ti- above: nam ely, the manner in w hich dynam ic inflection gives
sequentially). expressive form to the melodic curve. A s in all essential things,
T h e dynam ic inflections respond to the rise and fall in pitch. i Casals expressed him self simply. Rem em ber, he said, that all
T h e lon g notes (in Bars 5 and 6) increase in intensity, thereby r: music, in general, is a succession o f rainbows.' H e demonstrated
contributing to the developm ent o f the o verall line. this b y playin g a passage from B a ch s First C ello Suite:
H ere is a rain b o w : A n d here, another :
These life-g ivin g nuances reflect certain basic concepts o f
phrasing w hich Casals often expressed in w ords concepts
w hich, w hile not autom atically and thoughtlessly applied, have
sufficient general valid ity to be included here as a selection o f his
guiding principies in interpretation.

If the design goes up we must give a little more tone; i f it goes down,
a little less tone. This does not mean that there are not exceptions; A n d n o w , a longer rain b o w :
there are always exceptions. But this is the general rule. Dont be
afraid; let us be natural.
viv;' Ex. 20c

Generally, a long note w ill mean crescendo or diminuendo___ W e

must know how much to give, depending on what the music does.
The note has to say something; one must. give form, expression, in-
terest.

_J _
 22 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N F IN D IN G T H E D E S IG N 23

R a in b o w s . . . rainbow s; nearly all the music is like that. I f one In the above exam ple the diminuendo in B a r 6 provides a softer
on ly makes this observation it is already a gu id e. starting point fo r the beginning o f the rain bo w . This m om entary
It w ill be noted that each o f these rainbow s is different, the easing o f intensity gives the interpreter greater freedom to m ould
second being o f lesser dynam ic intensity than the first, w h ile the dynam ic nuances w ithin the phrase w ithout exceeding the just
third is lifted o v e r an extended span. T h e rain b o w ares w hich proportions o f the overall level o f volum e. In this w a y , Casals
Casals traced in m usic w ere im bued w ith the secret o f p ropor- w o u ld say, the dim inuendo gives econom y to the crescendo that
tion. T h e y expressed the innate architecture o f the phrase, be it fo llo w s.
the gradually unfolding m elody w hich begins B a c h s Second W e see a sim ilar pattern o f tensin and relaxation w ithin the
C e llo Suite: fo llo w in g theme from the first m ovem ent o f Schum ann s Fourth
Ex. 21 Sym pho ny:

the noble cantilena o f B eeth oven s A m ajor Sonata:

i: Ex. 22
l

1I

or the radiant cu rve o f the singing line in M o zarts L in z Casals asked the first violins to begin w ith singing tone in mezzo
Sym phony: piano, m ake a dim inuendo w ith the descending line, and then rise
Ex. 23 in a crescendo to the high D - w hich crow ns the phrase even
though it comes at a rhythm ically w eak point o f the bar. Shaped
Allegro spiritoso (espr) in this w a y , the theme w as freed from the dictates o f the bar line;
w ithin these ten notes w as contained a w o rld o f passion. T h e
accom panying figure in the second violins w as to be brought into
prom inence: H ere is the anguish! Casals cried out.
In his urge to complete a phrase, to soar throgh its higher notes,
Casals feeling fo r m elody was closely allied to vocal art. H o w
often w o u ld he ask his students to transate the natural flo w o f
song into their b o w s: Sing at the top o f the phrase!
24 C A SA LS A N D THE A RT OF IN T E R P R E T A T IO N FIN D IN G TH E D ESIG N 2S

Ex. 25 Schumann: Cello Concert, 3rdmvt. In the closing theme o f the first m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s
C ello Sonata in F m ajor, the composer has placed a sforzando on
the D preceding the highest note (F). Casals observed this sfor
zando and then brought attention to the F b y a subtle rhythm ic
elon gation .1

Ex. 27
T h ere was, in fact, a rem arkable sim ilarity betw een C asals
teaching o f interpretation and that o f Lotte Lehm ann, not on ly in
the w a y in w h ich these tw o great artists brought into being the
spiritual atmosphere o f a musical com position, but in terms o f
their fundam ental approach to phrasing. In her book M ore than
Singing, Lotte Lehm ann has w ritten: Som e themes begin on the note o f uppermost pitch. G enerally
It almost seems superfluous to say: never forget that a phrase must in such cases (as in E xs. 28-30), Casals, w ith characteristic
always have a main word and with it a musical high point. Y et it is directness, w o u ld start at the high point o f expression, bringing
incredible how often this elementary and self-evident fact is an immediate w arm th to the first note. T h e specific quality o f ex
neglected. . . . Again and again I am astonished anew by a lack o f
pression w o u ld be in keeping w ith the m ood o f the given w o rk .
musical feeling for the essential nature o f the phrase. . . . Singing
should never be just a straight going ahead, it should have a sweep-
ing flow, it should glide in soft rhythmical waves which follow one Ex. 28 Mozart: Symphony No. 40, 2nd mvt.
another harmoniously.
W h ile Casals norm ally counselled his students that w h en the
notes g o up there is a natural crescendo , he w o u ld add, y o u r in -
tuition w ill tell y o u w hen the exceptions o ccu r. A change o f
tim bre o r a rhythm ic elongation w as often the preferred means o f
com m unicating the desired nuance. F o r instance, w hen p layin g
the opening them e o f the Brahm s E m inor Sonata, Casals w o u ld
arrive at the high point (G ) w ith a sudden understatement; the
note w as im bued w ith a sense o f m ystery.
Ex. 26
Allegro non troppo
espr. legato Ex. 29 Beethoven: Symphony No. 4, 2nd mvt.
Adagio
 FIN D IN G THE D ESIG N 27
26 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N

Ex. 30 Schumann: Adagio and A llegro', Op. 70

ln E x . 32 the crescendo w ithin the lon g note provides the

gro w in g w eigh t w hich supports the m elodic arch. L ack in g this,
W e have observed in the theme o f the A d a g io from the H ayd n w e w o u ld have just another case o f poor pen-and-paper music .
D m ajor C e llo C oncert the valu w hich Casals placed upon the
expressive capacity o f long notes, those sustained links in the Ex. 32 Bach: Viola da Gamba Sonata No. 2 , ist mvt.
chan o f m elodic evolution. L ik e a slo w gesture in dance, a lon g
note must preserve the continuity o f line; otherw ise it w ill arrest A d a g io
the sense o f m otion. W h en teaching the opening m ovem ent o f
B a c h s First V io la da Gam ba Sonata, Casals com m ented, I f the
lon g note stays on the same level it becomes m onotonous. O n e is
w aiting for something. W e ll, that something is to g ive colour to
that long note. I f you do a little crescendo, then the interest con A delicate. crescendo o v e r the sustained notes in E x . 33 leads us
' S e -
tines; you w ill see h o w beautiful it is. to the summit o f this most lyrical o f phrases:

Ex. 31
Ex. 33 Schumann: Cello Concedo, ist mvt.
Adagio
N ic h t zu s c h n e ll
(V)

Casals brought to the principal subject o f W agn er s Siegfried

Id y ll a gentle, sw ayin g m otion. T h e lon g notes, com ing in
diminuendo, provided a gliding sense o f release. T h e rising scale
1 1 .1 __ 1:*..

z~ ~
 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N F1 N D 1N G T H E D ES1G N 29

A g ain , a dual impulse comes about w hen the note o f resolution

fo llo w in g an appoggiatura (w hich has an inherent diminuendo)
is succeeded b y a higher note to w hich it must establish a m elodic
connection:

Ex. 37 Bach". Viola da Gamba Sonata No. 2 , 3 r<I mvt.

T h e sustained note w ith w h ich the cello enters in the slow

m ovem ent o f the Boccherin i B?m ajor C o ncert w as played w ith
a curve o f intensity w hich reached its peak at the bar line, after
which it began to attenuate.

Ex. 35 Ex. 38 Schumann: Cello Concert, ist mvt.

Adagio.

D o not fo rg e t, Casals w o u ld say, that in piano there is a W e n ow com e to the question o f reiteration. Repetition in
range o f expression and sonority. E ve n i f y o u p la y piano in music be it o f a single note or o f a phrase is similar to repeti
general - g iv e colour in that p ian o. tion o f w ords or phrases in speech. It is a natural feature o f ex-
U n d er certain circumstances, Casals pointed out, one note w ill pressive com m unication that w e v a ry the emphasis w hen w e say
contain a dual impulse o f relaxation and subsequent ren ew al o f the same thing m ore than once. R eiterating I lo ve yo u in a
tensin, as in the opening m ovem ent o f M ozarts Sym phony monotone w ill not get y o u very far. W h en , in the last act o f K in g
N o . 39. Lear, the despairing m onarch addresses the lifeless b o d y o f
C ordelia:
Ex. 36
Thoult come no more,
Allegro Never, never, never, never, never!

the first thing an actor w ill iristinctively realize is that he must

vary the forc o f intensity from one w o rd to the next. H e w ill
L 1 1 I I I
achieve repetition w ith out duplication. It is a general rule that
repeated notes or a repeated design must not be equal, Casals
The At first follow s its natural tendency tow ards expiration; w o u ld rem ind his students. Som ething has to be done. O th er-
then, functioning as a suspensin, it bridges o ver to the m elodic
wise yo u have m onotony and nothing is m ore m onotonous
figure in the next bar.
than m o n o to n y!

B iS I
 30 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N F 1N D 1N G T H E D ES1G N 31

W h en considering repetitions o f single notes, w e must first W h en rehearsing the w ood w in d in the second m ovem ent o f
determine w hether they are m o vin g tow ards a point o f rhythm ic M ozart s Sym phony N o . 39, Casals took care that each successive
strength or receding from it. F o r exam ple, in the final m ove- quaver should con vey a sense o f dynam ic grow th, w h ile rem am -
ment o f B a ch s T h ird G am ba Sonata, the groups o f reiterated ing w ith in a tonal fram ew ork that w o u ld preserve the m ood o
quavers have the character o f upbeats; Casals asked that they tranquillity.
com e each time in an impassioned crescendo: In those short notes
Ex. 411
w e must g iv e som ething!

Ex. 39a
Allegro

at B a r 95:
In the above exam ple it w ill be noted that the first bassoon com -
Ex. 39b mences on the second quaver o f the bar, each o f the three quavers
has an. upbeat impulse. T h e clarinets and second bassoon, h o w -
ever, begin on the first quaver o f the bar. T h is note, being the
dow nbeat, subsides in diminuendo, bringing econom y to the
crescendo that follow s. }
T h e principie o f ebb and flo w is again evident in Casals inter-
pretation o f the Andante from M ozarts Sym phony N o . 40; he
C onversely, the triplet quavers in the Siegfried Id y ll fall aw a y,
as it w ere, from the first beat o f the bar. (The m ovem ent tow ards brought to the reiterated quavers a livin g , contoured m ovem ent.1
repose contines through the m inim .) Ex. 42
Ex. 40

r '- i '

i:.--;
1 See Chapter III for a discussion of repeated notes with special reference to
'i:
articulation.

I"
 FIN D IN G THE DESIGN 33
32 CASALS AND THE ART OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N

N o less does the law o f d iversity apply to the repetition o f

Ex. 4 5
phrases.
I f y o u say the same thing in the same w a y , it has no v a lu ,
Casals insisted when teaching the first m ovem ent o f B rah m s E
m inor Sonata. T h e second time w e must g ive m ore in tensity.

Ex. 43
In the second subject o f the opening m ovem ent o f
Allegro non troppo M endelssohns Italian Sym phony, the initial tw o -b ar phrase is
ffe - repeated (in slightly m odified form) at a lo w er pitch, after which
it begins to rise sequentially. I f w e have the same sonority up and
f (appassionato) dow n it is not natural, not norm al, Casals commented. Let us
give the natural variety. H o w lo vely, h o w simple! 1
S im ilarly, in the second m ovem ent o f the D vo r k C o ncert
Casals w o u ld tell his students, A s this phrase comes three times, Ex. 46
try to have every time a little som ething else! Allegro vivace

T h e reiterated passage in the first m ovem ent o f the H ayd n D

In the tenth bar, the clarinets arrive at their m eridian; the first
m ajor C oncert w as varied in the m ost delightful w a y . Casals
violins respond w ith a sustained high B . For Casals this note w as
played the initial phrase in forte, w ith rhythm ic v ig o u r and rustic
a culm ination o f expression: Like a star!
accents (the lo w er notes being perform ed as quavers). T h e
repetition carne in m ezzo piano, cantabile (the lo w e r notes 1 Casals cautioned against exaggeraon; an echo effect is generally to be avoided
om itted): because that would be out o f proportion. W hat we do must always be in good taste.
 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
F 1 N D 1N G T H E D E S IG N 35
tch mm f M ,rep ti0" 0 f ^ pl, e * ds
avoiding, in this w a y , the reiteration o f a similar-sounding accent
bringing fa pIM of clm " ^ r ^ rm t0 4 ' ' ,0d^
and clarifyin g the directional structure o f the phrase. Later in the
m ovem ent, w here stanzas are built up through sequential
Ex. 4 7 Beetboven: Symphony No. 2, 2nd mvt.
repetition, each phrase retained, in miniature, its ebb and flo w ;
L a ra h e tt0 vhh assa) yet each increased in intensity, contributing to the cum ulative
gro w th o f the w hole.

Ex. 419b

Ex. 48 Beethoven: Symphony No. S, 4th mvt.

A lle g ro vivace
Vln.1

jo (m f - = / = = = = = ----- )
( mX>=^~
"economy"
Textbooks define a sequence as repetitions o f a m elodic seg-
ment (w ith or w ithout its harm ony) at other levels, higher or
e r n/ lo w er. B u t they seldom mention that each segment, w hether
cresa.
m ovin g w ithin a given k ey or engaged in m odulation, expresses
charape i t T e o C V ^ S P' something different from its predecessor. W hile these repetitions
Jong m e io S s ^ T v / Wy buM mion over a m ay lo o k alike to the eye, the subtle and changing relationships
1'}: theme , i PT j l j tL T 0mme f P W In the o f tones and semitones w ithin the structure o f a scale produce
ne van ed the (expressive) accentuation as follow s: continuous variations to the discerning ear. Casals, not insensitive
Ex. 49a to this faCt, brought to each sequence delicate modifications o f
Andante co]our and intensity.
(>)__ (V)
(W' ^ 2 V o
O)) T h e 9/8 theme from the first m ovem ent o f the E lga r C ello
]T j /
f f r r r vr
C oncert begins at a point near its m elodic crest, and then un-
folds in a gradually descending sequence. Casals com m unicated
im m ediately the them es heartrending quality; he brought to the
t.e. v e ry first note an eloquent, poignant vibraney and drew atten-
(-=) tioh to the highest note b y means o f a b a rely perceptible
rubato. This m elo d y, he w ould say, must descend like a le a f
 37
F IN D 1 N G T H E D E S IG N
C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

w h ich falls from a tree in the autumn n ever a direct descent,

but a series o f gently cascading movem ents
Ex. jo

,, rViaracteristic of Casals to bring a melody to hfe

L r S n T v i n g v id u a ! contour <>

segments of which is compnsed. R,...rW e n t Fourth

A g ain constructed o f sequential elements, the m ain subject
o f the first m ovem ent o f Schum ann s Fou rth Sym ph o n y ex- sanunvaryiug
A *^ 'yjiner5;T
dynam.c lcvel. desp. e th= V
presses its despair turbulently, fiercely. T h e com poser has left
on ly tw o dynam ic m arkings: a forte in the first bar and a fo r- X U . uiodf of a d.tceudiug rhird.
tissimo in the eleventh bar. In g ivin g inflection to the m elodic
rise and fall, Casals in no w a y reduced the effectiveness o f the Ex. 52
forte. O n the con trary, the relentless bu ildin g up o f tensin in
phrase after phrase had an overw h elm in g em otional impact.
Ex. j i
Lebhaft

A llegro ma non troppo

Vln.1 r- > r
(>1,
 F IN D IN G T H E D E S IG N 39
38 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
1 the d o sin g theme, w here the m o tif first h erid in m inor c o m o
Casals described the T rio from B eeth oven s E igh th Sym ph o n y in in m ejor, Casis commented, 'Y o n h eve to m ete .
as a w on derful b arcarolle! Conducting in one flo w in g beat per
divisin; it says another thing. 1
bar, sw aying slo w ly from side to side, be indicated to the horns a
gentle break betw een the first and the second bars. Ex. 56
Ex. J4 i r

Tempo di Menuetto
*
espress
(= dolce
W h en Casals rehearsed the opening theme o f M o z arts
Svm ph on y N o . 40, he first drew attention to the character o the
W h en Casals conducted this w o rk w ith the V ien n a P h il- prim e m o tif - the appoggiatura w h ich contams a natural
harm onic in 19 27, the first horn player, un w illin g to accept any
interpretation w h ich broke w ith tradition, w alked out during the ; the reiterations o f this
dim inuendo :
rehearsal. A lth ou gh the gentlem an in question reappeared fo r the
- *>(=->
! concert and perform ed the passage in the m anner requested, the m o tif w ere to com e w ith increased dynam ic strength. Each fo u r-
incident typ ified fo r Casals the routine w hich can p lay havoc bar phrase described an are, the second (a tone lo w er m pitch)
! even w ith the best orchestra in the w o rld .
reaching a slightly lesser point o f intensity.
In the impassioned second subject o f the opening m o v e-
m ent o f Brah m s E m inor C e llo Sonata, Casals asked that the
third and fourth bars not be conceived as a single phrase unit. Ex. 57a
T h ere w as to be a slight separtion , the fourth bar com ing w ith Motto allegro , - - ' '

j feverishly renew ed intensity. Vln.1 (fk '" v VyV , ' f-

Ex. 55
Allegro non troppo

. He also stressed the importance of taking a breath befte the D in the fifth
bar of the first subject (see Ex 26).

W s
 40 CASALS AN D THE ART OF I NTERPRETATI ON FI NDI NG THE DESIGN 41

T h e ensuing phrases developed w ith reinforced urgen cy,

culm inating in the high C o f the w o o d w in d , a note usually
understated n perform ance but to w hich Casals granted its full
expressive valu.

Ex. 57b

N o less m em orable w as Casals perform ance o f the first

rchestral statement from Beethoven s Fourth P ian o C oncert.

Ex. 59

Conductors usually im pose an uninterrupted legato upon the

allegro subject from M o zarts Sym ph o n y N o . 39, in quest o f
ideal beauty. Casals, too, conceived this theme lyrica lly, but
within the lyrical line he ga ve expression to the natural tendency
o f even the smalest phrase segment. Thus the m o tif o f a rising
third (in Bars 1 and 2) w as played w ith graceful dance-like
quality, subsiding in dim inuendo; Bars 3 and 4 w ere bound
together in unbroken song. P erform ed in this w a y , the theme This passage carne as a reverential response to the opening piano
ii expressed its innate w arm th and animatin. A Sleeping B eau ty solo (m o vin gly played b y R u d o lf Serk in ). T h e first note dim in-
i;
had been aw akened. ished to pianissimo: T h e diminuendo brings w arm th, Casals
said; the repeated quavers conveyed the most discreet forw ard
Ex. j 8
mpetus. Bars 3 and 4 w ere shaped individually, each arising like
A llegro a sigh, each fallin g a w a y . T h e sforzando in B a r 5 caught us
unawares - a spontaneous expression o f deep feeling; the
descending line o ver B ars 5 and 6 sang unhurriedly as it
yielded in intensity. T h e final tw o bars rose and fell m a gentle
:''

curve, the quaver A b ein g touched upon tenderly. Each com -

ponent o f the theme had been granted its o w n expressive life, the
arrestingly individual contours com ing together to form a w hole

o f great beauty.

i-'
 43
F IN D IN G T H E D E S IG N
42 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N

Let us n o w take note o f som e instances w here Casals w as

Ex- 6 3 B eethoven: Symphony No. 8, ist mvt.
careful not to seprate musical elements w h ich belong together. Continuity - despite the rest!
Casals explained that w here an appoggiatura is built into the
A lleg ro vivace e con bro rita rd . a tempo
m elodic line, the note o f resolution must m aintain its natural con-
nection to the appoggiatura even i f not jo in e d to it in a legato
V,nr1nf ~ >.vo h'z "T .4 - . 1 ef . 1

Ii
n
slur. T h e relatedness o f the tw o notes is m ost often overlooked m
w hen the appoggiatura takes the form o f a suspensin and the
note o f resolution leads on to a n ew phrase segment. I f the sus
pensin falls o f f in too drastic a dim inuendo the sense o f continuity Ex. 64 Schumann: Cello Concedo, ist mvt.
m ay easily be broken. In E xs. 6 0 - 6 6 Casals asked that enough
tone be sustained on the suspensin to ensure the un ity o f the
phrase; the change o f b o w w as to be negotiated w ith out an
inadvertent accent.

Ex. 60 Bach: Brandenburg Concert N o. 6, 2nd mvt.

Adagio ma non tanto Ex. 65 Dvorak: Cello Concedo, ist mvt.
A , V(a. 2 <&r
A llegro r^" 1
------- j--
(v*V . ---------
& b
( m jp -= - .ji , , f l l ' 1 [~T-p-|-F

Ex. 61 Bach: Orchestral Suite No. 2 , Sarabande PP

(Tnp)
Ex. <56 Mozart: Symphony N o. 40, 2nd mvt.
A s often played:

Andante ,-----------------1 r " "t r

Ex. 62 Beethoven: Eroica Symphony, ist mvt.

Allegro con bro 1------------------* ----------- ,
 44
N D T H E A R T -^r UN T E R P R E T A T IO N
F1NDING THE DESIGN 45
lT ** perhaps it w ill be m ore beautiful. H e n o w requested that these
be drawn togetfe o an ,h" which should quavers be played in dim inuendo: th ey w ere to conclude the
possible. ^ CC on m ! ne solution is previous phrase. T h e new phrase was to begin w ith the high A in
the subsequent bar:
M e ^ d A s X 's l w s ^ 'h' ^ rf
externa] featr, J S S J s' y; f fT 1* 8* desi8*e <he Ex. 67b
spirit which b convey rhe
Casals words: 'With Lovc!1 ^ S*>Im summanze* m *

Ex. 67a

C0/3 moto moderoto

T h e tw o versions w ere equally valid, one as lo v e ly as the other.

In literature, too, such choices are sometimes possible. T a k e the
speech o f H am let, beginning W hat a piece o f w o rk is m an,
w hich scholars credit to Shakespeare in either o f the fo llo w in g
constructions:

. . . H ow infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and

admirable! In action how like an ngel! In apprehension how like a
god!

. . . how infinite in faculties, in form and moving, how express and

admirable in action, how like an ngel in apprehension, how like a
god.

Finding the design was not relegated exclu sively to the shaping

x r d>y, ZJ y J
crescendo; , * *7
{"> W
'K * .bei* o f principal themes; it embraced every aspect o f a com position.
Tu tti passages often treated as no m ore than stuctural fillin g
in w ere, for Casals, living structure. In the first m ovem ent o f
1In an interview, Casals recallpd 4..,, .u ..
M ozarts S ym p h o n y N o . 40, the reiterated scales o f quavers took
his childhood. he muslc o f Mendelssohn was the first love o f on shape and direction, com ing each tim e w ith an increase in
son ority :
 46 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N F IN D IN G T H E D ES1G N 47

Ex. 68 G ive life to the sustained n ote! T h e music surged forw ard w ith
irresistible pow er.

Ex. 70
A llegro vivace e con bro

A t the clim ax o f the developm ent from the first m ovem ent o f
M ozarts Sym ph ony N o . 39, the arpeggios, played in crescendo,
became urgently dram atic, leaping up like flam es!

A n y student beginning to perform a series o f rapid notes in a

regim ented, mechanical manner - no matter w ith w hat brilliance
- w o u ld find him self cut short w ith the cry, N o passage
It is not enough ju st to p la y fortissim o, Casals called out w hen w o rk ! Casals w o u ld then play the same notes w hich had just
rehearsing the fo llo w in g passage from B eeth o ven s E ighth sounded so arid and methodical, revealing their expressive form .
S ym p h o ny. T h e strings w ere to accent the upper note o f each W e must alw ays g ive the design, he w o u ld say, as when
successive group, the w oo d w in d and brass to m ake a crescendo: teaching B eeth oven s A m ajor Sonata:
48 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N
F IN D IN G T H E D E S IG N 49
Ex. 71
H o w often w o u ld he exclaim : Its not a passage - it s a
Fnate:
wonderful melodyV

Ex. 74 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in C Major, Finale

Allegro vvace

O bserve in E x . 72 the clarifications o f phrasing, the variations o f

texture. M y notation cannot capture the charm o f the subtle
rubato.

Ex. 72 Haydn: Cello Concert in D tnajor, ist mvt.

A b o ve all, Casals hated that which w as sterile, coid and life-
Allegro moderoto less. A correct perform ance held no interest fo r him i f it failed
"cantando" to com m unicate the essential glo ry o f m usic, its ability, through
(-
the beauty o f its contours, the depth and range o f its expression,
to m ove us to the heart. W h en confronted w ith a student u n w ill-
ing to m ake an interpretative commitment, Casals w o u ld say: It
is even better to do something in bad taste than to be m ono-
tonous.

(cresc.)
"leggiero' T w o months before his death, Casals, then in his ninety-
seventh year, conducted a youth orchestra in Israel. I am a very ,
very , v e ry od m usician, he told the yo u n g instrumentalists. Iam
the oldest musician to d ay. H e proceeded to rehearse M o zarts
Sym phony N o . 33 w ith ageless vitality, com m unicating the
irrepressible elemental forc o f his ecstatic lo ve for music. Con
amore con amore, he urged, going o ver a particular phrase a
dozen times; otherw ise it means nothing its against the
m usic! R epetition in music means m ore piano or m ore forte
like w hen y o u are speaking in music it s the same give ex
pression, and then more expression! T h e highest note must be
heard like singing m ezzo forte at least. It is not m arked in the
score; that doesnt matter. T h ere are one thousand things that are
not m ark ed ! he thundered. D o n t give notes g ive the meaning
o f the notes!
 D I C T I O N FOR I N S T R U M E N T A L I S T S 51

the equestrian invocations. W hichever w a y he chooses, he w ill

instinctively render each sforzando intelligible b y a subsequent
decrease in volum e or, in terms o f music, a dim inuendo.
C H A P T E R III
Casals often commented on the relationship between music and
the spoken w ord. A n accented note, he said, w ill stand out and
D IC TIO N FOR INSTRUM ENTALISTS keep its valu, not so much because o f its special intensity but
principally because o f the shade which succeeds it. These remarks
Diminuendo is the life of music. find a parallel in a law o f nature: let us shout v e ry loud and
observe the endless dim inuendo w hich follow s. T h e perform ance
o f music cannot exelude this most natural reality. B y w a y o f il-
lustration he w o u ld cali out H e y ! and go on to explain that
A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!
w hen w e m ake this efort in givin g an accent, our lungs are
he quotation is famous enough, but how should one deliver emptied quickly. W e g ive all and a diminuendo comes. This is

T the line most effectively?

O n e need not be in the predicam ent o f R ich ard III to realize
exactly the same w ith the notes.
L ig h tn in g ! Casals exclaim ed, describing the entrance o f the
cello in the Saint-Sans A minor C oncert. H e pointed out that
that w h at matters most is not h o w lo u d ly nine sim ple w ords can
be shouted, but the sharpness o f im pact o f the m ore important after the initial attack the intensity o f the first note should be
w ord s as they fall upon the ear. L e t m e rstate this self-evident diminished. I f you continu the forte yo u dont hear the accent.
principie, m aking use o f m arkings o f m usical expression. Let s A strong accent must have a diminuendo: then it is m ore p ow er-
suppose the w ord s to be spoken at a sustained level o f volum e: ful and more natural. H e demonstrated as follow s:

A HORSE A HORSE MY KINGDOM FOR A HORSE Ex. 75

se m p re f f --------------------- :___________________________ _

O r, b y contrast, w ith an articulation corresponding to the natural

inflections o f speech:

A H orse! a H orse! m y K in gd om fo r a H orse!

This diminuendo has significnce not only for the first note but
for the second note as w ell, in that it permits the D to be better
heard. Thus, w here clear articulation is required, the dimin
I f the reader experim ents b y saying the line aloud, he m ay wish uendo fulfils a dual function: it gives definition to the note on
to v a ry the degree o f stress placed upon each sforzando, perhaps w hich it occurs and enables us to bring the fo llo w in g note into
b y granting special im portance to k in gd o m or b y emphasizing relief.
50
 52 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F I N T E R P R E T A T IO N D IC T IO N F O R IN S T R U M E N T A L IS T S 53
Let us n o w ap p ly our R ichard III elocution test to the delin- Ex. 76c
eation o f phrasing in the developm ent section from the first
m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s E ighth Sym pho ny. T h e fo llo w in g
passage is m arked f f w ith an s f at the begin nin g o f the second
phrase. First w e shall sustain the tone throughout:

Ex. 76a
A lle g ro v iv a c e e con b ro
Vlc.&
Bass
i
i

i
s e m p re ]ff_ S f _________

A n d n ow , in keeping w ith Casals interpretation, w e w ill begin

fortissimo, a llo w the first phrase to end in a dim inuendo, then
attack the fo llo w in g sforzando w ith renew ed en ergy:

Ex. 76b

E x . 76b reveis a notable gain in clarity. Casals w o u ld explain: A

dim inuendo gives interest to w hat follow s; an accent has m ore
M an y perform ers today feel that to g ive w a y in the manner
im portance b y contrast. T h e inflection on one note gives valu to
Casals suggested w ill have a weakening effect, and that (par-
the n ext.
ticularly in Beethoven) a continuously sustained f f w ill give a
T h e relevance o f this principie is further exem plified on the
bettr impression o f strength. In fact, although the diminuendi
subsequent page o f the score w here this phrase comes in fo r con
indicated suggest a decrease in volunte there w as no decrease in in -
trapuntal treatm ent. Casals obtained from the orchestra a
tensity, the music has n ever been set forth w ith m ore rugged
breathtaking incisiveness o f accentuation and transparency o f
texture. It is evident that R ich ard s him self again . grandeur.
T h e fo llo w in g passages, in forte and piano respectively, cali for
distinct enunciation. A diminuendo on the first note enhances the
vitality o f both the first and second notes:
 54 C ASALS A N D THE A RT OF IN T E R PR ET A T IO N D IC T IO N FOR IN ST R U M E N T A L IST S 55

Ex. 77 Haydn: Symphony No. p>, ist mvt. Ex. 80

Allegro
A lle g ro m oderato
W.W.& o (A) . 1^ - > >i
>> (wA ) >
>

EK -i 4 T' _1
-Wp * v M ! = ] fp fz ja sp icca to ' ' " - i fz fz
ff( J ( = )
For Casals, the valu inherent in what he referred to as the law
Ex. 78 Mozart: Symphony No. 3 3 , ist mvt. o f the dim inuendo w as essential to the com m unication o f music
-r as it is to speech. Nevertheless, he found that m any musicians
seriously underestimate its importance. W e tend to be inhibited
by the printed score w ith its scarcity o f expressive m arkings; the
beauty o f our tone production m ay lead us to forget that uni-
form ity breeds m onotony. W e too often confuse sustained p ow er
with expressive elucidation. Furthermore, when w e think w e are
playing w ith sufficient dynam ic contrast, w e m ay, in fact, not be
doing so, as w e soon discover when w e hear recordings o f our
performance. A n invaluable lesson o f C asals teaching w as to
In the principal theme o f the Finale o f the D v o r k C e llo alert the ear and the b o w arm to the fact that clear articulation in
C oncert, a natural dim inuendo imbues each crotchet w ith music demands a far greater range o f dynam ic inflection than w e
decisiveness and penetrating p o w er. norm ally realize. Casals w ou ld remind his students: In playing a
passage in forte w ith natural accents, y o u arrive to piano so
Ex. 79
that this forte has variety. This is a simple rule but it is not
generally k'now n. B earin g this in mind, w e can better under-
stand that certain dim inuendi which m ight seem exaggerated to
the instrumentalist m ay not necessarily sound exaggerated to the
listener.1
Casals had an uncanny ability to listen to the actual sound he
was producing. Intention to be clear w as not enough. Absolute
clarity o f articulation was a canon o f his artistry. H e often gave
credit to an essential factor in achieving this goal: D im inuendo
is the life o f m usic.

W hen p layin g the fo llo w in g passage from the opening m o ve- 1 In Science and Music Sir James Jeans describes experiments which reveal that
generally speaking . . . our ears are insensitive to anything less than a 25 per cent
ment o f this w o rk , Casals rendered the accentuation o f the E (first difference of energy. The pianist who is executing a rapid passage may allow him-
note in B a r 3) m ore effective b y means o f a decrescendo o ver the self a 25 per cent variation in the strengths of difererit notes, without our ears detecting
preceding semiquavers. In this w a y w e have m ore colour con- any falling off from regularity. The organ-voicer may leave a row o f pipes difering by
as much as 25 per cent in strength, and even a trained ear will pass them as perfectly
trast.
umform.
 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F I N T E R P R E T A T IO N
D IC T IO N F O R IN S T R M E N T A L IS T S 57

Let us n ow turn to further tasks perform ed by the dm inuendo in diminuendi. Each successive note began w ith increased strength,
the service o f musical diction, most significantly in the elucida- the last sem iquaver carryin g the crescendo over to the bar line.
tion o f repeated notes and ornam ents.1
W h en a note is repeated, Casals counselled, it is im portant Ex. 83 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in A major, 3rd mvt.
that the beginning o f the second note should be clearly heard. A
natural dim inuendo at the end o f the first note gives valu to the
second note. Th us, in the fo lio w in g exam ples, the decrescendo
allow s the second note to be enunciated distinctly w ith out
recourse to exaggerated accentuation; clarification is achieved
w h ile retaining grace. In certain cases, particularly when a dotted rhythm w as
present, Casals w o u ld brin g to repeated notes a release and
Ex. 81. Haydn: Cello Concert in D major, ist mvt. renew al o f intensity, the second note com ing as an upbeat to the

Allegro moderato music that fo llo w ed :

Ex. 84 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in A major, 3rd mvt.

X > (= ~ J E
(graziaso)

Ex. 82. Dvok: Cello Concert, Finale

Moderato
Ex. 85 Beethoven: Symphony No. 4, 4th mvt.

Ex. 86 Dvok: Cello Concert, ist mvt.

In E x . 83 w e see h o w Casals applied this principie even w h en a
series o f repeated notes is form ed into a crescendo. H e ensured
note-to-note clarity by g iv in g the semiquavers individual

1Thesc problems are particularly acute for the string and wind player, less so for the
pianista The pianist s difficulties increase when he wishes to have his percussion instru-
mcnt imtate the legato which his string- and wind-playing colleagues can produce
with ease.

E B S
 5 CAS AL S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A TI O N D I CT I ON FOR I NS TRUMENTALIS TS 59

A similar approach w as brought to bear on the repeated notes W h ere the little notes are included w ith in the same legato slur
w hich occur in the sorrow -laden theme w hich opens Schum anns (i.e. w ithout a change o f bo w ), as in E x . 89:
Fourth Sym phony; each successive phrase begins on the same Ex. 89 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in C major, ist mvt.
note w ith w hich the previous phrase has ended.

considerable demands are made upon the flexibility and respon-

siveness o f the b o w arm. W ith the dim inuendo comes a slow ing
o f b o w speed and release o f pressure; the subsequent accentuation
Conducting in expressive quaver beats w hich d rew from the I on the first o f the little notes requires a quickening o f b o w speed
orchestra the most beautiful legato playin g, C asals gesture t and re-exertion o f pressure. Casals emphasized that this process
changed rad ically at the instant o f the juncture betw een phrases. | should be carried out without stopping the bow at the end o f the
In a sdden, tiny m ovem ent his hands lurched fo rw ard . W ith o ut l dim inuendo. In this w a y the continuity o f line remains un-
break in continuity, the n ew phrase w as born o f a throbbing im - \ broken; the articulation has a natural resilience, never sounding
i! pulse, betraying the agitation w hich underlies the w h o le passage. f; ungainly or crude.
Ju st before the prem ire o f The R in g , R ichard W agn er issued 1 W hile the precise degree o f accentuation w ill v a ry according
a last request in a handw ritten note to the singers: I to the context in w hich it appears, the principie o f achieving
clarity b y means o f the diminuendo retains its validity, w hether
!Clarityl I in a passage o f exquisite lyricism :
The big notes come o f themselves; it is j. Ex. 90 Schubert: Symphony No. 4, 2nd nrvt.
the little notes that require attention . . . I

A prim e function o f the dim inuendo is indeed to brin g the

attention o f the ear to the little notes. W hen one or m ore short
notes fo llo w a longer note, ah intervening dim inuendo provides
the bridge to clarificadon, as in the fo llo w in g passage from the 1
Finale o f the Schumann C e llo C oncert: f
Ex. 91 Mendelssohn: 'Italian' Symphony, znd mvt.
Ex. 88
S ehr le b h a ft

I
t
;j
M
! J$
 D IC T IO N F O R IN S T R U M E N T A L IS T S
60 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
It w as tare fo r a student to clear the hurdle o f the second subject
T h e result obtained in music is akin to the effect produced b y o f the opening m ovem ent o f Brahm s E m m or Sonata w ithou
chiaroscuro in painting. B y delicate juxtaposition o f light and being stopped (if not also for a host o f other reasons) because he
shade the artist m ay create the impression o f perspective on can- had failed to pronounce the first note o f the turn w ith sufficient
vas; the figures w ill seem to be m odelled in a third dimensin. B y
m oulding his intensities b y means o f dynam ic contrast the in - v ita lity .
strumentalist w ill bring points o f emphasis into the foreground, Ex. 93
g ivin g a sense o f depth nd re lie f to the musical line,
W h ere the short notes are not preceded by a lon g note there
being little or no possibility o f m aking a dim inuendo in prepara-
tion for the accen t the difficulty in achieving go o d articulation
is increased. A t such times Casals, w hether in a cello lesson or
/
A n d it seemed as i f the M arlboro Festival O rchestra - the most
orchestral rehearsal, w as relentless and unrem itting in his quest alert and vigo rou s o f ensembles - w o u ld never get beyond the
for e v e ry note to be heard distinctly. O m am ents can be problem - opening bar w hen rehearsing the third m ovem ent o
atical in this respect. R em em b er, he w ou ld say, that the first M endelssohns Italian Sym phony, so msistent w as Casals tha
note o f an ornam ent must receive an accent; otherw ise it is lo st! the ornam ent be rendered w ith m xim um clan ty. B e daring
In the second m ovem ent o f the Boccherini C ello Sonata in A w ith yo u r b o w s ! the eighty-six-year-old m an challenged his
m ajor, the ornaments w ere to be m ore accented than the real
youn ger colleagues.
notes .
Ex. 94
Ex. 92a C o n m oto m o d era to

A lle g r o

-___ ____________________ __s__j

: c
* ) i * / * ------------j -------------------{m ------ M > ! - 4 J--------------------------------
1 , y . . . ....
B u t w e should not leave our discussion o f the dim inuendo as an
agent o f clarification w ithout m entioning some o f its other roles
Ex. 92b
in this respect; fo r instance, its usefulness m lightenm g the texture
'( > >
( t > .
o f lon g notes in an accompaniment figure:

1 -*--^41- | ... .. r ... Ex. 95 Beethoven: 'A rch du ke T rio , Op. 97. 3rd
A ndante cantabile m a pero con moto
m v t-

Ex. 92c
62 C A SA LS A N D THE A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N D IC T IO N FOR IN S T R U M E N T A L IS T S 63

Ex. 96 Mendelssohn: Italian Symphony, 3rd mvt. Ex. 98 Wagner: Siegfried IdylT

R u h ig b e w e g t
V!n, 1 & Ct.
a., ''V
V 'tsT
fw ----- -------------------------------------
Jt I ' TI U /* r l tu* 1p&0^.
I I I l'_l 1 , 1 ___ h -x h
s IT________ J . _________!_!__________
LL _
ef ( = ==)

Lower Strs.
& Bsn. * ^ T p
.1 ii f- a p

/ L 1 1 _ 1 zd

or, as already touched upon in Chapter II, its function in brin g-

ing econom y to a crescendo:

its Service in articulating syncopations: Casals reminisced: I have heard so m any violinists and cellists -
and they are wonderful. A n d afterwards yo u say, H o w curious;
he plays so w ell, but, I d on t kn ow . . . I feel m onotony, lack o f
variety; he doesnt colour enough . In his teaching Casals w ou ld
Ex. 97 Mozart: Symphony No. 38 , ist mvt.
frequently exclaim : L o o k at the colour o this note: let us give
A lle g r o
the natural accent! or, W ithout a dim inuendo it s fat; it has no
interest. Its a w onderful thing every note must have life ! E ven
w hen legato is the predominant interpretative element, Casals
w ould often say: T h e little notes must speak'; they w ere to be
given clear enunciation w ithin the lyrical line, as in the opening
theme o f Brahm s E m inor Sonata (see E x . 26).
For Casals, the accentation o f an ornament held a
significance even beyon d.the im perative act o f clarification. H e
 D 1 C T I O N F OR 1 N S T R U M E N T A L 1 S T S 65
64 CAS ALS A N D T H E ART OF 1 N T E R P R E T A T I O N
In the Larghetto from Beeth oven s Second Sym phony he
asked a student to im agine the fo llo w in g phrase w it h o u t the grace
directed the violins not to become so soft on the B # as to exelude
note w h ich the com poser has placed before the E in the final bar:
the possibility for yet further diminuendo on the C #.
Ex. 100 Dvorak: Cello Concert, ist mvt.
A lle g r o ( p o c o r i t .) Ex. 101

A - "ii n 1 - f1 _ r - 1----- . ----

---------- 0
1----------c - . k Larqhetto
Vln.1
f anm ato

H e then played the phrase expansively, ardently bringing it

to its point o f expressive culm ination w i t h the addition o f the
W h ile Casals considered it natural that a descending line
grace note. Y o u see h o w beautiful it is! T h e ornam ent is the e x -
should be characterized b y a decrescendo, he none the less asked
a l t a t i o n o f t h e n o t e \ Th is is w h y it must have an accent. D o n t be
the violins to keep tone when playing the fo llo w in g scale passage
afraid to p lay it fra n k ly !
from Schubert s Fifth Sym phony, thus ensuring that the notes
w hich enter into the lo w tessitura w ere not lost to the ear.
H aving observed the manner in w hich Casals brought clarity
to individual notes, let us turn to another problem in musical dic-
tion, that o f b ringing clarity to the concluding notes o f a phrase Ex. 102
which ends in a dim inuendo. H ere the requirem ent is not to
differentiate one note from another b y means o f a rapid
dim inuendo, but, rather, to ensure the continuity o f the m elodic
line b y not becom ing too soft too soon. E v e ry note must be
clear! w as an irrevocable command. E ve n the softest note o f a
phrase w as to retain vitality.
I W h en , in M ozarts Sym phony N o . 40, Casals asked that ex
pressive emphasis be placed upon the first note o f the m otif:

A piano fo llo w in g im m ediately on the heels o f a forte w ill

, he w ent on to point out that the
often sound too soft because o f the sudden contrast in dynamics.
In such cases Casals took special care to m ake the necessary com -
pensation b y increasing the dynam ic level o f the piano. In E xs. 103
second note (the quaver D ), although softer than the first,
and 104 the violins w ere asked to transate their f p accordingly,
must also be heardk T h e phrase w as rehearsed until just the
sustaining tone at first and o n ly gradually decreasing in intensity:
right dynam ic relationship was attained.
 66 C ASALS A N D THE A RT OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
D IC T IO N F O R IN S T R U M E N T A L IS T S 67
Ex. 103 Beethoven: Symphony N o. 4, 2nd mvt.
Casals often drew attention to the relativity o f the term
piano . W hen a student w o u ld begin the Schumann Concert or
the Brahm s E m inor Sonata too softly, Casals w ou ld say, Piano,
yes but don t be timid. W e must k n o w that it is the beginning
o f a m e lo d y !
T h is brings us to a question o f musical interpretation to w hich
Casals accorded the greatest significance; nam ely, the enunciation
o f the first note.
Ex. 10 4 Mendelssohn: Italian Symphony, is tm v t.
W h en w e study the illuminated manuscripts o f the M iddle
A lle g ro vivace A ges, w e are constantly amazed at the artistic beauty o f the first
letter o f each paragraph. T h e great m ajority o f these texts are o f
a religious nature; on each page is inscribed a sacred revelation.
T h e elaboration o f the initial was understood to be the visible
manifestation o f the divine impulse. For this reason illuminators
w ere engaged to embellish these letters in red, gold, o r sometimes
blue.
In the first m ovem ent o f Schuberts U n fm ished Sym phony
For Casals, the first note was the portal through w hich the
the violas, although m arked p , w ere to enter after the f f tutti in
divine impulse entered our earthly domain. His means o f im -
m f. In the theme w h ich follo w s, Casals asked the violins to
transfer the dim inuendo to the subsequent bar; the m elody w as to parting this im m ediate sense o f presence w ere subtle and
be granted its fiill expansin. T h e crotchet D w as still to be heard v a ria b le.1 Fortunately, m any v iv id reminders o f this
even though it com es in dim inuendo . characteristic aspect o f Casals artistry are preserved on recor-
dmgs. W e find such an exam ple in his suprem ely beautiful and
Ex. 10 5 simple statement o f the theme o f the Andante from Schuberts
Bb m ajor T rio (in the recording w ith T h ib au d and C ortot). W hen
A llegro m odralo listening to the v e ry first sound emanating from Casals cello, w e
k n o w w hat it is w hen matter is born o f spirit.
Ex. 106

j,,T ; ,T
Andante un poco mosso
,r-r-ij <)

.P P
( p cantabite)2

1 See Chapter V.
2 Note on the recording the artistry with which Casals varies the inflections within
this theme, obviating any sense of identical accentuation.
68 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N

In all C asals teaching or playin g, no first initial o f a musical

paragraph rem ained untouched by the illum inators art. T h e first
note is not g a y en ou gh ! he w o u ld often cali out at the beginning
o f a B a ch dance m ovem ent in m ajor key. O r, W e mus feel in CHAPTERIV

the first note the tragic character o f the p iece! when com m enc-
ing the Prelude to the C m inor Suite. W h en rehearsing a P E R C E IV IN G TIME R E L A T IO N S H IP S
pianissimo passage from the opening m ovem ent o f the Italian
Sym p h ony: E ve n here the first note has to be heard - sing at Fantasy as m uch as you like but w ith order!
once! A transitional string figu re, w hich usually receives no
special attention, glistened as i f lim ned in gold.
From tim e to time on some o f C asals late recordings w e hear a HE orchestra w as poised to begin rehearsing the slow m ove
groan o f em otion breaking forth from him just before he begins
to p lay a phrase. This is the audible, hum an expression o f the
T ment o f Beeth oven s Fourth Sym phony when Casals turned
to the second violins w h o were about to play the figure:
spirit w h ich m oves him, w hich precedes the music and from
w hich em erges the musical com m unication. T h e m oral fo r string Ex. 107a
players is not that they should m oan audibly at least not before Adagio
they are eigh ty - but that it is the w ill o f the gods that they Vln. 2
should n ever touch b o w to string w ith indifference.

u
and said, T h e art o f interpretation is not to p lay w hat is written.
In these w ords Casals w as stating a fundamental tenet o f his
music-m aking.
Since earliest times, song and dance have arisen freely and. spon-
taneously, con veyin g messages o f the human spirit w hich cannot
otherwise be expressed. W hen, over the course o f history, it was
deemed useful to find w ays o f notating m elody and rhythm , such
m arkings w ere never meant to be representative o f music itselfin
all its natural life, v igo u r and subtlety. Indeed, there is an od
adage, not w ithout truth: W hen music is w ritten dow n, it dies.
T h e printed score is like a landscape painted on a cardboard
facjade; houses, trees and hills stand stiffly side b y side. These
lifeless im ages are no more than symbols o f a deeper artistic
reality; they invite the interpreter to discover the w o rld o f
experience o f which they are the mere semblance. W hen the

69
 70 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N P E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 71

re-creative spirit o f the perform er leads us through one o f the sequence, im perceptibly elongated. T h ere was to be no question
painted doors, w e suddenly firid ourselves entering a three- o f exaggeration ; no m ore than a minute alteration was called
dimensional realm . T h e forms take on depth. W e perceive the for. Y e t, w hen the passage was played in this w a y , the
m ovem ent o f light and shadow. T h e air m ay be fresh w ith spring relationship o f short note to long note became subtly m ore
moisture or still, as in the last days o f autumn. H ere, beyond the buoyant and alive. It should be emphasized that these rhythm ic
fagade, the houses caress the hillside like certain Andalusian v il- fluctuations took place w ithin the fram ew ork o f the main beat;
lages w hich flo w so naturally into the eontour o f ther surround- the basic pulse rem ained constant. In between the regularly
ings as to resemble the shapes o f streams. In these villages the occurring quaver beats, the w aves o f m ovem ent w ere allo w ed to
dw ellings are related to one another b y cohesive design born o f fo llo w their inherent pattem o f ebb and flo w .1
instinctive feeling.
T h e w ritten note, Casals has said, *is like a strait jacket, Ex. 107b
whereas m usic, like life itself, is constant m ovem ent, continuous
spontaneity, free from any restriction . . . T h ere are so m any ex- A dagio
cellent instrumentalists w ho are com pletely obsessed b y the
printed note, w hereas it has a v e ry lim ited p o w e r to express w hat
the music actually m eans.
Casals States here no m ore than w h at m any other musicians
have observed in the past. Frangois C oup erin noted, in 17 1 7 , W e
w rite otherw ise than w e perform ; Liszt com m ented, N otation, T h rougho ut history, musicians have observed that dotted
rhythms, in particular, are poorly served b y notation. Leopold
in spite o f painstaking conscientiousness, can n ever fu lly suf-
M ozart tells us o f certain passages w here the dot is to be held
fice . . . certain features among them the most im portant ones -
rather longer . . . i f the perform ance is not to sound too sleepy .
cannot be put dow n in w ritin g .
A n d, tw o centuries later, B ru n o W alter comments, T h e measur-
T h e vitality o f a musical perform ance is dependent upon the
ability o f musical rhythm , and therefore the accurateness o f its
spontaneous feeling for rhythm com m unicated b y the inter-
notation, is o n ly approxim ate . . . . D ivergen ce from arithmetical
preter. Y e t rhythm is not only difficult to fix in notation; it even
exactness occurs m ainly in the case o f the short notes in dotted
resists satisfactory definition. W h at is rhythm ? asked V aughan
rhythms, w hich an interpreter o f live ly rhythm ic sense feels a
W illiam s; and he proceeded to quote L o rd H aldan es epigram : I
little shorter, and therefore places a little later than prescribed by
cannot define an elephant, but I recognize one w hen I see it. In
the same w a y , V .W . continued, w ithout being able to explain notation.
it, those w h o are naturally musical can appreciate rhythm , or the In passages such as the follo w in g, the natural rhythm that
want o f it, in a piece o f m usic. Casals requested had a radically energizing effect in contrast to
B u t let us return to the A d agio from B eeth o ven s Fourth Sym - the w ritten note-values w h ich he sometimes described as no
phony. Casals sang the rhythm ic figu re to be played b y the rhythm at all :
second violins, instinctively m ovin g each dem isem iquaver slightly
1 The arrows which I have placed above the musical examples are meant to suggest
closer to the subsequent sem iquaver; th e'rests being, in con- the extern and directional tendency o f these subde currents of movement.
 P E R C E IV IN G TIM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 73
72 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N

Ex. 108 Beethoven: Piano Concert Vo. 4 , 2n d mvt. densed into a m ore rapid unit o f time, m ore as:

A n d a n te con m oto
A# Strs' P than [as notated]:
ir B-zS---k----=----- *
-7- ? J n -Jfr 1 4 T-"4
f se m p re s t a c c . '* f T h e precise extent to w hich the short notes are compressed w ill
vary w ith the spirit o f a w o rk .1 T ig h tly knit semiquavers give a
dash o f gypsy flavour to the first o f Schum anns F n f Stcke im
F=-|- 1 n r
V olkston , O p. 102:
Ex. ni

Ex. 109 Brahms: Cello Sonata n F major, ist mvt.

A lle g r o v iv a c e

and enliven M ephistos gait in C o u p erin s A ir de D iab le :

Ex.112

Ex. 110 Dvok: Cello Concert, 2n d mvt.

A subtler application o f the principie w ill im part just the needed

rhythm ic vitality to the Scherzo from Beeth oven s A rch du ke
T rio , O p. 97:

Ex. 113
A lle g r o
T h e pattern J~,) J or is another figu re w hich, Casals
believed, often needs to be freed from bondage to the printed
page. The tw o shorter notes, he observed, usually belong
together in a slightly quicker groupin g than the score indicates.
Beethoven s pupil C zern y tells us that the com poser played this 1 In Exs. 1 1 1 1 1 4 the very small amount of time gained by quickening the semi
quavers (or quavers as the case may be) is compensated for by a minute break between
rhythm ic pattern, w here it occurs in the Finale o f his First Piano
the note groupings, as indicated by the Symbol (/).
C oncert, in such a manner that the tw o semiquavers w ere con-
74 C A SA E S A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N P E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 75

and affirm the out-of-doors exuberance at the beginning o f the

Finale o f the E lg a r C ello C oncert:
Ex. 114
Allegro ma non troppo

f f risoluto etc.
M ozart s dem isem iquavers in the Andante from his Sym ph o n y
N o . 40: W here a group o f short notes is preceded b y a lon g dotted
Ex. 115 note, the principies o f clear articulation and enlivened rhythm
A n c la n te both com e into play. Casals w ould ask that the dotted note have
a dim inuendo and be prolonged; the short notes w ere to be
a . h p ,m delicately accented and a little quickened in time. In this w a y the
principal theme from the slow movem ent o f M ozarts G m ajor
Flute C oncert assumed its inherent grace:
are that shade m ore exquisite w hen played just a little faster than
w ritten (the sem iquaver rests being, therefore, a fraction lon ger Ex. 117
than notated).
T h e T rio from the third m ovem ent o f M endelssohns Italian
Sym phony contains the tw o rhythm ic patterns w hich w e have
been considering. Casals asked that each o f these be played in a
natural w a y , the barely perceptible transformation o f tim e-
values creating w hat he called a rhythm that satisfies .
Ex. 116 w hile B a ch s lament A ch , nun ist mein Jess hin (A h, n o w is m y
Con moto moderato Jess gone) from the St. M atthew Passion pierced to the very
heart:

Ex. 118

R .,O b .& Vln.1

( espr.) -----y fsimilrl

(m f (= * - *) dim in. _____ _ _ - - - ----------------

78 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N P E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 79

he conceived the fou r notes as belonging together. T h e rhythm ic the inital crotchet stood alone, as i f posing a question. The
change could hardly be measured b y a m etronom e, yet w hat an quavers w ere gathered into one upbeat group, alighting at the
enormous sense o f presence it instilled in the p layin g! first delicate point o f accentuation on the downbeat o f the
O ne is rem inded o f A rtu r Schnabel w h o, characteristically, succeeding bar, w h ich served as a springboard for the syn-
grouped the chords at the beginning o f B eeth o ven s eopation .1
H am m erklavier Sonata in such a w a y that th opening bars W h en conducting the second m ovem ent o f M ozarts
burst forth tum ultuously. Sym phony N o . 39, Casals elicited in the dramatic F minor
Ex. 124 passage a perform ance o f fierce intensity, heightened by his in-
> ------------- _> sistence that each phrase be played concisely: as one idea
ra p id ly !

In the first m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s D M ajo r C e llo Sonata,

Casals brought to the figure:
Th is w as not a perform ance designed to enshrine the im age o f
Ex. 125
M ozart as the com poser o f perpetual serenity.
Allegro con bro
(O

i I f rhythm tends to elude precise definition, tempo rubato is a

veritable fugitive.
an intense concentration o f energy; the semiquavers w ere draw n Casals considered rubato to be an inherent factor in music o f all
tightly together, becom ing a m o tif in themselves. A n instants periods. His practice in this respect w as at variance w ith the at-
break, before the high note, allo w ed the b o w to be lifted in order
to g ive a forceful attack to the sforzando. This phrase sprang at 1 The presto theme firom the first movement o f Haydns *Clock Symphony has
one like a tiger. In the subject o f the Finale o f the same w o rk : similar attributes:
Ex. 126 Presto
Allegro fugato

Igor Stravnsky advises the interpreter here to build a measure-and-a-note u p b eat. . .

avoiding not only a strong but also a weak downbeat on the first measure, and saving
sempre piano the thesis for the second full measure.
76 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N R E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H 1 P S 77

In the hushed, sorrow fu l atmosphere o f the second m ovem ent Casals often drew attention to extended series o f notes w hich
o f B eeth oven s C e llo Sonata in D m ajor: belong together in a single w ave o f m ovement. Certain musical
Ex. 119
phrascs possess an lan w hich can only be released through an act
o f rhythm ic concisin. For Casals, the first m ovem ent o f
Adagio con m olto sentimento d 'a ffe tto B eeth oven s E ighth Sym phony was an expression o f D ionysian
jo y . H e took this m ovem ent at a rollicking pace, conceiving the
pulsation basically in one beat per bar rather than in the traditional
three.1 R igh t at the outset he insisted upon internal cohesin for
each o f the tw o rhythm ic groupings w hich subsequently appear
throughout the m ovem ent:
the intuitive placem ent o f the dem isem iquavers a fraction late
Ex. 122a
gives just the righ t feeling o f expressive tensin. Those things A llegro vivace e con bro
cannot be printed, Casals w ou ld say, but the m eaning is this;
this has character. o
Casals did not alw ays quicken the short notes w hen playin g
dotted rhythm s. H e w ou ld point out that every rhythm ic pattern
has to be considered in reference to its specific setting. In another and Ex. 12 2b
passage from the slow m ovem ent o f B eeth o ven s D m ajor
Sonata, he said: In this case w e must g ive the real valu o f the
notes. H ere it is a song; every note sings.

Ex. 120
r
H e persistently rehearsed the rising scale (E x. 122b) until the
quavers conveyed rio semblance o f seprate notes .2 T h e result
was a perform ance o f stunning exhilaration, as i f a broom had
swept aw ay the cobw ebs o f tired tradition, revealing the passage
JO espressiv o in the freshness o f its first creation. Sim ilarly, in the reoccurring
figure:
In E x . 12 1 Casals considered that ev e ry note has m lodic signific-
ance; he w o u ld linger expressively upon the first dem isem iquaver.

Ex. 121 B eethoven: Cello Sonata in A major, 3 rd m vt.

1Observe the composers exceptional tempo marking: Allegro vivace e con bro.
- In saying this, Casals was referring to perception of rhythm, not articularon. The
individual quavers were short and clearly articulated; they were to be felt as one un-
nterrupted rhythmic unit.
8o P E R C E IV 1 N G TIM E R E L A T IO N S H 1 P S 81
CAS AL S A N D T H E ART OF I N T E R P R E T A T .I O N

titude prevalent during the frst part o f this century, exem plified Casals likened the slow movem ent o f B eeth oven s C ello Sonata
m D m ajor to a funeral m arch . T h e fo llo w in g passage w as to
b y G r o v e s Dictionary w h ich , untl its third edition, published
m ove in absolutely regular time.
w hen Casals was fifty, advised that rbato is allo w able in the
Works o f all the m odern rom antic masters, from W eb er d o w n -
Ex. 13
w ards . . . In the case o f the older masters, it is entirely and un- A d a g io co n m otto s e n tim e n to d 'a f f e t t o

conditionally inadm issible. 1 M u sico logy eventually caught up

w ith Casals. T h e present edition o f G rove's D ictionary describes
rubato as the free element in tim e w ithout restricting its use to
any histrica] period.
C asals feeling for t e m p o ru b a to w as determined, not b y pre-
supposed rules and regulations about musical epochs, but b y the In contrast, he played the Boccherim Bb m ajor C oncert w ith
specific character o f the individual w o rk . For instance, w hile he considerable freedom . T h is music is exem plary o f the purest
generally taught that the poetic fan tasy-w orld o f Schum ann seeks rococo . , . m ore rococo than M ozart - or even H ayd n . S h o w -
expression b y means o f an eloquent rubato, he none the less asked ing h o w one m ay linger for a moment on the upper notes o f a
his students to p lay E xs. 128 and 129 w ithout altering the rhyth- phrase, he w o u ld exclaim : I f w e sing w e do that. Let us do it
m ic vales; these pieces w ere to be set forth in all sim plicity. w ith the instrument also. It is such a guide such a w onderful
guide - the v o ic e !
Ex. 128 Schumann: F n f Stcke im Volkston, No. 2
Ex. [31
Langsam A llegro m oderato
(V)
---- >

jp

T h e ago gic accents (i.e. prolongations o f length not necessarily

Ex. 129 Schumann: F n f Stcke im Volkston, No. 3
supported b y dynam ic stress) noted in E x . 1 3 1 do not arrest the
N ic h t schnelt overall sense o f m ovem ent; they evoke a com pensatory motion
v) AV)
w hich restores the rhythm ic balance o f the phrase. A s Casals has
i* !# m f t p. f-m ' said, T im e lost on expressive accents being placed on the first
I*L .X note o f a gro up, or on the highest note, is to be regained b y the
f>
~X>) <.fp) intervening notes. 1
1 Tos expressed this principie in his classic treatise, Observations on the Florid
Soiii; . . Useful for all Performers, Instrumental as well as Vocal (trans. by Galliard, 1743)-
1 Groves notwithstanding, Couperin spoke o f the spirit, the soul that must be
The stealing o f Time . . . is an honorable Theft in one that sings better than others,
added to the mere quantity and time-value of the beats; C. P. E. Bach instructed that
certain purposeful violations o f the beat are often exceptionally beautiful.' provided he maltes a Restitution with Ingenuity.
 iS S s

82 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N
P E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 83

C asals rubato w as founded on an extraordin arily subtle give

brm ging diversity to a m elody built in sequential phrases:
and take o f tim e-values; it defies adequate description and m y ef-
forts in this regard must be vie w e d as no m ore than ap p ro xi- . Ex. 135 Schumann: 'Adagio and Allegro, Op. 70
mations. I am in the position o f a m edieval theologian seeking to
specify the w eigh t o f an ngel. H o w righ t w as L eo po ld M ozart
w hen he w rote: W h at this stolen tim e is can m ore easily be
show n than described.
L et us g iv e consideration to the role o f ago gic accents in
various m usical contexts. W ith the subtle elongation o f but one
or tw o notes w ith in a bar Casals cou ld w o rk w onders, g iv in g ex -
revealing the ly ric soul concealed w ithin a m elody consisting o f
pressive breadth to the beginning o f a piece:
note-values o f similar printed length:
Ex. 132 Bach: Solo Cello Suite N o. 2, Prelude
Ex. 136 Brahms: Cello Sonata in F major, 3rd mvt.

Allegro passionato
------------- > > -------------->

lending the crest o f a phrase a soaring grace: -------- 9 J d ->

Ex. 133 Haydn: Cello Concert in D major, ist mvt.

enhancing the singing quality o f a short note w h ich has been
Allegro moderato
d w arfed b y a preceding lon g note:

Ex. 137 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in F major, ist mvt.

X>
Allegro --------->

differentiating notes o f special m elodic or harmonio significance:

Ex. 134 Schumann: Cello Concedo, ist mvt.

In E x . 13 7 the ago gic accent serves several additional purposes. It
Nicht zu schnell designates the im portance o f the second minim beat w ithin the
(-> -----------> (-) bar, expresses the appoggiatura ( B b A ) , avoids m onotony in
the quavers, and confers roundness upon the desceriding scale.
In the above exam ples the reciprocity o f tim e-values is com -
pleted w ithin the span o f each bar. W e must also speak o f
(& X > )
tempo rubato extending o ver an entire phrase o f the m anner in
84 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A TI O N PERCEIV ING TIME RELATIO NSHIPS 85

w h ich Casals delineated the dual character o f the fo llo w in g anticpate the first o f their triplet quavers b y entering a hairs
passage from the Finale o f B eeth o ven s C m ajor Sonata: breadth earlier than marked in the score.
E x. 138
Ex. 140

A lle g ro vivace anticipate

X> s fp
rritftL/irl sfjo

This gave room for the ascending scale to be declaimed freely,

the triplet quavers stealing time as they cast up a rain b o w bridge; w ithout disturbing the fundamental tem po .1
the sem iquavers then entering full o f high spirits, as though in For Casals, any definition o f tempo rubato had to inelude
p layfu l surprise. O r o f the H om eric grandeur w ith w h ich he awareness o f proportion. H e follow ed in the tradition o f such
played the cello entrance in B eeth o ven s D m ajor Sonata: masters as M ozart and C hopin, both o f w hom are kn ow n to have
allow ed the m elodic line freedom o f expression w hile respecting
Ex. 139
the underlying rhythm ic continuity.2
Those w h o have been privileged to see M argot Fonteyn dance
w ill have witnessed such rubato in visual form . A t the apogee o f
lyric intensity she w o u ld seem, during an infinitesimal moment,
suspended in space, before flo w in g again into the rhythm ic unity
o f the w hole. In the same w a y Casals w o u ld lift a phrase to a m o
ment o f timeless beauty, w hile continuing to make us aw are o f
the rhythm ic vales o f the entire movement.
D o y o u see those trees? Liszt once asked a pupil. T h e w ind
toys w ith their leaves, it develops life am ong them; the trees re-
main the same; that is C h o p in s rubato. It was Casals rubato as
In the opening arp eggio w e heard no ordin ary quavers, but the w ell.
steps o f H ctor m ounting to the parapet; the ensuing m elo d y w as Finding that youn g musicians, in general, either lack courage
no m ere three bars, but a visin o f an heroic landscape, com - to play freely, or else tend to transform liberty into licence,
pressed w ith in tim e; the sonority w as open and noble, the quaver Casals offered his students a golden rule o f interpretation: Fan-
G b eing proclaim ed spaciously - fran k ly . tasy as much as yo u like but w ith o rd e r! T y p ica lly , he w ould
Casals rarely explain ed rubato; he w o u ld custom arily p lay or
1 See also Beethovens Pastoral Symphony, Chapter VII, p. 186.
sing the phrase in question. T h us it w as o f considerable interest to
2 C. P. E. Bach, too, understood such matters: W hen the execution is such that one
hear him offer specific ad vice on the subject w hen , in the Finale hand seems to play against the bar and the other strictly with it, it may be said that the
o f Schum ann s Fourth Sym p h o n y, he directed the w o o d w in d to perormer is doing everything that can be required of him.
 s

86 CAS ALS A N D T H E ART OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N ; P E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S

! 87
malee a com parison w ith life. W e talk o f dem ocracy and
freedom but w ith order. Y o u cannot just do anything you = # * = = f
w ish; music is the same. ' u p . |.J-__
L ^ ^ L jL J
. . . I* dim. XXP
Th is rule applied to every departure from rhythm ic regularity. dim.
For instance, w hen executing ritardandi, the perform er must take
care t avoid w eakening the architectural spans w ith w hich the ? Casals cautioned against allow ing the tem po to becom e too slow
rhythm ic structure o f a w o rk is built. T h e transitional bars from too soon; the ritardando w as to proceed in a v e ry regular w a y
the first m ovem ent o f the D v o k C e llo C oncert usually suffer j w ith order and b a la n c e . . . . O therw ise w e are lost and the
in just this w a y . > public also !
In music o f an im provisatory nature fantasies, recitatives,
Ex. 141
cadenzas and the like the very diversity o f musical ideas obliges
A lle g ro the perform er to establish convincing proportions. A lth ou gh it
O b
V t c .s o lo is a cadenza, Casals w o u ld say, one must feel a certain lo gic . . .

J3
f ' -
sa T H ^ not a disordered fantasy.
=tmLa - The principie o f fantasy with order also expressed itself in terms
o f rhythm ic stress. In the first bars o f the Saint-Saens C ello
C oncert in A m inor, Casals extended th slur across the bar line
the better to express the natural urge o f the phrase. A s, further-
m ore, the decisive stresses within th m elody fall upon syn-
copations, Casals pointed out that the listener requires a rem inder
o f the metric pulsation. H e therefore gave clear enunciation to
the C w hich begins the second bar: Ju st a littl accent in the
m iddle so as to have equilibrium in the w h ole thin g.
T h e w h ole passage is too long i f w e m ake a ritardando, Casals
counselled, a dim inuendo is enough, a statement often heard Ex. 143
from Casals in v ary in g musical contexts.
Allegro non troppo
In those passages in the second m ovem ent o f the same w o rk <
w here the com poser has indicated a ritardando, as in the fo llo w -
ing exam ple:

Ex. 142

Sim ilarly, in the fo llo w in g passage from the first m ovem ent
o f the D vo r k C e llo C oncert he advised placing an accent on
every h a lf bar. Y o u must not lose the rhythm ; yo u must k n o w
w here you are:
88 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N 89
PERCEIVING TIME RELATIO NSHIPS

Ex. 144
experience concurrently the valid ity o f the parts and o f the
w hole. T h e musician must ascertain the most com prehensive van -
tage point w hich allow s the simultaneous perception o f the valu
inherent in each dimensin. This vantage point is his choice o f
tempo.

C asals tempi often carne as revelations to the present

In E x . 145 he called for a robust accentuation on the first note o f
generation. This resulted not on ly from his perform ing a given
each bar in order to preserve the sense o f 3/4 tim e and, in so
w o rk faster o r slow er than w e are accustomed to hearin g it, but
doing, bring v arie ty to the repetition o f rhythm ic vales.
from the life-energy w hich each tempo conveyed, rooted as it
w as in Casals w a y o f understanding the unit o f pulse w hich best
Ex. 145 Beethoven: Symphony N o. 8, ist mvt.
expresses the m usics content. T h e music o f Brahm s provides a
Allegro vivace e con bro notable case in point. Brahm s tempi are v e ry often m isunder-
stood, Casals explained. T ak in g as an exam ple the Finale o f the
Am r ii | -j | 1*
1 i i , D o u b le C oncert:
rrn P Y zi K H DI* P H w r a

Ld T Ex. 146
Vivace non troppo
-3 7 .3L 3- 3 - - 3 .--3 -
4 ' - * -at -r ( -3 l ___ f- m mT ^
< <>) 1 i r
....... r~ L >
D
Casals described the interpretative challenge o f rhythm ic
organization in all o f its diverse aspects as the sense o f measuring he pointed out. that Brahm s him self conceived this w o rk not in
tim e in space . B y this he meant the ability o f the perform er to pulsations o f crotchets but o f quavers, w ith a consequent
apprehend the relatedness betw een the small units o f time, such as m oderating effect upon the actual speed. For us, ordinarily, it
w e have been discussing, and the larger time spans the group- w ou ld be andante; fo r Brahm s it is Vivace non troppo. W h y ?
ings o f phrases and m ajor structural features o f w h ich a w o rk is Because he counts the eighths. This is very necessary to k n o w ;
composed. T h e perform er must possess an o verall visin com this is w h y Brahm s is v e ry often nearly alw ays played too
parable to that o f the m edieval builders o f Chartres Cathedral fast.
w h o invested ev e ry panel o f stained glass w ith individual W h en a student began the Scherzo from Brahm s F m ajor
character, w h ile not forgetting that a w h o le w in d o w tells a Sonata at a precipitous pace, Casals demonstrated h o w the
parable, that all the Windows are related architecturally and vitality o f rhythm is actually enhanced when the quaver is felt as
spiritually to one another and, indeed, to the sculpture on the the underlying unit f pulse. This is w hat counts: every note
exterior. T h e great composers, like these craftsmen, w ished us to every eigh th !
90 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
P E R C E IV IN G TIM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 91

Ex. 147
Y o u k n o w h o w I dislike quarrelling about tem po, w rote
Allegro passionato Schumann, and h o w for me the inner measure o f the m ovem ent

m (2 1)_________

^iM i W# ^J^j
is the sol distinguishing factor. Thus the faster adagio o f a coid
perform er alw ays sounds lazier than the slowest adagio o f a
P cresc. w arm -blooded interpreter.
W h en teaching the last movem ent f the Schumann C ello
T h e ear, n o w alerted to the m otion o f individual quavers,
C o n cert (see E x . 88), Casals insisted upon a tem po (in this case
has the impression o f quickness o f m ovem ent, despite the
m arked in crotchets) w hich permits a fusin o f energy and
decrease in velocity. T h is has a different character; this is the
expressive nuance: Tem po la B ra h m s!
Brahm s tem po . T h ere w as n o w no need to p lay the expressive
T h e music o f M ozart has all too frequently been sacrificed at
m elody o f the m iddle section m ore slo w ly ; it fo llo w ed
the altar o f w hat Casals termed systematic speed . Casals choice
naturally, in the same tem po .
o f tempi fo r the Sym phony N o . 29 provided an unforgettable
Ex. 148 m usic lesson. H e took the first m ovem ent in accordance w ith the
com posers A lle gro m oderato indication, his relaxed alia breve
beat allo w in g ampie time fo r thp singing line to be set forth in all
its w arm th and grace.
do/ce espress.

T h e 6/8 V iv a ce from Brah m s St. A n to n i V ariations: Ex. 150

Ex. 149

is taken b y most present-day conductors at an extrem ely rapid

pace. Brahm s, as w ell as Schum ann, thought o f these time signa-
tures as m eaning quite different things, Casals explained. W e
must play in six-eight, not tw o -fo u r. In other w ords, w e should
feel the w eigh t o f the quavers w hich com e betw een the dotted
crotchet beats.1

1 Whcn Casals conducted this work in London in 1927, his tempo for this variation
engendered critical controversy, A. H. Fox Strangways, musi critic of The Ohserver A v ita lly energized upbeat signalled the Finale and established
and founder o f Music and Letters, had the last word. Having known Brahms, he attested at once the sturdy character o f the 6/8 pulsation, rem inding us
to the validity o f Casals tempo.
that vig o u r is not synonym ous w ith celerity:
92 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N P E R C E I V I N G TIME R E L A T IO N S H I P S 93

Ex. 151 Expressive o f an entirely different m ood, the slow m ovem ent
Allegro con spirto o f the H affn er Sym pho ny flo w ed in a gracious andante con moto,
w hile the second m ovem ent o f H ayd n s Surprise Sym phony

i w as conceived in crotchet beats.

V 0 - M -

W hen ever Casals perform ed the music o f H aydn, one felt the
f existence o f a special kinship between interpreter and composer.
A s C haucer declares: Both w ere o f simple background; each had learned to express the
Ther nis no werkman, whatsoevere he be, fullness o f his nature; neither had lost contact w ith the elemental
That may bothe werke wel and hastily. vitality o f the earth. O n e remembers Casals rehearsing such a
O ne often hears the first m ovem ent o f M ozart s L in z dance as the M inuet from H aydn s Sym phony N o . 95:
Sym phony (A llegro spiritoso, C ) taken alia breve. Casals con- Ex. 153
ducted it in four, g iv in g time for the first theme to be phrased Menuetto
w ith incom parable loveliness (see E x . 2 3 ) .1 H o w e v er, w hen he
took the last m ovem ent o f M ozarts P ragu e Sym pho ny in tw o
beats per bar rather than the custom ary one beat, I found his
choice o f tem po to be unduly slow . Casals explained that he felt
that the triplet figu re (E x. 152) possesses a singing quality w hich
preeludes a faster tem po.

A s he sat in his chair, his b o d y w ould begin to sw ay from side to

side, the alternating m ovem ent o f his feet as they carne dow n
on the first beat o f every bar communicating a prim al rhythm ic
impulse, invincible and irresistible.
H e played the Finale o f H aydn s D m ajor C e llo Concert w ith
A m o n g the most stirring memories o f Casals as conductor rustic lilt: not h eavy g a y ! Th e tempo w as not to be hurried:
w ere his readings o f M ozarts slow movements. N o music is Six-eigh t not tw o -fo u r!
m ore expressive o f fathomless sorrow than the C minor
Ex. 154
movem ents o f the Piano Concertos in E[>, K . 2 7 1 and K . 482,
and o f the Sinfonia Concertante for V io lin and V io la. Casals
brought to these w orks the full depth o f his hum anity. Immersed
in th :ir m ood o f aching m elancholy, he let them sing w ithout
h u rry , sustained b y the surety o f his insight into the shaping o f
phrasi :s.
1 Sp1 itoso is t o s a y th a t o n e h a s t o p l a y w it h u n d e r s t a n d in g a n d s p i r i t . . . th e m e a n
b e t w e e . -. q u ic k a n d s l o w . L eo po ld M o zart.
94 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
P E R C E 1 V I N G TI ME R E L A T I O N S H I P S 95

o r w as the robust, earthy side o f M ozart to be neglected; it

found lamentation; there was no haste in the m otion o f quaver
resounded in Casals perform ances o f the M inuets from the
beats. So masterful w as Casals sense o fth e structure o fth e w hole,
Sym phonies N os. 39 and 40, both o f w hich (m arked A llegretto)
so absorbing was his spiritual concentration, that the phrases
w ere taken, essentially, at one beat per bar. T h e form er w as re-
unfolded in time units o f enormous spaciousness, like the verses o f
splendent w ith jo y ; H a p p y ! Casals shouted. T h e latter w as in-
a choral ode by Sophocles.
tensely dramatic, w ith slashing accents upon the syncopations.
Ex. 155 For Casals, the musical pulse was the organic heartbeat o f a
com position. H e w as able to intgrate a m anifold w ealth o f
nuance into the fram ew ork o f the main tempo. W h en he m odi-
fied the fundamental speed, it w as because o f the intrinsic de-
mand o f the m usic.1 Such a case is found in the Finale o f
Beeth oven s A m ajor C ello Sonata w here Casals felt it necessary
to g ive the second subject enough extra time so that it should not
The M inuet from the H affn er Sym phony w as also played in a be robbed o f tenderness. Each phrase played b y the cello, he ex-
spirited one , the opening four bars brought together in a plained, must say I lo ve y o u . T h e piano, responding w ith in-
vivacious sw eep .1 creased m otion, made bridges betw een these phrases. W ith the
sem iquaver figure the m ain tempo w as fully re-established.
Ex. 156
E x. 157
Menuetto . --------------------------------------- >

Vlns. 0 X X
Allegro vivace
----- ~ ~ 4 I doco irteno mossol
6
nl~ -1----- m~
k - J ( "?
_.L.^
9

A lthough Casals often expressed his concern o ver the m odern

tendency to p lay too fast , his perform ance o f these minuets in-
dicates that he did not hesitate to take com paratively fast tempi
when they w ere appropriate to the musical con text.2 F o r ex-
ample, he conceived the opening m ovem ent o f B a ch s Second
Brandenburg Concert as a ju b ilan t celebration; this w o rk , he
felt, w as meant to sound fast and he conducted it accordingly. B y
w a y o f contrast, his perform ance o f the Andante from B a c h s
Second Gam ba Sonata (see E xs. 49a & b) had the quality o f a p ro -

1 In a letter addressed to his sister, Mozart expressed surprise at the slow tempo in
which minuets were performed in Italy.
2 Reference has already been made to his spirited rendering o f the first movement of
Beethovens Eighth Symphony. 1 Wagner (0 Conducting) malees a disrinction between those allegros which should
proceed in strict tempo and those innately subject to tempo modification.
 96 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N 97
P E R C E I V 1 N G TIME R E L A T I O N S H I P S

The poetic content o f the first movem ent o f B eeth o ven s need o f the phrases to m ove freely. Such elasticity o f tempo is
Fourth Sym phony was allow ed to express itself in terms o f slight called for in the first movem ent o f the Schumann C ello Concert
tempo luctuations. Casals delicately restrained the tempo in the and W a g n e rs Siegfried Idyll, to give but tw o exam ples.1 In
transition to the second subject so as to arrive at a charm ing poco C asals performances these m odifications o f tem po w ere never
meno mosso w ithout loss o f continuity. arbitrary, never disturbing to the unity o f the w hole. T h ey w ere
carried out w ith consmate skill, ever in keeping w ith Bruno
Ex. 158
W alters m axim : apparent continuity o f tem po. Casals w ou ld
A lleg ro vivace sometimes comment: There is an art to not playin g in tempo
- <->
B sn. an art w hich one has to learn, w hich one has to f e e l.
T h is art reached its summit in Casals perform ance o f the T rio
from the second m ovem ent o f Brahm s E m inor Sonata".

Ex. 160
In the midst o f the developm ent he again relaxed the pace. Each
chord entered like a sigh, the semiquavers trailing o f f un- Allegretto quasi Menuetto
hurriedly.

Ex. 159

A n y semblance o f strict metronomic regularity w as set aside, the

T h e passage took on a m ood o f sustained expectancy, as i f an rhythm ic vales responding instinctively to the expressive urge
ocean-going schooner w ere m om entarily becalmed. T h e o f the m elody. T h e notes were free o f constraint, yet inextric-
vivacious tempo primo w as gradually restored during the transition ably related to one another by that sense o f proportion w hich
to the recapitulation.
w as a secret o f C asals artistry.
Certain compositions are, o f inner necessity, subject to tempo
' In Brs 7590 of the Wagner work Casals told the orchestra: 'I change constantly
rubato not only w ithin the phrase, but over extended sections
the tempo follow me; follow me! In the same passage Toscanini had said, Look me
w here the pulse-beat must yield w ith subtle flexib ility to the - watch stick - tempo always change.
 P E R C E IV 1 N G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 99
9g C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N

Ex. 161
W hen teaching a large-scale w o rk w here num erous changes
o f tem po are required, Casals frequently rem inded his
students that they must take into account the relationship
between one tem po and the next. E specially problem atical in this
regard is the D vo r k C ello C oncert. In the first m ovem ent
Casals cautioned against taking the second subject too slo w ly (see
E x . 2 18 ). It should be on ly a little broader than the m ain tempo.
Sim larly, there is a tendency to transform the sustained A b m inor
passage into a lento (see E x . 86). O n such occasions Casals w ou ld H ere, m any conductors fe e uncomfortable w ith the extent o f
rem ark: T h ere is nothing w orse than h avin g to w ait fo r th e e n d ! silence w hich comprises nearly an entire bar in adagio; they tend
Th roughout the second m ovem ent, a clear crotchet pulse was to h u rry it along. Casals made no apology for the length o f this
to be discernible. (D vork was careful to add to his A d agio : ma rest; he observed the full time indicated, letting the w o rld stop to
non troppo.) Reference has already been made to the need to
w ait fo r the next crashing fortissimo.
maintain continuity in the transitional passages w h ich occur There w ere quiet passages in Beethovens cello sonatas during
w ithin this m ovem ent. w hich the rests seemed absorbed w ith sustained tensin, as in the
T h e G m ajor episode in the Finale (see E x . 82) w as not to be A d agio from the Fifth Sonata, w here the quaver rests led w ith
sentimentalized; Casals asked that the Modrate m arking shuld halting steps from an already dark D m inor into the impenetrable
be observed: It is a pastorale - elassie and lo v e ly . O n ly in
gloo m o f Cflf m inor.
the coda was the rhythm ic m otion set free From an y suggestion o f
pulse beat. T h e ly ic statements o f the cello w ere allo w ed to p ro- Ex. 162
ceed in an im provisatory manner, the orchestra regaining tempo
Adagio con molto sentimento d'affetto
w hile the cello sustained its long notes. Thus w as the solo cello
allow ed to express in all liberty the spiritual apotheosis o f the
concert.

Casals w ou ld not wish us to forget that the silencs are also

m usic . H e advised the interpreter not to seek to m inim ize the
efect o f a rest; on the contrary, he should grant it its full due. I f
the line o f feeling remains unbroken the silences w ill take on ex-
pressive intensity. Th is he called the art o f the rest . In Casals
hands such moments w ere spell-binding, a m em orable instance
In the concluding bars o f the opening A d agio from his
occurring at the end o f the introduction to the first m ovem ent o f
Sym phony N o . 39, M ozart introduces a mysterious passage built
B eeth oven s Fourth Sym phony:
 100 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N

from notes o f lon g duration, in w hich time gldes so slo w ly as

barely to m ove at all. Casals did not quicken the pulse beat here
as m any conductors do. Each note, sustained to the full, trans-
ported us over a bridge o f infinite poignancy, pointing the w a y CHAPTER V
from darkness to light. T h e rests w ere expressions o f eternal
longing; they traversed the space separating earthly sorrow from
INSIG H TS FOR STRING PLAYERS
heavenly consolation.

Ex. 163 Intonation is a question of conscience.

Vln.1 A d a 3 i
TEPPING into the M em ling museum in Bruges w as not like

:v S entering any other museum. I had spent the m orning stroll-

ing along the rain-w ashed streets o f that ancient and beautiful
city, immersed in the spirit o f a past age, lost to the distractions
and pressures o f the twentieth century. Thus it seemed a most
natural thing to w alk into the tw elfth-century H ospital o f St.
Jo h n and find there, in the chapter-house, the M em lings, so
I am rem inded o f the haunting mom ent during the first act o f righ tfully belonging. N o sooner had I begun to study these ex-
C h ek h o vs p la y T h e Seagull w hen an unexpected quiet setdes
quisite w orks o f art, w rou ght w ith such infinite care, than the
over the stage. A ll is perfectly still until someone sighs, The custodian asked i f I wished to bo rrow a m agnifying glass. W h at a
ngel o f silence has flo w n over u s. Casals w as righ t to insist that splendid idea! U n d er the glass, a new w o rld met the eye, a w o rld
w e accord the art o f the rest a m eaningful place in our con- in w hich every segment o f canvas revealed unim agined
sideration o f tim e relationships. refinement, in w hich human hand and paintbrush had achieved a
delicacy o f nuance at w hich one could on ly m arvel. I set aside the
glass and each painting now seen as a w hole - seemed richer
In the preceding chapters w e have observed Casals w a y o f than before, pervaded w ith internal life hitherto unsuspected.
granting to every note its inevitable role in a cogent design; his I am rem inded o f Bruges and its M em lings w hen I recall
insistence that each o f these designs be articulated in such a w a y Casals teaching. L ik e that thoughtful custodian in St. Jo h n s
as to im print itse lf upon the ear unm istakably; his m anner o f re- H ospital, he w o u ld offer a m agnifying glass to his stu d en t-a lens
conciling the free and strict aspects o f rhythm through fantasy w hich enlarged not space but time the better to exam ine a frag-
w ith order . It is n o w tim e to lo o k in greater depth at the ment o f a B ach suite: a single bar, or h a lf a m ovem ent, played
problem s o f string p layin g, givin g our consideracin to the means in slo w m otion so as to place under cise scrutiny the phrase
: am ong them intonation, tone colour, vibrato b y w hich the structure, the w h y and w herefore o f every dynam ic inflection,
string instrumentalist can further com m unicate the life o f music i
the precise extent o f articulation easily overlooked in a m ore rapid
in its endless beauty and diversity . tempo. Students are often urged to practise slo w ly , m ainly to

101
 102 C A S A L S A N D THE A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N 1NSIGHTS FOR STRING PLAYERS 10 3

analyse technical difficulties. Casals purpose was infinitely based upon a pre-ordained mathematical form ula; it is a dynam ic
broader; by bringing an aspect o f a com position into larger v iew , process, expressing the organic relationship betw een notes in a
not on ly did he ensure m xim um awareness o f every nter- musical context, w h ich Casals termed expressive intonation .
pretative requirem ent but he uncovered the deep roots o f expres T h e final judgem en t lies in the ever-sensitive ear o f the
i n ^rom w hich all music is form ulated. T o hear him thus play musician.
the opening statement from Schum anns C ello C oncert, Because it is a natural and instinctive response to music, ex
elucidating in an adagio tempo the m eaningful connection o f pressive intonation is to some extent practised spontaneously b y
each note to the other, the heartrending quality o f every appog- m any musicians. H o w e ver, few apply it w ith the comprehensive
giatura and syncopation, was unforgettable. W h en reintegrated awareness that characterized Casals approach. N e w students
into the original tem po, these nuances, n o w proportionately com ing to Casals most o f them advanced, some already
faster, retained the precise character w hich the slow -m otion professional - w o u ld often have cotnfortable illusions shattered
process had enabled us to perceive. O u r experience in music was w hen their habitual intonation w as challenged b y his un-
enhanced b y a further dimensin o f depth and o f clarity. com prom ising ear. It was rare enough w hen Casals, beaming-
W h en w e exam ine different aspects o f C asals approach to w ith delight, could announce, Y o u p lay in tun e! For this reason
string playing, it should be borne in m ind that w e are cn- a m ore detailed explanation should prove useful.
sidering fragments w hich reveal their full m eaning o n ly w hen T h e principal challenge confronting the string player whose
restored to the w hole. sensibilities have been dulled b y the mechanical pitch produced
by the piano is to establish the proper placem ent o f semitones.
H ere w e must distinguish between diatonic and chrom atic semi
Intonation, Casals told a student, is a question o f conscience. tones, the form er being invariably characterized b y a sense o f
Y o u hear w hen a note is false the same w a y yo u feel w hen yo u connectedness w h ich Casals likened to gravitational attraction . 1
do something w ron g in life. W e must not continu to do the Casals considered the tonic, subdominant and dominant o f a
w ro n g thing. His assertion that each note is like a link in a chain given tonality (the first, fourth and fifth degrees o f a scale) to be
im portant in itself and also as a connection between w hat has points o f repose to w hich the other notes are draw n. Thus, the
been and w hat w ill b e , applied as equally to intonation as to principie o f gravitational attraction is at w o rk w ithin each o f the
other aspects o f interpretation. T h e notes o f a com posifion d o not tw o tetrachords o f w hich a scale is composed. T h e diatonic semi-
exist m isolation; the m ovem ent o f harm onic progressions, tone w ithin each tetrachord has a natural tendeney to be drawn
m elodic contours and expressive colorations provides each in upw ards: the third degree towards the fourth and, most par-
terval w ith a specific sense o f belonging and/or direction. C n se- ticularly, the seventh degree the leading note towards the oc
q u en tly, Casals stressed that the equal-tem pered scale w ith its tave. T h e pitch o f the leading note needs to be raised high
fixed and equidistant semitones as found on the piano is a enough for us to feel the inevitability o f its resolution to the
com prom ise w ith w hich string players need n o t c o m p ly .1 P la y tonic.
in g in tune is threfore not a m atter o f adherence to intervals
1 I define these semitones as follows: when two notes forming a semitone are written
on different degrees of the staff (i.e. C # D) th interval is diatonic. W hen they are
These remarles are also applicable to wind players and, not least, to singers. written on the same staff degree (i.e. D b Dfcj) the interval is chromatic.
 104 CASALS AND THE ART OF IN T E R PR E T A R O N IN SIGH TS FOR STRIN G PLAYERS 10 5

I f the semitones are placed higher, the intermedate tones are (iii) again on a stringed instrument, matching exactly the in-
affected, they must adjust accordingly. Consequently the second tonation o f the piano.
and sixth degrees are inclined slightly upwards. In the D m ajor
A t this point it w ill be apparent that versin (iii) is out o f tune
scale, for exam ple, the E and F # a re d raw n towards the G , the B
like a telescope not quite in focus; the E b has lost its expressive
and C # tow ards the D . attraction tow ards the D and has becom e detached and im per
sonal.
Ex. 164
L e t us consider another passage, the second subject o f the
TETRACHORO I TETRACHORDII Finale o f B eeth oven s T h ird C ello Sonata:
1 ~ ' / ------------ ---------- --------- \
Ex. 166 Allegro vlvace

dolce
In m inor scales the attractions are som ew hat altered, y e t alw ays H ere w e are in E m ajor. The D # , as leading note, is draw n
in accordance w ith the same principie o f relating a note t its m agnetically upw ards tow ards the tonic E and must therefore be
neighbours.
played slightly higher in pitch than the D # o f the piano.
In perform ance these gravitational attractions are anything
I f w e com pare the Eb in the M ozart sym phony w ith the D #
but academ ic; they are a vital aspect o f musical comm unication.
in the Beethoven sonata, w e discover that these tw o notes are
T ake, for mstance, the opening m elody o f M ozarts Sym phonv
surprisingly different. Casals pointed out that under such con-
N o . 40. 1*
ditions there m ay be as great a distance between E b and D $ as
Ex. 165 there is w ithin a semitone such s D t) E b .
T h e phrase w hich opens M ozarts String Q uartet in E b , K .
428, possesses five semitones: four diatonic and one chrom atic.

E x . 167

Allegro ma non troppo

The first note (Eb), being the sixth degree o f the G m inor scale, y -,b ' i 7* = ~ T : = j - 1 1----------- 1 i
J 3 ? ! 1. 1--------------- L L ' / - )
has an innate tendency, in descent, to lean tow ards the D . T o
p lay this p ro p erly in tune the string p layer should - by design or
intuition - slightly lo w e r the pitch o f the Eb , bringing it closer W h ile the notes w ithin each diatonic semitone are closely related
to the D . Th is can readily be tested b y playin g E x . 16 5:
to one another, the Bb Bfc;, com prising a chromatic semitone, are
(i) on a stringed instrument w ith the E b slightly lo w ered , as not d raw n together. T h e Bb, as fifth degree o f the E b m ajor
described above; tonality, is in a fixed position; the fo llo w in g B fcj is inclined aw ay
(ii) on the piano; from the B b tow ards the C .

emmmwm
 IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 107
lo C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N
tionships m ove q uickly] w e have to exaggerate still m ore the
Sim ilarly, in the opening theme o f Schum anns A d a g io and
closeness o f the half-tones. H e demonstrated b y playin g the
A lle g ro O p. 70:
fo llo w in g passage:
Ex. 168
Ex. 170
Langsam, mit innigem Ausdruck

(i) allegro, in which case the Bb and G # are both drawn

the closer affinity exists not betw een the notes o f the chrom atic towards the A to the extent that the intervals approximate
semitone E b E tj, bu t betw een the second and fourth notes an eighth o f a tone.
w hich com prise the diatonic semitone E tj F. (T h e intervening (ii) andante, requiring that the intervals - w hile narrow er
G is an appoggiatura w h ich does not alter the fundam ental than those o f the equal-tempered scale - should be a little
attraction that draw s the Etj tow ards the F.) less narrow than w ould be the case in the allegro.
These fe w exam ples, culled from endless possibilities, indcate
W h en demonstrating a properly measured semitone, Casals
the basis for the principie w hich Casals w as to reitrate time and
w o u ld sometimes exclaim , Isnt it beautiful! A n d indeed it was.
again: In general w e are obliged to have the tendency to keep
T h e placem ent o f intervals in m eaningful relativity provides a
the half-tones cise togeth er.
fundamental sense o f w ell-being. T h e notes fall into place w ith
O ccasional com prom ises w ill be inevitable o w in g to the e x -
inevitability, thus gaining in vitalty. Intellectual awareness, in-
igencies o f chordal fingering or in places w here an open string
tuitve perception and critical listening all play a role in the
has to function as the leading note. In the latter case, w hen
determ ination o f the precise degree to w hich the instrumentalist
possible, Casals stopped the string w ith the first finger, thereby
im proving both intonation and tone q u a lity :1 adjusts his pitch.
O n e does not have to look to B e rg or B art k to find challenges
Ex. 169 Schumann: Cello Concert, ist mvt. to p layin g in tune. A lthough B ach s Sarabande from the C minor
Nicht zu schnell Suite (see E x . 17 1) is a w o rk for solo cello w ithout accom pani-
ment, each note must be felt in accordance w ith the ever-present,
im plied harmonio background. It falls all the m ore to the cellist s
responsibility to suggest these implications b y means o f intona
tion w ithout supporting harm ony. N o placement o f pitch can
be isolated from its brethren; no interval can be considered apart
T h e precise intonation o f semitones w ill also be affected b y the from its gravitational tendency. T h us m ajor and augmented
speed at w hich they are perform ed. Casals advised, In a intervals w ill o f necessity be widened, m inor and diminished
relatively fast m ovem ent [i.e. w hen the specific semitone rela- intervals narrow ed. Certain semitone relationships are intimated
even i f not im m ediately resolved. For exam ple, the A b s (sixth
See also Ex. 147.
10 8 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 10 9

degree o f the tonality) in Bars 13 find their resolution in the G s Casals pointed out that w hen the cello is tuned in perfect fifths,
w hich conclude the third bar. T h e Bfc) (leading note) in B a r 2 the low er strings tend to sound too lo w in comparison w ith the
looks tow ards the C in the fourth b a r.1 Th e depth o f expression upper strings. H e advised tuning the C and G strings a bare frac-
con veyed b y this sorrow fiil piece in C m inor is intrinsically related tion sharp, thus slightly narrow ing the fifth between the G and D
to the tensin felt w ith in the intervals. Expressive intonation, strings, achieving thereby an equilibrium betw een the extreme
when observed continuously throughout a com position, becomes registers o f the instrument. This tuning also has the benefit o f
a forem ost factor in the com m unication o f em otional content. d raw in g the lo w er notes o f the cello into line w ith the equivalent
notes on the piano w hich m ay otherwise, o w in g to equal-
Ex. 171
tempered tuning, be too sharp in comparison. H e recomm ended
Sarabande that violinists fo llo w the same procedure, i.e. tuning the tw o
lo w er strings - G and D - im perceptibly higher.
Casals was o f the opinin that, w hen a stringed and keyboard
instrument p lay together, the discrepancy betw een expressive
and equal-tem pered intonation is easily tolerable. E xcept in
unisn passages, he believed it unnecessary and devitalizing for
the string player to adjust to equal-tempered pitch.
T h e degree o f b o w pressure and the volum e at w hich one plays
are relevant to intonation. W here intensive b o w pressure is in-
W h en teaching this piece in slow m otion Casals com -
mented, T o p lay in tune is lon g, lon g w o rk . Y o u must never dicated, the string w ill tend to sharpen and a necessary compensa-
cease to observe, to edcate and be severe w ith yo u rself. tion must be made b y the left hand.
Casals w o u ld tune his cello in mezzo forte so as to hear the
Casals considered it essential that expressive intonation be
taught to string players from the beginning o f their studies. H e natural sonority o f the strings. B u t this w as off-stage. O nce on-
stage he w ou ld, i f necessary, brush the strings ligh tly w ith his
took endless trouble in retraining the aural sense and habitual
fingers. T u n in g w ith the b o w disturbs the audience. T h ey have
finger placements o f students w h o , since childhod, had unques-
tion ingly applied piano intonation to their stringed instruments. nothing to do w ith the instrument.
T h e effects o f any neglect o f this kind at the beginning o f
stu d ies. . . can affect a player through the w h o le o f his career, In previous chapters consideration has been given to the w ealth
h o w ever gifted he m ay b e . I once m et the livin g p ro o f o f this o f nuance w hich Casals believed to be inherent in all music. His
statement in a cellist w h o was attending Casals B erk eley classes - b o w com m unicated these inflections w ith the soaring p o w er o f
a perform er not w ithout talent but w h o had early on been song and the. articulateness o f speech. H e brought to the art o f
brainwashed by equal temperament. H earing Casals fo r the first cello playing a hitherto unim agined range o f tone coloration.
time, she exclaim ed, It is soooooo beautiful but w h y does he H e w as, said K reisler, the monarch o f the b o w .
T o give variety w ith the b o w ! Casals w o u ld exclaim , - that
p lay out o f tune?
is the natural thing. H e referred to the once-prevalent fashion o f
1 See also the relationship: E|> in Bars 67; there are severa] such instances of consistently using the full length o f the b o w as being against the
delayed resolution in the second part o f the movement. requirements o f the language o f music and contrary to the
lio CAS ALS A N D T H E ART OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N I N S I G H T S F O R S TR I NG PLAYERS III

E x. 173
econom y o f. energy w hich a performance demands . M ore
bluntly he said: It is a stupid idea. o r does music divide itself Prelude
system atically am ong a fe w basic categories o f b o w stroke:
spiccato, dtach, m artel, etc. The divisions are as subtle as
they are m anifold and can intermingle w ithin a single phrase. In m .
cresc.)
recording some instances o f Casals approach to b o w in g, I shall
not be p rovid in g a com prehensive list. M y few exam ples should
A fter his b o w had fallen in a gigantic stroke upon the octave C s,
be considered as illustrations o f the cardinal principie: the b o w
setting them in vibration w ith thunderous forc, he looked up in-
must alw ays be responsive to the diversity o f expression
nocently and asked, P ourquoi pas?
demanded b y the music.
H e did not hesitate to ask orchestral players to utilize the
In keeping w ith the special importance Casals accorded to the
same b o w in g technique. In the first m ovem ent o f Schuberts
articulation o f the first note, he frequently utilized a technique
U nfinished Sym pho ny the lyrical closing theme is abruptly cut
w hich you n g string players are often dutifully w arned against:
short b y a sudden fortissimo which wrenches us back to the dark-
the dropping o f the b o w upon the string. W hen announcing the
ness o f B m in o r.1
opening theme o f the D v o k Concert:
Ex. 174
Ex. 172

Allegro

f rsoluto

Casals wished to register here an unexpected shock and

his b o w w ou ld h over for a moment high in the air like an eagle
demanded from his excellent string section a ferociously hard
w atching its p rey before slashing upon the string w ith stun- staccato attack at the heel, beginning from o ff the string. The
ning im pact. T h e arm m ovem ent, executed in one m otioii, orchestra could not at once produce the effect to his satisfaction.
began w ith a vertical descent, suddenly cu rvin g to the side at the X, O d age notwithstanding, the titanic life-force w ithin him w ou ld
mom ent o f contact so that the string avoided hitting against the brook no com prom ise. E ve n after persistent and vehem ent
fingerboard and could vbrate freely. T h e sound thus produced repetitin he still com plained, It doesnt sound. I hear w w w ah
w as explosive w ithout being harsh. So precisely did he ju d g e the w hen I should hear B B B a h V The orchestra finally took the risk;
natural w eigh t o f the falling b o w that he obtained, as he oc- the note resounded w ith the tautness o f a snapping w hip.
casionally put it, the greatest possible effect fo r the least possible
exertion . 1 Whenever I attmpted to sing o f Iove, it turned to pain. And again, whn I tried
Casals show ed a student h o w to express the dram atic opening to sing of pain, it turned to love. Thus were love and pain divided in me. from
a dream recorded by the composer, 3 July 1822.
o f B a ch s Fifth C e llo Suite:
112 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N 1 N S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S H3

In the Finale o f B eeth oven s E ighth Sym phony he exhorted his note o f a lyric phrase. H it the note on the head, not on the
cello and bass players to produce, at each o f their unexpected stom ach, he w o u ld say w hen teachng the opening o f B a ch s
forte entrances, tw o savage b o w strokes (ruthlessly in tem po). Second Gam ba Sonata or o f H aydn s D m ajor C oncert, and he
w o u ld tap on his o w n bald head b y w a y o f illustration.
O f course, the texture o f each beginning, o f each accent,
w ou ld v a ry in accordance w ith the musical context. Both as
cellist and conductor, Casals drew forth the most eloquent sfor-
zando (as in E x . 176 w here he interpreted the f p as an expressive
accent), in this case there being an increase in pressure just after
the com m encem ent o f the b o w stroke. W h en Casals rehearsed
such a sforzando, a moan w ould emanate from his inner being,
his baton pushing w eigh tily into the air as i f countering a mass o f
K - resistance w hich on ly the forc o f feeling could overem e.

>w.:y
Ex. 176 Mozart: Symphony No. 29, 2ndmvt.

The principie o f dropping the b o w retained its valid ity even

w hn the application required less forc. It does not sound like a o:-:;
beginning, he told the cello section w hen com m encing B a c h s
Second O rchestral Suite. D rop the b o w ; it gives a m ore natural ,- n v

accent. W e must pose the first note. 'V,

O w in g to the nature o f their instruments, string players, unlike
their w in d - and keyboard-playin g colleagues, are capable o f in- ::
'V In Schum ann, he w ould say, the accent is alw ays o f expression.
itiating a note w ith h ard ly any sonority at all. Casals believed
E v e ry note is so m uch from the heart.
that this possibility tends to be over-used to the neglect o f the ex-
pressive im pulse inherent in a first note. H e felt that there are
Ex. 177 Schumann: Symphony No. 4, 4th mvt.
m any occasions w hen the beginning o f a soft and lyrical m elody
requires the articulation o f a consonant rather than the p lian cy o f Lebhaft
i V ln .l^ i p. ^ ^ ---------- _> ^
a vo w e. A t such times he w ould com m ence from o ff the string,
in a precisely poised m iniature o f the forte stroke, executed w ith
f jp -= = -r / (= ) / (= -)
so deft a skill that the listener was aw are, not o f an accent, but o f
a sonority initiated w ith instant vitality. (T he left-hand technique
<mf f =->
also played a role here as shall be discussed later in this chapter.) W h en discussing the use o f the b o w , Casals w o u ld sometimes
H e particularly disliked the slight, unconsciously produced com m ent, T h e composers think o f their music and very often
crescendo w h ich some string players habitually bring to the first they don t think o f the requirements o f the instrument. H e
1 14 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N IN SIG HTS FOR S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 115

pointed out that in order truly to serve a com posers musical do the second note w ith another b o w (i.e. rather than observing
intention w e are sometimes obliged to make b o w changes the printed slur).
w ithin the w ritten slurs and w e mustnt be too preoccupied about
this. T h e changes must, o f course, be intelligent and in good Ex. 179 Boccherini: Cello Concert in B b major, ist mvt.
taste. W h ere you h ave a lon g note or a crescendo, i f yo u dont
have enough b o w , change it! Y o u must not be the slave o f the
b o w !
In the second m ovem ent o f Brahm s F m ajor Sonata, fo r ex-
am ple, he advised his students not to hesitate to take a n ew bo w
during the course .o f the minim. I f it remains too tim id, all the
e a . aou jl# a iu m .
effect o f that w on derful long note is lo st!
Allegro non troppo ^
Ex. 178
Adagio affetuoso
r f !r~'r J ifTf r f if~f
( = ) cresc._____ I d _ 1 ____ f

This doesnt mean that the slur isnt correct. Perhaps it is more
correct than w hat I d o . B u t he w ent on to explain that in chang-
in g the b o w , the note o f resolution gains a certain subtle vitality
in articulation. Instead o f letting the note die,-it has something.
Casals w arned against a mechancal rendering o f quickly
repeated notes, pointing out that each pattern has its distinctive
character. W h en conducting Schuberts U nfinished Sym phony,
B o w changes w ith in long notes w ere to be as inaudible as poss- he asked the violins to avoid a routine rule-of-thum b spiccato
ible. A slight lessening o f b o w pressure at the m om ent o f change and to play their semiquavers near to the point o f the b o w , w ith
helps to avo id an accent; m oreover, the change is less apparent i f singing quality.
it occurs not on a m ain beat, but on a syncopation.
It is often the case, particularly in the B ach suites, that a change
Ex. 181
o f b o w m ay be needed in the midst o f a passage w here no break Allegro moderato
in phrasing is desired. Such a b o w change is least noticeable, Vln.I
Casals explained, i f it is made on a note foreign to the harm ony
[i.e. a passing note] - not a note pertaining to the chord.. ftl (- - 11 (simile) '
Casals described a characteristic w a y in w hich he w o u ld use BP
the b o w for the purpose o f enhancing articulation: W h en there T h e violas w ere to begin M ozarts Sym phony N o . 40 w ith ex-
are tw o notes in the form o f an appoggiatura, don t be afraid to pressive strokes in the middle o f the b o w :
li C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N 1NSIGHTS FOR ST RI N G P L A Y E R S 117

Ex. 182
Molto allegro In the fo llo w in g examples, where w e again find the intervals
o f a vigorous theme marked by a double stroke o f the b o w , he
pointed out that the m elodic line is m ore clearly delineated i f the
string player allow s the second (upbow ) strokes to be lighter
than the dow n bow s. H ere it is not necessary to g ive equal im -
A t the conclusin o f M ozarts Sym ph o n y N o . 39 he regarded the portance to the notes w hich come in b etw een .
violin line:
Ex. 183a Ex. 185 Bach: Brandenburg Concert No. 5, ist mvt.
Allegro
AllegroJ

as an expressive m elody:
Ex. 183b Ex. 186 Schumann: Fantasiestiicke, Op. 73< 3rd mvt.

to w hich the trem olo in semiquavers has been added as a means

o f enhancing the lyricism . T h e trem olo is an exaltation o f the
note! he w o u ld exclaim w hen rehearsing this passage, or one o f
Ex. 187 Schumann: Symphony No. 4 , 3rd mvt.
similar soaring aspect:

Ex. 184 Beethoven: 'Eroica'Sym phony, istmvt. Lebhaft

Beeth oven m olto espressivo enthusiastic sing w ith yo u r

b o w s !
* <>
Allegro con bro /
W e have seen in Chapter III how Casals used the diminuendo
as a means o f bringing articulation into relief. For Casals, the
law o f the dim inuendo w as a fundamental aesthetic principie o f
string playing. H e considered the fading a w a y o f sound to be an
integral part o f a note s sonority: W h en yo u do a diminuendo,
especially on a lon g note, the diminuendo must go to the infinite ;
118 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G PLAYF.R S 119

otherw ise the note is not com pleted. (W hen, at the end o f the Ex. 190
dim inuendo the b o w is raised from the string, the sound does not Allegro (giocoso) (piu espr.)
stop abruptly; the resonance contines, extending further towards (- T
the infinite.) de
Innumerable examples could be cited w here Casals applied this (m p ) ( = ) ("
principie. D on t leave the sustained note h a lf finished, he said
when teaching the Finale o f Beeth oven s C m ajor Sonata. Let us In the introduction to Beethovens Fourth Sym phony each
hear the natural dim inuendo. quaver (in both strings and w ood w in d ), w hen played w ith a
Ex. 188 decrescendo, seemed almost to breathe.
Ex. 191

A nd in the Finale o f Beethovens Fourth Piano C oncert, the

dim inuendi relieved the crotchets o f stiffness, givin g them a
natural buoyancy.
Ex. 192
A dim inuendo to the infinite was to com e three times at the
conclusin o f the slow m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s D m ajor
Sonata:

In forte as w ell, a diminuendo, w h erever it occurred, brought

com pletion to the sonority.
Ex. 193 Bach: Violn Concert in A minor, ist m vt.
CAllegroJ

and on each minim in the theme from the Finale o f the

B occherini Bb m ajor C oncert:
120 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 121

Ex. 194 Mozart: Symphony No. 40, ist mvt. Ex. 196 Schubert: Symphony N o. 4, 2nd mvt.
Molto allegro Andante
p V in s. _____________ Vln.1

f giL ' >

Casals w o u ld counsel a string section w hich was, b y any normal
T h ere w as hardly a rehearsal w hen Casals w o u ld not draw standard, already producing a beautiful tone: U se m ore b o w and
attention to a note w hich stands alone or at the end o f a phrase, take carc not to press n the string. T h e sonority w o u ld enter
and enhance its livin g quality b y means o f a dim inuendo. In so into a n ew realm o f loveliness, touched b y an ethereal tran-
doing, he seemed to relate music in a natural w a y to the silence quility.
w hich surrounds it. C asals b o w w as alw ays the servant o f the music, never its
T h e tone colorations w hich Casals elicited w ith his b o w carne master. B e honest, he w ou ld say. D o not put m ore into the
from an uncanny intuitive perception o f the particular quality o f music than the music itself contains. W h en a talented youn g
sonority appropriate to every shading o f atmosphere in a com - cellist, p layin g the Locatelli D m ajor Sonata in a class, indulged
position. It w as largely b y means o f m asterly interplay am ong the in a dazzling display o f upbo w staccato strokes:
three b o w in g factors w hich influence the production o f tone -
Ex. 197a
the speed at w hich the b o w is draw n, the degree o f pressure ex-
erted upon the string, the position o f the b o w betw een bridge A lle g ro ______
and fingerboard that Casals was able to capture the distinctive
essence o f each mood.
H e began the Schum ann C oncert (see E x . 33) w ith a sen- X>
sitive, open sonority, characterized b y lon g, rapidly flo w in g
bow s and an avoidance o f excessive pressure. B y w a y o f contrast, Casals suggested a b o w in g w hich did not produce a m achine-
w hen announcing the theme o f the second m ovem ent o f the like virtuosity, but w hich allow ed the notes to speak w ith all
D v o k C oncert (see E x . 14 ), he d rew his b o w m ore slo w ly, their grace and charm .1
closer to the bridge, producing a denser and m ore concentrted
Ex. 197b
tone.
In orchestral music w here finest transparency o f sOund is called
for, as in E xs. 195 and 196:

Ex. 195 Beethoven: Symphony N o. 2, 2nd mvt. t P grazioso m p)

Larghetto
1While Casals bowing indications could sometimes look complex (e.g. slurring
Vln.1 r across bar Unes to avoid accents, detaching certain quick notes in lyric passages to
enhance articulation), their execution, in his hands, sounded natural and simple.
122 C A S A L S A N D TH E A RT OF IN T E R R R E T A T IO N IN SIG H T S FOR S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 12 3

Casals gave cise attention to the manner o f executing chords. N o te, in B a r 2 above, that the middle voiee (E ) is fu lly sustained;
H e avoided the com m only heard divisin o f three or four part it supports the m odulation to the chord o f F. Later in this m ove-
chords into consecutive groupings on tw o strings. W e must hear ment, the middle voiee takes over the m elodic line; consequently,
the bass, he said, as the root o f the harm ony . . .. I f w e p lay the the upper note is released first.
bass and the fifth together, the sonority o f the accom panying Ex. 199
note overshadow s the bass. T h is is a barbarous tradition.
Furtherm ore, as the turn o f the b o w does not allo w the con
tinuacin o f the sonority o f the bass, w e must m ake the bass
sound as much as possible; otherwise it w ill be fo rgo tten . 1 Thus
the bass should be played first, fo llo w ed b y the other notes, the
T h e texture o f each chord w ill be determined b y the character
m iddle vo iee sustained until the upper note has sounded. T ak e,
o f the given piece. Casals taught that the chords in the sarabandes
for instance, the Sarabande from B a c h s T h ird C e llo Suite:
from the B ach suites should be played lo w in g ly and singingly
Ex. 198a w ith a resonance similar to that o f a strummed lute. Y e t they
must never im pede the rhythm ic continuity. (H e admonished a
student w h o took too much time o ver the lo w er notes, N o t so
co m fo rtab ly! ) T h e consecutive d o w n b o w chords in the opening
theme o f the D vo r k Concert were, h o w ever, not to be broken;
they w ere to be incisively accented and rhythm ically vital.
( H ere it is not necessary to draw all the b o w . )
Casals w ou ld not p la y these chords as follow s:
Ex. 198b
T h ere are one hundred things to say about the trill, Casals
A B C observed; I could talk on this subject for one h o u r. From among
_ rt - - /& - ^ the numerous factors w hich affect the perform ance o f a trill, I

but as indicated b e lo w :
P have noted b elo w some musical considerations to w hich Casals
made frequent reference.

Ex. 198c A trill should express the atmosphere o f its musical setting.
In a slo w m ovem ent the trills must not be too rapid.
A B
A s w ith other long notes, a long trill should not remain on
J~1J one dynam ic level. In general w e must m ake a crescendo or a
dim inuendo.
l------ 1 T h e beginning o f a trill w ill usually receive an accent.
1 By this he did not imply (except in rare instances) a percussive attack, but rather, a T h e specific character o f each trill must be ascertained. For
full, singing stroke. exam ple, in the opening m ovement o f the D vo r k Concert,
12 4 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N IN SIGH TS FOR ST RI NG P L A Y ER S 125

Casals advised that the first four trills should be accented f p ; In this case he began on the principal note (D) w hich was
Th en you are heard through the orchestra. T h e subsequent w ell pronounced before the commencement o f the trill,
trills are to be played w ith sustained tone; T h e y are a m elody thereby preserving the interval o f the seventh.
as espressivo as possible. W h en the termination consists o f tw o w ritten notes (a
E x. 200 turned ending), the trill is to be continued throughout the en
A lle g ro tire note.
tp9r bQr * ^ r r r
Ex. 202 Bach: Solo Cello Suite No. 2, Sarabande
TT~ .......M -------------
#
- O ......

fZ P creso, f
(f P fP fp fP ) (m olto espr.)
W h en played at normal pitch, the upper note o f a trill tends
to sound a little fat, since the rapid finger m otion prevents one
W h en the termination consists o f a single note, the trill is to
from exerting adequate pressure on the string. B y w a y o f
be stopped on its last m ain beat at w hich moment an accent is
com pensation, the upper note should be placed a shade sharp, to be given to the principal note. Such a trill must have tw o
increasingly so w hen the trill gains in speed. This holds true for accents: one w hen it begins, the other w hen it leads to the next
w hole-tone and semitone trills, the latter constituting an ex- note. O therw ise it is coid; something is lacking. T h ere is no
ception to the rule that semitones must be played cise rhythm .
together. It is better - much better - i f yo u trill a little too
h igh ; then it w ill sound in tune. Exs. 203a & b Bach: Solo Cello Suite No. 2, Menuet
In reference to the perform ance o f the baroque trill, C asals
As w r itte n : As in te rp re te d :
teaching was as foliow s:
G enerally, the trill should begin on the upper note (on the
beat). Exceptions occur in the fo llo w in g instances:
W h en the note im m ediately preceding the trill is identical
w ith the upper note, in w hich case it is, as a rule, preferable Casals trilled in free rhythms, not in strict mathematical
to avoid the repetition. divisions.
W hen the m elodic line becomes an overrid ing consider- A b o ve all, Casals w o u ld want us to rem em ber that the trill,
ation as, for instance, in the second m ovem ent o f B a c h s like other ornaments, brings exaltation to a note.
Sixth Brandenburg C oncert:
Ex. 201

Adagio ma non tanto Casals w ou ld often m ake use o f glissandi in places w here m any
present-day cellists do not. (He used the term glissattdo to denote
the audible expressive slide sometimes referred to as portamento.)
H a lf a century ago, glissandi m ay have been over-used, tending
towards the mannerism w hich w e n o w associate w ith the caf
126 CASALS AND THE ART OF IN T E R PR E T A T IO N INSIGH TS FOR STRIN G PLAYERS 127

violinist. In our objective ag e , h o w ever, w e have com e full Insisting upon the preservation o f good taste, Casals rarely per-
circle, reverting to the drier outlook o f a yet earlier era the late mitted consecutive glissandi; he cautioned against m aking tw o in
nineteenth century w hen such excess w as o f the devil. Casals, opposite directions w ithin a space o f thre notes.
o f course, never hesitated to fo llo w his intuition in such matters. O ne o f the ch ie f merits o f a glissando is its ability to lend ex-
D o n t be afraid o f the glissando, he w o u ld say. W here a pressive variety to the repetition o f a phrase.
glissando is natural w e must do it. W h at is natural is alw ays Ex. 206 H aydn: Cello Concert in D major, ist m vt.
g o o d . 1
Alteara moderato
O ne must listen to Casals recordings to realize h o w exquisite
the glissando can be as an article o f refinement. Infinitely variable f t i r r - i 'T j .
in tim ing, speed, distance, direction, intensity, coloration in
Casals hands it could reflect any one o f a thousand nuances o f
mood. Despite the passage o f time, Casals glissandi retain artistic Ex. 207 Brahms: Cello Sonata in E minor, ist m vt.
validity, p roviding inspiration fo r future generations o f string Allegro non troppo
players. <1 <-'< r )L> -
2.
A t the conclusin o f the third m ovem ent o f B a c h s First B
Gam ba Sonata, Casals considered the glissando to be the in p do/ce
dispensable bridge leading from the lon g sustained note to the
impassioned outcry w ith w h ich the m ovem ent terminates. T h e placement and direction o f a glissando m ay be varied w hen a
phrase is repeated.1
Ex. 204
4) Ex. 208 D vorak: Cello Concedo, ist m vt.
Andante
Allegro
^ 0 ?' i (3
UPP
IT~ n r . =
creso, poco a poco /
I*
Tff M- ) 4 *
(V ___

H e urged his students not to hesitate to m ake a glissando in the

11
(poco) (piu)
opening cello statement from B eeth o ven s D m ajor Sonata. T h e
glissando is natural from the lo w note to the high. Its so tender, V e ry occasionally, too, he w ou ld allo w a glissando in
so beautful so hu m an ! orchestral music, as in the first m ovem ent o f M ozarts Sym phony
Ex. 205 N o . 40:
Ex. 209

1In his revisin o f cello fingering he had obviated as far as possible the need to make
glissandi for purely technical reasons. 1 See also Exs. 50, 5 and 162.
12 8 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N 1NSIGHTS FOR STRING PLAYERS 129

I f w e sing it w e shall do a glissando! he w o u ld often exclaim . the string in advance, at the instant o f b o w contact he w ou ld
A n d indeed his usage in this respect paralleled the art o f such reinforce the resonance b y plucking the string w ith a free finger
great singers as Elisabeth Schumann and Lotte Lehm ann. N o w - o f the left hand.1 T h e vitalizing effect o f left-hand pizzicato is o f
adays certain singers prefer to abstain from this means o f ex- particular benefit to open strings; it compensates for the lack o f
pression. I must leave it to the reader to consider w hether this is a finger percussion, as in the Prelude to B a ch s T h ird C ello
gain or a loss for art. Suite:

W hen the percussion o f the finger puts the string in Ex. 210
vibration, the sound comes easily; i f the string is not put in vib ra-
tion it is m uch m ore dificult to have a clean sound. T h is concept
was one o f C asals m ajor contributions to the art o f cello playin g.
H e encouraged the practice o f scales or other passages w ith out the
use o f the b o w ; the notes w ere to be distinctly enunciated b y
means o f the left hand alone, so as to strengthen the articulative
p o w er o f the fingers. W h en playin g ascending passages, he held These com bined finger/bow actions require skilful coordina-
the fm gers o f his left hand high, y e t reposed, in a naturally tion, but in this Casals w as not lacking.
rounded position. Th en, backed b y the w eigh t o f the arm , they C o n trary to the traditional idea that the fingers o f the left hand
w ere th row n dow n w ith lan, striking against the string per- should, as much as possible, be kept dow n upon the string to
cussively, im m ediately after w hich and this is an im portant ec'onomize m ovem ent, Casals found that the forc thus required
point the pressure w as released, the fingers once again becom - to maintain the unused fingers on the string strains the hand un-
ing supple. T h e finger action w as akin to that o f a fallin g m allet, necessarily. H e recomm ended playing the piano on the cello
but a m allet w ith a rubber head, ensuring its resilience upon im - norm ally releasing one finger when the next was placed dow n,
pact. W h en playing descending passages, each finger w ould thereby allo w in g the left hand to remain flexible, each finger
leave the string w ith a slight sidew ard m ovem ent resulting in (especially th w eaker third and fourth) functioning at optimum
a quasi-pizzicato, thus givin g the next note a clear strength.
beginning. T h e difficulty o f p layin g the cello, for those w h o are not con-
It w as a distinguishing feature o f C asals art that he used the versant in it, said B a rb iro lli, is the enormous distances you have
percussion o f the fingers as a constant principie. In a slo w m ove to travel . . . . Casals had a command o f the instrument that has
ment such as that o f the Boccherin i B b m ajor C o ncert (see E x . never been kn ow n before or since . . . w hich almost annihilated
35) w here m any players tend to touch lazily upon the string, distance. In his fundam ental revisin o f cello fingerin g Casals had
Casals fingers imparted vitality to every note. introduced a revolution ary series o f extensions w hich rendered
N o t least did the left hand jo in in enhancing the resonance o f a m any shifts obsolete and, at the same time, opened n ew expressive
first note. O ften, at the beginning o f a phrase, C asals finger
w ou ld strike vibrantly upon the string simultaneously w ith the 1The initial cello entry in the Dvok Concert (see Ex. 172) is a case in point, the
b o w stroke. O n other occasions, his finger being positioned on first note (B) being played with the first finger, the left-hand pizzicato with the fourth.
 ' 'J
.
C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E 'T A T IO N
vTN"
130
IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 131
VW.v. '
possibilities in fin g erin g .1 These extensions, he observed, Ex. 212a Bach: Solo Cello Suite No. $, Prelude
should be practised in such a w a y that the m xim um result can W 'iV
be attained w ith the least possible contraction o f the m uscles. H e
endeavoured, w h erever possible, to maintain the suppleness o f
the hand. T ake, for instance, the fo llo w in g passage from the
opening m ovem ent o f B a ch s Fourth Suite, w here several exten
sions (x) are required w ithin the space o f a single bar:

Ex. 211
Prelude Casals w a y was to release the first and third fingers after they
1 P ; xx; i * * , , had played. T h e first finger was then lifted into the air, hovering
above the fourth finger (C ) before darting upon the D . The
..... ^ change o f position w as executed q uickly and cleanly w ith no
trace o f glissando:
T h e finger (w hether the first or fourth) m aking the extensin Ex. 212b
w ou ld not be stretched parallel to the string so as to place strain
on the tendons; rather, it w ou ld be raised upwards, above its nor
mal position on the string, ready to dart upon the intended note
simultaneously w ith the release o f the finger w h ich had played
the previous note. This b rie f exam ple provides an insight into
Casals typical procedure w hich, w hen observed consistently
throughout a m ovem ent such as the above prelude, w as o f in raised into the
dispensable valu in producing a vibrant sound, w h ile sparing the a ir ready to dart
hand sustained tensin and muscular fatigue.
A cco rd in g to the tradition w hich dictates that the fingers W h ile Casals stressed the importance o f achieving m xim um
should be kept d ow n on the string, the change o f position re independence o f all the fingers, he w o u ld not hesitate to recom -
quired in the fo llo w in g exam ple is to be made b y sliding the first mend the use o f the innately stronger fingers w hen they could,
finger (w hich has rem ained in place on the A | ) up the string to w ith musical validity, replace the w eaker; for instance, he
the D : preferred to begin the Saint-Saens A minor Concert w ith the
second rather than the fourth finger. I suffer w hen I see a fo r-
1 In the first four positions he would frequently replace the traditional 1, 3,4 finger
tissimo w ith a fourth finger* he told a student playing the Finale
ing with 1, 2, 3, thus keeping the hand open and fluent. N ot only are the second and o f Brahm s E m inor Sonata. Y o u unnecessarily tire your hand.
third fingers stronger, but they lie naturally near to one another when the hand is in W h en yo u can use the strong fingers, dont use the others. Th e
repose.
cello is so difficult to p la y , he w ould say, that w e must m ake use
132- C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 133 -

o f every natural facility . . .. W e never gain anything b y tryin g possible opportunity to relax the hand during the course o f a
to do things against nature. perform ance, even fo r the duration o f a semiquaver.
For technical reasons, most string players occasionally adopt H is playin g seemed so simple. His movements w ere natural
fingerings w hich do not do justice to the musical content, each and harmonous. W h en correcting a students distorted bow
such case representing, to some degree, a m om entary loss o f grip he com mented: W h at is ugly is bad; w hat is beautiful is
artistic integrity. Gasals w as uncom prom ising in this respect. He g o o d . E v e ry gesture he made seemed inevitable, no more and no
persistently sought and inevitably found fingerings w h ich fu lly less than the music demanded. It was absolutely extraordinary to
served the expressive requirements. Convencional finger patterns hear Casals play his cello in his eighties and nineties. H e retained
w ere discarded i f they did not suit the contour o f the phrase. his control and suppleness to a remarkable degree; his b o w was
W hen w ishing to change to an adjacent position on the same d raw n straight as an arrow . H e credited his ease in playin g to a
string, Casals v e ry often made the shift via a semitone, using one feeling o f repose emanating from the centre o f his body w hich
finger for both notes.' These semitone shifts w ere like the rungs brought the m ovem ent o f the extremities into natural in-
o f a ladder, perm itting him to m ove up and d o w n the string tegration. Th is im age was very much his ow n and highly in-
unobtrusively. tuitive; it derived from no preconceived thery. A ll the same, it
Fingerings had alw ays to be adaptable to the exacting is o f interest to note that w hat others m ay seek through the prac-
demands o f expressive intonation. F o r exam ple, in the cellos tice o f certain exercises in Y o g a , Casals experienced instinctively.
upper register, w here finger space is limited, Casals ensured the
intonation o f semitones by shifts o f a single finger. A typical ex T h e B ergo n zi-G o friller cello w hich Casals played upon w as an
am ple is found in the cello statement o f the theme o f the L argo eighteenth-century instrument o f fine quality; to such an extern
from B eeth ovens T rip le C oncert (the brackets denote diatonic does one associate it w ith the distinctive sonority o f Casals that it
semitones): is difficult to accord it a purely objective evaluation. It is know n,
how ever, that Casals resisted the temptation to obtain various
Ex. 213 m arvellous instruments w hich w ere available to him. H e ex-
Largo I---- 1 1 1 r - plained that he did not wish to play on a cello possessing an over-

piis
(1 I ? 2 2 2 w helm ing personality o f its ow n. H e preferred not to succumb to
m the allure o f a too readily enchanting sonority. I recall the plight
w
o f a violinist friend o f mine w ho ow n ed a beautiful A m ati; on
molto cantabite sfx>
being offered a costly Stradivarius, he almost suffered a nervous
breakdow n because he could not raise the m oney and thought his
A s his interpretation o f a given w o rk w as alw ays e vo lvin g and
career was ruined. For Casals, the limitations o f his instrument
not irrevocably fixed , fingerings, like bow ings, w ere subject to
w ere, in fact, an artistic necessity: I w ant to have to fight fo r m y
change, responding to the dictates o f spontaneous inspiration.
expression.
Casals alw ays stressed the im portance o f avoiding rigid ity o f
hand or b o w arm. H e gave cise attention to finding every
Casals abjured the tendency found so frequently today among
1 i.e., cleanly articulated movements, not slides. string players to produce at all costs a beautiful tone in which
134 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N INSIGHTS FOR STRING PLAYERS 135

each note, regardless o f its place w ithin a com position, must, b y but tranquil draw in g o f the b o w w ou ld initiate a quiet motion,
dint o f reassuring vibrato, be certain o f its ability to w in friends relaxed and supple, the m ovem ent o f the finger being so narrow
and influence people.' So often vibrato w ill be taught as a skill in o f breadth that the listener could not perceive any varance from
itself w ith attention given to its technical basis rather than to its the centre o f pitch. A s i f prote.cted b y an inner w isdom w hich
interpretative relevance. A n aesthetic principie is thus acquired cautioned have the courage to say just enough but not too
w ithout its being related to the aesthetic material w hich is not m uch , his vibrato lent warm th and vibrancy to the tone w hile
tone as an abstract phenomenon, but tone as it mirrors the yet allo w in g it to retain its serenity.1
dynam ic process o f change in a w o rk o f art. V ib rato in itself Casals discretion in the application o f vibrato w as anything
cannot be expressive, Casals has said, because that depends on but anti-expressive. It derived from an openness o f heart to the
h o w it is applied. The vibrato is a means o f expressing sensitivity, quality o f innocence, allo w in g him to begin the fo llo w in g pieces
but it is not a p ro o f o f it.
sim ply:
T h e m anner in w hich Casals translated this axiom into artistic
expression w as unique. Casals conception o f sonority reflected Ex. 214 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in C major, ist m vt.

the inner attributes o f the man him self - his harm onious feeling Andante
for nature, his deep sense o f repose. H e trusted w here others are
reticent to trust. W h en you hear all the time a beautiful vibrato
w ell, you ve had enough! A big vib rato in an energetic forte
w onderful! . . . but the sound w ithout vibrato is very beautiful dolce cantabile
also, particularly in piano and pianissim o. B e care fu l, he told a
Ex. 215 Brahms: Cello Sonata in F major, Finale
student w h o had perform ed the opening bars o f B a c h s First
Gam ba Sonata, you p lay so w ell, but yo u r vibrato is too fast. Innocently, like a childrens song.
Th is is a pastorale, a simple, lo v e ly thing. Y o u r vibrato doesnt
Allegro molto
go w ith that. For certain passages he w o u ld counsel: In
pianissimo vibrato is too sweet; it is not good taste. 2
H e asked his students to remem ber, w hen p layin g sonatas, that
the piano is an instrument w ithout vibrato. In passages w here the
string player has an accom panying voice, he must be sparing in
his use o f vibrato. It was conditioned b y a sense o f musical line w hich forbade the
W h en a passage, though yet in piano, required lyric inten- flattering o f a single npte out o f context. It served to expand the
sification, Casals left hand in intmate response to the spacious
1 A word should be added on the width of the vibrato. Casals advised cellists that the
Once, in Los Angeles, I heard a performance of Bachs B minor Mass in which an motion o f the finger should be subtly directed towards the sharp side o f pitch. He con-
eminent virtuoso condescended to play the solo violin part. Early in the Laudamus Te sidered a vibrato which oscillates between the sharp and fat sides o f pitch to be too
he miscounted, yet he carried on, apparently oblivious to the resultant cacophony. In wide and therefore disagreeable to the ear. It should be noted that Casals intensified his
the morning s press the catastrophic error passed unnoticed, but the soloist was vibrato primarily by contracting its width, secondarily by increasing its speed. Register
heralded for his legendary beauty of tone. plays a role as well, the width o f the vibrato being greater in the lower register than in
2The natural expiration o f a phrase often require.s a decrease in vibrato so as the upper.
not to sustain an artificial level o f tensin.
 CASALS AND BACH 139

O ne thing is certain: this Bach tradition , w hich looms over

our heads like an ominous cloud, never derived from B ach or
CHAPTER V I from those w h o k n ew him. Indeed, just after B a ch s death his
music fell into virtual eclipse. T h e em ergence o f the hom o-
C ASALS A N D B A C H phonic style o f com position had coincided w ith the closing
years o f the masters life. It was the n ew artistic ideal that music
must henceforth throw o f f the shackles o f contrapuntal restraint;
Bach is forever and nobody, nobody w ill reach the greatness and the even B a ch s sons carne to regard their fathers art as something to
profoundness and the diversity o f Bach. be relegated to the otm oded past. N o t on ly did B ach s manner
o f interpreting his o w n w orks fade from m em ory but no more
than a handful o f his scores were available in print. A lthough a
h er e are tw o w ays o f disliking art, w rote O scar W ilde. small number o f musicians among them, the amazed M ozart

T O ne is to dislike it. T h e other, to like it ration ally. It is

doubtful w hether masterpieces produced b y any other great artist
have been liked rationally to such an extent as the music o f Bach.
perceived the genius o f these compositions, B a ch s music w as, for
the most part, ignored or forgotten. It w as left to the enthusiastic
young Mendelssohn to lead the Bach revival b y directing, in
M an y years ago, w hen I w as attending the Ju illiard School 1829, the first perform ance o f the St. M atthew Passion since the
o f M usic, a lecturer a w ell-kn o w n A m erican com poser in- com posers death. Y e t it was not until the latter part o f the nine-
form ed his students that the music o f B ach is not beautiful; its in- teenth century that the volumes o f the B ach Gesellschaft edition
terest resides exclu sively in its structural co m p lexity. W h ile few began to m ake their appearance, eliciting from Brahm s the asser-
o f us w ou ld share so extrem e a v ie w , it is not uncom m on for tion that the tw o most significant events o f his lifetim e w ere the
musicians to stand aw a y from the music o f Bach, shy o f too cise founding o f the Germ n Em pire and the publication o f B a ch s
a personal participation. W ith Beethoven or Brahm s one can let com plete w orks.
oneself g o , but B ach is accorded such profound respect that our Perform ances became m ore frequent; yet they w ere encum-
feelings tend to be left b y the w ayside. T h e result is an em o- bered b y fundamental misapprehensions. A t a time w hen the
tional paralysis w hich denies to B a ch s art a sense o f vital re- w orld o f music was passionately divided betw een pro- and anti-
creation at the moment o f interpretation. W e w o u ld never W agnerians, comprehension o f B ach s art was distorted, as
dream o f treating Beethoven in such a manner or Shakes A lbert Schw eitzer tells us, by the n arrow definition o f the
peare. Im agine a perform ance o f the E ro ica divested o f impas- classical that w as put forw ard in opposition to the W agnerian
sioned involvem ent, or o f H am let in w hich the actors confined style . . . T h e conservative party maintained that true classical
their expression to w hat they considered the stylistic decorum music should concern itself only w ith perfect form and the ex
appropriate to the Danish court! W hen w e are pleased enough to pression o f indefinite feeling, and prove its true greatness hy
perform Bach w ith an ob je ctivity o f mind rem oved from heart, avoiding drastic tne-painting and far-reaching poetic preten-
let us not believe that w e are carryin g out the intention o f the sions . . . This thoughtless and polem ical attitude w as account-
C antor o f St. Thom as a man w h o could w rite Jesu , J o y o f able for people not tryin g to find the real Bach, and this just at
M a n s D esirin g and yet, w hen enraged, did not hesitate to draw the time w hen his w orks were at last made accessible to the
his sw ord in the Street. w o rld .
138
 I3<5 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 137
dimensin o f expression, leaving greater room for the develop-
Casals responds w ith a delicate increase in the intensity o f
ment o f intensity and diversity o f tone colour. vibrato; the b o w is n o w drawn m ore rapidly (closer to the
Casals once asked a gifted student to practise a slow m ovem ent fingerboard) and floats w ith the gentlest o f pressure. T h e trans-
o f B ach for a w eek w ithout the use o f vibrato in order to form ation is subtle but crucial. T h e tone o f his cello, singing to
appreciate the range o f tonal beauty and refinem ent o f nuance us yet m ore softly, is n o w imbued w ith consoling tenderness.
w hich can be attained b y means o f the b o w alone. T h e student C asals vibrato w as alw ays receptive but never supera
soon realized to w hat extent he had neglected the expressive ordinate to the form ulating activity o f the b o w . It could invest
capacity o f the b o w . W h en he resumed the vibrato, his left hand, a forte w ith ardent passion while not im pinging upon the free,
freed from the larg e ly automatic response it had hitherto know n, soaring p o w er o f the tone.
assumed its rightful role, that o f w o rk in g together w ith the b o w In keeping w ith his conception o f pellucid sonority Casals did
in Creative partnership. not shy aw a y from open strings w hich he sometimes made use
C asals recording o f the A d agio from B eeth oven s last cello o f even in expressive melodies.
sonata provides an exam ple o f the w a y in w hich this Creative
Ex. 218 D vo k : Cello Concert, ist m vt.
partnership is related to the evolution o f m eaning w ith in a w o rk .
This m ovem ent begins in D m inor; the com posers m arking is Allegro
m ezza voce. Reference has already been made to C asals visin o f
this piece: a m arch . . . a funeral m arch . H is sonority spare in
vibrato - takes on the intimate quality o f a hum an voice (v n>
chastened b y sorrow , w hich speaks in solitude o f a g rie f veiled
dolce e molto sostenuto
(mjy>
from the eyes o f the w orld.
H e asked his cello students not to use the m ore opaque D string
Ex. 216 for those passages, especially in forte, w hich w ou ld benefit from
the candid quality o f the A string.
Adagio con molto sentimento d'affetto Th ose w ho heard Casals play w ill forever be haunted b y the
quintessential purity o f his tone. T h ere w as a ring, like that o f
some exquisite bell, w hich emanated from the centre o f every
note he played. His immaculate intonation, inspired b o w arm,
vitality o f finger and taste in vibrato w ere contributing elements.
A t B a r 25, the tonality passes into m ajor; Beethoven indicates Y e t his tone was m ore than the sum o f these parts. In its
dolce. frankness and clarity it seemed the v e ry m aterial embodiment o f
the openness o f the m ans spirit, the testament o f his faith in his
Ex. 217
com m union w ith music. A ll beauty was concentrated at the es-
sence, requiring no extraneous effort tow ards loveliness. It
revealed that stage o f achievement w hich A lfred Einstein has
referred to as the second sim plicity . . . a fullness in b re v ity , the
attainment o f the great masters.

II
14 0 , C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N CASALS A N D B A C H 14 1

C oupled w ith this misplaced theory o f aesthetics w as a one- tian Bach. It was the decisive artistic encounter o f his life. N o n e
dimensional v ie w o f the religious aspect o f B a ch s art. The o f his teachers had ever mentioned the existence o f these w orks,
spiritual element in his music w as seized upon on ly to be but the you n g cellist intuitively sensed their greatness. H e began
relegated to a sanctified dom ain w here it w as held fast b y the to p lay these suites w ith indescribable excitem ent, studying
chains o f overzealous piety. For Bach, h o w ever, spirit is not con- them fo r tw elve years before daring to perform one in public.
fined to the reverential solem nity o f Sunday m editation; it is an T h e compositions for solo cello, as for solo violin, had shared in
original experience, fresh and immediate, w hich springs to life in the general neglect o f B a ch s music; it w as a rarity w hen a single
music, seeking therein the expression o f a hundred different m ovem ent from one o f these w orks w as included in a concert.
m oods, delighting in a w ealth o f im agery. It can be a spontaneous, W h en , at the turn o f the century, Casals presented to the public a
a most effervescent thing, like the opening o f a cham pagne suite in its entirety w ith all repeats, not on ly the fact o f his per
bottle. It seemed on ly prudent to protect ones preconceptions form ance but the manner o f his interpretation w as considered
from such disturbing nd challenging elements b y forcin g the revolutionary.
cork back into the bottle or, indeed, b y leaving the bottle un- Casals recounted: W h en I played the Suites fo r C ello A lon e, for
opened on the shelf. W hen, rarely enough, the cantatas w ere per-
the first time in G erm any, the purists said that this w as not Bach,
form ed, the v iv acity o f their musical language w as hairdly recog- and the others said that it was a real discovery. N o w the B ach at
nizable, a static, all-purpose spirituality having been super- that time was played like an exercise, w ithout any real musical
imposed upon the livin g manifestation o f the com posers faith. m eaning. T h ey w ere afraid to put something in it; they w ere
W ritin g in 1890, G eorge Bernard Sh aw recalled a perform afraid! A n d even n o w , m any o f the artists o f today are afraid to
ance o f the B m inor Mass w hich the B ach C h o ir had given in p lay B ach because they have accepted the bad theory that the
honour o f the com posers bicentenary. T h e w o rk , s far as it music o f Bach is ob jective . Bach w as thought o f as a professor
carne to light at all, loom ed dim ly and hu gely through a gloom y, w ho k n ew very w ell his counterpoint and fugue - and nothing
comfortless atmosphere o f stolid aw kw ardness and anxiety. T h e else. Th at n arrow w a y o f explaining B ach v ery sad! Bach the
effect the slow m ovem ents w o u ld make i f executed w ith delicacy H err Professor he has every feeling: lo vely, tragic, dramatic,
o f touch and depth o f expression, and o f the quick ones i f taken in poetic . . . alw ays soul and heart and expression. H o w he enters
the true B ach m ajor m ood, energetic, spontaneous, vivid , into the most profound o f ourselves! Let us find that B a c h .
jubilant, was left to the im agination o f the audience; and I fear
that for the most part they rather declined to take it on trust. A ll
this can be rem edied b y the B ach choristers i f they stick at it, and T h e first thing w e must understand w hen playin g the cello suites,
are led w ith sufficient faith and courage. T h ere is m ore reason Casals w ou ld explain, is that, as w ith the partitas for violin
than ever for persevering w ith their task at present; fo r Bach and fo r keyboard, the prelude gives the character to the w hole
belongs, not to the past, but to the future - perhaps the near w o rk . Each dance reflects in its ow n w a y the atmosphere o f the
future. opening m ovem ent. A fundamental m ood o f optim ism prevails
In the year in w hich Sh aw w rote this article, P ablo Casals, in the First Suite, in the T h ird Suite w ith its heroic prelude, and
then a boy o f thirteen, discovered in a second-hand m usic shop in in the Sixth Suite w hich begins w ith a hunting scene. A tragic
Barcelona the S ix Suites for V iolon cello Solo b y Jo han n Sebas- feelin g is evident throughout the Second Suite: T h at Bach D
I-P CASALS A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N CASALS A N D BAC H 143

minor w on derful; h o w expressive it is never one note co id . Ex. 220

T h e beginning o f the Fifth Suite in C m inor is dark, dramatic,
Allemande
threatening: Tempestuous, that is B ach ; B ach is passionate,
passionate! Casals once told a student that he felt in the C m inor f f " 0 f f f~ ?^ ,*
Sarabande (see E x . 17 1) a depiction o f the W a y o f the Cross. asi
W hen teching the Prelude to the Fourth Suite, Casals liken edthe (f
sound o f the quavers to the effect produced b y playin g the pedis
o f a great o rg an .1

Ex. 219

H e gave great importance to the understanding o f the har

T h e subsequent movements are also conceived on a large scale: monio context o f each note. For instance, in Bars 56 o f the
T h e Allem ande is not grazioso it is a big thin g.2 above exam ple, w here a modulation leads from G m ajor to E
As w ith other composers o f his era, B ach supervised the per m inor, he drew attention to the A at the beginning o f B a r 5, this
formances o f his o w n music and could assume that his contem - being the first note o f the change o f harm ony; one imagines one
poraries w o ld understand his intentions. H e therefore left little hears the D # already sounding as the bass. H ere, he explained,
in his scores to guide us in the w a y o f interpretation. Casals as is generally the case w here there is a m odulation, the first note
w ou ld com m ent, T h ey alw ays say p lay w hat is w ritten but needs a little elongation: This gives the character o f rubato
there is nothing w ritten ! It thus becomes a fundamental challenge w hich is not a rubato which is v e ry agreeable. W e must not
to the interpreter to find the design. Casals w o u ld outline to his hear one note after another like a m achine. W hen com ing to the
students h o w the dynam ic inflections should fo llo w the rise and
fall o f the m elodic contour.3 For exam ple, in the A llem ande from interval o f the diminished seventh: he pointed
the First Suite: H o w it sings its not like an exercise. Its a
m elody. W e must shape the phrases in a natural w a y . to the expressive valu o f the C leading from the D # to the B ;
* When Casals played this prelude, he varied the main points of expressive accentu- this w as not to be considered as an inconsequential passing note.
ation within each bar in accordance with the changing melodic and harmonio implica- Y o u see w h y it is necessary to m ake a profound study.
tions, thereby bringing constant interest to the pattern o f quavers.
Casals frequently d rew attention to an extraordinary feature o f
2Where Bach has changed the mode from major to minor (or vice versa) within a
given suite, a contrast in mood is indicated. This occurs in the Menuet H from both the this music: It is fantastic to think that w ith one note after the
First and Second Suites and in the Bourre II from the Third Suite. other there can be m elody, the central voices and the bass all
s See Chapter II. together. A w onderful polyphony and this is an invention o f
144 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N CASALS AND BACH 14 5

Bach. W e h ave to give the proper expression to each v o ic e . W hen perform ing the Courante from the T h ird Suite, Casals
W h en teaching the Bou rre from the T h ird Suite, Casals w ould lightened the texture o f the descending arpeggios b y playing
first p lay .the essential m elodic line and then demnstrate h o w the them o f f the string in diminuendo. T h e purists are scandalized
lo w er notes (indicated b y the brackets b elo w the staff) serve as because I do that, he said, adding sardonically: because it seems
com plem ent and bass ; i f they are given an im portance equal to it seems that in B a ch s time staccato didnt exist. B u t don t be
that o f the upper part, they become a repetition w hich harms the afraid.
m elod y . H e further differentiated these textures b y playin g the
lo w er quavers w ith spiccato b o w strokes so as to have variety E x. 223-
colou r .
Ex. 221

T h at s beautiful, isnt it? W ell, i f its beautiful, its good. 1

B ach was the greatest colourist! Casals w ou ld exclaim . H e
S im ilarly, in the Prelude to the Fifth Suite, he w o u ld elucidate loved colour. In the first prelude from the W ell-T em pered
the p olyphonic structure. A ll the entrances o f this subject - in C lavier he begins w ith on ly arpeggios but w hat colour!
piano, m ezzo forte or forte - must retain this feelin g (o f linear Casals had often to remind his students that in each m ovem ent
p olyphony). o f these suites (excepting the preludes) B ach conveys this full
range o f expression through the mdium o f dance. Sturdy,
E x. 222
robust, the natural rhythm ic accents w ell m arked, the dance
character o f these movements is not m erely figurative but literal.
In Casals perform ance, most o f these courantes, menuets,
bourres, gavottes and gigues could w ell have started feet tap-
ping o n any village green.2 W h en teaching the G igue from the
T h ird Suite: Th is must g ive jo y to everyone w h o hears it. N o
form ality. Rustic there is no place for niceness.

1 As was often the case, Casals, by trusting his intuition, carne to conclusions which
were later supported by musicological research. It is now khown that staccato and spic
cato bowings were employed by such eighteenth-century virtuosi as Tartini and
Geminiani. As early as 1687 Jean Rousseau, in his Traite de la Viole, refers to the fre-
quent use of rebounding bow strokes which are called ricochets .
J Casals emphasized that within each suite there should be variety from one dance
tempo to the next.
 14 6 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N CASALS AND BACH 147

Ex. 224 Ex. 225

E ven the slowest and most m editative m ovem ent, the sara-
bande, w as not to be entirely divorced from its rhythm ic origin.
H e began w ith a vigorous upbeat, absolutely in tempo. The
A sarabande is not a rom ance or an adagio; it is a Spanish dance
dow nbeat w as then m arked w ith a decisive accent o f the b o w :
w hich used to be perform ed in the churches and is still danced in
B ite the strin g! T h e dance was thus born to rhythm ic life, the
S e v illa . Casals w o u ld indcate the steady, measured gait o f the first beat o f each bar receivin g the prim ary accent; the third beat,
three crotchets in a bar, explaining, W e must not be lost be-
a secondary stress. Casals asked that the upbeat be played on the
tw een one beat and another.
string w ith sustained tone. This fo r tw o reasons: It is the first
Students often try to fo llo w Casals in his variety o f inlection
note, w hich means the beginning o f a m elo d y ; and, w hen the
w ith out keeping in m ind his insistence upon rhythm ic con-
upbeat is played tenuto, the staccato in the subsidiary voice (the
tinuity. R ubato, yes - but within the bar, w ithout upsetting the
quavers D G ) is heard as a contrast:
dance character, and even then, a rubato w hich is not a

zafira
a
rubato 1----------------------1

T h e B B C once prepared a program m e com paring the record-

.e. rather than
ings o f several cellists playin g the Prelude to B a c h s First Suite.
A m o ng these, C asals reading w as unique in its fullness o f expres- 7T7p

sion, its ability to let the phrases breathe. It w as assumed that Casals w en t on to point out that, in figu re (b), the third semi-
these attributes w ere a consequence o f his having taken much quaver requires a slight accent because it is the highest note and
m ore time than his colleagues. T h e stopwatch revealed other- because it gives the third beat w hich is so necessary to m ark the
w ise; Casals perform ance o f this w o rk pro ved to be nearly the rh yth m . In figure (c) the same four notes, w hen played the
fastest o f all. second time, must be a little softer; in this w a y w e avoid m ono-
It is no easy task to bring to realization the m anifold expres- ton y and g ive valu to the phrase that fo llo w s. T h e upbeat to th
siveness o f this m usic - its m elodic, rhythm ic and p olyphonic final bar (the leading note F#) w as to be sustained as it leans
properties, its strength o f m ood. T h e opening eight bars o f the tow ards the G at the bar line: W e arrive at the confirm ation o f
Courante from the First Suite provide a b rie f insight into the w a y the ton ality. H o w beautiful is this m usic, he exclaim ed; how
in w hich Casals gave consideration to these various elements. ga y, h o w n o b le!
 CASALS AND BACH 14 9
14 8 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N

T h is is not a gay thing - it is dramatic; w e must feel the tragic

Casals perform ances and teaching o f the cello suites over the
character throughout. H e played in a modrate tempo that
course o f nearly three-quarters o f a century revealed their true
allo w ed one to sense the w eight o f the underlying quaver pulsa-
greatness, gaining for them a permanent place in the repertoire
tion. T h e first tw o notes, he pointed out, are introductory; the
and leading the w a y to a rediscovery o f B ach b y cellists in our
sem iquaver G is the real beginning o f the theme. H e brought to
time.
the m o tif J=3 a resolute strength.

Ex. 226a
It must be borne in m ind that in constructing a m ovem ent Bach
depends not upon the juxtaposition o f sharply contrasting Vi vace
themes, rhythm s and moods that one frequently finds in music o f
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but upon the evolution o f
a fundamental them atic idea stated at the outset. A s Fu rtw an gler
has w ritten: W ith B ach , the entire potential developm ent o f a
w o rk is im plicit in the subject as such. T h e artistic realization o f T h e phrases w hich fo llo w w ere played m ore lyrically; each up-
a com plete m ovem ent is dependent in the highest degree upon beat w as sustained in tone and intense in feeling.
the interpreter s ab ility to reveal the specific character o f that
Ex. 226b
subject.
W e are here witness to a supreme Creative pow er. These m ulti-
tudinous themes o f B ach be they simple or com plex in form ,
vivacious or serene in temperament share a quality w hich w e
find also in Shakespeare: an uncanny sense o f in evitability in the
expression o f som ething essential. (Indeed, Casals often drew an
analogy betw een B ach and Shakespeare.) W h en interpreting In the concluding bars he gave dynam ic inflection to the melodic
these themes, w e cannot seprate their spirit from their form ; w e rise and fall and underlined the agitated dialogue between the D s
must experience them organically. W h en w e re-encounter a and E b s b y means o f a subtle rubato.
w o rk o f B ach , as w hen w e re-read Hamlet or K in g Lear, our per-
ception o f its meanii. r m ay be subject to change; w e m ay render
it differently, but never less m eaningfully. W hen Casals inter-
preted B ach , there w as no doubt about it: a concept w as present.
E v e ry theme w as m arked w ith that distinctive com m itm ent o f
insight and feeling, w hich the ancient Chinese called a
heart-print .
T ake, for instance, the first m ovem ent o f the T h ird Gam ba
Sonata, v e ry often gone over briskly in a nondescript manner.
Casals revealed the enormous p o w er o f expression in this w ork.
15 0 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N CASALS A N D B AC H 151

T h e O vertu re to the Second O rchestral Suite opens w ith an series o f u n varyin gly uniform quavers! W e w ill recall Casals
impassioned statement: h aving said: It is a general rule that repeated notes or a repeated
design must not be equal. W hen interpreting this theme, he gave
Ex. 227 . expressive w eigh t to the first note o f each pair o f quavers, the
second note subsiding as an xpiration.1
(Lentement)
Vln.1 Ex. 229a

m & Fl.

<f>
(V) <6rt= - >>

Y e t the fo llo w in g allegro section is usually played as a cheerful

dance, quite detached from the m ood o f the preceding and P la yed in this w a y , the theme seemed transformed into a succes-
fo llo w in g Lentem ent. Casals considered the fundam ental charac- sion o f sighs. B ach - the coid B a ch - m ore than anyone, Bach
ter o f the allegro subject to be determ ined m ore b y the plaintive,
is hum an.
m elodic feeling inherent in the appoggiatura:
Ex. 229b
r~ ~ I
4L
-o

(reminiscent o f E x . 227) than b y the rhythm ic im plication o f the

syncopation. H e interpreted this as a tender m elody, m odrate in
tem po, singing in texture. T h e second phrase w as played a little
softer than the first. Thus perform ed it was a song o f sorrow ,
befitting its setting.

Ex. 228

T h at these notes held intense emotional significance for the com -

poser is evidenced by the fact that Bach eventually incorporated
this m ovem ent into a cantata (N o . 146), at w h ich time he super-
im posed upon it a chorus set to the text W ir mssen durch viel

1 Many present-day interpretis would think that they were romanticizing Bach s
H o w often have w e heard the ritornello from the slo w m ove- music by perorming it in this manner. In fact, it was customary in the eighteenth cen-
m ent o f the D m inor C lavier (or V iolin ) C oncert rendered as a tury to play such groups of notes with expressive inequality.
 153
152 - C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

Trbsal in das R eich Gottes eingehen (W e must pass through

much tribulation to enter into the K in gdom o f G od).
W hen Casals conducted the St. M atthew Passion, he revealed
h o w the ritornello to each aria conveys more than an indefinite
impression o f idealized em otion; it translates into a unique n figu re (c) he gave dynam ic contrast to the rise and fall in the
musical design the immediate intensity o f feeling found in the
chairi o f syncopations. Figure (d) ended in a diminuendo, bring-
te x t.1 T h e aria B lu te nur, du liebes H erz (O n ly bleed, beloved
ing into bold relief the urgent forte o f the final phrase (<?), the ex-
heart) provides a characteristic exam ple. B u ilt as it is o f synco- pressive culm ination o f the theme. This music gave such a
pations, appoggiature and abrupt leaps, this theme com m uni- spontaneous feeling o f sorrow as to seem w oven from tears.
cates the presence o f a g rie f so intense as to be experienced physi-
B ach must be free, Casals w ould say. W hen the purists hear me
cally. Casals gave full expression to this daring musical language.
say you must p lay B ach like you p lay C h opin they are horrified.
Ex. 230 Bu t I laugh at them. N o b o d y has arrived to the expression o f
(M odera to) B a c h .
Casals often spoke o f the universality o f B ach s art . H e w ou ld
point out that B ach had not only assimilated the French and
Italian styles. W e find in his music other influences as w ell the
H ebraic:

Ex. 231 Violn and Clavier Sonata No. 3, 3rd m vt.

T h e opening figu re (a) w as played as an im ploring cry, falling Ex. 232 Solo Cello Suite No. 4, Prelude

o f f in dim inuendo. The first appoggiatura w ithin figure ()

began at a high point o f expression, each descending sequence
yield ing in intensity; the phrasing w as alw ays:

1 It was in His eighty-sixth year that he fiililled his life-long wish to direct this
masrerpiece. While preparing the score he wrote to me: The more I work on it, the
greatcr it becomes, and the more problems I find to render an honest and meaningful
performance. I am so much in it that I cannot sleep at night with this wonderful music
going through my head.
 CASALS AND BACH 157
156 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N

h eavy g ra zio so ! T h e concluding phrase, beginning w ith the Th e highest note o f each segment was to com e as an expres-
upbeat, w as to be sung upon expressively. T h e w hole m elody sive clim ax, but w ithout accent; within that note itself there w as
has an expansin o f an octave and four notes, he explained. Y o u to be a dim inuendo, thereby givin g the n ext phrase segment a
softer point o f departure: that is the econom y . Each crescendo
have to do som ething w ith that; otherwise it could be m ono-
tonous. W h en the phrase goes up, go up w ith y o u r sound; then it carne w ith increased intensity, so that all three segments com -
becom es som ething com plete. bined into one m elodic curve.

Ex. 236 Ex. 237b

(Allegro modralo)

Countersubject I was to establish an immediate contrast in tex

ture. These quavers - meno forte - w ere executed w ith short
b o w strokes; each syncopation received a pointed accent
> fo llo w ed b y a rapid diminuendo.

W h ere there is a contrapuntal texture w hich contains both a Ex. 237c

subject o f signal personality and distinctive countersubjects,
Casals w ou ld carefully explain the specific characterization re-
quired for each com ponent part. For exam ple, he described, as
follow s, the four elements w hich com prise the fugal passage from
the T h ird O rchestral Suite. Countersubject II w as again melodic, played on the string , the
T h e Subject w as to be played w ith singing b o w strokes, dynamics fo llo w in g the m elodic contour.
sounding nearly lega to . This theme, Casals pointed out, is
form ed o f three phrase segments, each consisting o f six notes; Ex. 237<i
each o f these segments has an upbeat character. H e sang the essen-
tial m elodic notes in quavers indicating the increase o f ten

=
sin w ith in each ascending interval o f a third. = - )
* ( ---- :
Ex. 237a
Countersubject III w as not to be a monotonous repetition o f
quavers in a single sonority. Each phrase, alw ays beginning w ith
the second quaver, w as to be felt as a series o f upbeats and played
E s s e n t i a l m e lo d y :
w ith expressive portato b o w strokes:
154 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N CASALS A N D B AC H 155

the H ungarian: w as to have immediate, springing vitality. The first note is not
happy en ou gh , he remonstrated. A fter pausing m om entarily for
Ex. 233 Solo Violn Sonata No. 1 , istmvt.
dram atic effect, he continued: A nd also the second note sounds a
Adagio little sad.
W h en rehearsing another gigue-like m ovem ent, the Finale o f
the T h ird Brandenburg Concert, Casals asked the instrumen-
talists w h o p la y the accom panying figure to give natural accents
to the m ain beats, w h ile lightening the w eigh t o f the in-
termediate quavers:
Let us not forget that the greatest composers w ere the greatest
thieves. T h e y took from everyone and from every w h ere .
Th e w o rld ly charm o f dance rhythms, so often springing from
foreign soil, is felt time and again in B a c h s music, even w hen, as
is often the case, the dance is not designated b y ame. T h e gigu e-
like allegro theme from the O verture to the Fourth O rchestral A gainst this background, the semiquavers w ere to be played
Suite falls into this category. W ith j o y ! Casals exclaim ed w hen m elodically, w ith graduations o f dynam ic intensity correspond-
rehearsing this w o rk . H e then proceeded to transate this w o rd in g to the cu rve o f the phrase; the crescendo was not to be exag-
into an irresistible rhythm ic lilt b y means o f relevant fluctu- gerated: W ith o ut forcing natural lo v e ly . T h e result was an
ations in dynam ic intensity (a). (A n unusual feature o f this theme entrancing fusin o f dancing and singing.
is the displacement o f the principal point o f rhythm ic stress from
Ex. 235
the first to the second beat.) T h e repeated D s (figure b) m oved
buoyantly tow ards the second beat in B a r 4 .1 Allegro
Vin.1 & 2
Ex. 234

H ete, as so often, Casals d rew attention to the enunciation o f the

first note. T h e M arlboro Festival O rchestra had begun the theme B ach often incorporates these tw o elements in a single theme.
w ith enough lan to please any other conductor, but fo r Casals W h en teaching the second movem ent o f the First Gam ba Sonata,
the upbeat sounded ever so slightly lazy. A lth ou gh in piano, it Casals show ed h o w the first tw o phrases dance delicately, jo y -
fu lly . In keeping w ith the vivacious m ood, Casals played the
Bach uscd this movement as the basis fot the opening chorus o f the Cantata No.
110: Unser Mund sei voll Lachens (May our mouths be full o f laughter). rhythm ic figure J") J w ith a certain concisin: It must not be
I S8 CASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A T IO N CASALS A N D BACH 159
Ex. 237e
A w o rd should be added about che interpretation o f dotted
(~ ~ ~ ~ . T T T T T T ~ ~T)
rhythms in B a ch s music. Casals avoided m aking a blanket
application o f any theoretical form ula. W here the m elodic line
requires breadth and nobility (as in the slow sections o f the o ver-
E v e ry m o tif thus contributed its individual vitality to the w hole. tures to the orchestral suites) he did not alter the printed note-
The result w as a w onderful polyphony, inform ed w ith organic
values; w here the rhythm ic feeling demands a certain vivacity (as
in the Polonaise from the Second Orchestral Suite) he extended
Ex. 23 7f
the length o f the dot in order to vitalize the relationship between
the short and long notes (see Chapter IV ). T h e precise extent to
w hich the dot was elongated was variable, dependent upon his
instinctive response to the phrase in question. For this reason he
did not refer to double-dotting ; a more appropriate term w ould
be over-d o ttin g . 1
W h en perform ing dotted rhythms in a m ovem ent in which
triplets are a prom inent feature, Casals applied the principie o f
over-dotting, preferring it to the m ore custom ary solution o f
compressing J 75 hito the triplet figuration: J 3 )- Thus, in the
last m ovem ent o f the Fifth Brandenburg Concert, Casis
quickened the semiquavers, providing a live ly contrast to the en-
suing triplets.2
Ex. 238
Allegro

A s each musical conception o f Casals w as deeply experienced, he

generally rem ained w ithin its fram ew ork w henever returning to
a given w o rk . Y e t the jo u rn ey o f interpretation, so w ell charted,
traversed a thousand times over, never ceased to yield fresh in-

1 This term is used by Robert Donington in his book The Interpretation ofEarly Music.
2Opinions differed even in the eighteenth century in regard to this matter. C. P. E.
Bach favoured the assimilation of the dotted nte-values into the predominant triplet
rhythm, whereas Quantz expressed the view which Casals was subsequently to adopt:
. . . when one o f the pars has triplets against which the other part opposes dotted
notes, it is necessary to sound the little note which follows the dot, only after the third
note o f the triplet, and not at the same time with it.
l6o C A S A I S A N D THE ART OF I NTE RP RE TA TIO N CAS ALS A N D B AC H l6 l

sights; a detail or a larger aspect w o u ld reveal itself in a n ew A s he slo w ly made his w a y towards the podium , he seemed a
light. F o r this reason he could not be coaxed into editing B a ch s very tired od man. Y e t at the moment when he gave the upbeat
cello worlcs for publicacin. H e advised his students to consult che for the first m ovem ent (E x. 240) he was utterly transfigured. It
source closest to the original (the co p y made b y Anna M agdalena was Moses smiting the rock. Life, life, life ! he cried, as the
Bach) w here, unencum bered b y intervening editorship, the jo yo u s notes sprang forth. A lw ays try to find variety - it is the
master s notes perpetually invite interpretative rediscovery. H e secret o f m usic. His exuberance o f temperament had an electri-
him self resisted, and w ou ld have his pupils resist, the tendency to fyin g effect upon the musicians.
be inextricably bound to preconceptions, h o w ever w ell founde'd. A ll three notes are different, he explained to the violins w h o
C asals w a y o f vary in g his approach to the last m ovem ent o f w ere to affirm the jubilation o f their ascending line (x) w ith a
the Fourth Brandenburg C oncert is illustrative o f this fle x i- crescendo. W hen p layin g figu re (y ), the ilutes w ere to sustain the
bility. T h e principal subject f this m ovem ent is usually played in quaver w hich comes at the top o f the phrase (just before the bar
a straightforw ard, rather angular manner. Thus it carne as a line); the element o f song was not to be excluded from this
revelation to me, w hen Casals conducted this w o rk in Prades (in predom inantly dance-like passage.
1953)5 to hear the violas announce this theme in an unhurried
tempo, w ith tender expression. Ex. 240

Ex. 239

Each subseqtient voice entered' w ith singing quality (the overall

sonority gradually increasing in intensity). I f this subject fell
D o not keep the same sonority in forte, he demanded. E ve ry
graciously upon the ear, it was due to m ore than beauty o f tone
part must be interesting. W e must p lay the music w ith character.'
production. T h e first figure (a) w as played w ith sm oothly con-
nected strokes o f the b o w , figu re (b) in a contrasting dance-like Ex. 241
quasi staccato. M oreover, w ithin figu re (a), in keeping w ith the
resolution o f the suspensin, the G - F # carne in a natural dim inu
endo; this left room for an increase in sonority to the A w hich
stands at the high point o f the m elodic curve. S o interpreted, the
theme w as divested o f inelasticty and became eloquently
expressive.
It w as a sultry m orning in Puerto R ico , eight years later, w hen
I next heard Casals conduct the Fourth Brandenburg C oncert.
162 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F I NTE - RP R E T A T I O N CASALS AND BACH 163
A passage w h ich can easily sound stilted was greeted radiantly: demanded vigo u r and strength. Each o f the tw o minims was
Like a lo v e ly dance w ith fantasy; B ach - charm , ch a rm ! rendered forte, the first being given a diminuendo so as to
Ex. 2+2 brin g the articulation into bold relief. (T he subsequent phrasing
rem ained as before.) T h e tempo w as vivacious, the m ood
irresistibly jubilant.

Ex. 2+4
Presto
A ll o f these diverse inner phrasings w ere encompassed w ithin the Via.
A)
(A
vivacious but u n varyin g lilt o f the un ifying (one beat per bar)
rhythm ic pulsation.
T h e second m ovem ent ( andante not adagio ) became under
---------^
<- - ^ 4 -, i - j yj J
his direction a lament alw ays singing and m oh o espressivo ,
the first o f each group o f tw o slurred quavers slightly emphasized O f these tw o w ays o f interpreting the theme o f the last m ove
but w ith out exaggeration. D oloro so , d oloroso, Casals im - m ent it is impossible to assert that on ly one is correct. The essen-
plored. T h ere is no passion in w hat yo u do. G ive m ore and m ore tial point is that in each case the theme possessed character. B u t, o f
every tim e. His voice rose in a fierce crescendo: I hate the tw o , I must confess m y preference fo r the form er, which
m onotony; i h a t e i t ! remains in m y mind as one o f the loveliest things I have ever
Ex. 243 heard p layed .1
Casals w ou ld be the last to want us to regard his insights into
B ach as being rigid form ulae. T h ey w ere the expression o f his
questing spirit; the revelation o f a vo yag e o f discovery w hich he
began alone at the age o f thirteen; the ecstatic consequence o f his
h aving dared to trust to his feelings.
O nce, when teaching the Bach suites in a master class, Casals
played tw o different movements for his students. T h e first was
the Sarabande from the Fifth Suite in C m inor. Y o u see, he said,
this is such a profound expression o f pain, like the music from
the Passions. H e then played the G igue from the T h ird Suite in
W hen Casals turned the page o f his score to the last m ove
C m ajor. N o th in g is m ore g a y , he exclaim ed, nothing is m ore
ment, 1 aw aited the entrance o f the violas, recalling the w on der-
healthy, m ore w onderful! In the same w a y that w e give that p ro
ful w a y in w hich he had interpreted this theme in Prades. B u t
then, to m y surprise, he brought his baton dow n upon the first found feeling o f pain, let us also give that profound feeling o f
jo y . Y o u mustnt remain in the middle. P lay fran kly! D o n t be
note w ith incisive forc. Rather than conceiving a lyrical line, he
afraid. G ive w ht is due to the music and to B a c h .
* In Ex. 242 we observe another case o f a dual impulse occurring during the course
o f a suspensin (see Ex. 36). Casals asked for this note to begin with a diminuendo; 1The reader may compare both versions, as recorded by Casals in Prades (1950) and
at the last moment a crescendo was to lead over to the foliowing bar. in Marlboro (1964).
 A CASALS REH EARSAL: THE P A S TO R A L S Y M P H O N Y 16 5

letter and, perhaps, spiiit o fh is conception m ay be preserved. The

limitations o f this book preelude a com plete description; I have
omitted, for instance, Casals numerous references to orchestral
C H APTER V II
balance, confining m y commentary to matter o f enduring
valid ity. For the benefit o f those readers w h o do not have access
A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTORAL
to a score, I have provided musical quotations to illustrate each
SYM PHONY
point.
W hether shaping a phrase w ith his b o w or w ith his conduc-
M olto espressivo! H o w beautiful it is - the illum ination o f n a tu r e . . .
tor s baton, Casals w as alw ays conveying his essential ideas about
music. M aking music is w hat interests m e, he said, and w hat
HIS book has concerned itself w ith the principies o f inter- better instrument is there than an orchestra. . . . It is the supreme

T pretation fundamental to C asals m usic-m aking. I should

n o w like to provide a sustained glim pse into the w orkin gs o f
mdium for anyone w h o feels music deeply and wants to trans
ate the form and shape o f his most intimate thoughts. He
brought to a Beethoven sym phony the same degree o f care and
C asals musical m ind as it applied itself to the re-creation o f a
devotion w hich he accorded to a solo cello suite b y Bach,
fam iliar masterpiece. For this purpose I in vite the reader to attend
rehearsing in minute detail until every note w as im bued w ith in
a Casals rehearsal o f B eeth oven s Pastoral Sym phony. M y notes,
taken during several reliearsals at the Casals and M arlboro ternal life and had taken its place in the overall design. W e fm d
Festivals, have been brought together into one continuous com - in Casals perform ance o f the Pastoral Sym pho ny a summary o f
m entary. his principies o f interpretation.
Casals shared w ith Beethoven a profound lo ve o f nature. O ne
day, w hen I w as speaking w ith Casals on the terrace o f his home
in San Ju an , our conversation w as interrupted b y the raucous F ir s t M ovem ent

squaw k o f a seagull. H e pointed to the bird enthusiastically and,

A w aken in g o f C heerful Feelings upon A rriv a l in the C o un try
after observing it for some moments, com mented, Y o u never
lose tim e w h en contem plating nature. H e w ent on to speak o f
his daily w alks on the beach, o f the dogs w h o befriended him on Allegro ma non troppo
these excursions, o f the ever-changing beauty o f ocean and sky. Casals tempo: J = c. 10811 2
H e w as at one w ith Beethoven in believin g that nature is the best Bars
school for the heart and, like the com poser, to w hom every tree 14 W e must p lay the beginning sim ply, Casals ex-
seemed to say H o ly ! H o ly !, the manifestations o f nature w ere, plained; it is only. an indication o f w hat is to com e.
for Casals, reflections o f the divinity. T im e and again he went over these opening bars,
His perform ance o f the Pastoral S ym p h o n y - infused w ith jo y pruning aw a y excess redundant vibrato, undue b o w
and reverence w as one o f the most exquisite treasures he gave pressure, exaggeration o f accent.
to us. It w as never recorded. A lth ou gh this loss is irreparable, in 1 T h e cheerful m ood was to be established w ith the very
noting here Casals interpretative indications, something o f the first note: It must not sound sad ! H e cautioned the
166 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTO RA L SYM P H O N Y 16 7

violns to avoid an inadvertent crescendo from the A to

the B b , i.e. 1 ; D o not forc the tone.

The second note, he pointed out, is not short; it has

no dot o ver it (a fact to be kept in m ind throughout Beethoven has w ritten forte in B a r n and, again, in
n , 13
the m ovem ent). The bass was to diminish right a w a y : B a r 13 . In order to avoid repetition o f the same
sonority and to enhance the sense o f expansiveness,
Casals differentiated these dynamics as follow s:
9 -i 1
T h e crescendo attained to poco forte.
2 Casals explained that dots, in B eeth oven s time, did not 12 This bar, yet light in texture, w as set apart as a seprate
necessarily im p ly staccato; those under the G and C segment.
T h e reoccurrence o f the forte w as n ow stronger and
13
signify only a separation . These tw o pi espressivo .
e=>
quavers are innately poco dim inuendo .
3 B a r 3 w as played w ithout crescendo, the semiquavers
com ing w ith out heaviness in a natural rhythm , a bit
late and quickened.
4 T h e ferm ata [pause] took on its inherent grace through
a dim inuendo at once, going to the infinite. Casals
conceived the opening four bars as divided naturally
into tw o segments o f tw o bars each, a1 nuance m ore to 2 8 -3 0 T h e oboist, as solo player, can lend further expressive-
be felt than emphasized. Patiently and surely, he ness to the theme; Casals asked that the second quaver
w orked until the m elodic contour revealed itse lf in B a r 29 be clearly enunciated to render the beginning
pristine and radiant in all sim plicity. o f the m elody distinct; the notes at the top o f the
phrase w ere to be delicately elongated.

5 T h e new phrase w as invested w ith im m ediate singing

quality, each note w ell articulated b y the fingers. 37-53 H ere, as so often, Casals freed the m elodic design from
6 Th roughout the m ovem ent the figu re o f tw o semi the tyrann y o f the bar line. In those cases w here the
quavers w as to retain its live ly rhythm ic character. natural stress should fall upon the second crotchet beat,
16 8 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N A C A S A L S R E H E A R S A L : THE P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 16 9

he cautioned, A v o id accenting the first note o f the 6466 T h e repeated figure in the violins w as not to remain on
b ar. T h e accents which he requested w ithin the b o w - one dynatnic level, but to be played w ith less and less
______ (> _>> son ority . Th e violins then made the slightest break
before B ar 67, as i f to catch their breath in happy an-
ing slurs, e.g.
, are ticipation o f the phrase to come.
6774 T h e principal theme, Casals indicated, is that w hich
o f a com pensatory nature; they serve to clarify the first ' begins in the bass; it rises and falls in w aves, seeking
note o f the sem iquaver figures w hich, otherw ise, are com pletion in its higher notes. The quaver figure
all but lost to the ear o f the listener. In this case Casals (violins), although also expressive, is b y comparison
counselled, Forc the b o w ! (i.e. exaggerate the accent ornam ental . Lighter in w eight, it falls in a
to ensure intelligibility). V ariety in fo rte, he dim inuendo from its highest note.
demanded. N o t just one fo rte !
Vlns.& W.W.
37 o

( cresc.)
53 57 In contrast to the preceding tutti, the texture was n o w
et S^' m ore fluid and relaxed: the w o o d w in d , non staccato,
carne like lo v e ly m urm urings w ith a dim inuendo
extending not only up to but through the seventh
quaver; the violins simple, natural, unforced .
W.W.

7582 T h e parts are n ow reversed, each w ave retaining its

et seq. characteristic ebb and flo w as indicated above. The
dim inuendo within each phrase imposes a natural
gradation upon the grow th o f dynam ic intensity. In
17 0 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTO RA L S YM P H O N Y 17 1

this w a y the phrasing brings econom y to the crescen- 9 7 -10 0 T h e m elody here is usually perform ed in one line.
Casals, how ever, felt it in three w aves. H e gave ex-
pressive emphasis to the first note o f each bar, letting
the other notes subside in diminuendo. W h en w e
brale the phrase in this w a y , w e must do it tenderly,
tenderly

W .W .

1071 1 5 T h e w o o d w in d and strings, in turn, gave contour to

the variations o f the above theme.

107 W.W.

T h e violins w ere asked to p lay on the string , in the

upper centre o f the b o w , b ig but not ja g g e d , the
the decrescendo on the dotted crotchet, the better to
m elodic notes brought into relief.
clarify the notes w hich fo llo w . T h e violins and violas
w ere urged to p lay the semiquavers in cisively 'w ith
strong, clear fingers . Vln.1
11 I I I-------- 1
f tii
t y
** f u ,

1 1 5 1 1 9 E v e ry part had independent life.

et seq.
 A CASALS REH EA R SA L: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 173
17 2 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N

115

155162 Sustained notes, taken in turn b y the first and second

et seq. violins, n o w add their voices to this w oodland
counterpoint. W h en there is a lon g note, it must be
heard from the beginning. E ach was to commence
diminuendo. w ith a q u ick, vibrant accent (follo w ed b y a rapid
Vlns. dim inuendo) and then gradally increase in intensity.

155

14715 0 T h e reappearance o f a theme is not to be treated as a

mere repetition o f w hat has been heard before. Casals
addressed the clarinettist: T h ere is m ore beauty to be
found here. T h e F is m ore im portant; this brings the
natural loveliness. B u t p lay w ith out forcing at all
dolce, dolce

1 5 115 2 N o passage is m ore susceptible to routine perform ance

et Sc- than these long stanzas w oven from strands o f m otivic
repetition. Casals brought to bear his insight into the
character o f each figure; the m usic suddenly becam e
startlingly fresh and alive. T h e n ew versin o f the
m o tif taken from B a r 2 w as given natural shape b y
means o f a tiny pointed accent and dim inuendo. T h e
violas and cellos w ere not to be neglected: E ve n here,
there is room for ups and d o w n s.
174 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS R EH EA R S A L: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 175

*75_ I78 G iv e form to the tu tt Casals demanded. H e pointed should p lay giocoso in the tw o previous bars, w ith a
out to the w o o d w in d that i f the quaver at the end o f diminuendo at the end o f B a r 242, then suddenly with
each bar is played in dim inuendo, the succeeding w arm th o f tone in B ar 243. T h e dolce catches us b y sur-
dotted crotchet comes as a n o velty . T h e violins w ere prise - a typical Casals characteristic.
to sing their semiquavers like a sustained note, avoid-
ing stringent forc . N o w , in fortissim o, every note in
the bass must be m arked . There w as to be an overall
crescendo. M notony is no m u sic!
175

2 5 5-25 8 T h e m ood o f a passage determines the expressive

et seq. character o f a sforzando. H ere the sfp's throb quickly,
w ith sensitivity.

255 Vln.1
(V)

----- "
193196 Th is figure, taken in turn b y the second violins and
" sfx> Sfp (:
cellos, w as espressivo, attention being given to the first
o f the little notes (F#) that is should not be sw a llo w e d .
263-266 Casals indicated the points o f tensin and relaxation
T h e reiterated quavers w ere played w ith rhythm ic lilt. w hich g ive this theme its inner structure. N o te the
crescendo w ithin the quaver E (last note, B ar 264) as it
leans into the sforzando, and the subsequent de
crescendo to the first quaver o f B a r 266, at w hich point
Casals insisted: N o accent here; it is u g ly !

I----------------------------------------------- ----------------------- 11
263 26 26J . __ ^ 266 ^

241246 Casals heightened the effect o f the dolce (m arked by ) S f < = - t = >
(n o a c c e n t)
Beethoven in B a r 243) b y indicating that the ilutes
176 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N A CASALS R E H E A R S A L: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 17 7

267275 Each successive sforzando carne w ith increased inten- 279 -28 2 W e h ave n o w com e to the recapitulation. U p o n
sity, the Iast (B ar 275) being the strongest o f all: return, the first subject is richer in associations; it
A rriveV Casals called out. evokes a deeper response w ithin us than it did upon
275278 T h e first note o f each triplet w as to be clearly arti- first encounter. Thus Casals urged the second violns
culated, the decrescendo carefully gradated. and violas to p lay w ith m ore expression and allow ed
the adorning high C o f the first violins a poco crescen
do.
282288 T h e beginning o f the trill w as to receive an accent: It
267 gives character to the lon g n ote. T h e little notes

t---- f Ir (1 rf fc it l f t
conclude the trill and should not be separ-
-) sf (=

ated from it. (The separation comes after the first

quaver in B a r 285.) The violins w ere to p lay w ith the
sound o f a ilute - not hard - pianissimo, dolce.

293300 In the first four bars Casals asked the w ood w in d to sing
out n obly. In the variation o f the phrase (Bars
297300) the strings w ere to respond w ith a heartfelt
echo .
178 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTO RAL SYM PH O NY 17 9

4 28 -4 32 O w in g to its lon g slurs and symmetrical rhythm , this

et seq. passage (a variant o f Bars 1 1 5 - 1 1 9 ) can easily sound
monotonous. B y givin g subtle dynam ic emphasis to
certain notes (marked by brackets) Casals brought
contoar to the lyrical line.

4484 51 D o n t p lay notes play a m elo d y, Casals beseeched.

O n the string cantando, cantando!

A s the rem ainder o f the recapitularon concerns itself

w ith m aterial already commented upon, I shall n ow
pass to the coda. 456-467 N o w , at the clim ax o f the m ovem ent, Casals opened
422425 These four bars rustic and strictly in tem po his arms in that w onderful gesture o f his w hich seemed
resounded in a robust forte (Beethoven has not marked to embrace the spirit o f every man and w om an in the
fortissim o). orchestra. M olto espressivo! he exclaim ed. H o w
426-427 Contrast molto piu dolce.' beautiful it is h o w beautiful the illum ination o f
nature . . .
18o C A SA L S A N D THE A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N A C ASALS REH EA RSA L: THE PASTO RA L SYM PH O N Y 181

476-486 T h e clarinet g a ily and lo v in g ly shaped the design: ing stream, sw aying gently as i f he w ere rocking a
e seq. eradle w ith all the tendemess and serenity o f a m other s
lo ve; such w as the repose he evoked, so tranquilly did
the b o w strokes flo w together. U se much b o w , he
counselled, but very little pressure. W e must avoid
accents. W h en changing the b o w , eliminate the stop
and the crescendo.

V ln.2, V ia ,
Vlc A b a s s a

T h e opening crotchet (played b y the first violins) w as

492-498 T h e violin figu re (and that o f the ilute in the subse- not to be taken for granted. Casals sang it roundly and
quent bars) w as to be v e ry delicately phrased in the n obly. It announces Beethoven . A s Casals uttered
fo llo w in g pattern: the com posers ame, it com m unicated a tangible
quality o f feeling, an entity in itself, needing no further
elaboration, recalling to mind Schum anns comment:
beethoven w hat a w o rd - the deep sound o f the
m ere syllables has the ring o f eternity.
Against the unchanging background o f quavers, the
m elody w as given time to express its full lyricism . T h e
The two final chords, coming in diminuendo, com- first note o f the second bar w as played not as
municated a deep composure. w ritten but more spaciously than notation can in
dcate. The turn, in B ar 3, w as not hurried.

S econd M ovement
/ Vln. 1
Scene at the B ro o k

Andante molto moto

C asals tem po: J - c . 44 (m i -)

Bars
1 et seq. It w o u ld be hard to forget that od man, indicating to
his string players the unceasing m ovem ent o f the flo w -
182 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS REHEARSAL: T H E P A S TO R A L S Y M P H O N Y 18 3

5 -6 Th e frst note o f the om am ent in B a r 5 w as articulated 1314 The first B b is the beginning o f a m elody. The violins
w ith greatest care. Beethoven has indicated crescendi in were to commence w ith w arm tone, malee a dim inuen
both Bars 5 and 6. In B a r 5 the crescendo extends to do, then a crescendo on the second note. T h e reiter-
forte. In order to g iv e variety and to render the end o f ation o f the Bbls gained in m eaning through the release
the phrase more exquisite, Casals requested only poco and renew al o f intensity.
crescendo in B ar 6.
13 Vtn.1

I ' r c M
k

do Ice
Wn l / ' o ' '
cresc.
( t o jo =

17 -18 Repetitions in the same sonority w ere anathema to

7 et seq. Each accompaniment figure w as instilled w ith a life
Casals. Each accent had to com e w ith less tone, the
o f its ow n . Casals asked the first violins to articlate
final crotchets w ith individual diminuendi.
clearly the beginning o f every trill. T h e other string
players w ere to give expressive emphasis to the notes
!7 Lower
o f m elodic significance w ithin the sem iquaver cf r<
figuration.

(>)

19 This passage was rehearsed at least a dozen times. T h e

violins w ere to linger ever so slightly upon their initial
quaver. T h e first note o f the turn was to be w ell
pronounced, the subsequent quaver F again espressivo.
It is c o id ! Casals entreated. D o n t be afraid to take
time. It must sing so ten derly! T h e semiquavers - not
too short w ere gently pulsating, the crotchets alw ays
tapering o f f in diminuendo.

11 E ven in the general crescendo, each trill w as charac-

terized b y a diminuendo.
184 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A C ASALS REH EA RSA L: THE P A STO RA L SYM PH O N Y 185

2328 T h e first violins w ere phrased as follow s, w ith consum -

mate grace:

x> dolce ( : mX ~ )
T h e groups o f quavers fo llo w ed one another like rap -
turous sighs: Each time as though a n ew breath is
taken! B u t dont forget that the second note [i.e. the
second quaver w ithin each slur] must also be heard and
must not be short. D im inuendo poco a poco.

Casals im parted to the orchestra the spontaneity o f

29 Casals alw ays stressed that, w ithin the are o f an overall feeling characteristic o f his o w n cello playin g; each
crescendo or diminuendo, the inner phrasings mus re- successive upbeat was instantly vibrant and singing.
tain their shape. H ere he emphasized the high note o f W.W.
each group o f descending semiquavers, g iv in g im por-
tance to the underlying 6/4 pulsation. T h e intermediate
notes, com ing in dim inuendo, w ere not to be lost to
the ear.

Vln.1

30, 33 T h e solo ute and bassoon, respectively, w ere to give

expressive inflection to the m elodic rise and fall.

H.
186 CASALS A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS REH EARSAL: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 187

58-60 T h e principal theme, taken here b y the oboe sub- T o hear this m elody, liberated from constraint, soar-
sequently b y the clarinet (B ar 69) and ilute (B ar 9 1) ing freely over the regular m ovem ent o f semiquavers,
is norm ally perform ed in strict time. For Casals there w as indescribably m oving.
w as m ore to be expressed . H e urged these solo w o o d - 6263 Casals pointed out that the dotted crotchets in the first
w ind to p lay fre e ly . W e w ill keep time; yo u do as violins, although an accompaniment, should none the
you w ish . H e counselled these players to anticpate less be played w ith m elodic insinuation.
their entrances, com ing in a little sooner than w ritten so
that the semiquavers w ou ld h ave m ore time in w hich
to sing. T h e appoggiatura at the bar line w as to be
delicately lingered upon. Such rubato eludes precise
notation. It could be approxim ately expressed as
follow s:

6 5-6 6 T h e ute and oboe w ere to trace the melodic curve

w ith dynam ic inflection.

79-80 T h e violins w ere asked to begin in m ezzo forte so as to

g ive increased dimensin to the subsequent decrescen
do.

79 vi a 1

8 1- 8 2 H ere the orchestra attained the most intmate pianis-

simo. T h e notes seemed divested o f material w eigh t;
they w ere transparent, floating.
188 CASALS A N D T H E A R T O F I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS RE H E A R S A L : THE P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 189

SI and clarinet w ere urged to p lay slightly quicker than

w ritten: L ik e b ird calis.

Ob. __ j*
Quait |1

Cuckoo
12512 7 In order to enhance the soaring quality o f their lon g
e seq. B t>, the violins w ere requested to p lay on the E string In contrast to some great G erm n conductors render-
(the sonority being brighter than on the A string) w ith
ing o f this bird dialogue, in Casals perform ance one
a great increase o f vibrato. T h e turn w as given tim e to
had the impression o f a cuckoo saying cuckoo not
sing. T h e concluding semiquavers, although in
o f Goethe saying cuckoo .
dim inuendo, w ere not to be too soft too soon.
13 2 -13 3 In givin g the birds back their voices, hum an feeling
responds all the m ore deeply. Casals spoke in a hushed
vo ice: Extase . . . extase . . . h o w w on derful is the
nature . . . T h e orchestra played w ith reverence.

132 Strs-

12 9 1 3 1 T h e rarest o f qualities is the ability to be simple. Iub jijrFTl M q

Flautists, like string players, tend to protect their right
to use vibrato. H o w enchanting it was, therefore, to
hear the solo ilute, in response to Casals request, begin
f
r
w ith out vibrato, sim ply, like a b ird .

129 Fl- Nighfingale 13 6 139 B eeth oven has now m arked a pp w hich Casals
observed w ith care. B e g in n in g w ith the utmost in-
(=) (= tim acy, the phrase was passed from instrument to in-
.+(cresc.) strument in one unbroken line o f expression, each
upbeat w arm er than the last, the clarinet being allow ed
13 1 Casals considered the printed notes here to be no m ore a crescendo a h a lf bar p rior to the place indicated in the
et seq. than approxim ations o f natural rhythms. T h e solo oboe score, the better to bind together the w hole.
 C A S A L S A N D T H E A RT OF I N T E R P RETA TIO N A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTORAL SYM PH O N Y 191

Fl. Vlns.8.
\lla.8bassa 1
0 : 1-+ 1-
. . '
JQSP
i A_________________ AO

---- y?
---- 1 & 7 4 4 4 ....
Bsn.
9 -16 Casals drew attention to the lyric contrast provided by
the answ ering theme; Beethoven has indicated dolce
and it should sound dolce . T h e quavers w ere to be
played a little faster than is the custom . T h e phrase
w as to end in dim inuendo; none the less, the con-
cluding quavers (B ar 15) must be heard .

A m ovem ent o f unsurpassed loveliness w as thus

crow ned w ith w hat Shelley has called the halo o f
beauty.

T hird M ovement
H ap py G athering o f the C o u n try Folk
6 3-6 6 A dim inuendo on every dotted minim (w ithout stop-
A llegro
ping the b o w between the strokes) gives m ore
C asals Tem po: J - = c. 88 strength to each sforzando .
Bars
18 Casals con veyed at once his inim itable feeling for the
character o f a dance. H is tem po a modrate allegro g- ,p-..
63 Vln.1

r>

established a balance between the m otion o f w hole-bar

[/(=
)

I

I
beats and the vitality inherent in each individual
crotchet. W h ile unhurried, the dance w as yet light and
8 aY- Tempo giusto but not h e avy . T h e delicately 9 1-9 8 It is a rustic dance; even so, the quavers (Bar 93) w ere
accented grace notes enhanced the vivacious lilt. et seq. to sing m elodically .
192 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A TI O N A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTORAL SYM P H O N Y 193

91 Ob. ^ 93 2 13 -2 2 1 T h e quavers w ere to be drawn into r e l i e f - articulated

bo ldly w ithin the legato b o w strokes. In B a r 218 the
crotchet C was to be strongly emphasized, asserting, as
it does, the dom inant o f F m ajor.

165168 Casals m arked the accents o f the 2/4 dance w ith that
et seq. prim al energy w h ich sprang from the peasant earth.
H e conceived the pulse in w hole-bar units ( J = c. 68).
H is baton slashed uncom prom isingly, violen tly
upon each sforzando. ( D im inuendo each time in the
b ass!)

165 A!le9 ro

Allegro
Casals tem po: J = c . 15 6
Bars
1 T h ere w as no break between movements. T h e rum ble
o f distant thunder carne upon us unexpectedly.

Presto V|C.& Allegro

O n e felt the feet o f the country folk stamping upon the >. Vlns. *. Bass 1 > > II
>
ground. Brueghel the E id er has depicted such a scene
in his W ed d in g D ance in the O pen A ir . I I I V 0
203206 A fter the second fermata [pause] Casals allo w ed a ff attacca
caesura, thereby increasing the sense o f expectancy
Rather than conducting in the alia breve to w hich w e
before the return to T em po I.
have gro w n accustomed, Casals felt the pulse o f this
m ovem ent in crotchet beats. I f he resisted m aking an
effect through sheer speed, he conceded nothing in the
w a y o f vitality. His four beats per bar w ere so strict
and exacting as to transmit an unrelenting impulse to
the m otion o f the storm. The pianissimo was taut and
194 CASALS A N D TH E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A T IO N A CASALS REH EA R SA L: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y ig
agitated; the fortissimo, fierce and concise. E v e ry small dicated below ) its contour became apparent, standing
rhythm ic unit became intensely alive. out in all clarity.

36 Casals im m ediately addressed the second violins: P lay

et seq. w ith great excite m e n t. . . as i f the peasants w ere saying
to one another, w e must go hom e something is
go in g to happen .

3 Vln.1

pH H i p ( = >
V ln.2

Jftp

E v e ry quaver conveyed a sense o f presentiment. T h e

m ood o f nervous haste thus generated gave a greater
impression o f hurry than sim ply playin g the notes at a
faster speed.
19 -2 0 T h e lo w er strings and w oo d w in d have on ly tw o bars
in w hich to build up to the sudden outbreak o f the
storm. A s much crescendo as possible! Casals shouted.
4 142 In C asals tem po, the agitated semiquaver figures
et seq. gained in intensity through increase in intelligibihty.

4 V Ic .& B a s s

2 128 T h e storm w as unleashed in full fu ry. It raged in a fo r- 4344 E ven in the impassioned sw eep o f the storm, every
et secl- tissimo that w as massive but not formless. B y means et seq. chord w as to be balanced. W e must hear all the notes
o f incisive accents and dynam ic inflections (as in- clearly; otherw ise the harm ony is not com plete.
19 6 C ASALS A N D THE ART OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A C A S A L S R E H E A R S A L : THE P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 19 7

ated so as not to arrive at this piano too soon. T h e

strings w ere to begin in the full intensity o f their fortis-
simo, the violins accenting each upbeat, the bass line
expressively declaimed.

5 6 -6 1 C asals phrasing brought increased interest to the violin

line b y delineating its m otivic structure.

13 0 - 13 6 T h e cellos and basses brought clarity to the groupings

o f semiquavers b y distinctly enunciating the first note
o f each crotchet beat.
VI n s . 1 3 0

9599 T h e syncopation w as accented w ith the forc o f a

et seq. whiplash. T h e quavers w hich im m ediately fo llo w
w ere given clear articulation. T h e crescendo rose im -
petuously.
146150 Casals now conducted in minims, the oboe and second
et seq. violins singing serenely.
146
Q

dotce
t i" r
154155 T h e solo ilute w as allow ed a poco ritardando.
(poco rit.)

11 9 T h e storm begins to subside; sempre dim inuendo is

et seq. m arked in the score. A s it is eleven bars before piano is
indicated, Casals asked that the decrescendo be gradu-
dotce
198 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N A C A SA LS REH EA RSA L: THE P A STO R A L SYM PH O N Y 199

F ifth M ovement

Shepherds Song: H ap py and T h ankful Feelings after the Storm

Aegretto
C asals tem po: J - = c. 60
Bars
14 W ith the dissolution o f the storm, the clarinet entered
Casals performance o f this movement conveyed not
dolce, as i f from far a w a y givin g at once the
only its glory o f melody, but also its vitality o f
flo w in g tem po for the last m ovem ent. Casals asked
rhythm. Six-eight - not two-four! was his insistent
that each o f the first tw o bars recede in dim inuendo.
demand. Where the sixth and third quavers possess an
Bars 3 and 4 w ere gone over ligh tly in one unit.
upbeat quality (e.g. V J J) J ) they were always to
> * > >
be energetic, lively and strictly in time whether
played in forte or piano. Elsewhere, when appropriate,
Casals gave lilting emphasis to the two main beats
within the bar: m m . One experienced here,
> >
9 -16 T h e first violis n ow commenced their m elody o f as in Casals performances o f Bach, an interaction o f
thanksgiving. M oho legato, Casals entreated,
expressive song and vivacious dance. The vein o f deep
directing that the quaver w hich concludes B ars 9, 1 1 sentiment that runs through the movement was not
and 13 be sustained in tone and connected w ith as
allowed to subjugate the rhythmic pulse, thus becom-
smooth a b o w change as possible to the note that
ing sentimental; it was embraced within the dance and
follow s. Strin g players are inclined to take fo r granted
thereby raised to the ecstatic.
their ability to play legato, but it was o n ly after careful
rehearsal, producing sensitive listening on the part o f
17 et seq. The reiterated semiquaver pattern w as to be given
the violin section, that Casals could announce: T h at is
25 e seq. rhythm ic definition. Casals asked the violins to accent
beautiful; that is a song.
the first and fourth quaver beats.
17
Vln.1

'ju r r r r r r rf-r-fr'f irT r r r f r r r f r f i

T r> cresc. I
200 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTO RA L SYM P H O N Y 201

46 H ere an even higher point o f intensity was reached, the

semiquaver A accented and tenuto.

Vlns. 44
43 <frr
m

&
L o w er s trs .
? (mf

ff
3233 D o not com e late w ith the second n ote, Casals
46
w arned. It must not sound h e a v y ! Q u aver and
crotchet w ere decisively accented. E ach o f the first tw o t.7 f f = f^ \
W?6- - f----- p t z z -------- l m .
crotchets had a dim inuendo to enhance the articula- " i irnf = r
tion; the third, a crescendo so as to bridge o ver to the ff)
C w h ich crow ns the phrase.
i>:. r t \ r 'h i i -------------------------------------
Vla.& Vlc. 1 y r # 1 v-------------------------------------
S (Jf T " ^ ? (= = )
32 (> .* '= )(>

ff
ti iUjj 5 0 -53 T h e notes m arked piano begin n ew m elodic w aves;
they w ere to be im m ediately vibrant.

34 T h e violins proclaim ed their upbeat w ith the most

vital o f accents.

5 4 -56 N o t lazy! - one, tw o, three, four, five, six! W e must

not lose time between the beats.

4245 T h e sem iquavers w ere to be full o f en ergy, but ab-

solutely w ithout rallentando. T h e tnf/cresc. gave to the
vio lin line a renew al o f mpetus, at the same time
a llo w in g the bass to com e through m ore clearly. T h e
long notes in the bass w ere to be played in dim inuendo 647 1 For Casals, a repetition in music signalled a n e w experi-
the better to hear the beginning o f the next phrase. ence o f feeling; he etnbraced the reappearance o f the
202 CASALS A N D THE ART OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A C A S A L S R E H E A R S A L : THE P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 203

principal theme w ith heightened emotion. T h e dyna- 9598 E ven in this intmate and delicate pianissimo, the
mics w ere shaped in response to the rise and fall o f the tempo was to be maintained; the bass m arked each
m elodic line. T h e violins w ere not to be shy o f their pizzicato, emphasizing the pulsation w ith rhythm ic
upper notes (the C s in Bars 64, 66, 68); they w ere to exactitude.
bring soaring com pletion to the crest o f each phrase.
U sing his baton as he w ould his b o w , Casals
95
ardently caressed the shape o f the m elody. D o n t be Vln.1

afraid to express w hat you feel. E ve ry phrase is a rain- ^ , 1 -rq0 1, | ^ = ~ = > TT>-i1, 1 -
f * -------H T J -
l<\rr ------- v ------<
bow . \ w
Vlc. p p
B a ssC . P ' - arco
rnp *n --J----
i VJt------JJ-
=i &
L S - ---------------- -0-
1*
>)

9 9 -10 0 T h e dance lilt w as irresistible - the violins lightly

et seq. stressing the first and fourth quaver beats, the bass
vitalizing the upbeats.

7880 S ix -e ig h t : the quavers w ere to be equal to the

crotchets in vigo u r and decisiveness.
Strs. - ^ h
78 > > >
. . stacc. 0-
F f= =& =f =
= M = V-
"5
>
>
> >
= $ = F = i
t = = t = * f c d H = m a .
s > > > _

8082 In accordance w ith the lyrical m ood o f the w o o d w in d 1 1 7 1 1 8 T h e violins w ere to play their exquisite variation o f the
et seci' subject, the sfz was w arm , not harsh, the upbeats sus- et seq. principal theme w ith as m uch singng quality as pos-
tained but in tempo. sible but lig h tly , w ithout forcing the bow .

X> (totee
204 CASALS A N D THE A RT OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A C A S A L S R E H E A R S A L : THE P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 20J

125129 Casals asked the violins not to rem ain'at one dynam ic 219
Vlns.
et seq. level; they w ere to fo llo w the design.

Vln.1 ff(sostenuto)

aj
125 stacc.. (*
A , tf-if f-f i t- 1 j & Bass
T i~l arfH------fcMr
1HbMPHR------rH1 e e s e e e
3M = = = = y = t -j-fr y | p | A r L 1 1 L.I. J 1n M .1 1
el cresc.
# V)
sf

1481 5 1 In the m ounting crescendo, Casals indicated that the

second quaver o f each group be played tenuto, w ith
237244 T h e strings n o w sang quietly, their sonority taking on
ever-increasing emphasis.
an in w ard tenderness akin to the voice o f Casals cello.
T h e tempo was delicately restrained (not the drastic
slo w in g-do w n one often hears). Casals gave individual
contour to the tw o-bar phrases, letting each one fall
aw ay in diminuendo. Bars 241244 w ere then bound
together in a single span. T h e concluding semiquavers
w ere allow ed to sing w ithout hurry. T h e beauty o f
such m usic-m aking cannot be conveyed in w ords, or
190 The impassioned line o f the violins retained rhythm ic the beauty o f feeling; this w as a moment o f benedic-
et seq. shape. tion.

Vln.1
237

jjp sotto voce

2 19 -2 2 2 T h e bass m arked a titanic w orld dance: the notes w ere
et seq. forged o f iron, the line rising in a crescendo in a
(poco rt.)
m ighty upw ard sw ing, the staccato upbeats com ing 241
like ham m er blow s. T h e w o o d w in d , brass and upper
strings sustained their sonority, incom parably majestic,
creso. p
w ith the grandeur o f an organ. (molto espr.)
206 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS R EH EA R S A L: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 207

245246 T h e orchestra again took up the dance fu lly a tempo

- the quavers accented w ith rustic vigo ur.
247248 The w ood w in d n o w played w ith gentle rubato in
contem plative remembrance o f Bars 243244.

(p o c o r t.)

(a te m p o ) O b s. v
245 , f O
A V
J ^ = 7 a, ^ ---- -f---
--- --- i . T h e last rehearsal had come to an end; yet for a moment no
w ~ >>
f dolce ) one m oved. T h e reverberations o f the m usics spirit lingered on
like ripples w hich persist long after a stone has been cast into
deep water. Casals sat in meditation, his eyes closed. D eeply
249252 T h e string and w o o d w in d choirs, in turn, sighed fare- m oved, he gave voice to his emotion: W h at a w onderful gift
w ell, the long notes decreasing in intensity. Beethoven has given to us! H e rose from his chair again an od
man and w earily, but resolutely, strode o ff the stage.

260263 Casals reminded the string players w h o accom pany the

gently receding horn cali, E ve n though yo u play
pianissimo, it is still a m elo d y.
263264 T h e f f quaver was to be short, the crotchet lon g -
w ith a natural dim inuendo .

Vln.1 2 6 0 ------------- - ~ --------- V ln .2

------------------ ____
Hn.

f
'

r =H

'T ' r ~1
co n so rd in o
 EPILO G U E 209

W e spoke o f Spain o f the Feria o f Sville in which the whole

population, including tiny children, joins in spontaneous dance;
EPILOGUE o f Crdoba, with its maze o f quet streets and shaded patios.
Casals leaned back in his armchair; Crdoba is beautiful, beauti-
In music, in the sea, in a flower, in a leaf, nanact of k in d n ess . ... f see ful, he sighed. But his mood changed when he spoke o f the
what people cali God in all these things.
Spanish civil war. Deeply affected by these reminiscences, he
closed his eyes in meditation and said in a trembling voice:
ASALS held the frage piece o f paper in a hand that Thank heaven for music - and for nature.

C trembled not with age but with emotion. It is a wonderful

thing to realize, he said. Here Beethoven has written the first
He told us o f his playing two preludes and fugues from the
Well-Tempered Clavier every day o f my life; I love all the
sketch for the Ninth Symphony. Before this, there was nothing; music, but I could not begin the day with another composer.
then, from the silence, carne these notes no more than a hint, a Bach showed us what music is. First comes Bach then all the
mysterious beginning. And from this smallest partile o f thought others.
that great work carne to Iife. That is truly a miracle. This docu- Casals then brought out his treasures a page upon which
ment is my most precious possession. Mozart had written the conclusin o f the third act o f The
I did not know then that this would be my last visit to Casals. Marriage o f Fgaro, the manuscript o f Brahms String Quartet in
M y wife, daughter and I had arrived at his home late one after- Bjj major, the sketch for the Ninth Sym phony. . .
noon ^nd were greeted at the door with characteristic gracious- When we touched upon a problem faced by many musicians,
ness by his wife, Martita. There, at the far end o f the room, we namely stage-fright, he shook his head resignedly. For eghty,
saw Casals at the piano. A door near him opened out towards for eighty-five years ever since I began to perform I have
the ocean. Only two sounds were heard: the music o f Bach and lived with this. Many children are not nervous when they play in
the ceaseless rhythm o f the waves. public, but I sufered when I was a child and I suffer even today
Casals rose at once upon seeing us. The warmth o f his greeting when I must give a concert.
made me feel that our visit was not an unwarranted intrusin. I asked him whether he thought it advisable to give children
Meeting our ten-year-old daughter for the first time, he ex- simple pieces by Bach and other masters to play as soon as they are
pressed delight upon hearing that, in keeping with her ame ready for them, rather than having them wade through a morass
Pamina, she was studying the ilute. The ilute! he exclaimed o f inferior music. Casals wholeheartedly supported this idea and
joyfully; I too once played that instrument and, as a child, I was pointed out that Bach wrote such fine pieces for his own
particularly enraptured by the piccolo. He spoke o f his early children. He embraced our daughter and told her o f the wealth
ycars spent in the Catalan village o f Vendrell and showed us, o f beauty there is in music and how much she had to look
from among his mementoes, a large photograph o f men and boys forward to.
standing on each other s shoulders in a human pyramid, reach- I have had an idea, he said to us, a plan for the education
ing the height o f seven men. See what we do in my village! o f chdren. 1 have spoken o f it to important people and they
Casals said, beaming with pleasure. Not even the circus people say: It is so simple, yet we have never thought o f it. It is
are as skilful as the peasants. this: as soon as the child can understand the meaning o f a word,
he should be told that this word represents a miracle. When we
 210 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N EPILOGUE 2 11

speak o f the eye, w e should explain w hat a miracle it is to be able w a y w avin g farew ell, perhaps sensing that w e w ou ld not meet
to see. W e should explain w hat a miracle it is to be able to speak. again.
W h at a m arvel are our hands! W h en the w onder o f each w ord T h e next day, as I looked out at the ocean, the w aves seemed
has been m ade clear, then every child should be taught to realize: to melt into the eyes o f Casals, and the eyes back into the w aves. I
I am a m iracle and he is also a m iracle. I am a unique being; felt that the expanse o f sea, the are o f sky, the w o rld o f nature
there never has been a person like me since the beginning o f the and hum anity surrounding me had become a vast concert hall
w orld or w ill there be until our w o rld comes to an end. A nd in w hich sounded the resonance o f his soul.
he, too, is unique and w ill be so until our w orld w ill end. T h ere-
fore, I cannot kill him and he cannot kill m e ." O n ly in this w ay
can w e do aw a y w ith the impulse for wars. A t school they
teach that tw o plus tw o equals four. That is not w hat life is all
about.
A s Casals uttered the w ords I am a m iracle and he is also a
m iracle, he struck his hands to his chest. H is blue eyes shone
w ith indescribable radiance. H e experienced fu lly the m arvel o f
which he spoke. L oo kin g into those eyes, I th o u g h tn o to f the frail
body w hich contained them but o f the transcendent spirit w hich
resided there.
H e continued: R eal understanding does not com e from w hat
w e learn in books; it comes from w hat w e learn from lo ve love
o f nature, o f music, o f man. For on ly w hat is learned in that w a y PRINCIPAL REFERENCES
is truly understood.
I cannot believe that these m arvels w hich surround us the
m iracle w hich is life can com e from nothingness. H o w can
something com e from nothingness? T h e m iracle must com e from
som ewhere. It comes from G o d . Bach, Cari Philipp Emanuel, Versuch ber die wahre A rt das Clavier zu spielen.
Berln 1753, Patt H Berln 1762. English versin: Essay on the True A rt o f
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em brace to each o f us. W hen yo u reach m y ag e, he said,
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anything can happen any time; I am prepared for it, So I lo ve all Boult, Sir Adrin, Casals as Conductor, Music and Letters, vol. IV, April 1923.
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Las Memorias de Pablo Casals as told toThomas Dozier, Life en Espaol, 4
May, 18 May, I June 1959.
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1948. Report conceming a Germn music school to be established at Munich .
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, Letter to his sister, 24 March 1770; Letter to his Trans. E. Dannreuther, includedin On Conducting, Reeves, London 1940.
father, 26 September 1781. Mozart: Briefe und Aufzeichnungen Gesamtausgabe, Letzte Bitte an meine lidien Genossen. Bayreuth, 13 August 1876. Reproduced
vols 1 and 3. Ed. W. A. Bauer and O. E. Deutsch, Barenreiter, Kassel in Wagner by Hans Mayer, Rowohlt, Hamburg 1959.
1963. ber das Dirigiren.. 1869. English versin: On Conducting. ed. cit.
Nettl, Paul, Beethoven Encyclopedia. Philosophical Library, New York 1936. Walter, Bruno, Von der Mwstfe und vomMusizieren. Fisciier, Frankfurt 1 9 5 7 -
Quantz, JohannJoachim, Versuch einer Anweisung die Flote traversiere zu spelen. English versin: O f Music and Music-Making. Trans. P. Hamburger, Faber,
Berln 1752. Transladons to which the author has referred: On Playing the London 1961.
 IN D E X TO M U SIC A L W O RKS

BACH.J. S. cont. A major, Op. 69

Suites cont.
3rdmvt., 22, 56,37. 76
V ioloncello Solo cont. Finale, 47, 48, 93, 03
N o . 1, G m ajor, 141 C major, Op. 102, No. 1
IN D E X TO M U SICAL W O R K S Prelude, 146 ist mvt., 39, 35
A llem ande, 142, 143 Finale, 49, 84, 118
C ourante, 146,147 D major, Op. 102, No. 2
Page numbers in talic indcate musical quotations. ist mvt., 12, 78, 84,126
M enuet, 21, 22, I42n.
N o . 2, D m inor, 141142 2nd mvt., 76, 81, 99, 118,
Prelude, 22, 82 136, 137
BACH.J. S. istmvt., 27, 113 Sarabande, 123 3rd mvt., 6, 78,79 _
Brandenburg Concertos 3rd mvt., 2 9 ,3 4 ,3 5 , 94-93 M enuet, 123, I42n. Symphonies
No. 2, ist mvt., 94 No. 3, G minor N o . 3, C m ajor, 141 No. 2, 2nd mvt., 34, 63,120, 121
No. 3 ,2nd mvt., 155 ist mvt., 148,149 Prelude, 129, 141 No. 3 (Eroica), 138
No. 4, ist mvt., 161,162 3rdmvt.,jo C ourante, 143 ist mvt., 42, 116
2ndmvt., 162 Violin Solo, No. 1, G minor Sarabande, 1 22, 123 3rd mvt., 10
3rd mvt., 160, 162, 163 ist mvt., 154 B ourre, I42n., 144 No. 4, ist mvt., 37, 96, 98, 99,
No. 5, ist mvt., 117 Violin and Clavier, No. 3, G igue, 1 4 5 , 14b, 163 9
3rd mvt., 59 E major N o . 4, Eb m ajor, 142 2nd mvt., 3, 6, 11, 23, 66, 69,
No. 6, 2ndmvt. , 42, 124, 125 3rd mvt., 133 Prelude, 130,142, 33 70,71
Cantatas, 140 Suites A llem ande, 142 4th mvt., 37,57
No. 110, Unser Mund sei voll Orchestra, 139 N o . 5, C m inor No. 6 (Pastoral), xiii, 5, 85n.,
Lacheas, i54n. No. 1, Ouverture, 9 P relude, 68, n o , 111, 130, 164-16S, 207
No. 146, Wir mssen durch viel No. 2, Ouverture, 112,130 31, 142, 144 ist mvt., 163180
Trbsal, 131152 Sarabande, 42 Sarabande, 107, 108, 142, 163 2ndmvt., 180190
Concertos Polonaise, 139 N o . 6, D m ajor 3rd mvt., 190193
Clavier (or Violin), D minor No. 3, Ouverture, 136,137,138 Prelude, 141 4th m vt., 193-197
2ndmvt., 130,13 j, 152 No. 4, Ouverture, 134, 135 W ell-T em pered C lavier, 209 5th mvt., 198-207
Violin, A minor, istmvt., 119 Violoncello Solo, 13, 18,68, 101, First P relude, 143 No. 8, ist mvt., 43, 46, 47, 52,
Mass in B minor, 1 34n., 140 114, 136, 163 BEETHOVEN ,
33, 77, 7 8 88,94n.
Passions, 163 Casals discovery of, 140-141 Concertos 3rd mvt., 38
St. Matthew, 139, I32n. character of suite established Piano, N o . I, 3td m vt., 72, 73 4th mvt., 34,112
Blute nur, du liebes H erz, 132, inprelude, 141142 N o . 4, ist m vt., 41 No. 9, istmvt., 208, 209
53 continuity of tempo, 146 2nd m vt., 72 Trio, Bb major, Op. 97
Ach, nun ist mein Jess hin, 73 dance rhythms, 143-147 3rd m vt., 119 2nd mvt., 73
Sonatas dynamic inflections, 142143 T riple, O p . 36, 2nd m v t., 132 3rd mvt. ,'61
Viola da Gamba harmonic considerations, 107 Sonatas BOCCHERINI
No. i,G major 108, 122-123,142n., 143 Piano, O p. 106 (Hammerklavier) Concert, Violoncello, Bb major
istmvt., 26 27, 134 linear polyphony, 143144 ist m vt., 78 xiii-xiv
2nd mvt., 133, 36 sarabandes, 123,146 V ioloncello ist mvt., 81, 113
3rdmvt., 126 variety in bowing textures, F m ajor, O p . 5, N o . 1 2nd mvt., 28,128
No. 2, D major 144-147 ist m vt., 23,63 3rd mvt., 118, 119
2I C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N 217
IN D E X T O M U S IC A L W O R K S
Sonata, Violoncello, No. 6, No. 43 (Farewell), 2ndmvt., 7 M O ZART, W . A.cont. Unfinished, ist mvt., 6 6 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 5
A major No. 94 (Surprise), 6-7 Symphoniescont. Trio, Bb major, Op. 99
2nd mvt., 6o 2ndmvt.,93 No. 38 (Prague) 2nd mvt., 67
BRAHMS No. 93,6 ist mvt., 62 SCHUMANN
Concert, Double, Op. 102 ist mvt. 54 Finale, 92 Adagio andAllegro, Op. 70
3rd mvt., 89 3rd mvt. 93 No. 39, ist mvt., 28, 404 1, 46, ist mvt., 106
Quartet, Bb major, Op. 67, 209 No. 101 (Clock), istmvt. 79. 4 8 , 99, 100 2nd mvt., 2 6 ,8 3
Sonatas, Violoncello LA LO 2nd mvt., 10 , 15, 16, 17, 3 1 , 79 Concert, Violoncello, 34
E minor, Op. 38 Concert, Violoncello 3rd mvt., 94 ist mvt., 3, 4, 27, 29, 43, 6 7 , 82,
ist mvt., 24, 3 2 , 3 8 ,3 9 , 6 1, 63, 2nd mvt. 1 2 4thmvt., 116 97, 102,106,120
67,115, 27 LO CATELLI No. 40, ist mvt., 7, 8 ,3 9 , 40, 43, 3rd mvt., 24,5 8 ,91
2ndmvt., 97 Sonata, Violoncello, D major 46, 64, 104 , 103, 115, i 6 , Fantasiestcke, Op. 73
3rdmvt., 1112, 131 istmvt., 12 1 12 0 ,12 7 3rd mvt., 1 1 7
F major, Op, 99 M ENDELSSOHN 2nd mvt., 2 5 , 3 1 , 4 3 , 74 FnfStcke imVolkston, Op. 102
ist mvt., 72 Symphony No. 4 (ltalian) 3rd mvt., 94 No. 1, 73
2ndmvt., 1 1 4 istmvt., 3 3 , 66, 68 4th mvt., 63 No. 2, 80
3rd mvt., 83, 89, 90 2nd mvt., 59 No. 4i,2ndmvt 1 1 No. 3, 80
4-thmvt., 13 3 3fdmvt., 44, 45, 6 1, 62, 7 4 -7 5 SAINT-SAENS Symphony No. 4
Variations, St. Antotti, 90 M O ZART, W . A. Concert, Violoncello, A minor ist mvt., 2 3 ,3 6 - 3 7 ,5 8
COUPERIN, F. Concertos 5,51,87, 131 3rd mvt., 1 1 7
Pieces enConcert, Air de Diable, 73 Flute, G major, 2nd mvt., 75 SCHUBERT 4th mvt., 84, 8 5 , 1 1 3
DVORAK
Piano, Eb major, K. 271 Symphonies W AG N ER
Concert, Violoncello, 4,98 2nd mvt., 92 No. 4, 2nd mvt.,5 9 , 1 2 1 Siegfried Idyl!, 2, 3, 27, 28, 30, 63,
ist mvt., 4, 43, 34,5 3, 57, 64, 86, Eb major, K. 482 No. 5, ist mvt., 65 97
87, 88, 98, n o , 123, 12 4 , 12 7 , 2nd mvt., 92
i29n., 137 The Marriage o f Fgaro, Act III,
2nd mvt., 1 1 , 3 2 , 72, 8687, 98, 209
120 Quartet, Eb major, K. 428
3rd mvt., 4, 5 4 ,5 6 ,98 ist mvt., 105
ELGAR
Sinfona Concertante, K. 364
Concert, Violoncello, 12-13, 18 2nd mvt., 92
ist mvt., 33, 36 Symphonies
3rd mvt., 13 No. 29, ist mvt., 91
4th mvt., 13, 74 2ndmvt., 1 1 3
HAYDN
4th mvt., 91, 92
Concert, Violoncello, D major, 6 No. 33,49
ist mvt., 32, 33, 48, 56, 82, x13, No. '33 (Haffner)
12 7 istmvt., 54
2nd mvt., 19, 20, 26 2nd mvt., 93
3rd mvt., 93 3rd mvt., 94
Symphonies No. 36 (Linz)
No. 44 (Mourning), 7 istmvt., 22, 23,92
 G E N ER A L INDEX 21 9

Boult, Sir Adrin, xii short noces/ornaments, 56,58-60,

Bowing 75. 170
attack, 51,78, 110-113, 147 syncopations, 62-63,157-158
bow as servant of music, 110, 121 bringing economy to a subsequent
GENERAL IND EX crescendo, 23, 31, 63, 157-158,
change of bow stroke
on long notes, 114 160, 169-170
while preserving legato, 4 2 -4 3 . 1 H. going to the infinite, 117-120, 166
181, 198-199 lightening long accompaniment notes,
relatedness to vibrato, 134-137 61-62
repeated notes, variety in, 115117 note endings, 117120, 166, 168, 183,
Agogic accents, 81 his art tone colour, its relation to speed, pres- 206-207
examples in various contexts, 16, 24- sure, placement of bow, 120121, gradation o f phrase endings, 64-66,
analogy to Shakespeare, 148
25, 353*5, 8183, 181, 183, 185 dancing and singing elements, 154 136-137, 181,203 184, 185,188, 191
Appogiature variety in textures, 109-110, 113, 144 gradation o f long diminuendi, 176,
156,160, 161,162, 199
articulation of, 114113 145, 147, 155, 156-158, 160
distinctive character o f themes, 148- 185, 196-197
dual impulse, examples of, 29 see also Articulation Donington, Roben, I59n.
158,160-163
expressive significance of, 39, 83, 102, o f c o n t r a p u n t a l v o ic e s , 1 5 5 , 1 5 6 - Brahms, Johannes Dynamic nuances, their relevance in
130,152153 tempo related to unit of musical pulse, various contexts
158,161
phrase continuity, 29, 42-43
e x p r e s s io n r e la te d t o t e x t , 1 5 2 - 1 5 3 89-91 general guiding principies, 20-21
Articulation on Bach Gesellschaft, 139 long notes, 20, 26-29, 41, 4647, 173,
tr a n s fo r m a t io n of in stru m e n ta l
o f accents, 50-55, 63, 163, 174, tpi, British Broadcasting Corporation, 146
W o rk s in t o c a n ta ta s, 1 5 1 1 5 2 , 177, 206
192,200-201 Brueghel, Pieter, the Eider, 192
I54n. melodic curve, some typical examples,
analogy to speech, 50-52, 55,63
its expressive range, 140-141, 163 15-16, 20-26, 33-37, 39-41. 46-49,
of appoggiature, 114-115
national styles, 153154 Cardus, Sir Neville, 12-13 142-143, 149153, 154-158, 167-168,
bringing melodic notes into relief, 171,
variety o f colour, 145 Chartres Cathedral, 8889 169-170, 175-176, 179-180, 184-185,
179,182 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 92
interpretation o f his woiks 202
of repeated notes, 56-58, 117, 183, 197
Casals conceptions vs. prevalent at- Chekhov, Antn, 100 range o f forte/piano, 20, 21, 28, 55
o f short notes/omaments, following
titudes, 141,145, i5!, 153 Chiaroscuro, 60 relativity of dynamics, 6567, 187
long notes, within legato slur, 56,
Casals flexibility, 159-160, 162-163 Ch i-yun, 12, 14 repetitions in music, 20, 21, 151
58-61, 63, 75, 168, 170, 174, 182, Chopin, Frdric, xii, 153 analogy to speech, 29,49
183, 190-191, 193, 196 comparison with interpretation o
Chopins music, 153 rubato of, 85 note repetitions, 20, 21, 30-31, 41,
oftrills, 123-124,177, 182
dotted rhythms, 159 Chords 151, 154,157-158,168,183
see also Bowing: attack; Finger per- building of, 122123 phrase repetitions/sequences, some
histrica) misunderstandings sui
cussion; First note; Left-hand piz variety in interpreting, 123 typical examples, 20-22, 32-37,
rounding Bacb interpretation,
zicato Couperin, Francos
138-141 39, 45-46, 147, 150-153. 157-158,
see also Index to Musical Works: Ba on rhythmic flexibility, 8on. 162, 183, 184
Bach, Anna Magdalena, 160 on notation, 70 see also Phrase spans
Suites, Violoncello Solo
Bach, Cari Philipp Emanuel, xi Cramer, Cari Friedrich, l8n. see also Diminuendo
Barbirolli, Sirjohn, 129
on dotted rhythms in triplet passages, Bartk, Bla, 107 Czerny, Cari, xii
59n.
Beethoven, Ludwig van, xii on Beethovens playing, 72-73 Eighteenth-century performing practice
dynamic nuances in his performance, bowing, 145
love of nature, 164
i8n. Schumann on, 181 Diminuendo lack of expressive markings in scores, 7,
on expression, 18 as bringing clarity to: 15-18, 49, 142
Berg, Alban, 107
on rubaro, 8on., 8jn. accents, 50-55,63, 163, 174, 191, 192, dotted rhythms, 71, I59n.
Bcrgonzi-Gofriiler cello, 133
Bach.Johann Sebastian, 3, 208, 209 200-201 dynamic nuances, 1718
Boccherini, Luigi,6
repeated notes, 5*5-57. 183 expressivity, 7, 1718, I5in.
 220 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F I N T E R P R E T A TI O N GENERA L INDEX 22!

rubato, 8on., 8in., 82, 85 Haydn,Joseph Metric articulation cont. Quantz, JohannJoachim, xi
see also C. P. E. Bach, Couperin, expressive range, 6-7 interplav o f melodic and metric factors, on dotted rhythms in triplet passages,
Geminiani, L. Mozart, W . A. vitality, 93 87-88,155 15911.
Mozart, Quantz, Tartini, Tos Hseih Ho, r melodic priorities: avoiding bar-line on dynamic nuance, 18
Einstein, Alfred, 137 accents, typical examples, 23, 167-
Elgar, SirEdward, 13 Illuminated manuscripts, 67-68 168 Reoccurrence o f a theme, 172, 177, 201
Extensions, 129-130 Intonation see also Bach, J. S., his art: dancing and 202
bow pressure and, 109 singing elements Rests, 98-100
Festival Casals Orchestra o f Puerto Rico, equal-tempered, 102-105, 107-109 Miller, Frank, 9 Rhythm
xi, 160-163, 164 expressive intonation, 102109, 132 Mozart, Leopold, xii melodic influence on short notes, 76,159
Fingering gravitational attractions within a on dotted rhythms, 7 1 natural rhythms
1-23 System, 130n. tonality, 103-108 on dynamic nuance, 1 7 concisin in note groupings, 7279.
o f open strings, 106 open strings and, 106 on expression, 7n., 17 155156, 166167, 188189, 191
release after playing, 129, 130-131 semitones, 103-108 on rubato, 82 dotted, innate vitality of, 15, 70-72,
semitone shifts, 132 delayed resolutions, 106,107,108 spiritoso defined, 92n.
74-76,159
fingering of, 132 M ozart, W olfgang Amadeus, xii
use o f stronger fingers, 131132 Ritardandi, balance in , 8687
see also Extensions; Left hand speed of, 106-107 adm iration for Bach, 139
Rococo style, 6 ,8i
Finger percussion, 128-129, 166-167, 170 string performance with keyboard, 109 on expression, 7
Rontgen, Julius, xii
First note trills, 124 rubato of, 85 Rousseau, Jean, I45n.
articulation tuning procedures, 109 tem pi, 91-94 Routine, avoidance of, xiv, 38, 132, 159
bow, n o -ri3 , 147, 154155 Israel Festival Youth Orchestra, 49
160
left hand, 128129 Nature, its kinship with music, 18-19 Rubato
Jeans, Sir James, 55n.
expressiv significance of, 4, 25-26, 35, Notation, limitations of, xiv, 6971 applicable to any period, 79-81
51, 67-68, 82, 91-92, 110-113, 147, Kreisler, Fritz, 109 determined by character of the given
'54-155, 165,181, 183 Ornaments, expressive significance of,
work, 80-81
vitality of phrase beginnings, 68, 111- Lamoureux Orchestra, xii 6 3 6 4 , l 8 l , l 8 8
extending over phrase, 8384
112, 166-167, '73. 174-175, '76, 180, Left hand see tilso Articulation: of sHort notes/or- extending over longer section, 96-97
185, 200, 2or, 203 changes o f position, 130-131, 132 naments fantasy with order, 85-86
Fonteyn, Dame Margot, 85 left-hand pizzicato, 129 Orquestra Pau Casals, xii applications of, 8189, 95, 97. 98.
Fox Strangways, Arthur Henry, 9on. suppleness, 128-133, '35 143, 146, 149, 186-187, 206
Furtwangler, Wilhelm, 148 see also Extensions; Fingering; Finger Passage w ork\ 47 49 rhythmic anticipation, 84-85, 186-187
percussion, Vibrato Phrase endings, expressive culmination see also Agogic accents
Geminiani, Francesco Lehmann, Lotte, 24, 128 of, 10, 11,64
on dynamic nuances, 17 Liszt, Franz, xii see also Diminuendo: gradation of
describes Chopins rubato, 85 phrase endings Saint-Saens, Camille, 5
on bowing, 1450.
on notation, 70 Phrase spans Schubert, Franz, 111
Glissando Schumann, Clara, 3
London Symphony Orchestra, xii interconnection of musical elements,
Casals usage, 125128 Schumann, Elisabeth, 128
42-43, 189-190, 198
bringing variety to phrase Schmann, Robert
Marlboro Festival Orchestra, xii, 61, separation o f musical elements due to
repetitions, 127 account of mental distress, 3
154-155, i63n., 164 motivic delineation, 3741. 44-4*5.
as expressive bridge, 126 on Beethoven, 181
Memling, Hans, 101 48, 143-144. '47. 152. 156-158. '66,
orchestral, 127
Mendelssohn, Flix 167, 171, 180, 184 expressive accents in, 3-4, 113
taste in, 127
and Bach revival, 139 variants, 4445 on inner measure, 91
Crove's Dictionary o/Musicand Musicans, 80 rubato in works of, 80, 97
Casals love of, 44n. Portamento, see Glissando
Metric articulation, 83, 93, 147, 192, 199- Prades Festival Orchestra, xii, 15-16, 160, Schweitzer, Albert, 139
Haldane, Lord, 70 200, 203, 204 i 6 3 n. Serkin, Rudolf, 41
222 CASALS AND THE ART OF IN TE R PR ET A T IO N

Sforzando: varied in expression accord- Trills

ing to musical context, examples of, 3- articulation of, 123-124, 177, 182
4, 41, 113, 175, 192, 202 baroque, 124-125
Shakespeare, William distinctive character of each, 123-124
Hamlet, 45, 138, 148 dynamic nuance, 123,182
Ktng Lear, 29, 148 expressive signifcance of, 125
Richard 111, 50,52 intonation of, 124
Shaw, George Bemard, i8n., 140 speed related to musical context, 123
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, xv, 190 Tutti passages, 4547, 174,194-195
Slow-motion practising, 101102, 108
Stage-fright, 209 Variety, essential to performance (main
Stravinsky, Igor, 7911. references), 18, 21, 29, 55, 63, 109-110,
Suspensions 161-162
dual impulse, examples of, 28, 16211. Vaughan Williams, Ralph, 70
phrase continuity, 42-43, 160 Vibrato
Syncopations, 6263, 79, 94, 102, 130, direction o f motion, I35n.
G2-153. 157. I9d expressive variety of, 134137, 188
register, I35n.
Tartihi, Giuseppe, 14511. relatedness to bowing, 134137
Tempo speed of, 135
modifications, 95-97 string performance with keyboard, 134
overall proportions, 8889, 98 taste and discretion in, 5, 133137, 188
as related to unit of musical pulse, 77, width of, 135
89-95, Hd, 149, 162, 190-191, 192, Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, xii, 38
193-194, 199, 203 Vocal art, its kinship with instrumental
six-eight time, 89-90,91-92,93, 199, performance, 6, 48
202 crest of phrase, 2324, 49
Tone Colour glissando, 128
bowing factors contributing to, 120- rubato, 81
121, 136-137,181, 203
purity, factors conditioning, 137 Wagncr, Cosima, 2
use o f A string, 137 Wagner, Richard, xii
use of open strings, 137 on clarity, 58
variety in, 21, 24, 109, 136-137 on interpretation of Mozart, 1617
see also Vibrato polemics against, 139
Toscanini, Arturo, 9, 97n. on tempo modification, 95n.
T os, Pier Francesco, 81 n. Walter, Bruno, 71,97
Tremolo, expressive signifcance of, Weber, Cari Maria von, 80
116 Wilde, Oscar, i8n., 138