Dust Explosion Hazard Guide PDF

SAFETY GUIDE
A strategic guide to characterization and understanding

Handling Dusts and Powders Safely
1
Content
Introduction 3
Handling Dusts and Powders Safely 3
Where to Start? 5
What are the Conditions for a Fire or Explosion? 5
Establish a Basis Of Safety 6
What do you Already Know? 7
Explosive Properties Evaluation 9

Explosivity Analysis 10
STOP! Where do we go next? 11
Dust Explosion Analysis 13

Dust Explosion Screening 14
Ignition Sensitivity 15
Flammable Limits (Dust Cloud) 16
Explosion Severity 16
Special Cases 17
Fire Analysis 19
Thermal Stability Analysis 21

Thermal Stability Screening 22
Testing for Potential Decomposition Reactions 22
Testing for Potential Oxidation Reactions 23
Equipment Specific Test Recommendations 25
Summary 27
Multi Powder Screening 28
Appendix - Test Descriptions 31

A.1 The Chilworth Technology Approach To Testing 31
A.2 Group Go / NoGo Classification Test - Explosibility Test 32
A.3 Minimum Ignition Energy Test (MIE) 33
A.4 Minimum Ignition Temperature Test (Cloud) 34
A.5 Minimum Ignition Temperature Layer (MIT Layer) 35
A.6 Dust Explosion Severity Test (20 Litre Sphere Test) 36
A.7 Limiting Oxygen Concentration Test (LOC) 37
2006-2013 Chilworth Technology Ltd - All rights reserved A.8 Minimum Explosible Concentration (MEC) in the 20 litre sphere 38
First published in the UK in 2006 by Chilworth Technology Ltd. A.9 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 39
Second edition in 2013 by Chilworth Technology Ltd. A.10 Carius (10 g) Tube Screening Test 40
Beta House, Southampton Science Park, Southampton, Hampshire, SO16 7NS, UK A.11 Diffusion Cell Screening Test 41
Tel: +44 (0)23 8076 0722 - Fax: +44 (0)23 8076 7866 -
Email: info-uk@chilworthglobal.com - Website: www.chilworthglobal.com A.12 Aerated Cell Screening Test 42
A.13 Air Over Layer Test 43
Acknowledgements: Dr. Stephen Rowe, Dr. Andy Starkie, Mike Weaver
A.14 Determination of Safe Storage Temperatures for Bulk Materials (Basket Tests) 44
Designed and typeset by estiumconcept, France
Chilworth, The backbone of Process Safety within the DEKRA 45
2 1
Introduction
Risk assessment for the safe handling of dusts and powders This methodology can be applied to most foreseeable process
can be far more challenging than that of flammable liquids and situations.
gases which is often viewed as relatively straightforward. This is
The booklet begins by explaining the conditions for a fire and what
generally because the relationship between the operating process
conditions may arise in the workplace to convert this process
Basis Of Safety and the physical properties data for safe handling
into an explosion. We go on to describe what consideration
of dusts and powders are not always fully understood. Historically,
should be given to establishing a safe operating environment by
there is also a greater awareness amongst operating staff of the
establishing an operating Basis Of Safety and then what safety
risk of fire and explosion from flammable liquids and gases.
data is needed to verify and confirm the key assumptions that
Many people are surprised when they first hear that there can be underpin the chosen Basis Of Safety.
a significant risk of fire and explosion from processing apparently
Some of the data required to verify a Basis Of Safety may already
innocuous materials such as powdered sugar, aluminium powder
exist in the form of Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS or SDS)
and even aspirin. Process engineers, however, have long been
or existing test reports at the operating site. If this information
aware of the hazards and risks involved with processing these
is not available, then a suitable strategy needs to be put in place
types of materials and the measures, procedures and training
to determine the explosive properties of any materials being
that must be in place in order to operate a safe site. As new
handled. One such strategy developed by Chilworth Technology
materials are developed, engineers must constantly challenge
over many years of working with the process industry is outlined
safety assumptions and provide sound risk assessments on
within this booklet.
how material (and any dust/fines generated during processing
or mixing) should be handled and stored. The basis of any risk Many of the most common tests referred to in this guide are
assessment must be an understanding of the physical properties described in detail within the Appendix of Test Descriptions
of the material being handled. section at the back of the booklet.
The aim of this guide is to provide a firm foundation to the This booklet is published by Chilworth Technology Inc. and
evaluation of flammable powders and dusts across all industries, written by a team of process safety specialists. Their joint
with the objective of helping operating companies minimize experience provides over 150,000 man-hours of industrial
fire & explosion risk. In the following pages we will develop a process safety expertise distilled into clear concise guidance
strategy for the evaluation of fire hazards, dust explosion hazards on the safe handling of combustible dusts and powders.
and thermal stability hazards associated with these materials.
Handling Dusts and Powders Safely

Fires in layers of powder, dust explosions and the decomposition of Occupational Safety and health Administration, OSHA under
thermally unstable powders can have dramatic and catastrophic its General Dusty Clause has held sites (after National
consequences when encountered in industrial situations. If not Emphasis Program inspections) to best practices as described
effectively identified and adequately assessed, with the risk in numerous National Fire Protection Association, NFPA,
either prevented or controlled, these hazardous situations can standards including:
lead to major loss of containment with resulting impact on the
>NFPA 68 Guide for Venting of Deflagrations.
manufacturing company. For example:
>NFPA 69 Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems.
>Loss of life or personal injury >NFPA 77 Recommended Practice on Static Electricity.
>Loss or devaluation of assets, >NFPA 499 Recommended Practice for the Classification of
>Negative publicity, Combustible Dusts and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations
>Loss of shareholder confidence and devaluation of the company, for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas.
>Loss of production capacity and potentially market share, and >NFPA 654 Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust
>Fines from regulatory authorities/Compensation claims Explosions from the Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling
from individuals. of Combustible Particulate Solids.
When working with any manufacturing process, it is always In addition, sites covered by the 29 CFR 1910.119 Process
necessary to establish the hazards associated with its operation. Safety Management (PSM) standard are required to collect and
This is most prominent with issues such as machine guards, document hazards of the process including fire, explosion and
tripping or slippery floors etc. but there could also be flammable the release of toxic agents or hazardous energies. Dust explosion
materials present or a chemical reaction that may go out of hazards must be included in most elements of PSM.
control. These hazards are normally recognized when using
The guide does not cover other topics such as occupational
common flammable liquids such as methanol and ethanol or
exposure or environmental issues (e.g. toxicity and eco-toxicity)
flammable gases such as propane, butane or hydrogen but what
nor does it detail process safety management practices or
about dust clouds, such as those formed from food ingredients
equipment selection.
(sugar, flour, etc.) or pharmaceutical products (aspirin,
paracetamol, etc.)? Do these constitute a hazard? The answer is
probably yes, as more than 70% of powders handled in industry
are recognized as being flammable.
2 3
Where to Start?
What are the Conditions for a Fire or Explosion?

Most people are familiar with the fire triangle. This encapsulates If the fuel is intimately mixed with the oxidant (e.g. in a gas cloud
the message that for a fire to occur, three components must be or in a finely divided dust cloud), the rate of combustion increases
present simultaneously. The fuel can be a gas (e.g. ethylene), a significantly and the combustion process can be complete within
vapor (e.g.methanol) or a dust (e.g. flour). The oxidant is most 10s of milliseconds. This phenomenon is responsible for the
usually oxygen in air although other oxidants can be effective in marked difference between the burning of a lump of coal and
supporting combustion (e.g. chlorine or nitric oxide). The ignition the rapid combustion associated with a coal dust cloud ignition.
source can be a spark, a naked flame, or elevated temperature
If the final ingredient of confinement is added to the equation,
(causing autoignition).
with intimately mixed fuel and oxidant, then the conditions exist
for an explosion the rapid release of stored energy. Under
confined conditions, this can lead to elevated pressures of
Conditions for a Fire typically up to 10 bar(g) (although some powders are capable
of attaining higher than this).
Conditions for an Explosion
Fuel Oxidant
Mixing Oxidant
Ignition source Fuel Confinement
In a fire, the fuel and the oxidant are separate and need to be
present at appropriate concentrations (i.e. within the flammable Ignition source
range) and the ignition source must have sufficient energy to
ignite the prevailing fuel / oxidant mixture. The duration of a
fire, in an open air environment, is typically dictated by the time
taken for the fuel to be consumed (i.e. completely oxidized). In
The safe processing of flammable materials (dusts, gases or
the combustion of solid materials such as coal or wood, the rate
vapors) is facilitated by either preventing the conditions required
of combustion is dictated by diffusion processes which restrict
for an explosion to occur, or protecting the process and personnel
the rate that oxygen can access the remaining fuel. Depending
from the effects of any such explosion. The combination of
on the size of the fuel, the combustion process can take hours
measures required to achieve such safe conditions is referred to
to complete.
as the Basis Of Safety.
4 5
Establish a Basis Of Safety What do you Already Know?
In order to define a suitable Basis Of Safety for any industrial > Avoidance of Ignition Sources When assessing the flammability or thermal stability hazards
process that may have the potential to produce explosive dust > Knowing the ignition sensitivity of the powder and ensuring of any potentially combustible powder, the most appropriate
atmospheres, it is necessary to evaluate the flammability of that no potential source of ignition of sufficient energy to starting point is to evaluate what is already known about the
the dust, its potential to form a dust cloud, its sensitivity to ignite the dust cloud exists in the process. material. Substantial information can be gained from:
ignition from the full range of ignition sources that may exist, its
> Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS or SDS)
explosion limits and explosion severity. Potential bases of safety > Protection
that can then be considered for dust explosion risks include: This should include data on physico-chemical properties
> Explosion venting
such as melting point, boiling point, decomposition behavior,
> Prevention > Explosion suppression vapor pressure, oxidising capability, explosive properties
> Avoidance of the formation of flammable atmospheres > Explosion containment and flammability. However whilst most of the gas and vapor
flammability hazards are routinely addressed by the contents
> Operation outside of the flammable range (normally below The overall strategy for assessing the dust explosion hazards
of an MSDS, the properti es of du strong indication that the
the Minimum Explosive Concentration, MEC) of a powder is summarized in Figure 1. Each of the boxes is
material will exhibit thermal instability. In terms of dust
> Operation in an environment where the oxygen content is described in more detail throughout this section of the guide.
explosion hazards, it would be expected that any organic
below the lowest oxygen concentration necessary to support powder (i.e. any powder containing significant carbon and
combustion (inerting) hydrogen) would be potentially flammable.
A strategy for determining dust explosion, fire risk and
thermal stability characteristics of powders1 is developed
through this guide. The initi al starting point is to evaluate
whether the powder might exhibit explosive characteristics
(i.e. be capable of detonation or rapid deflagration). Any such
Figure 1. Strategy for Dust Explosion Testing material clearly requires identification at the earliest possible
stage of assessment and be subject to rigorous process safety
considerations.
No
Dust Explosion Screening
Can the dust form a cloud? 1
For this document the words: powder and dust are synonymous
Not
Yes Stop Explosion Analysis
flammable
Consider Fire
as a dust
Risk Analysis
Dust Explosion Screening cloud
Consider Thermal
Group Go/NoGo classification Stability Analysis
Flammable
Ignition Sensitivity
MIE (both IEC methods)
MIT
MIT Layer
Flammable Limits Explosion Severity

LOC Pmax
MEC Basis Of Safety Kst
Avoidance of ignition sources
Basis Of Safety Basis Of Safety

Avoidance of flammable Containment
atmospheres Explosion venting
Inerting Explosion suppression
A complete explanation of the figure is given on page 13
6 7
Explosive Properties Evaluation
The preliminary evaluation of explosive properties can (and should) be undertaken well before large scale manufacture commences.
Figure 2. A Process Safety Strategy for Powders
STOP !
Explosive
Potentially
1. Explosive Properties Evaluation 2. Explosivity Analysis
Explosive
Functional group examination DSC screening
Small scale screening tests UN Sensitivity testing
02 Balance / CHETAH calcs See page 10
Not Explosive
Not Explosive
3. Dust Explosion Analysis Fire Analysis 8. Thermal Stability Analysis

See page 13 See page 19 See page 21
A flow diagram for evaluating explosive properties is provided in The small-scale screening need not, in the first instance, be
Figure2. Initial screening methods are set out in Box1 and include: a high precision determination. It is usually sufficient to test a
small quantity of material in an ignition tube or on a spatula
> An examination of the molecular structure looking specifically
and rapidly heat the material to qualitatively assess the
for functional groups which are known to impart explosive
decomposition potential of the material. In order to protect
behavior (e.g. nitro-, peroxy-, chlorate-, azide, etc.),
laboratory personnel and equipment all powder samples
> Thermodynamic calculations and predictions (such as submitted to a test laboratory for any type of physical property
oxygen balance, CHETAH [computer program for Chemical determination should be subjected to this type of small-scale
Thermodynamic and Energy Release Evaluation], etc.), screening analysis.
and / or
> Small-scale screening of the material.
8 9
Explosive Properties Evaluation
Explosivity Analysis STOP! Where do we go next?

If the material is potentially explosive (i.e. if any of the tools above Series3 should be conducted to confirm that the material is not If a material is shown to exhibit significant explosive properties,
indicate a potential for explosive hazards), then a more detailed too sensitive to handle under normal processing conditions. this is not necessarily the end of the road for use or synthesis in
investigation of explosive properties is required (Figure 2 your company. The following options can be considered:
For transportation and classification purposes, tests to evaluate
Box2). This should start with a more detailed thermal stability
the severity of a detonation or rapid deflagration may need to be > Subcontracting synthesis and handling to a specialist third
analysis using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). If the
completed. These tests are again, normally undertaken using the party for the hazardous phases of the process,
DSC results indicate a decomposition energy of >500 J.g-1, then
UN Transport of Dangerous Goods Recommended test methods.
explosion sensitivity tests as given under the United Nations (UN) > Handling the hazardous substance in a sufficiently diluted form
Transportation of Dangerous Goods Recommendations, Tests so that its explosive properties are reduced to an acceptable
level,
> Considering alternative substances or chemical routes which
do not include explosive compounds.
Providing that the material is not unduly sensitive (or capable of
detonation), then further process safety testing may proceed, i.e.
thermal stability and dust explosion analysis.
If a material is not classified as explosive, it may still create an
appreciable fire or dust explosion risk.
Differential Scanning Calorimeter
10 11
Dust Explosion Analysis
Figure 3. Strategy for Dust Explosion Testing
No
3. Dust Explosion Screening
Can the dust form a cloud?
Not
Yes Stop Explosion Analysis
flammable
Consider Fire
as a dust
Risk Analysis
4. Dust Explosion Screening cloud
Consider Thermal
Group Go/NoGo classification Stability Analysis
Flammable
5. Ignition Sensitivity
MIT
MIT Layer
6. Flammable Limits 7. Explosion Severity

LOC Pmax

Avoidance of Containment
flammable atmospheres Explosion venting
In the first instance (Box 3), the critical question that must be Particle size has a huge impact on the flammability, sensitivity
answered is Can the dust form a cloud? This should not be and severity of dust cloud explosions. As a very rough guide,
interpreted as Does the dust form a cloud in the workplace or particles below 500 m should be considered as particularly
equipment?. flammable. When granules or pellets are handled, the potential
for attrition to form fines must be considered. Even if only a few
Under normal operations, it may not be expected that the powder
percent by weight of a powder is fine, this could still be enough
will form a cloud. However, if it is possible that the dust could
to pose a serious dust explosion risk. If the bulk material is
form a flammable cloud then a Basis Of Safety must be selected
disturbed or transferred, the fines will remain suspended long
and applied, which reduces the risk of a dust explosion to one
after the larger particles have deposited. It is crucial that this
that is as low as practicable. Certain process operations such
concept is encompassed in the assessment of flammability
as spray drying, charging of powders into reactors / hoppers /
hazards. All subsequent tests should be performed on the finest
bags / storage containers, pneumatic conveying, milling and
material that can accumulate in the process situation. Testing
blending, etc., inherently involve the formation of dust clouds.
of unrepresentative samples will undoubtedly compromise the
In other operations, the potential may exist through abnormal
validity of the data.
operation (even though the dust does not usually exist in a
cloud). An example might include dust which accumulates in
layers and is disturbed, forming a cloud.
If the dust cannot exist as a cloud (for example, it is sufficiently 2
For solvent damp powders, the flammability properties of the
wetted by water or solvent2 so that it cannot physically form solvent must be considered (even if the dust cannot form a
a dust cloud at any stage in both normal and foreseeable cloud). A Basis Of Safety for the flammable atmosphere should
abnormal circumstances, then no dust explosion hazard exists. still be specified. Data for the dust will be required for processes
In this case, further evaluation may be unnecessary. where the dust is dried and is capable of forming a cloud.
12 13
Dust Explosion Screening Ignition Sensitivity

If a powder is capable of forming a combustible dust cloud then If it is decided to by-pass the Group Go / NoGo screening test In the case of a positive result in the GroupGo / NoGo test (i.e. If the MIE of a powder is very low (typically less than 25mJ), then
there are numerous ways of protecting process and personnel. we would confirm the assumption of flammability, by performing Group Go flammable), the ease with which a powder can be consideration should be given to measuring further electrostatic
In order to determine whether a powder is flammable when a Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE, see appendix A.3) test. This ignited is determined (see Box5 of Figure3). Potential ignition properties of the powder. The three main parameters to
dispersed as a dust cloud as opposed to a powder layer (see data is typically used as part of the process safety assessment sources can include electrostatic discharges, mechanical investigate are:
Box 4) it is usual, in the USA, to perform a Group Go / NoGo for the identification of potential ignition sources especially (grinding/ frictional) sparks or hot surfaces.
> Powder volume resistivity
Classification test (see appendix A.2i), where a material may electrostatic and mechanical discharges (see Figure4).
The Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) is an important parameter This gives an indication of how conducting or insulating a
be classified as Go (flammable) or NoGo (non-flammable).
In the initial stages of the MIE test if it is found that the material when assessing electrostatic or mechanical discharge powder is. Data can also be used for the selection of electrical
In the EU a dust Explosibility test conducted in the 20l sphere
cannot be ignited with a high energy spark discharge, then the incendivity hazards. There are two ways to determine the MIE equipment.
apparatus following the kuhner method is more widely used
test procedure will revert to the Group Go / NoGo test. If after the purely capacitive method or by the addition of an inductor
to assess dust cloud flammability (see appendix A.2ii). > Charge relaxation time
exhaustive testing, the material proves to be NoGo3 (i.e. non- into the circuit (the inductive method). The inductive method
However for most organic materials it can be expected with flammable as a dust cloud), then no further dust cloud testing uses a 1 mH inductor in the ground loop which results in the This is a measurement of how long electrostatic charge will
a reasonable degree of confidence that the powder will be is required, although consideration must be given to thermal extended duration of the spark discharge. The IEC 61241-2- take to relax to safe levels and is used with resistivity and
flammable. The above screening tests are therefore sometimes stability and fire risk. 3, EN 13821 and ASTM E2019 standards for determining the chargeability data for an overall electrostatic hazard and
bypassed (for mixtures of flammable (organic) and non- MIE of dust / air mixtures allow both options depending on the problem assessment.
flammable materials this assumption is not necessarily true application of the data.
> Chargeability
and the test should be conducted).
Generally, the inductive method produces lower MIEs than the This identifies how easily a powder can accumulate
capacitive method. MIEs determined by the inductive method may electrostatic charge. It provides data on the electrostatic
be used in combination with the Minimum Ignition Temperature charge magnitude and polarity when the powders are conveyed
of the cloud (MIT, see appendixA.4) for determining the hazards along standard materials such as steel and plastic pipes. The
associated with various types of impact spark arising from data is useful for identifying high charging scenarios that may
Figure 4. Guide to Electrostatic Precautions for Powders mechanical action. However, the purely capacitive discharge lead to ignition sources being present during a conveying
method must be used for electrostatic hazard assessment. The operation. The information can also be used to solve non-
MIE method employed should be specified and agreed prior to safety related conveying problems such as powder hang-up,
commencement of testing. sticking or poor mixing as a result of excessive electrostatic
MIE (mJ)
Interpretation of MIE data is critical in assigning an appropriate charge generation.
500 Low sensitivity to ignition. Ground equipment when ignition energy is at or below this level.
Basis Of Safety. Figure 4 sets out the generally accepted It should always be the case that ignition sensitivity information
50 Consider grounding personnel when ignition energy is at or below this level
precautions that might be expected to be employed based on for the powder is known for powder handling operations both
ignition energy alone. inside process process and the workplace. Only these data will
25 The majority of ignition is below this level. The hazard from electrostatic discharges from dust clouds should be considered. Where powders have a high MIE, then it may be possible to allow identification of all ignition sources that are capable of
implement avoidance of ignition sources as a sole Basis igniting the cloud and precautions taken accordingly. As well
10 High sensitivity to ignition. Take above precautions and consider restrictions on the use of high resistivity materials as MIE, the sensitivity of the dust to ignition from hot surfaces
Of Safety, providing supplementary data are obtained on,
(plastics). Electrostatic hazard from bulk powders of high resistivity should be considered.
for example: the Minimum Ignition Temperature (MIT) and (including mechanical and electrical equipment) should be
the Minimum Ignition Temperature Layer (MIT Layer, see determined.
1 Extreme sensitivity to ignition. Precautions should be as for flammable liquids and gases when ignition energy is at
or below this level. appendix A.5) and a thorough hazard and risk assessment is Two tests are performed to evaluate the sensitivity to ignition
undertaken. from hot surfaces - the Minimum Ignition Temperature (MIT) of
a dust cloud and the Minimum Ignition Temperature Layer (MIT
(from BS5958-1 (1991) Layer) of a layer of powder (nominally 5 mm). Under the latest
USA standards both tests are required to specify the maximum
surface temperature of enclosure for electrical and non-electrical
3
Group NoGo classification is made if the material cannot be ignited by a high energy spark discharge, glowing hot coil or hot equipment that can be used in potentially hazardous areas.
surfaces at up to 1000C. However, it should be remembered that thermal stability and fire risks still need to be assessed even If a material is found to be sensitive to ignition (i.e. low values of
if a material is classified as Group B in the form of a dust cloud. MIE, MIT or MIT Layer), then avoidance of ignition sources may
not be acceptable as the ultimate Basis Of Safety. In such cases,
ignition sources are identified and minimized as far as possible
but some additional form of explosion prevention or protection
may be required as the ultimate Basis Of Safety.
Minimum Ignition Temperature Test (MIT)

14 15
Flammable Limits (Dust Cloud) Special Cases

For powders, it is particularly difficult to work outside of contained situations (i.e. the inside of vessels) where the oxygen There are some situations which complicate the assessment of > The concentration of fine powder within the bulk of the material.
their flammable concentrations due to their ability to form level can be readily controlled and monitored. When this Basis dust explosion hazards. These include (but are not limited to) It only takes a few percent of fines to form a sizeable dust cloud.
powder layers that could regenerate a dust cloud and the Of Safety is employed, it is necessary to establish the Limiting the use of solvent damp powders and powders which normally In addition it is the fines that will persist in an airborne state if
inherent non-uniformity of concentrations in a dust cloud. The Oxygen Concentration (LOC) below which a dust cloud becomes have a high particle size (e.g. granules, pellets, tablets, etc.). the powder is poured, conveyed or disturbed.
lower flammable limit of the powder or Minimum Explosible non-flammable. Without this necessary data, very low levels of A brief discussion of the testing strategy for such materials is
> Whether an accumulation of fine powder can occur during all or
Concentration (MEC) is therefore considered to be of limited oxygen must be established, controlled and monitored. These provided below for guidance.
only specific operations.
use for most practical situations. However, for truly steady- data are usually generated using the T-180 apparatus.
state dust forming processes, ventilation rates can be applied to
If the flammable atmosphere cannot be prevented then the Solvent Damp Powders > The potential of the processing operation to generate fine
ensure that powder concentrations are below the MEC. powder.
avoidance of ignition sources and use of protections (mitigations) For a solvent damp powder, the testing strategy will depend
Normally working under an oxygen depleted atmosphere is the becomes the Basis of Safety (see Box 6 of Figure 3). on the solvent level and physical nature of the powder. If there If fine powder exists or can readily be formed, then the normal
most conventional way of avoiding the presence or formation of is sufficient solvent that the powder cannot form a dust cloud, assessment route for dust explosion hazards should be followed.
flammable atmospheres. Again, this option is only applicable to then the properties of the flammable liquids dominate and If fine powder cannot accumulate under all foreseen processing
the examination of dust explosion properties is only necessary conditions then no further assessment of dust explosion hazards
for handling the dried powder. Therefore, the flammability of is required (providing the larger material has been found not to be
the solvent under processing conditions should be assessed dust explosive).
Explosion Severity and if necessary characterized and a Basis Of Safety applied
accordingly.
Dust cloud explosion test standards all dictate the maximum
particle size of material that should be tested. For example, the EN
Where preventative measures alone cannot be used as a Basis Note: Although solvent damp powder may not be capable of method for determination of MIE dictates that the test should be
Of Safety some form of dust explosion protection is required to forming a dust cloud, during processing powder may become performed on powder with a particle diameter of less than 63m.
ensure the safety of equipment and process operations. dryer due to natural evaporation of the solvent especially when In many cases, this requires some form of preparation (particle
working at elevated temperatures. Pockets of dried dust may size reduction) prior to testing. This may involve mechanical
Explosion protection can be achieved by using: therefore occur in certain areas of the process. milling followed by sieving to yield the correct particle size. Whilst
> Containment this is relatively straightforward for single component powders,
Where a solvent damp powder remains capable of forming such procedures, when applied to blends, can lead to segregation
The equipment must be of suitable strength to prevent rupture a dust cloud, then the following modifications to the normal of the various components. This may ultimately lead to testing
of the vessel in the event of an explosion. procedure for pure dusts is proposed: of an unrepresentative sample. For this reason, particle size
> Explosion pressure relief venting > The MIE should be assumed to be that of the most reduction for blended powders requires careful consideration.
The provision of a weak panel that is sized adequately to sensitive component, usually the solvent - if the powder is
prevent over pressurization of a vessel in the event of an subsequently dried, then the MIE of the powder should be Charging Powders into Flammable Atmospheres
explosion. determined and used for powder handling and processing
When charging powders into flammable atmospheres (e.g.
stages where dry material is present.
> Explosion suppression emptying material from sacks, IBCs or FIBCs into a solvent filled
A protective system which detects and quenches an explosion > The MIT and MIT Layer of the dry powder should be reactor), the electrostatic ignition sensitivity of the solvent usually
before hazardous pressures are attained. determined and the results compared to the Auto-Ignition predominates. Even if the solvent is operating below its flash point
Temperature (AIT) of the solvent - the limiting value should or below the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL), the ignition properties
Whichever of these cases is selected as the proposed Basis Of be the lowest temperature at which ignition could occur of the dust cloud can be affected. When a powder is outside
Safety the key design parameters are calculated using explosion when applied to defining the maximum surface temperature the influence of the solvent vapor then the dust cloud ignition
severity data (see Box 7 of Figure 3). The 20 Litre Sphere test of hot surfaces or enclosures for electrical equipment. sensitivity values (MIE, MIT & MIT Layer) will be required to assess
provides the necessary explosion severity data including, the the ignition risk. Where solvent may be present in the powder,
maximum explosion pressure (Pmax) and the rate of pressure > The LOC and explosion severity (Pmax and Kst) should be
then the solvent influence requires separate consideration.
rise (dP/dt) data expressed as a dust explosion constant (Kst). determined for the damp solid and compared to that of the
The maximum explosion pressure is used for containment design dry powder. Even when a receiving vessel is pre-inerted, the oxygen
and the dust explosion constant is used for the specification of concentration can rise rapidly during manual powder charging.
Minimum Ignition Temperature Layer Test (MIT Layer)
pressure relief venting or suppression system design. Large Particle Size Materials and Blends Working below the LOC is therefore not considered an acceptable
Basis Of Safety unless special powder charging procedures are
A means of preventing explosion propagation (e.g. isolation Many materials whether they be raw ingredients, intermediates
employed which guarantee that the atmosphere in the vessel
valves) are always required with explosion protection measures or finished products are often processed as granules or pellets
remains inert. Such measures may include the use of a dual valve
and have to be considered in the hazard and risk assessment. rather than as finely divided powder. In such cases the question
powder charging mechanism where the powder is pre-inerted
can the material form a dust cloud? becomes particularly
prior to charging. For further information on the hazards of
important. The propensity to form a dust cloud should be based
charging powders, please see the Chilworth document A Guide
on a consideration of:
to Process Safety.
> The friability of the powder i.e. how easily the material
forms dust by attrition.
16 17
Fire Analysis
The ability of a powder layer to propagate flame or smoulder
Table 1.
throughout its mass needs to be assessed especially where Combustibility Class Table - German Burning Number (BZ)
ignition could spread from a localized source of ignition. The
fire properties of a material are assessed under laboratory 1 - No ignition
conditions using either one of the following tests:
2 - Ignition and rapid extinction
> The Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI) Burning Behavior Test
3 - Local smouldering or burning
This test is performed at both ambient (20C) and elevated
temperature (100C) and provides an indication (by way of a
4 - Propagation of smouldering
Combustibility Class (CC or GermanBZ) number, 1-6) of the
extent to which a localized hot spot will propagate throughout 5 - Propagation of open fire
a given mass of powder. This is the most appropriate test for
process safety applications. 6 - Flash fire
> The EC and UN Flammability of Solids (Burning Rate) Test
This test provides data predominantly for regulatory purposes.
This might mean the definition of a Highly Flammable
classification under EC testing strategy or transportation
classification as a Class 4, division 4.1, Highly Flammable
Solid under the UN test methodology. The data can be also
be used for process safety applications but does not give the
depth of information as that from the VDI Burning Behavior
test. Both the EC and UN tests are performed at ambient
temperature only.
These tests can form a critical part of a hazard and risk
assessment and the results may lead to the specification of fire
suppression systems to mitigate the hazards posed by a high
fire risk material.
VDI Burning Behavior Test Set-up
18 19
Thermal Stability Analysis
In the previous section, the flammability characteristics of dust > Pure molecular decomposition:
clouds and powder layers have been considered. However, With this type of reaction the material decomposes, at a
if products are to be processed at elevated temperature then molecular level, usually generating heat and volatile and/or
consideration must be given to evaluating the safety implications non-condensable decomposition products. This self-reaction
from the bulk storage or drying of powders. Thermal stability data does not require any additional component to proceed and is
for powders are used to define safe operating temperatures for generally relatively unaffected by all environmental conditions
drying applications or where powders are otherwise subjected other than temperature.
to elevated temperatures. The necessary risk assessment must
include data that has been gathered experimentally in order to > Oxidation resulting in self-heating:
confirm a proposed Basis Of Safety for the drying or storage With this type of reaction the material reacts exothermically
application. with its environment. This is not a self-reaction and
specifically requires an oxidant for the reaction to proceed.
It is not uncommon for powders to be processed at elevated
This type of process is highly dependent on environmental
temperatures and then stored often in very large quantities for
conditions such as material particle size, geometry of the
prolonged periods of time. It is therefore essential to understand
process vessel and air availability. Ultimately, this reaction
the thermal stability characteristics of the materials being
generally leads to burning, glowing or combustion (with
processed and stored, together with the operating conditions
flame) of the powder. Powders are particularly susceptible
under in which they are handled; otherwise it may be possible to
to this type of reaction owing to their small particle size and
initiate a dangerous exotherm arising from self-heating or self-
large surface area to volume ratio.
reaction.
Note: Both of these forms of self-heating should not be confused
Undesirable exothermic events in bulk powder handling and
with biological degradation as found in a compost heap.
storage will normally be the result of either:
When assessing thermal stability hazards, the specific
processing operations should also be examined to identify
whether or not, one or both of these reaction mechanisms can
occur. This information will assist in selection of the correct
testing methods to provide the necessary data.
20 21
Thermal Stability Analysis
Thermal Stability Screening processing or exposure temperature of the material (Tmax), then
more detailed testing is required. Testing can cease at this stage
analysis. The most common test methods include Accelerating
Rate Calorimetry (ARC) and adiabatic Dewar methods. The safety
if the onset temperature is an adequate margin above Tmax. margins required for such methods range from 10C (for the most
sensitive methods) to 30C (for ARC tests). The UN test methods
To ensure that the correct testing approach is selected, there oxidant, especially in the event of a process failure, then
Detailed Testing to determine the Self Accelerating Decomposition Temperature
are two questions which can be asked which will decide whether oxidation properties should be investigated. It should be noted (SADT) of a material can also be used. This approach requires no
molecular decomposition properties, oxidation properties or that in this latter case even if the material exhibits molecular If more sensitive analysis is required, adiabatic calorimetry is safety margin as the tests are intended to directly simulate the
both should be examined. Specifically, does the material have decomposition properties during testing, these effects will be typically employed (see Box10 of Figure5). A range of commercially heat loss conditions of commercial scale packages or vessels.
a low melting point (typically <200C) OR is the material being identified and characterized in the oxidation test methods. The available calorimeters can be used for detailed thermal stability
processed at elevated temperatures in an inert environment? converse is not true. For example, oxidation events will not be
If the answer is yes for either of these questions then only identified in molecular decomposition specific tests owing to the
the molecular decomposition properties of the product require limited availability of air.
assessment.
The overall approach for assessing powder thermal stability is
If however the material has a high melting point and is
processed in the presence of air or could be exposed to an
depicted in Figure5. The strategy is discussed in more detail in
the sections following. Testing for Potential Oxidation Reactions
Figure 5. A Strategy for Thermal Stability Assessment of Powders
Screening With all of the above test methods, screening tests are initially
recommended, where the sample temperature is ramped from
Where a material is exposed to elevated temperatures in the ambient to nominally 400C at a steady rate of temperature
presence of air, special test methods are required to assess the rise. If the estimated onset temperature is close to the drying
oxidation potential (see Boxes11 and 12 of Figure5). Decomposition temperature, i.e. within 50C, OR is less than 200C, then further
8. Thermal Stability Screening
tests (as described in the previous section) are not designed to testing may be required. In the first instance, this consists of a series
Melting point <200C
OR
examine oxidation properties and may provide misleading and of isothermal tests (sample is held at a constant temperature) to
Dried under inerted conditions? unsafe data if used for this purpose. determine, more sensitively, the minimum temperature from
Yes No One or more of the following three tests are usually employed which significant self-heating can occur. The duration of the tests
where oxidation reactions are being considered: must meet or exceed, the expected exposure duration of the large
scale process.
> Bulk Powder (Diffusion Cell) Test (DCT)
9. Screening for Decomposition Reactions 11. Screening for Oxidation Reactions Even with isothermal tests, the results are subject to volume
DSC or DTA (e.g. Carius) DCT / ACT / AOL screening This test is selected when powders are processed or stored
restrictions (up to 1m3 only) and require a suitable safety margin of
in bulk conditions and the data is directly applicable up to
between 20 and 50C.
volumes of 1m3. In this test the sample is heated through a
known temperature profile, with air being allowed to diffuse Large Scale Drying or Storage
10. Detailed Testing 12. Detailed Testing naturally through the powder. The test simulates for example,
ARC DCT / ACT / AOL isothermal the air availability that bulk powder might expect to be exposed In certain circumstances, for example where large bulks of
Adiabatic Calorimetry material are being processed or stored it will be necessary to
to in a storage silo or in the base of a dirty spray dryer.
determine safe storage temperatures and duration times. These
> Aerated Cell Test (ACT) values are determined using the isothermal basket test (Box13 of
13. Large Scale Storage (or Drying)
Basket Test series This test is selected specifically for powder drying applications Figure5) approach. These series of tests employ three wire mesh
where pre-heated air is forced through the material. Fluidized baskets of differing volume. The minimum onset temperature
bed drying is a good example where the Aerated Cell Test could and the maximum temperature where no reaction is observed
be applied or a rotating drum dryer. The effect of varying air are determined to a very close tolerance (typically 3C). The data
availability can alter the thermal oxidation onset temperature for the 3basket sizes are then displayed graphically and can be
by as much as +/-50C from that of the DCT, a margin that can extrapolated, taking account of the mass and geometry of the
Testing for Potential Molecular Decomposition Reactions significantly affect the safety of a drying operation if an incorrect
test method is employed.
storage vessel, to the industrial scale. Safe working (storage)
temperatures and maximum safe duration times can then be
> Air Over Layer (AOL) Test obtained for any given size of vessel.
Screening > The DSC, whilst providing onset temperature (T0) and heat This test involves examining the thermal stability of thin layers
of reaction (3Hdec) data does not yield any information on gas of powder where air is readily available. The data can be used
Conventional Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) or generating events.
Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) methods should be used to when assessing tray drying situations, the tops of spray driers
> The DTA methods generally provide information on gas or powder layer build-up in ducts and other process process.
identify decomposition events for liquids, solids or mixtures (see
Box9 of Figure5). These tests use very small scale, contained generating events, as well as onset temperature, but do not
methods with limited air availability and are suitable for the fully quantify the magnitude of an exothermic event, other
examination of pure decomposition or self-reaction events only. than differentiating between major and minor activity.
The preliminary tests require a substantial safety margin to be If the onset temperature determined in either of these tests
applied (e.g. 50C for Carius Tube (DTA) tests and up to 100C for an exothermic or gas generating event (corrected using
for DSC tests). the appropriate safety margin) is below the maximum possible
22 23
Equipment Specific Test Recommendations
The previous sections identify how data from powder testing can processes encountered in manufacturing environments, where
be applied in a risk assessment for most general manufacturing powders could exist as a dust cloud. Not all of the suggested
and processing operations. An alternative approach is to tests may be required for an individual operation as the selection
identify the types of data typically required for specific process of data will depend upon the proposed Basis Of Safety.
operations. Table2 gives an overview of the most common type of
Table 2. Dust Explosion Test Data - Requirements for Specific Unit Operations
Test Data Required

Process Description
MIE MIT MIT Layer 20 litre LOC Thermal
Charging of vessel Yes Yes Yes
Discharging of vessel Yes Yes Yes
Blending Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
De-agglomeration Yes Yes Yes Yes
Milling Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Compaction Yes
Compression Yes
Capsule filling Yes
Granulation Yes Yes Yes
Tray drying Yes Yes Yes Yes
Microwave dryers Yes Yes Yes Yes
Fluid Bed drying Yes Yes Yes Yes
Flash or Ring dryers Yes Yes Yes
Spray Drying Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Spray coating Yes Yes Yes
Pneumatic conveying Yes
Filters Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Storage (silo etc.) Yes Yes Yes Yes
It should be recognized that even for a specific process, different As previously discussed, the type of thermal stability test required
methods of operation are possible thus requiring a different will depend very much on the type of dryer employed and the
Basis Of Safety to be applied. This may result in a different test environmental conditions. Table 3 shows the type of thermal
protocol being used to that set out above. stability tests that may be required for different types of dryer:
Table 3. Thermal Stability Test Data Requirements for Specific Drying Operations
Type of Dryer Air Over Layer Aerated Cell Diffusion cell DSC
Spray Yes Yes Yes
Fluid Bed Yes Yes Yes
Vacuum Yes Yes
Tray Yes Yes Yes
Flash or Ring Yes Yes Yes
Note: The above table shows the types of test that may be required. However, depending on the operating conditions of the equipment
certain tests may not be selected. For instance in a small tray dryer where powder depth is <15mm and no explosive properties are
suspected then only the Air Over Layer test would be selected. However, in deeper layers the Bulk Powder (diffusion Cell) test would
be selected instead of the Air Over layer test.
24 25
Summary
This document has provided a methodical approach to powder testing and can act as a guide to companies assessing the explosive
potential, dust explosion risk, fire risk and thermal stability hazards posed by powders in any industrial operation. The overall strategy
is depicted in Figure 6.
Figure 6. A Process Safety Strategy for Powders
STOP!
Explosive
Potentially
1. Explosive Properties Evaluation Explosive 2. Explosivity Analysis
Functional group examination DSC screening
Small scale screening tests UN Sensitivity testing
02 Balance / CHETAH calcs See page 10
Not Explosive
Not Explosive
3. Dust Explosion Analysis Fire Analysis 8. Thermal Stability Analysis

See page 13 See page 19 See page 21
In summary, the following approach is recommended when > Any new material introduced to a manufacturing process
considering powder/dust testing: must also be evaluated to confirm the adequacy of the existing
> Start with an appreciation of the potential explosive properties Basis Of Safety for the new material.
of the material. This assessment needs to be completed and > Testing must replicate the conditions in the full scale process
signed-off before any large scale processing (or testing) is as closely as possible. While many parameters can be
undertaken. obtained from standard tests, others may require innovative,
> A Basis Of Safety should be developed, documented and customized testing solutions. Chilworth Technology regularly
maintained for all unit operations. In order to confirm develops and performs unique testing solutions for individual
this Basis Of Safety it will be necessary to obtain specific situations.
flammability, fire risk and/or thermal stability data for each
material used or stored on site.
26 27
Summary
Multi Powder Screening Figure 7. Strategy for Dust Explosion Testing
STOP!
The standard test procedures, as detailed in this document, a specified surface temperature of enclosure and therefore
are intended as a guide to provide a sensible testing strategy the MIT & MIT Layer tests are performed at the correct
Explosive
for a powder, whether it is a suspended cloud, powder layer temperature to define whether a powder is suitable for use Potentially
Explosive Properties Evaluation Explosive
or as a bulk material. However, in multi-product facilities (e.g. with this equipment. Those materials failing the first level Explosivity Analysis
Functional group examination
pharmaceutical, food industry or fine chemical companies), assessment may continue with testing and be screened DSC screening
Small scale screening tests
UN Sensitivity testing
such detailed testing may not be cost effective. In these cases, at second and then, if required a final third level in order 02 Balance / CHETAH calcs
it may be more desirable to undertake a more rapid and cost- to determine the worst case materials. DustscreenTM has
effective screening exercize for a wide variety of properties. been developed specifically for companies utilizing common Not Explosive
Not Explosive
This screening approach may be used to confirm that a new process with a variety of powders.
product is well within the process design criteria for a range
of flammability/thermal stability properties without having to At Chilworth Technology, we offer a complete process safety
service. We understand the importance of customer satisfaction Stop Explosion Analysis
perform a detailed analysis for each property. Consider Fire
in retaining customers and growing our business. Our team of
Risk Analysis
> DustScreenTM experienced process safety specialists is available to support Consider Thermal
This highly tailored product identifies key safety parameters and apply test data to our customers unique situations. We No Not
Stability Analysis
Dust Explosion Screening flammable
which must be known to support a specific Basis Of Safety. can help in defining a Basis Of Safety for any process and
Can the dust form a cloud?
Each material is initially tested at a pre-selected level for developing test programs tailored to deliver the data you need Yes
each key parameter, for instance electrical equipment has in a highly cost effective manner. Dust Explosion Screening
Group Go/NoGo classification
Flammable
Ignition Sensitivity
MIT
MIT Layer
Flammable Limits Explosion Severity

LOC Pmax

Avoidance of Containment
flammable atmospheres Explosion venting
Fire Analysis
VDI Burning Behavior Test Large Scale Storage (or Drying)
Solids Burning Rate Test Basket Test series
Screening for Oxidation Reactions Detailed Testing

Thermal Stability Screening DCT / ACT / AOL screening DCT / ACT / AOL isothermal
Melting point <200C No
OR
Dried under inerted
conditions? Screening for Decomposition Reactions Detailed Testing
DSC or DTA (e.g. Carius) ARC
Adiabatic Calorimetry
28 29
Appendix - Test Descriptions
A1. The Chilworth Technology Approach To Testing

Chilworth Technology can perform a wide variety of process safety could result in unrepresentative materials. When providing
tests examining explosion hazards of dusts, vapors and gases, samples for testing, great care must be exercized to ensure
thermal stability characteristics of powders, liquids and mixtures that all samples are truly representative of the bulk material
and reaction calorimetry to ensure safe operation of reactors. characteristics.
> For many tests, reduced versions of the full test are available.
> Many clients are unsure of the exact test, or data, required
At Chilworth Technology, unless specifically stated, the test
to solve a specific process problem. Chilworth Technology
will be conducted fully in accordance with the Standard Method
laboratories and consulting team are available to provide
(e.g. EN, IEC, ASTM, etc.). In some cases, reduced form tests
assistance in the selection of the most appropriate tests and,
can be completed to generate specific data. The limitations of
in the most cost-effective manner, to answer your query.
such a reduced method must be accepted prior to acceptance
This pre-testing consultation (as well as post-testing results
of the reduced form result. When comparing tests and results
discussion) is provided at no extra cost. Chilworth Technology
with external data, confirmation must be sought regarding the
prides itself on the high level of customer support it provides.
extent of compliance with the standard method.
> Every test (except custom, one-off investigative tests) is
> All test data generated by Chilworth is fully reported. This
conducted according to international standards and internal
includes background information on the material (particle
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).
size analysis, moisture content and preliminary thermal
> Test materials should, as far as is reasonably practical, be screening), full test results and data interpretation to aid in
those from the process. This avoids the testing of materials application of the derived result.
with different specifications and impurity profiles than those
> Chilworth Technology participates in many international
actually used on process.
round-robin calibration studies to verify the consistency
> For dust explosion testing, test standards dictate that of data with other international test laboratories. Results
materials should be finest and driest available on process. from such studies, where CTI participate, can be provided
For consistency and conservatism, tests are performed on on request. Chilworth Technology recognizes the critical
materials <5% moisture content and, where the standard importance of providing its customers with data which
methods dictate, less than a specific particle size (typically answers specific concerns. Where a standard test does not
<75 micron). Blended powders are processed with caution exist to provide such data, tailoring of unique testing solutions
to avoid separation of materials (e.g. by sieving) which is regularly undertaken.
30 31
A2. Group Go/NoGo Classification Test - Explosibility Test A3. Minimum Ignition Energy Test (MIE)
Appendix A2i. Group Go/NoGo Classification Test Appendix A3. Minimum Ignition Energy Test (MIE)
International Standard ASTM E1226

International Standard ASTM E2019
Quantity of Sample 100 g
Alternative Tests 20l Sphere Test, modified Hartman tube test
Quantity of Sample 250 g
Test Purpose To examine if a dispersed powder can present an explosion hazard under ambient conditions and at
elevated temperature
Alternative Tests -
Test Method The Go/NoGo classification test is performed using equipment which is known as the vertical tube
apparatus. It consists of a vertically mounted acrylic tube of approximately 1litre volume. The tube is fitted
with a compressed air, dust dispersion system and brass electrodes to which a high voltage transformer Test Purpose To determine the minimum energy of an electrostatic or mechanical spark capable of igniting a dispersed
is connected. The transformer is used to create a high energy, continuous arc discharge between the two dust under ambient conditions
electrodes.
The test procedure reflects the objective of the classification test; specifically, all reasonable measures Test Method The Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) is measured using equipment known as the vertical tube apparatus.
are taken to attempt to ignite the dispersed dust sample in air under ambient temperature and pressure It consists of a vertically mounted acrylic tube of approximately 1litre volume. The tube is fitted with a
conditions. The sequence of testing is as follows: compressed air dust dispersion system and brass electrodes between which sparks of a known energy
1. The dust is initially tested in the as received condition at a range of concentrations. are passed.
2. If no ignition is observed then the sample is sieved and the finest fractions are re-tested as in (1) above.
3. If no ignition is still observed then the dust is dried in an oven at 105C for 1hour and both the original MIE measurement involves repeatedly dispersing varied concentrations of dust through sparks of known
and fine fractions re-tested after the powder has cooled. energy. The powder concentrations for these tests are greater than the Minimum Explosive Concentration
4. If no ignition is still observed then the constant arc electrodes are replaced with a hot wire resistance (MEC). If an ignition is observed then the spark energy is reduced until no further dust ignitions occur;
coil heated to approximately 1.000C and the sieved and dried sample is tested. at this point the Minimum Ignition Energy of the powder is determined. The sparks can either be purely
In some circumstances material may be processed at elevated temperatures (above 110C). In this case, if capacitive in nature where the data is used to examine electrostatic hazards and / or via an additional
a material has not ignited after completing the 4steps above then the sieved and dried sample is subjected inductor, fitted in the earth circuit where the data can be used in the assessment of mechanical sparks.
to a further test whereby the product, in the form of a dust cloud, is dropped through a vertical furnace with It is usual for sparks, created with the addition of the inductor, to be more incendive (i.e. provide a lower
a surface temperature of 1.000C. MIE) compared with purely capacitive sparks. The use of the data must be known in selecting the correct
If any of the above tests produce flame propagation through the dispersed dust, away from the ignition test methodology
source, the dust is classified as Group Go (explosible / flammable).
Results and Interpretation If the material is found to be flammable as a dust cloud it is designated GroupGo and further testing will Results and Interpretation The Minimum Ignition Energy (mJ) is recorded as the lowest energy capable of igniting a dispersed dust (at
be required to ensure safe operating conditions. If found to be GroupNoGo (non flammable) then no further its most sensitive concentration). It is always given as a range of values from the highest energy where no
dust cloud testing is required but please be aware that the fire risk and thermal stability characteristics ignition was observed to the lowest energy where an ignition is observed (i.e. 10 - 25mJ).
may still need to be assessed.
Reduced Versions of the Test No reduced version of this test exists Reduced Versions of the Test Several variants of this test are available:
Test Limitations The test is not suitable for classification of liquids / gases. The ignition sources used in the test are 1. Complete determination of MIE within limits of +/- 20% of the lowest ignition energy
moderately energetic. It is uncommon (but not impossible) for materials found to be GroupNoGo by the
GroupGo/NoGo test to ignite with higher ignition energies. If very high energy ignition sources can exist 2. Safety range study (examining the MIE at limits of 500, 100, 25 and 5mJ only)
in a process (as identified by a suitable hazard and risk assessment), consideration should be given to
performing the 20lsphere test that uses a higher (10kJ) energy ignition source. Test Limitations The test is for solid samples only and cannot be used (directly) for gases and vapors (although a similar
test is available for these materials). The result is determined at ambient temperature. The MIE can reduce
dramatically at elevated temperature (correlations can be employed to approximate the MIE at elevated
Appendix A2ii. Explosibility Test temperature). Solids containing volatile, flammable solvents may not give a reliable result in this test. In
International Standard Kuhner operating manual such cases, the MIE of the vapor (if flammable at ambient temperature) should be used as this is likely to
Quantity of Sample 200 g be worst case and most realistic value.
Alternative Tests Group Go/NoGo Classification
Test Purpose To examine if a dispersed powder can present an explosion hazard under ambient conditions
Test Method The test commences by using a low dust concentration and continues over a range of powder concentrations.
The source of ignition is provided by 2 x 1 kJ chemical igniters. The pressure/time record for each explosion
is recorded using 2 x piezo electric pressure transducers linked to a computer controlled data logging
system. The ignition source is activated automatically at 0.06 s after dispersion of the powder into the
spherical test chamber in order to maintain a constant and reliable dust turbulence level.
Results and Interpretation A dust which cannot be induced to explode over a wide range of concentrations with an ignition energy of IE
= 1 x 2.5 kJ and/or 1 x 5.0 kJ and/or 2 x 5.0 kJ (chemical igniters) is classified as not explosible. This means
that most probably the dust cannot be exploded at all, except by application of even stronger ignition sources
Reduced Versions of the Test No reduced version of this test exists
Test Limitations The test is for solid samples only and is not applicable for gases and vapors.
32 33
A4. Minimum Ignition Temperature Test (Cloud) A5. Minimum Ignition Temperature Layer (MIT Layer)
Appendix A5. Minimum Ignition Temperature Layer (MIT Layer)
International Standard ASTM E1491, EN 50281-2-1 or IEC 61241-2-1 International Standard ASTM E2021, EN 50821-2-1 or IEC 61241-2-1
Quantity of Sample 200 g Quantity of Sample 500 g
Alternative Tests BAM Furnace Alternative Tests N/A
Test Purpose To determine the minimum temperature of a hot surface capable of causing ignition of a dust cloud Test Purpose To determine the minimum temperature of a hot surface capable of igniting a powder layer (5mm in depth)
Test Method The MIT test is conducted in the Godbert Greenwald furnace. The furnace consists of a vertically mounted Test Method The density of the powder layer (packing density) is calculated by knowing the volume of the containment
vitreosil tube which is open at the base. A glass observation chamber is mounted at the top of the vitreosil ring and by weighing the dust ring before and after it has been filled with a level layer of powder. The
tube and also connects the horizontally positioned sample holder. Dust is dispersed into the furnace using apparatus (a temperature controlled hot plate) is set up in a position free from draughts but capable of
compressed air from a reservoir, into the sample holder and then the observation glass and vertical tube. extracting smoke and fumes.
The furnace is mounted on a stand, enabling the base or exit point of the furnace to be observed for any
The ambient temperature is recorded and then the metal, containment ring is placed centrally on the hot
sign of ignition (flame) from the base of the furnace. A mirror is placed below the tube to enable the interior
plate and the sample measuring thermocouple placed in position. The 12.7mm dust layer is formed by
of the furnace to be viewed. The furnace is electrically heated to pre-determined temperatures from room
placing the sample into the ring with a spatula and distributing, mainly with a sideways movement of the
temperature to 1.000C.
spatula, until the ring is slightly overfilled. The layer is then levelled by drawing a straight edge across the
Two thermocouples are placed centrally in the furnace wall to enable the test temperature to be suitably top of the ring. Any excess material is then removed from the surface of the hot plate. A screening test is
controlled and monitored. The thermocouples are capable of maintaining temperature measurements initially performed where the hot plate temperature is ramped at approximately 5K.min-1 up to a maximum
above 500C to 1% and below 300C 3%. The apparatus is set up in an enclosure from which dust and temperature of 400C. All information is collected using a computer controlled data logging system.
fumes can be extracted.
The resultant computer trace is analyzed to determine an estimated start point for the isothermal testing.
The sample may be prepared to a specified standard (normally <15% moisture and <75micron) and dust Isothermal testing continues with the hot plate being set to the pre-determined start temperature. The
concentrations are varied to ensure that the most sensitive concentration is covered. The test commences test continues until it has been ascertained that either the layer has ignited (visible flame) or has self-
at 500C and if an ignition is observed then the temperature is reduced in 20C steps to 300C. If ignition heated without igniting (glowing). If, after a period of thirty minutes, no ignition or self-heating is apparent
is still occurring then the test temperature is reduced in 10C steps until a no ignition situation occurs. then the test is terminated and repeated at a higher temperature. If ignition or self-heating occurs, the
test is repeated at a lower temperature, if necessary prolonging the test beyond thirty minutes. The test is
Results and Interpretation The Minimum Ignition Temperature, of a dust cloud, is recorded as the lowest temperature of the furnace complete only when temperatures are established that result in a 10C difference between an ignition
at which ignition is obtained, minus 10C for furnace temperatures. Information from the MIT test is and no ignition. If no ignition occurs at 400C, tests are repeated at 200 and 300C to confirm the no
principally used to ensure that process surface temperatures cannot cause auto-ignition of the dispersed ignition result.
dust.
Results and Interpretation The MIT Layer is defined as being the lowest temperature of a hot surface capable of igniting a 5mm layer
A safety margin is required when using MIT data to allow for the uncertainties of small scale testing
of powder. Ignition is signified by:
(typically, 2/3rds of the MIT is used to define the maximum permissible surface temperature of enclosure
for electrical equipment).
> visible glowing or flaming is observed, or
> a temperature rise of 50C.
The MIT of a dust cloud, is one criteria used for the selection of suitable electrical equipment operating in
dusty atmospheres. The second parameter also relevant to this application is the MIT Layer value of the A safety margin of 75C is applied to the experimental MIT Layer value when the data is used to define the
powder layer (typically assumed to be 5mm maximum). maximum surface temperature of enclosure for electrical equipment.
Reduced Versions of the Test Several reduced versions of this test exist: Reduced Versions of the Test Several reduced versions of this test exist:
1. Dust screen at an agreed isothermal temperature 1. Dust screen at an agreed isothermal temperature
2. For temperature rating of electrical equipment (equivalent equipment temperatures of 450, 300, 200, 135C) 2. For temperature rating of electrical equipment (equivalent equipment temperatures of 450, 300, 200, 135C)
Test Limitations The test is for solid samples only and is not applicable for gases and vapors (the auto-ignition temperature Test Limitations The standard test examines 5mm layers only (thicker layers may produce a lower result)
test is available for gases and vapors)
34 35
A6. Dust Explosion Severity Test (20 Litre Sphere Test) A7. Limiting Oxygen Concentration Test (LOC)
Appendix A6. Dust Explosion Severity Test (20 Litre Sphere Test) Appendix A7. Limiting Oxygen Concentration Test (LOC)
International Standard ASTM E1226, EN 14034 and Kuhner operating manual International Standard ASTM WK1680, EN 14034-4 and Kuhner Operating Manual
Quantity of Sample 750 g Quantity of Sample 500 g (or 1000 g if also measuring explosion severity)
Alternative Tests 1 m3 Sphere Test Alternative Tests 1 m3 Sphere Test
Test Purpose To measure the explosion severity of a powder sample as defined by the following: Test Purpose To determine the highest oxygen concentration at which ignition of a dispersed dust at ambient temperature
> Pmax The maximum explosion pressure (in bar(g)) and pressure is not possible
> (dP/dt) max The maximum rate of pressure rise (in bar.s-1)
> Kst The Kst value equates to the maximum rate of pressure rise in a 1 m3 vessel (in bar.m.s-1) Test Method The Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC), below which dispersed dust ignition is not possible, is measured
in a 20 litre sphere explosion chamber. This apparatus is internationally accepted for use in determining
> St Class Explosion severity class (no unit)
maximum explosion pressure and Kst value of dusts. It provides maximum explosion pressure and ignition
control and is well suited to limiting oxygen determination.
Test Method Pmax and (dP/dt)max, are measured using a 20litre spherical pressure test chamber (the lowest volume
from which explosion results can be reliably scaled-up) and then the Kst value is calculated and the St The test procedure consists of pre-mixing air and nitrogen in the correct ratios to establish known
class defined. The test commences by using a low dust concentration and continues over a range of powder diminished oxygen atmospheres. The system must first be calibrated using an oxygen analyzer. Explosion
concentrations. The source of ignition is provided by 2x5kJ chemical igniters. The pressure / time record trials are then performed at various (known) oxygen levels. It should be noted that the ignition source
for each explosion is recorded using 2 X piezo electric pressure transducers linked to a computer controlled utilized in these tests are 1 x 2.5 kJ chemical ignitors as against the 2 x 5 kJ ignition sources (10 kJ)
data logging system. The ignition source is activated automatically at 0.06s after dispersion of the powder employed for explosion severity measurements. The pressure/time data for each test is recorded using 2
into the spherical test chamber in order to maintain a constant and reliable dust turbulence level. A first x piezo electric pressure transducers linked to a computer controlled data logging system. The test starts,
series of tests typically covers 7 powder concentrations and this is followed by two further series that as per explosion severity determination, with a single series of tests at 21% oxygen (ambient conditions)
concentrate on the optimum dust concentration that has been determined from the first series of tests. to determine the most severe explosion (optimum dust concentration). The ratio of powder concentration
to oxygen percentage is then retained as the oxygen level is reduced to determine the LOC. At the highest
Results and Interpretation During triplicate testing of powders in the 20 litre sphere, a minimum of seven different powder oxygen concentration where no ignitions are observed, the tests are repeated using a range of powder
concentrations are tested in the first series and the powder concentrations that produce the highest values concentrations. If ignition is observed at this stage of the proceedings then the oxygen level is reduced and
for Pmax and dP/dt max. are repeated twice more providing three tables of results. A fourth table is then testing continues as before.
produced to represent the mean values for each of the concentrations tested. The final quoted values for
Pmax, dP/dtmax. and Kst are calculated from the mean of the maximum values during test series 1, 2 & 3. Results and Interpretation An explosion pressure of 1.0 bar(g) is defined as an ignition.
Maximum values are not quoted as any variation in turbulence or chemical igniter energy may affect the The LOC measurement is not normally used directly to provide inerting levels as a suitable safety factor
results marginally. Rather, the data is averaged over the three series of tests. The turbulence level is should be applied to account for the sensitivity, accuracy and reliability of the process monitoring system.
selected to correlate with data from large industrial scale vessels.
Reduced Versions of the Test Screening test (at pre-defined levels e.g. 10, 12, 14 and 16% oxygen)
Reduced Versions of the Test Several reduced versions of this test exist:
1. Dust Screen to identify a worst case material from a batch of products Test Limitations The test is for solid samples only and cannot be used (directly) for gases and vapors (although a similar test
2. Single series determination (7 dispersions) not recommended for design is available for these). The test considers ambient temperature and pressure conditions only.
Test Limitations The test is for solid samples only and cannot be used (directly) for gases and vapors (although a similar
test is available for these). The test considers ambient temperature and pressure conditions only. Hybrid
mixture (dusts admixed with flammable gases) can be studied in the 20 l sphere apparatus with minor
modification of the procedure.
36 37
A8. Minimum Explosible Concentration (MEC) A9. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
in the 20litre sphere
Appendix A9. Differential Scanning Calorimetry
Appendix A8. Minimum Explosible Concentration (MEC) in the 20 litre sphere International Standard Several ASTM standard methods for applications of DSC exist
International Standard ASTM E1515, EN 14034-3 (2005) and Kuhner Operating Manual Quantity of Sample 50 mg
Quantity of Sample 150 g Alternative Tests -
Alternative Tests 1 m3 Sphere Test Test Purpose To determine the energy associated with the decomposition of a material or mixture - potentially to screen
for explosive properties. Semi-quantitative data relating to onset temperature can also be gained from this
Test Purpose To determine the minimum concentration of a dust at which ignition is possible test technique. Kinetic analysis can be performed for decomposition reaction for extrapolation to larger
scale. Due to the very small sample size, the use of this technique in the study of reaction mixtures or
Test Method Minimum Explosive Concentration (MEC) is measured using the 20 litre sphere apparatus. heterogeneous samples is not recommended due to the difficulty involved in representative sampling (the
Carius tube is a more appropriate technique in such cases).
The test commences with testing at a relatively high powder concentration (e.g. 250 g.m-3). If this
concentration of powder ignites with a 1 x 2.5 kJ ignition source, the dust concentration is reduced in
Test Method A small quantity of sample (typically 5 - 20 mg) is loaded to the test cell (either constructed of stainless
steps until no ignition is evident. This condition must be repeated for three consecutive tests at the given
steel, aluminium or gold). For safety studies sealed, high pressure cells are best suited (to prevent
concentration. If, during the repeat tests, an ignition is observed then the dust concentration is reduced
evaporative losses). The sample is then ramped within the DSC instrument along with a reference pan of
further and the tests repeated until a no ignition situation occurs for all 3 dispersions at a given powder
identical construction. The ramp rate is nominally between 1 and 20 K.min-1 although higher heat rates
concentration.
provide results of lower sensitivity with respect to onset temperature determination. Any exothermic or
The pressure time record of each explosion is recorded by piezo electric pressure transducers, coupled to endothermic activity is measured through measurement of heat flow between the sample and reference
a computerized data logging system to provide the maximum pressure (Pmax) and the maximum rate of pans. The amount of energy released or absorbed by the sample can be integrated as a measure of the
pressure rise (dP/dt)max. The ignition source is activated automatically at 0.06 s after dispersion to define overall energy of a reaction. Tests can be performed isothermally for the study of autocatalytic reactions or
the dust turbulence level, according to the test standard. at different ramp rates for the extraction of formal kinetic data
It is essential to the test that the apparatus is kept scrupulously clean to prevent false positive readings.
Results and Interpretation Typically, one graph of power versus time is provided. Interpretation is conducted by the computer control
system which will provide data (on the test graph) relating to the onset temperature and energy of the
Results and Interpretation An explosion pressure of 0.5 bar(g) is defined as an ignition.
reaction (usually normalized to J.g-1). The onset temperature obtained is not absolute (due to the high phi
The Minimum Explosive Concentration (MEC) is sometimes used to design process with sufficient air factor and heat losses of the test technique) and a safety factor is required. Typically, for the high heating
throughput to keep dust levels below the flammable limit. However, some caution must be exercized with rates employed (>5 K.min-1), a safety factor of up to 100 K may be employed. For this reason, more accurate
this approach since in practice dust clouds are rarely uniform, and settlement or unforeseen circumstances onset temperature information is provided by the Carius tube used at lower heating rates and with a larger
can easily arise to create localized flammable concentrations even though the mean concentration of the sample. The energy of a decomposition does not require such modification and is used directly. Tests
dust cloud may be below the MEC. performed under air and nitrogen can be compared to identify whether an event is attributable to oxidative
processes or pure decomposition. Formal kinetic data can be extracted for decomposition reactions based
Reduced Versions of the Test Screening test (at pre-defined levels e.g. 125, 75, 50, 25 g.m-3) on the analysis of results from multiple tests. Any decomposition energy >800 J.g-1 indicates potential for
explosive properties to exist in the material.
Test Limitations The test is for solid samples only and cannot be used (directly) for gases and vapors (although a similar test
is available for these). The test considers ambient temperature and pressure conditions only. Reduced Versions of the Test No reduced version of this test exists
Test Limitations The results are not directly scaleable (i.e. need a margin of safety). For powders, lack of air availability may
hinder detection of oxidation events. Pressure events (e.g. gas generation) are not detected by this method.
Blends and mixtures are difficult to study owing to the inherent challenge of representatively sampling a
blend at such low masses.
38 39
A10. Carius (10 g) Tube Screening Test A11. Diffusion Cell Screening Test
Appendix A10. Carius (10 g) Tube Screening Test Appendix A11. Diffusion Cell Screening Test
International Standard No formal standard applies although the method is described in the ABPI and IChemE publications on International Standard This test meets the specification in the 1990 IChemE book Prevention of Fire & Explosions in Dryers
Chemical Reaction Hazard Assessment and is considered best practice pages21 - 23 and is considered current best practice.
Quantity of Sample 10 g per test (although 30 g preferred to allow duplication of test) Quantity of Sample 150 g
Alternative Tests Many alternative DTA methods exist Alternative Tests Basket Tests
Test Purpose The test is designed to provide a preliminary indication of the thermal behavior of a material. Exothermic, Test Purpose The purpose of this test is to simulate conditions in silos or bags and at the bottom of dryers where material
endothermic and gas generating events are determined in a semi-quantitative fashion. The test can be can collect in bulk with natural diffusion of air. If the heat developed by a reaction of substance with oxygen
undertaken on a liquid, solid or mixture. or by exothermic decomposition is not lost rapidly enough to the surroundings, self heating leading to self
ignition can occur. Self ignition therefore occurs when the rate of heat production exceeds the rate of heat
Test Method A small quantity of material (10 - 15 cm3) is placed in the Carius tube which is positioned at the center of a loss. The test procedure is useful as a preliminary screening test for powders.
furnace, connected to a pressure transducer and ramped (at a constant rate of typically 0.5 K.min-1) from
ambient temperature to 400C or a tube pressure of 55 bar(g) (whichever comes first). Energetic events Test Method The bulk powder test is performed in a temperature programmed oven of 30litres volume which is fitted
are indicated by positive (exothermic) or negative (endothermic) deviations from the baseline temperature with explosion vents and fan assisted air circulation. A glass cylinder of approximately 100 mm height
differential between sample and oven. Pumped additions to initiate a reaction and agitation are possible and 50mm diameter, closed at the base with a porous glass sinter and the top left open, to permit air
with this test. diffusion is placed centrally in the oven. The oven temperature is continuously monitored by strategically
placed thermocouples. Four sample thermocouples are used to detect any exothermic activity and provide
Results and Interpretation The output contains three graphs. Graph (a) is a full temperature, pressure and time trace. Graph (b) is a an onset temperature, To (the temperature at which the sample temperature increases independently
plot of temperature versus the differential between the oven and sample. Graph (c) is a plot of ln (pressure) of the oven temperature). The temperature of the oven and sample are continuously recorded while the
versus the reciprocal of absolute temperature. The onset of an event is recorded as the point at which temperature of the oven is increased to 400C or to the melting point of the solid, if lower, at a rate of 0.5
a deviation in differential temperature is just observed (upwards = exotherm, downwards = endotherm). K.min-1. The test can also be conducted in isothermal mode where the oven temperature remains at a
A safety factor of typically 50 K is used on onset temperature to account for the high heat losses of the constant, set, temperature.
test equipment. The peak height (and width) are a measure of the magnitude of the event although these
are only qualitative and are not directly scalable. A wide peak is indicative of a mass transfer controlled Results and Interpretation Exothermic decomposition and the ignition of powder layers most usually occurs by a process of self-
reaction. An upward deviation from linearity in the Antoine plot indicates the onset of gas generation. The heating due to atmospheric oxidation. When the temperature of a layer is raised sufficiently, then a
steepness of the rise is indicative of the rapidity of gas generation. The residual pressure in the tube after condition can be reached where the heat generated by the exothermic reaction is sufficient to exceed heat
cooling gives a quantitative measure of the gases evolved (mass spectrometry can be employed of assess losses, and a runaway increase in temperature develops. Powder in bulk, or thick layers, will ignite at a
the nature of the gas). lower temperature than the same material in thin layers, because the surface area per unit mass, and
hence the rate of heat loss per unit mass is decreased. Since ignition is initiated inside the bulk of powder
Reduced Versions of the Test No reduced version of this test exists there may be a considerable time delay before it becomes visible at the surface.
The diffusion cell screening test simulates the conditions in hoppers, silos, bags or bulk powder dryers
Test Limitations The results are not directly scaleable (i.e. need a margin of safety). For powders, lack of air availability may (i.e. any situation where natural diffusion of air through a powder can occur). The test can also be applied
hinder detection of oxidation events. to conditions where product may build up in a drying process, resulting in bulk material or a thick layer
forming for a long period of time. As the test has high heat losses, a safety margin of typically 50C is
applied to the exotherm onset temperature that has been determined from isothermal testing.
Test Limitations The results are not directly scaleable and require a safety margin (typically 50C). Due to the porous nature
of the test cell base, any sample that melts cannot be studied beyond the melting point (owing to escape
from the cell). Alternative tests for liquids should be considered in such cases.
40 41
A12. Aerated Cell Screening Test A13. Air Over Layer Test
Appendix A12. Aerated Cell Screening Test Appendix A13. Air Over Layer Test
International Standard This test meets the specification in the 1990 IChemEbook Prevention of Fire & Explosions in Dryers International Standard This test meets the specification in the 1990 IChemEbook Prevention of Fire & Explosions in Dryers
pages16 - 18 and is considered current best practice pages18 - 20 and is considered current best practice
Quantity of Sample 150 g Quantity of Sample 50 g
Alternative Tests None exists Alternative Tests None exists
Test Purpose The purpose of this test is to simulate the conditions in dryers (or similar situation) in which an air stream Test Purpose The purpose of this test is to simulate the conditions in dryers such as spray, cross flow, band and tray
passes through the a bulk of material (e.g. fluid bed or rotating drum dryers). If the heat developed by driers in which hot air passes over a thin layer of material. The test can also be used to simulate the
a reaction of substance with oxygen or by exothermic decomposition is not lost rapidly enough to the conditions of deposits on the internal surfaces of any type of equipment operating at elevated temperature.
surroundings, self heating leading to self ignition can occur. Self ignition therefore occurs when the rate If heat developed by a reaction of the substance with oxygen or by exothermic decomposition is not lost
of heat production exceeds the rate of heat loss. The test procedure is useful as a preliminary screening rapidly enough to the surroundings, self heating leading to self ignition can occur.
test for powders.
Test Method The powder layer test is performed in a temperature programmed horizontal furnace of 70 mm diameter
Test Method The Aerated powder test is performed in a temperature programmed oven of 30 litres volume which is and 300 mm in length. Sample is placed in a metal tray (75 mm x 40 mm x 15 mm deep) and the filled tray
fitted with explosion vents, the oven has fan assisted air circulation. A glass cylinder of approximately is inserted into the oven. Heated air passes over and around the sample with a velocity of 4.5 m.min-1. The
100mm height and 50mm diameter, closed at the base and fitted with a sintered glass lid which allows layer depth can be matched to the industrial application up to a maximum depth of 25 mm. Thermocouples
air to be passed downwards through the test cell. Pre-heated air is passed downwards through the cell are used to monitor and record the temperature within the sample, oven and air flow as the temperature
at 0.6 l.min-1. Four sample thermocouples are used to detect any exothermic activity and provide an onset of the oven is increased to 400C or to the melting point of the solid, if lower, at a rate of 0.5 K.min-1. The
temperature, To (the temperature at which the sample temperature increases independently of the oven test can also be conducted in isothermal mode where the oven temperature remains at a constant, set,
temperature). The temperature of the oven, air flow and sample are continuously recorded while the temperature.
temperature of the oven is increased to 400C or to the melting point of the solid, if lower, at a rate of 0.5
K.min-1. The test can also be conducted in isothermal mode where the oven temperature remains at a Results and Interpretation The minimum ambient temperature for self-ignition of a layer depends on a number of parameters
constant, set, temperature. including the nature of the layer, its depth and time of exposure to heat. If these are predictable, then a
reliable assessment of the hazard can be made by small scale laboratory testing.
Results and Interpretation As in the Bulk Powder (diffusion cell) test, powder in bulk, or thick layers, will ignite at a lower temperature
The Air Over Layer screening test alone is never used to provide maximum safe operating temperatures
than the same material in thin layers, because the surface area per unit mass, and hence the rate of heat loss
for driers. However, using the information obtained from the screening test, a series of isothermal tests
per unit mass is decreased. Since ignition is initiated inside the bulk of powder there may be a considerable
can be performed where the sample is maintained at a constant temperature for a period exceeding the
time delay before it becomes visible at the surface. Increased air availability through the material may also
required drying temperature and time. If necessary, the isothermal tests are performed at progressively
affect the onset temperature (up or down) and the severity of the exothermic decomposition.
lower temperatures until no self-heating takes place.
The aerated cell screening test simulates process conditions where air passes through powder and can
A safety margin of typically 20C is applied to the onset temperature of reaction based on isothermal
provide a more representative onset temperature and indication of severity of exothermic decomposition
ignition tests (for powder layer environments). For static bulk powder environments, the Diffusion cell test
in these situations. A safety margin of typically 30C is applied to the onset temperature of reaction based
is more appropriate whereas for air through powder purging, the Aerated Cell Test is more appropriate.
on isothermal ignition tests (for aerated environments). For static powder environments, the Diffusion cell
test is more appropriate. It is commonly recommended that both tests should be considered to cover both
normal and abnormal operating conditions in these types of driers. A difference of up to 50C for To has
been observed with some materials for the 2 tests.
Test Limitations The results are not directly scaleable and require a safety margin (typically 20C). The sample tray is not
completely leak proof and therefore if any sample melts, it cannot be studied beyond the melting point
(owing to escape from the cell). Alternative tests for liquids should be considered in such cases. Layer
thickness is a critical parameter in this test and the layers studied must be representative of the industrial
Test Limitations The results are not directly scaleable and require a safety margin (typically 30C). Due to the porous nature
situation.
of the test cell base, any sample that melts cannot be studied beyond the melting point (owing to escape
from the cell). Alternative tests for liquids should be considered in such cases.
42 43
A14. Determination of Safe Storage Temperatures The backbone of Process Safety within the DEKRA Group
for Bulk Materials (Basket Tests) Established in 1986, the former Chilworth Group now forms the backbone of process safety within the DEKRA Group. Integrated within
the DEKRA Industrial business unit, it offers a vast range of process safety services to most of the major companies in the chemical,
Appendix A14. Determination of Safe Storage Temperatures for Bulk Materials (Basket Tests) agro-chemical, pharmaceutical, food-processing and oil industries. Our range of services includes:
> Laboratory testing: dust and gas flammability, thermal stability, chemical runaway reactions, regulatory testing (REACH, etc.)
International Standard BS EN 15188
> Consulting and training in all areas of process safety: management, culture, audits, risk analyses (HAZOP, etc.), accident expertise,
Quantity of Sample 8 kg major hazards, functional safety, emergency relief systems, compliance to major process safety regulations (SEVESO/ATEX/OSHA)
and beyond.
Alternative Tests None exists
Today our worldwide representation means we can provide our expertise locally to our clients wherever they are and also offer the best
of the DEKRA services in testing, inspection and certification.
Test Purpose To determine the safe storage temperature for a bulk of powder in a specified container of any volume and
geometry. The test permits natural diffusion of air through the sample and hence simulates conditions in
For further information: www.chilworthglobal.com
large scale storage (e.g. in silos). The test results can be used to define transportation classification for
potentially self-heating solids (e.g. UN Class 4, division 4.2).
Test Method Cubic containers are made from stainless steel gauze. Normally three sizes of container are used of 25mm,
50 mm and 100 mm side respectively. Sometimes materials do not behave linearly using the 25mm basket
and in these cases typical sizes are selected of 50, 75, 100 or even 150mm side. Initially, the 50mm basket
is used as this provides a good indication of onset temperature with a fairly low usage of sample.
The container is filled with material, the packing density measured and the basket is then suspended in To contact us:
the center of a fan assisted oven, held isothermally for a designated period of time (24hours minimum).
Thermocouples are placed in the center of the sample and between the sample container and the oven > China :
info-cn@chilworthglobal.com > Spain : info-es@chilworthglobal.com
wall.
> France :
info-fr@chilworthglobal.com > Sweden : info-se@chilworthglobal.com
Observations are made as to whether an ignition has occurred, denoted by an increased rate of rise in > India :
info-in@chilworthglobal.com > UK : info-uk@chilworthglobal.com
temperature above that of the oven temperature or a no ignition situation, where the temperature may
> Italy : info-it@chilworthglobal.com > USA : safety-usa@chilworthglobal.com
rise slightly (but at a decreasing rate) above the oven temperature before subsiding back to the oven
temperature. The highest measured no ignition temperature (Tni) and the lowest measured ignition > Netherlands : info-nl@chilworthglobal.com
temperature (Ti) are determined to within a close margin (typically 3C) as larger differences in temperature
give larger errors when extrapolating the results.
Results and Interpretation Using the results obtained from the testing of all three container sizes, a graph is plotted of log (V/SA),
where V is the container volume and SA is the surface area of the container against (1000/T), where T is
both Tni and Ti in K. This should produce 2 straight lines. A third line (average value) is then plotted between
the Tni and Ti traces and this line is extrapolated on the graph to obtain safe storage temperatures for a
vessel of any shape or size (providing the volume and surface area is known or can be calculated).
To calculate the induction time the Ti graphs for the three container sizes have to be examined to calculate
the duration time before commencement of the exotherm (t). A graph is then plotted of ln(t) in seconds
against log (V/SA). This will produce a straight line which can be extrapolated to provide an estimated
induction time for a vessel of any shape or size.
Reduced Versions of the Test Many options exist. These include the use of smaller baskets, fewer basket sizes (e.g. 2 instead of 3) and
higher margins between ignition and no ignition events (e.g. 5 K instead of 3 K). All of these variables will
decrease the accuracy of measurement and enhance errors in extrapolation.
Test Limitations The test is not applicable to liquids or low melting solids. Samples which decompose (rather than oxidize)
are more cost-effectively studied using alternative methods.
44 45
DEKRA Insight
Process Safety
> China DEKRA China www.chilworth.cn

> France Chilworth France SAS www.chilworth.fr
> India Chilworth Technology Private Ltd. www.chilworth.co.in
> Italy Chilworth Vassallo S.r.l. www.chilworth.it
> Netherlands Chilworth The Netherlands www.chilworth.nl
> Spain Chilworth Amalthea S.L. www.chilworth.es
> Sweden DEKRA Insight AB www.chilworth.se
> UK Chilworth Technology Ltd. www.chilworth.co.uk
> USA Chilworth Technology Inc. www.chilworth.com
PS - US - GUIDE - 077 - 01
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SAFETY GUIDE

A strategic guide to characterization and understanding

Explosive Properties Evaluation 9

Dust Explosion Analysis 13

Thermal Stability Analysis 21

Equipment Specific Test Recommendations 25

Appendix - Test Descriptions 31

Handling Dusts and Powders Safely

What are the Conditions for a Fire or Explosion?

Conditions for an Explosion

Ignition source Fuel Confinement

Flammable Limits Explosion Severity

Basis Of Safety Basis Of Safety

A complete explanation of the figure is given on page 13

Figure 2. A Process Safety Strategy for Powders

3. Dust Explosion Analysis Fire Analysis 8. Thermal Stability Analysis

Explosivity Analysis STOP! Where do we go next?

Differential Scanning Calorimeter

Figure 3. Strategy for Dust Explosion Testing

6. Flammable Limits 7. Explosion Severity

Basis Of Safety Basis Of Safety

Dust Explosion Screening Ignition Sensitivity

Minimum Ignition Temperature Test (MIT)

Flammable Limits (Dust Cloud) Special Cases

VDI Burning Behavior Test Set-up

Test Data Required

Figure 6. A Process Safety Strategy for Powders

3. Dust Explosion Analysis Fire Analysis 8. Thermal Stability Analysis

Multi Powder Screening Figure 7. Strategy for Dust Explosion Testing

Flammable Limits Explosion Severity

Basis Of Safety Basis Of Safety

Screening for Oxidation Reactions Detailed Testing

A1. The Chilworth Technology Approach To Testing

International Standard ASTM E1226

Quantity of Sample 200 g Quantity of Sample 500 g

Alternative Tests BAM Furnace Alternative Tests N/A

Alternative Tests 1 m3 Sphere Test Alternative Tests 1 m3 Sphere Test

Quantity of Sample 150 g Alternative Tests -

Reduced Versions of the Test No reduced version of this test exists

Quantity of Sample 150 g Quantity of Sample 50 g

Alternative Tests None exists Alternative Tests None exists

> China DEKRA China www.chilworth.cn

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