Total Oil Heating

T
his manual is not intended as a substitute for there will be variances or changes to suit local
the manufacturers installation, operation problems or issues. Some areas may rely on a different
and/or service instructions, which should model code than NFPA 31, or their code may not be
always be consulted and considered the first and best based on a national model. These codes are the law in
reference for installing, commissioning and servicing the area in which you are working and you must
equipment. follow them.
This book describes recommended and well Finally, each manufacturer provides instructions on
established practices for installing and maintaining how to install his equipment. The codes generally
oilburners, furnaces, boilers, water heaters, and heating defer to the manufacturer, and state, but the manufac-
oil tanks and piping. Additionally, it describes how turer must be specific. For example, if the manufacturer
venting and chimneys affect the equipments opera- says, Use a draft regulator if necessary, and the
tion. However, the correct way of doing things may codebook says, draft regulators are required, then
change over time due to new technologies, new you must use a draft regulator. In describing draft
research or safety issues that become better under- regulators, NFPA says they must be used unless the
stood. Therefore, you must continue your education appliance design, conditions of installation, or
after reading this book, take continuing education combinations thereof preclude excessive chimney
classes and communicate with manufacturers and local draft, or the appliance is listed for use without one.
authorities regarding changes. Thus, NFPA says that a draft regulator must be used
We describe building and installation codes, and unless you can determine that the final installation
we discuss manufacturers instructions. Of necessity, will not allow excessive draft or the appliance is listed
each of these is important to install equipment, but for use without the draft regulator.
unfortunately, the relationships between them are not
always synchronized, and therefore, sometimes they Bob Hedden, Editor-in-Chief
appear to conflict.
The book relies on well established model codes.
NFPA 31, Standard for the Installation of Oil Burning We want to express our deepest gratitude to the following
Equipment, is the predominant model code for oil people who spent untold hours checking over the material in
equipment installations. Many states adopt this code this book for accuracy:
and use it in their jurisdiction. Unfortunately, some-
times it takes time for a jurisdiction to adopt changes Jerry HerronRW Beckett Corp.
that are made to the code; they may use old editions, Tom Tubman, Chuck Feldman, Marc Bryden, Walter
or may use competing model codes. Additionally, Hadank, Mark Leclerc, Rich Newberry, Jim Ratcliffe,
some NFPA changes may occur between editions of Dave Rousayne, and Mike Shayda
this book. Unless your county or state adopts these
Carlin Combustion Technology
model codes, they are not legally required. However,
John JonesDelavan Spray Technologies
they generally reflect best practices, and customers
Chris JordynICPA
will expect that from you. And if you are sued and you
(Independent Connecticut Petroleum Assn.)
have ignored best practices, you will almost certainly
Roger MitchellMODA (Maine Oil Dealers Assn.)
lose.
Each state, county, or city may adopt a local Mike Szentesy and Bill MitchellSuntec
building or fire code. Usually these will be based on Jim BergmannTesto
uniform national codes (NFPA 31), but occasionally Pete CullenWhler
Overton Jay Young and Dave LevittDixon Fuel
A big thanks goes to:

George LanthierFiredragon Enterprises
John LeveyOilheat Associates
Oilheat Technicians Manual lead writers on many chapters, editors on some.
2008 Edition/Silver
Editor & Graphic DesignerMike SanGiovanni, Oilheating Journal
Copyright 2008
National Oilheat Research Alliance Sue CarverIndustry Publications, layout, proofing, & production
600 Cameron Street PublisherDon Farrell, Oilheating Journal
Suite 206
Alexandria, VA 22314 John HuberPresident, National Oilheat Research Alliance
www.nora-oilheat.org
II Oilheat Technicians Manual

On being an Oilheat Technician
T
his manual is for anyone interested in learning to become an Oilheat Technician. Being
an Oilheat Technician is a very challenging profession. Working on oil burners is
tougher than plumbing, electrical, air conditioning, copiers or computers. The reasons
are the sheer variety of equipment and the conditions we have to work under. There have been
over 500 different oil burner manufacturers over the years, and thousands of furnace, water
heater, and boiler brands and styles. Each of these unique combinations of burner and boiler,
furnace, or water heater operates in a different building with a different venting system and heat
distribution system. The bottom line is that there are millions of different configurations we
must understand. Add to this the incredibly high degree of customer contact technicians enjoy,
and all the skills that implies, and you can see why it is so difficult to learn to become an
accomplished Oilheat Technician.
First, you must have pride in yourself, your company, and the Oilheat Industry. You have
to have a deep personal need to do a good job, one you can be proud of. The second ingredient
is to possess a strong desire to be of service. You have to enjoy helping people. The third
element is insatiable curiosity. The only way to keep up with the breathtaking technological
improvements and changes in our business is to be a perpetual student, always learning. Finally,
it helps if you have a mentor to help you along the way. After years of experience, you should
mentor someone else. We hope this manual will give you a starting point in your journey toward
excellence.
Dozens of dedicated Oilheat professionals have had a hand in creating and editing it. The
book is written by Oilheat Technicians for Oilheat Technicians. The first versions of the book
were published in the early 1960s. This is the seventh, and probably the most ambitious
revision of the book.
Disclaimer
This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard
to the subject matter covers. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged
in rendering legal, accounting, or other technical or professional service. If specific legal advice
or other technical or professional assistance is required, the services of a competent professional
person should be sought.
The editors have made their best effort to be sure the material in the book is accurate.
However, any book with as much detail about such a wide range of subjects, and with as many
contributors as this text has enjoyed, over as many rewrites and revisions as the text has en-
dured, is bound to have a few mistakes, omissions, and controversial opinions. We all wish to
take this opportunity to apologize for any confusion or inconvenience that may result from any
of these factors. However, NORA, nor those responsible for the preparation of this Manual, make
any representations or guarantee, or assume or accept any responsibility or liability, with respect
thereto.
This book is sold without warranty of any kind as to the accuracy of its contents. The
reader accepts full responsibility for any consequence arising from the use of this book. In all
cases, local codes, and equipment manufacturers instructions take precedence over anything we
have presented in this book.
Oilheat Technicians Manual III

Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Oilburners -------------------- 1-3

How an oilburner works
The high-pressure atomizing flame-retention oilburner
Ignition, the nozzle assembly and air adjustments
Chapter 2 Heating Oil and Its Properties ---------------- 2-3

An introduction to the petroleum industry
Oil refining
Fuel related service calls, oil filtration
Chapter 3 Oil Tanks and Piping ----------------------------- 3-3

Oil tanks and piping
Tank inspection procedures
Chapter 4 Fuel Units and Oil Valves ----------------------- 4-3

Fuel units and oil valves
Troubleshooting oil storage and supply systems
Chapter 5 Nozzles and Combustion Chambers ------ 5-3

Nozzle construction and flame patterns
Solving after-drip problems
Combustion chambers
Chapter 6 Draft and Venting --------------------------------- 6-3

Draftwhy it is needed and how it is measured
Regulating draft and the effects of draft
Alternative venting systems: Power-venting and direct-venting
Chapter 7 Combustion ---------------------------------------- 7-3

Combustion theory, efficiency testing and troubleshooting
Common causes of smoke, soot and low efficiency
Carbon monoxide
Chapter 8 Basic Electricity ----------------------------------- 8-3

Understanding electrical circuits
Measuring electricity
Electrical safety
Chapter 9 Ignition Systems ---------------------------------- 9-3

Interrupted and intermittent (constant duty) ignition
How ignition transformers and ignitors work, troubleshooting
Testing transformers and ignitors, servicing ignition systems
00 IV Oilheat Technicians
Customer Manual
Service
Oilheat Technicians Manual
Chapter 10 Motors ------------------------------------------------------- 10-3

Motor components
How motors work, diagnosing motor problems
The types of motors used in heating systems
Chapter 11 Primary Controls ----------------------------------------- 11-3

Functions of a primary control
Flame detection
Ignition modes
Types of primary controls, troubleshooting primary controls
Chapter 12 Limit Controls and Thermostats -------------------- 12-3

The oil-fired heating system control circuit
Thermostats, principles and designs, heat anticipators
Limit controls, warm air fan limits and electronic fan timer center,
steam pressure controls and low water cutoffs, aquastats
Switching relays
Chapter 13 Heating Systems ----------------------------------------- 13-3

Warm air heating systems
Hot water heating systems
Steam heating systems
Oil-powered water heaters
Chapter 14 Preventative Maintenance Tune-Ups -------------- 14-3

Importance of preventative maintenance
Tools you will need
Step-by-step procedures for preventative maintenance
Chapter 15 Service Procedures ------------------------------------- 15-3

A systematic approach to troubleshooting
Time saving troubleshooting suggestions
Chapter 16 Energy Conservation ---------------------------------- 16-3

Technicians role in equipment sales
How oil-fired heating systems lose heat and efficiency
Equipment upgrades and replacements
Chapter 17 Customer Service --------------------------------------- 17-3

Why providing customer service is important
What customers want when something goes wrong
Solving customer complaints and handling complaints
Hot tips for successful service calls
Oilheat Technicians Manual V

Introduction
In this book, we will cover everything water for use in the residence, a furnace
about oilheating, from the oil used, to heats air that is distributed throughout the
exhausting the combustion gases, to residence, and a boiler heats water that is
distributing the heat throughout the house. either distributed as steam or water to heat
the residence. Within each of these
The major components of an Oil-fired
appliances, there is a combustion area (9)9
Heating System are displayed on the
where the oil burning takes place. Adja-
adjacent page.
cent to the combustion area is a heat
exchanger 10 that takes the heat from the
The oil tank 11) stores the oil, the oil flame 11 and from the combustion gases
lines (2)
2 move the oil to the burner, the oil 12 in the combustion chamber 13 and
filter (3)
3 cleans the oil prior to its introduc- heats the air or water within the unit. The
tion into the burner. (Chapter Seven) appliance then begins to distribute the air
and water throughout the house. (Chapters
Six and Thirteen)
The system begins with the thermostat
4 and electronic controls. The thermostat
4)
senses the temperature in the house and The heat distribution system 14 takes
when the house gets cold sends a signal to the heat from the heat exchanger and
the controls on the burner 5 5). These delivers it around the building. Furnaces
controls turn the oil burner on when heat is use a fan to distribute the heat. Hot water
needed and off when the need for heat is heaters and boilers use circulators to
satisfied. (Chapters Eleven and Twelve) distribute the hot water around the build-
ing. (Chapter Thirteen)
The oilburner (6)6 contains a pump (7) 7

that moves the oil from the tank to the The flue pipe 15 and chimney 16
burner, it mixes the fuel with air and then system remove the combustion gases from
ignites the oil. (Chapters One, Four, Five the building. (Chapter Six)
and Nine)
Additional chapters also cover heating

The appliance 8) 8 is a water heater, a oil, service procedures, energy conserva-
boiler or a furnace. A water heater heats tion and customer service.
Introduction VII
00 Astounding Customer Service
Chapter 1
Intro to Oil Burners
Chapter 1
Introduction to Oilburners
Introduction small droplets that are vaporized and

To understand oilburners, we must burned in suspension in the combustion
understand a bit about combustion. Com- area. An electric spark, from electrodes
bustion (burning) is the rapid combining of installed close to the nozzle, supplies heat
oxygen and the elements in the fuel. When for ignition. A fan supplies the air required
the oxygen and the fuel combine, they for combustion. Figure 1-1 shows how a
create heat, lightand combustion gases. burner operates, Figure 1-2 shows the Figure 1-1:
(We cover Combustion Theory in detail in combustion process. Oilburner
Chapter 7.) In order for something to burn, operation
we need three things:
1. Oxygen from the air Burner Fuel Air Turbulator
Housing Line (Spinner)
2. A fuel that will easily combine
with the oxygen Air
Fan
3. Heat
Heating oil will not burn as a liquid. To
burn, the liquid oil must be converted into
a vapor. In todays burners, this is done by
breaking the oil into tiny droplets (atomiz-
ing it). Next, each droplet is heated until it
turns into a vapor. Then, to accomplish Combustion Air Adjustable
clean combustion, the oilburner must mix Air Damper
the oil vapor with the proper amount of air.

The combined air and vapors are raised to Combustion Air
the temperature at which they will burn. Recirculation
Spark
Therefore, every oilburner must atomize
the oil, vaporize it, mix it with air, and heat
the mixture above its ignition point. Atmomization
High pressure atomizing

Todays oilburners are called high-
pressure burners because they use a fuel Recirculation
pump to pressurize the oil to 100 pounds Combustion Air
per square inch (PSI) or more. This pres- Fuel Storage
sure forces the oil through a nozzle
designed to break (atomize) the oil into the
Figure 1-2:
Simplified schematic
of the combustion
process
Chapter 1Introduction to Oil Burners 1-3

Chapter 1
Although the high-pressure burner has The flame retention head provides a
been the mainstay of the industry almost modified airflow pattern for radically
from the beginning of the modern improved air-oil mixing. The basic idea is
oilburner era, it has gone through many to produce a strongly swirling air pattern
modifications. An advantage of oil is that that recirculates combustion products for
parts are largely interchangeable, and thus more complete mixing of fuel and air. This
it has been possible to keep many burners is called recirculation.
operating for years. In fact, some burners As the air rushes out of the end of the
made in the 1930s are still operating in the burner, it sucks air from the combustion
field because of interchangeable parts.
Air PatternNon-Flame Retention Burner
Flame retention
oilburners
In the 1960s, the current design for
oilburners was introduced, which is called
Nozzle
the flame retention burner. As the name
implies, the flame is held very close to the
face of the combustion head. The flame is
smaller and more compact than with older
burners. This designs primary characteris- Air PatternFlame Retention Burner
tics are its head or end-cone, high
motor operating speeds (typically
3450 RPM) and high combus-
tion air static pressures.
Figure 1-3 shows pictures of Nozzle
modern flame retention
burners.
RecirculationArea
0-25 Velocity
area back toward it. This recirculation is

what pulls the fire back toward the head,
creating the flame retention effect. The
flame stabilizes near the burner head, hence
the name flame retention. The air swirling
is achieved with airflow shaping heads and
Figure 1-3: turbulators and by running the burner
Flame retention motor and fan at high speed.
burners
The flame retention head produces more
air swirl and combustion air recirculation
flow, which improves fuel-air mixing. This
permits operation with less excess air and
with lower smoke levels. Cleaner and more
stable combustion is produced and system
efficiency is typically 5 to 15 percent
1-4 Introduction to Oil Burners

Chapter 1
Non-flame Retention Flame Retention Figure 1-4:

(Turbulator or Choke) Head Burners Comparison
of burner
Percent CO2 7-9 11-13 performance
Percent Excess Combustion Air 50-100 20-30
Bacharach Smoke Number 1-3 0-1
Percent Flue Heat Loss (on cycle) 30 10-20
higher than with older burners. See motor, fan (C), fuel unit (A), ignition
Figures 1-4 and 1-5. transformer or igniter (E), nozzle assembly
(B & D), and a housing to which all of
Flame retention heads produce hotter
flames because less excess combustion these parts are attached, as illustrated in
air is used than with non-flame retention Figure 1-6 on following page.
head oilburners. Therefore, the combus-
tion chamber construction materials and Motor
general condition must be checked The electric motor drives the fan and the
carefully whenever a high efficiency oil- fuel pump. The motor is manufactured in
burner is installed or serviced. one of two designs, either a split phase type
or permanent split capacitor (PSC) type
Construction of the high-pressure motor. The motor is mounted to the housing
atomizing flame retention oilburners of the burner by means of a two, three, or Figure 1-5:
four bolt flange. Removing these bolts Difference in flame
The high-pressure retention head
between a non-
burners are precision-built and con- allows easy removal of the motor and access flame retention
structed for durability and long service. to the fan, which is attached to the motor burner and a flame
Every high-pressure burner consists of a shaft. In the event of motor failure, be sure retention burner
Non-Flame Retention Combustion Flame Retention Combustion
Nozzle
Nozzle
Combustion Air Combustion Air
Air Vanes
Flame Retention
Combustion Chamber
Non-Flame Retention Combustion Chamber Combustion Head
Target Wall Combustion Head (Optional) Rear View
Rear View Stainless Steel
Cast Iron Circumferential
Slots
Radial Vanes

Chapter 1
Figure 1-6:
Components of a Electrode Clamp
flame retention Electrode Assy.
burner Nozzle Line
Electrode Spacer
Bulkhead Assy.
Nozzle
Adapter
Electrode
Clamp Screw
Static Plate
Knurled Nut
Spider Spacer Assy.

Chapter 1
to replace the motor with a new motor of the can cause a vibration and put an extra strain
same rotation, frame size, and revolutions on the motor bearings. Any fan wheel that
per minute (RPM). Figure 1-7 shows a motor, does not slip off the motor shaft without
fan and coupling. The coupling attaches to needing to be pried off with a screwdriver
the motor shaft on one end and the pump must be removed with a wheel puller.
shaft on the other, taking power from the
motor and transferring it to the pump. When replacing the burner fan, one must
(Motors and couplings are covered in pay strict attention to the rotation as
Chapter 10.) indicated by the beveled blades. Also,
remember that the burner manufacturer has
Figure 1-7:
provided the proper fan for the proper
Motor, fan amount of combustion air needed. Always
and coupling replace it with one that has the same
dimensions.
Fuel pump
The fuel pump, also referred to as the
fuel unit, is driven by the motor. The pump
shaft is attached to the motor shaft by the
burner coupling. The pump consists of
Multiblade fan three basic parts:
and air shutter 1. Strainerto remove any foreign
A fan wheel within the burner housing is
matter from the oil before it enters the
driven directly by the motor shaft, and
provides the necessary air to support pump gears.
combustion. An adjustable air shutter on 2. Pumpto lift the oil from the tank
the burner housing controls the volume of and deliver it to the regulating valve.
air handled by the fan.
3. Regulating valveto build up and
The oilburner fan, or blower wheel as it maintain the proper operating pressure for
is often called, supplies the combustion air atomizing the oil. (See Chapter 4 for more
for the flame. See Figure 1-8. They are of details on Fuel Units.)
the squirrel cage type with beveled blades
that must be kept free of dirt and lint. The
slightest amount of dirt will Ignition transformer
reduce the blade bevel and or solid state igniter
reduce the amount of air The ignition transformer or solid-state
delivered. They are igniter (on new burners) provides a step
precision balanced and up from the line voltage of 120 volts to
every effort must be over 10,000 volts. The high voltage spark
made to prevent produced by these components jumps
bending the wheel at its across the gap between the electrode tips.
hub. This spark provides the heat necessary to
A blower wheel with a vaporize the atomized oil from the nozzle
Figure 1-8: Oil-
burner fan or bent or broken blade will and achieve ignition. (See Chapter 9 for
blower wheel be out of balance. This more information on Ignition Systems.)

Chapter 1
The nozzle assembly oil spray so the oil can burn. In order to do
The nozzle assembly also known as the so, the combustion head must have the
drawer assembly, or firing assembly, right amount of air delivered to it down the
consists of the oil feed pipe (called the air tube from the fan, and the fuel pump
nozzle line), the nozzle, nozzle adapter, and nozzle must deliver the right amount of
electrodes, transformer connections, and on fuel at the proper pressure.
some burners, a flame retention ring. The
entire assembly is located in the air tube of Elements needed
the burner. An opening at the rear, top or for combustion
side of the burner housing permits access As we have discussed, the three elements
to and removal of the nozzle assembly. we need for combustion are oil, air, and
spark. If we examine these three elements
Combustion heads one at a time we will see that:
The combustion head (also referred to as The amount of oil is based on the
the turbulator, fire ring, retention ring, and flow rate in gallons per hour (GPH) that
end cone) creates a specific pattern of air at you wish to burn. The size of the nozzle
the end of the air tube. The air is directed orifice (in GPH) and the pressure setting of
in such a way as to force oxygen into the the fuel unit determine the flow rate.
The spark is the ignition source for
the fuel oil. With new advanced
Figure 1-9: control systems, the spark is only
Adjustable head on for a short period of time
burner
(usually 25 seconds maxi-
mum) at the beginning of the
running cycle of the burner.
Once flame is established, the
heat from the flame keeps
combustion going. Continuing
to have the spark on after
ignition is accomplished will
only detract from the perfor-
mance of the burner.
The air is the key element
and the final adjustment of a
burner. Air is introduced into the
air tube by the fan through the air
intake controlled by adjustable
shutters or bands.
The flame retention head
incorporates three basic air-directing
elements: the center opening for
primary air, the secondary slots, and the

Chapter 1
tertiary opening. See Figure 1-9. The retention ring and it is this Secondary Air
center opening is the orifice in the center of that creates the flame retention effect. By
the head that allows clearance for the oil spinning this secondary air, the flame is
spray and the electrode spark to pass actually pulled back toward the flame
through the head without interference. The retention ring. (Figure 1-9).
secondary slots are the slots that radiate out
The tertiary air is the air that exits
from the center opening towards the
around the outside of the flame retention
outside of the head. The tertiary opening is
ring or through the tertiary slots. For clean
a slot that is concentric to the center
oil combustion, every droplet of atomized
opening and follows the circumference of
oil MUST be completely blanketed with air
the combustion head. All three openings
in order to provide total combustion.
affect the way air is delivered to the oil
spray. Tertiary Air ensures that any droplets of
atomized oil escaping the oil spray pattern
The primary air is the air that exits
will contact this air and burn. Creating an
through the center opening hole in the
envelope or curtain of air between the main
flame retention ring where the oil from the
swirl area of the flame and the walls of the
nozzle is sprayed. Primary air has the least
combustion area or the chamber. The width
desirable effect on combustion. Air will
of the slots in the outside ring control the
always take the path of least resistance, so
amount of tertiary air entering the combus-
the larger the center opening, the more the
tion area. The larger the slots the more
air will tend to pass through this opening
tertiary air and less secondary air, thus the
and push the flame out away from the face
size of the slots affects the firing rate of the
of the head. This air travels in a forward
burner. (Figure 1-9).
motion only. The smaller the center
opening, the more air will be forced to seek
its passageway through the other openings Fixed and adjustable heads
in the combustion head. (Figure 1-9). Flame retention heads fall into one of
two categories: fixed or adjustable (some-
The secondary air is the air that exits times called variable heads). The difference
through the slots cut into the flame reten- between them is the method by which they
tion ring. The secondary slots are where the control the tertiary opening and hence, the
most important mixing of oil and air firing rate of the burner.
occurs. The slot width regulates the
velocity of the air passing through the slot. The fixed head groups tertiary opening
This is where the air acquires a spinning is pre-set to a specific opening size for a
action. The air moves mostly in a rotary specific firing rate range. There are a
motion with little forward movement. variety of one-piece heads available with
Narrow slots will cause the air to spin faster fixed tertiary slots sized according to the
and move forward less. This will cause the firing rate for which it was designed. To
best mixing of oil and air and create a change firing rates, you have to change the
compact, intense, and efficient flame. head.
The secondary slots also aid in keeping With an adjustable head burner, the head
the surface of the head clean and free of is designed to move against or away from a
carbon. This air is turbulated by the flame ring, thus closing or opening the tertiary

Chapter 1
slot according to the firing rate require- ing and maintaining flow against resis-
ments. tance. Oilburners on the market today
create much higher static pressures than
The adjustable head operation is based
units made in the 1980s and earlier.
on the relationship between what is called
the throttle ring and the flame retention Some of these burners create such high
ring. The throttle ring is a ring at the end static pressures that they can force the
of the air tube that works in conjunction products of combustion through the heat
with the flame retention ring to create an exchanger and out of the building without
air restriction and provide for the tertiary the use of a chimney or power venter. See
air effect. The adjustable head group allows the section on direct venting in the Venting
the technician to move the head forward or Chapter. (Chapter 6).
backward in order to change the tertiary
High static pressure burners have been
opening to accommodate different firing
developed to accommodate the modern,
rate requirements, allowing fine-tuning of
flow resistive appliances (boilers, furnaces,
the burner.
and water heaters) and to assist with low or
The fixed head is simple and easy to use; no draft conditions. A drop in static
but remember that each head is only good pressure can cause problems that range
for a specific range of firing rates. When from delayed ignition, rumbles, and
you are installing a new burner or changing pulsation to the inability to adjust the
a firing rate to optimize performance, you burner for clean operation.
must be sure you have installed the proper
The fan in a high static pressure burner
head for the specific firing rate. The
starts with enough pressure to effectively
variable head burner allows an infinite
push the products of combustion through
ability to fine-tune the burner for hard-to-
the appliance without interruption. The
fire applications.
higher static pressure also acts like a shock
With the wide variety of adjustments absorber or tightly wound spring to resist
possible, you must be careful in picking the and absorb flame pulsations.
correct adjustments. Most variable head
This is especially needed in most
burners come with adjustment guides to
modern appliances, which are designed
help you set the head properly.
with tighter, more efficient heat exchanger
passages and increased draft drop that
Static pressure results in great heat absorption by the heat
Static pressure is the means of produc- exchanger, and thus, greater efficiency.

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
Chapter 2
Heating Oil
and Its Properties
Introduction to petroleum Refining oil

Petroleum Fuels Our Modern Life Style Heating Oil is a fossil fuel, as are natural
gas, propane, and coal. They are called
More than six thousand products are
fossil fuels because they are all made from
made from petroleum. It is almost impos-
the prehistoric plants and animals that form
sible to get through a day without using
fossils.
dozens of petroleum products.
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons. Hydrocar-
Oilheat is reliable bon molecules are the building blocks of
Oilheat has a remarkable reliability life. Everything that is or was ever alive is
record. Despite wars, embargoes, political made of molecules composed of hydrogen
unrest, and natural disasters, oilheat keeps and carbon atoms. Carbon is normally a
its customers warm. This reliability is solid, which, if not totally burned, becomes
partly due to the variety of places where smoke and soot. Bonded together, hydro-
crude oil is found, the resourcefulness of carbons can be a gas like propane, a liquid
everyone from the refiners to the local oil like heating oil or a solid like candle wax.
dealer, the flexibility of the delivery The hydrocarbon gases contain more
system, and the stability and safety inherent hydrogen; the liquids and solids contain
in heating oil. more carbon.
Some Petroleum Products

Gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel fuel, heating oil, propane,
butane, lubricating oils, greases, waxes, asphalt, nylon, plastics,
fertilizers, washing, cleaning and polishing products, medicines
and drugs, photographic film, pesticides, waxed paper, food
preservatives, food flavorings, beauty products, Plexiglas, vinyl,
audio and video tape, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibers, textiles,
explosives, solvents, wax for candles, candy, matches, and pol-
ishes, toiletries, crayons, roofing materials, floor coverings, carbon
fiber, paints, lacquers, printing inks, DVDs and CDs. Five percent of
our electricity generated is oil powered.
Chapter 2Heating Oil and Its Properties 2-3

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
Gases
Propane and Burate
Gasoline
Naphtha
Gasoline
Kerosene
No. 2 Distillate Heavy Light

Cat- Cat-
Heavy Gas Oil Cracked Cracked
Gas Oil Gas Oil
Crude
In Slurry
Oil
Pump Pitch
Residual Fuel
Fractionating Vacuum Catalytic
Column Flashing Cracker
Sulfur, Nitrogen
Hydro Water, etc.
Treated Catalyst
Distillate
Additive Hydro Preheater

Injection Treater Hydrogen Gas
Figure 2-1:
Refining oil
Petroleum comes out of the ground in a mixture of various middle distillate
the form of crude oil and wet gas. Both are products together also creates heating oil.
a complex mix of compounds consisting (Figure 2-1).
mostly of the elements carbon and hydro-
gen. Sulfur and nitrogen are bound to some
of these hydrocarbon compounds. This Properties of heating oil
mixture of molecules is separated at the American Society for Testing
refinery by distillation into their various and Materials (ASTM)
boiling ranges. Heating oil, diesel fuel, jet ASTM publishes industry specifications
fuel, and kerosene are classified as middle for many different materials including
distillates because their boiling range is in petroleum products. The specification for
the middle of the sweep of petroleum Fuel Oils is ASTM D396. This standard
products separated in the distillation sets the minimum specifications for the
process. Heating oil produced directly by fuel.
the distillation process is called straight
run product. Heating oil is also produced Flash point
by catalytically and thermally cracking The flash point of fuel oil is the maxi-
heavier, more complex molecules into the mum temperature at which it can be safely
small heating oil hydrocarbon molecules. stored and handled without serious fire
This is called cracked product. Blending hazard. The ASTM specified flash point
2-4 Heating Oil and Its Properties

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
for No.1 and No.2 oil is

100F minimum. When oil Heating Oils Physical Properties (No. 2 oil)
is heated to its flash point,
some of the hydrogen ASTM Specification: D 396
flashes off but the fuel will Flashpoint: 100F minimum (37.8C)
not continue to burn. Ignition Point: >500F (260C)
Pour Point: 17F (8.3C)
Ignition point Cloud Point: Pour point temp. plus 10-20 (F)
The ignition or fire point
Viscosity: Varies: increases as temp. drops
is lowest temperature at
Water/Sediment: ASTM allowable amount of H2O: 0.1%
which rapid combustion of
(Water content is usually much lower in practice)
a fuel will take place in air.
Sulfur Content: Ranges from 0.5% to 0.05% (5000 to 500 parts per million);
It is the temperature at ASTM maximum allowable amount is 0.5%.
which all the fuel has been
Color: Colorless, but heating oil is dyed red for tax compliance reasons.
sufficiently heated and Color resembles cranberry juice.
vaporized to the point BTU Content: 139,000 (approx.)
where it continues to burn
for at least 5 seconds. For
No. 2 oil, the ignition point is over 500F.
Pour point temperature decreases, viscosity increases.

Pour point is the lowest temperature at Normally the temperature of oil in a
which fuel will flow. Below this, it turns to basement tank is 60F. In the winter, you
waxy gel. The ASTM standard for un- might get a delivery of 5F oil. The colder
treated No. 2 oil is 17F. Additives or oil will have a higher viscosity and burner
kerosene are added to heating oil during the
winter to ensure that it flows.
Cloud point
Cloud point is the temperature at which
wax crystals begin to form in the fuel
typically 10 to 20 degrees above the pour
point. These crystals can clog filters and
strainers, restricting fuel flow. Raising the
temperature causes the crystals to go back
into solution. ASTM does not list a
specification for cloud point for heating
oil. Both pour point and cloud point affect
winter performance, and could cause
problems if the fuel is not properly treated.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the thickness of the fuel and
its resistance to flow. Grease has a high
viscosity. Gasoline has a low viscosityit
flows easily. Heating oils viscosity changes
dramatically with temperature. As the

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
performance will be affected until Color

the fuel warms. As stated in the Heating oil is dyed red to differentiate it
Good housekeep- Nozzle Chapter (Chapter 5), cold from on-road diesel fuel for tax compliance
ing, installing filters oil causes poor atomization, delayed reasons. Problems with the fuel are not
on all customers
burners, and an ignition, noisy flames, pulsation, indicated by the darkness of the color. A
aggressive and possible sooting. murky appearance, however, may indicate a
problem-tank
replacement fuel quality problem.
program can cut Water and sediment
fuel related service
calls dramatically. Accumulation of water in tank Fuel related service calls
bottoms is undesirable, since it leads The oilheat industrys top two service
to the formation of sludge and ice. priorities are improved reliability and
Sludge is largely oil and water. Water and reduced heating equipment service costs. A
oil usually do not mix, but if organic significant number of unscheduled no-heat
sediment is present in the fuel, it acts as a service calls are caused by inconsistent fuel
binder to stabilize the mix of fuel and quality, fuel degradation, and contamina-
water. This forms a white milky substance tion.
that will not burn. The ASTM limit for
water is 0.1%, but most fuel sold has much Heating oil varies during the season.
less water. Unfortunately, water can get Wholesalers get their product from around
into the system from condensation, leaks in the world, from Malaysia to Texas. Each of
lines, or missing vent and fill caps. these products is slightly different; as a
result, the product in the customers tank
Sulfur content may be a mixture of a variety of fuels. A
Sulfur exists in varying degrees in all great deal of our product is created by
fossil fuels. The sulfur content of heating blending various fuels together to meet the
oil ranges from 0.5% to 0.05%; the ASTM rather loose definition for #2 heating oil
maximum is 0.5%. laid out in the ASTM D 396 specification.
Additionally, over time, fuel degrades
When the sulfur burns, it mixes with water may enter the system and bacteria
oxygen and forms sulfuric dioxide. It also have an opportunity to grow. Good house-
creates a small amount of sulfur trioxide. keeping, installing filters on all customers
The sulfur trioxide reacts with the water burners, and an aggressive problem-tank
vapor in the combustion gases to create a replacement program can cut fuel related
sulfuric acid aerosol. If the acid condenses service calls dramatically.
(at 150-200) it adheres to the heat ex-
changer, flue pipe and the inside of the Potential problems in the tank
chimney. It creates a scaly yellow to red The population of oil tanks in the field
colored crust. Scale makes up 50% of is aging. As the tanks age, rust and sedi-
deposits on the heat exchanger. It down- ments build up in the tank. Secondly, oil
grades efficiency by 1% to 4% over the has a finite shelf life and breaks down over
year. It also blocks flue passages, restricting time. The third problem is the size and
air flow and increasing smoke and soot. speed of delivery. Filling a tank kicks-up
Using low sulfur fuel all but eliminates all the sediments and rust in the bottom of
scale and soot formation on heat exchanger the tank, and that leads to plugged lines,
surfaces. The efficiency does not degrade filters and nozzles. The solutions here are
over the heating season, saving energy. It not to let the level of oil in the tank get too
also results in decreased appliance service. low, to slow down the pumping speed of

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
the truck, and to use diverters on the blow Detecting out of spec oil
or whistle pipes (underground fill pipes) Occasionally, a bad batch of oil will be
when filling underground tanks. delivered. When that happens, there will be
many service calls. If there is a spike in
calls and they appear to be fuel related, you
Major factors should alert your service manager. A fuel
in fuel degradation sample might show that the fuel can be
fixed with additives, or the fuel may need
1. Chemistry of the fuel
to be replaced.
Heat causes the oxidation
of organics Water problems
The presence of sulfur and The worst fuel problem is water in the
nitrogen hasten degradation oil tank. Water enters the tank in the
following ways:
Corrosion creates iron oxides
(rust) 1. Condensation
Presence of Gels caused by 2. Broken tank gauge (outside tank)

mercaptan sulfur 3. Loose fill or vent fittings and
Incompatible fuels missing caps
4. Directly from delivery trucks
2. Microbiological effects
5. Leaking vent, fill pipes, or tank
3. The tank and its environment 6. Pumping old oil into a new tank
moisture, fuel circulation due to tempera-
ture differences
Sludge
4. Lack of tank maintenance and poor Sludge is a combination of water,
design and installation that prevent ad- colonies of bacteria, degraded fuel, and
equate tank inspection, withdrawal of water other contaminates like sand, grit and rust.
and sediment, improper or no filtration, The ability of bacteria to grow almost
and lack of corrosion protection. anywhere and reproduce amazingly fast
makes it an all too common problem. The
bacteria live in the water and eat the fuel.
Fuel stability They break the fuel down into hydrogen,
Fuels degrade over time. If the fuels are CO2, and carbon rich residue. The bacteria
contaminated, they will degrade even more also create sticky slime or gum to protect
quickly. The stability of heating oil themselves. Scientists call this slime
depends a great deal on the crude oil biofilm. This deterioration of fuel is a
sources from which it was made, the natural occurrence that will appear in all
severity of the refinery process, the use of tanks unless proper maintenance is per-
additives and any additional refinery formed. The sludge grows at the oil-water
treatment. Fuels that are stored for long line and when stirred up can to lead serious
periods of time and subjected to tempera- and recurring service problemsmost
ture extremes may form excessive amounts notably plugged fuel lines, filters, strainers,
of sediments and gums that can plug filters, and nozzles. Sludge is acidic and may
strainers, and nozzles. eventually destroy the tank from the inside.

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
To reduce sludge formation: temperature of the oil goes down, the

viscosity goes up. The oil gets thicker,
Never pump oil from one tank to
which can cause a smoky fire.
another. You may be transferring tank
killing sludge.
How to deal with frozen
Slow down delivery rateshigh tanks and oil lines
pressure filling can stir-up existing sludge Cold-flow additives, called Pour Point
causing it to be drawn into the oil line. Depressants, can help avoid frozen lines,
but once the tank or lines have frozen or
Routinely check the tank for water
waxed, other solutions are needed.
once you have removed the water, if
possible, clean the sludge from the tank and The best solution is to top off the tank
treat the tank with a fuel conditioning with kerosene. The agitation of the fuel in
additive. the tank caused by the kerosene delivery
and the solvency of kerosene break up and
Draw the oil from the bottom of the
tankAs water will condense and
collect in all tanks, it is best to
draw off the water as if forms. It
will burn off in the combustion
process. Allowing water to
accumulate will create conditions
favorable for the formation of
sludge.
The exception to this rule is outdoor dissolve the wax crystals. You may also
above ground tanks. In cold weather, the have to remove the filter temporarily,
water in the bottom suction line may convert to a one-pipe system and heat the
freeze, causing a blockage and no heat. It suction line with a hair dryer or heat lamp.
appears that the best solution to this If you are unable to arrange for a
problem is to run the suction line into one delivery, some technicians report that
of the top tappings on the above ground adding as little as five gallons of kerosene
tank, use a floating suction line device, and can help.
regularly remove the water that condenses
Others report having success shocking
in the bottom of the tank.
the tank with a pour point depressant. You
may have to build a temporary shelter for
Low temperature performance the tank out of plywood or cardboard,
As oil gets cold, several bad things whatever is at hand, and then use a heat
happen. First, any water in the fuel freezes, lamp or hair dryer to warm up the lines
plugging lines and filters. Second, the enough to get the oil to flow. Be very
viscosity of the oil begins to increase, careful with heat tape. If you wrap a heat
causing burner operation problems. Third, tape over itself, it can burn through its own
wax crystals begin to form in the oil. This insulation causing a short that can result in
wax or paraffin is a natural component of a fire. The insulation on the wires can also
heating oil. Oil temperature is the main crack with age and exposure to the ele-
factor in changing oil viscosity. As the ments creating potential for a fire.

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
Quick tests good fuel. The purpose of this test is

for fuel quality: to visually determine the possible
presence of contaminants and water
Clear and bright test in the fuel.
The purpose of this test is to detect
possible water or solid contaminants in the Fill a clean white bucket half way
fuel by visual inspection. Using a clean with fuel and let the sample stand for
glass container, take the sample at the bleed a minute to remove the air bubbles.
port of the fuel unit. Be sure the fuel Place the bucket on a level surface
sample tap (the bleed valve) is clean and with good light in the bucket. Inspect
free of loose contaminates by flushing it the fuel, it should be clear and bright
out at maximum flow before drawing a with no water, or solids. It should not
sample. be hazy or cloudy, and there should
be no brown or black slime. Drop a
Let the sample settle for a minute to shiny coin into the bucket. If you can easily
remove the air bubbles. Observe the sample read the date, the fuel is probably OK. The
against a light background for a clear fuel should also smell normal. Strange
odors can indicate problems. With either
the clear and bright or white bucket
test, a haze caused by wax crystals may
appear in the fuel if it is too cold. A haze
in fuel that is not too cold may be due to
contamination with water.
Slight Haze
Visual detection
of bacterial contamination
The clear and bright and white
Ice
bucket tests can also be used for testing
tank bottoms, filter cans, and fuel pump
Base Fuel Base Fuel with Water drainings for the presence of microorgan-
Below Freezing Point isms and sludge. There will be evidence
that can be seen and smelled.
bright condition. The sample should look
Put the fuel into a clean white bucket or
more like cranberry juice than red wine.
clear glass jar. Allow the sample to settle for
Swirl the container to create a whirlpool.
two minutes. Tip or swirl the container
Free water and solids tend to collect at the
from side to side, looking for any evidence
bottom of the whirlpool. The term clear
of dark colored solids, dark colored water,
and bright does not refer to color. Clear
substances that cling to the side of the
and bright fuel has no floating or sus-
container, or a scummy mucus like material.
pended matter, and no free water. Bright
Hold the sample in front of a light. Check to
fuel tends to sparkle.
see if the solids are rust. Move a small
magnet along the outside of the container.
White bucket test Rust particles will collect and follow the
This is a good quick test for drivers to magnet. If the sample is a dark-colored,
be sure you are filling your truck with sludge-like material and it does not respond

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
to the magnet, then it is probably bacterial one of two categories: spin-on filters and
contamination. cartridge type filters. The spin on filter is
similar to the oil filter on your car. The
Other indicators of these microorganisms
filter container, or can, and filter element
are a matty, lumpy, or stringy consistency
(resin-coated filter paper with large surface
and a rank moldy odor.
area folded into a filter housing) are all one
piece. The cartridge type has a replaceable
Water detection paste filter element cartridge that you place into a
Water detection pastes determine the filter can that attaches to the filter head. See
depth of water at the bottom of the storage Figure 2-2.
tank. Apply the paste in a thin coating on a
Filter elements are made from a variety
gauge stick from zero up to a couple inches
of materials, including: wool felt, wound
above the suspected oil water interface.
yarn, sintered plastic in a continuous micro-
Carefully lower the stick into the tank until
spun fiber, resin-coated paper, and stainless
it lightly touches bottom. Hold it in this
steel mesh. Filters are sized by flow rate
position for 30 seconds to a minute. Remove
gallons per hour (GPH) and pressure drop
the stick the water level will be clearly
(inches mercury Hg). Each filter also has a
indicated by a definite color change where
micron, or mesh rating. These ratings
water contacts the paste. Water paste will
represent the amount of pressure drop or
not detect an oil-water emulsion. You should
filtration capability. The rating means the
check customers tanks for water once a
filter will remove 95% of the particles of
year, and then drain off the water if de-
that size or larger. A lower micron/mesh
tected.
rating indicates a tighter filter construction,
able to remove finer particles.
Oil filtration Filter elements made from sintered
The installation of filters in burner fuel plastics with pore sizes in the range 30-75
Figure 2-2:
suction lines is strongly recommended. microns and large surface area or spin on
Filters: Cartridge Filters protect the pump and nozzle by filters with resin-coated paper in the 10
type and spin-on trapping contaminants before they reach micron range seem to work best. Most fuel
these components. There units contain a 100 micron mesh strainer.
are passages in the
Replaceable Element Spin-on Cartridge Nozzles also have a mesh or sintered
oilburner nozzle that are
smaller than the diameter bronze filter nominally rated for filtration to
of a human hair. It takes 40 microns. The tangential metering slots
very little contamination the things that get plugged up in the
to plug up these passages nozzleare typically 60 to 90 microns.
in the nozzle. This is why Grease or dirt on your fingers can plug the
it is critical to do every- nozzle, so they must be carefully handled.
thing to be sure clean oil Felt and wound yarn filters may shed fine
is delivered to the burner. fibers that may clog low firing rate nozzles.
See Figure 2-3.
There are a wide
variety of filters avail- To be fully effective, a modern filter
able, but they all fall into must stop particles from reaching the

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
nozzle. There are two approaches to

how a filter should react when it is full.
Some filters allow oil to bypass the
filter when the element is full; others
are designed to stop the flow of oil
when they are full.
While the filters that will not
allow bypass will cause a no heat
call when they are full, they ensure
that no particles reach the nozzle.
With the bypass type filter, once the
filter is full, it will allow the con-
taminants to flow down stream and
plug the pump strainer and nozzle.
This will take longer to happen, but
when it does, it will require work on
the burner.
Many service managers are now
advocating the installation of two
filters on problem installations. They
install a large standard cartridge
bypass filter at the tank and a 10-
micron no-bypass spin-on filter at the
burner.
Figure 2-3:
Filters and sludge Relative size of
Filters may fail because they have micronic
become blanketed with biologically active biologically active sludge. There is always particles
slime or sludge. The resulting black or gray some water dissolved in the fuel. This is
ball of grease is a tough service problem. why sludge can sometimes grow faster on
This sludge is not material that has been filters and strainers than it can in the tank.
sucked from the tank; it is alive and The rate at which sludge grows depends
actually growing in the filter. on the temperature and the availability of
When small particles of sludge in the oil moisture and nutrients. Filters may plug,
tank are drawn into the oil line, the bacteria even with new tanks and lines. The seed
in these particles look for moist places to sludge particles can arrive with the fuel
reproduce. If there is any water pocketed in from a contaminated tank upstream in the
the bottom of the filter canister or if there distribution system. They can be drawn
is water emulsified in the fuel, they can directly into the suction line before they
grow their biofilm. Contrary to popular have a chance to settle to the bottom of the
belief, there does not have to be a layer of tank. If the conditions are right, a filter can
free water in order to support the growth of plug within weeks of installation, even with

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
an immaculately clean tank. Also, sludge is

Steps to Better Fuel Performance corrosive. Untreated sludge can attack the
steel filter housing, causing pinhole leaks.
Before removing the fill cap for a buried tank, the The answers to sludge fouling of filters
driver must be sure water, dirt, snow or ice cannot fall is good housekeeping throughout the
into the tank. After delivery, drivers should check gas- distribution system, keeping water out of
kets and O-rings if needed on the fill cap to be sure they tanks, and removing existing water. In
are in good shape, reinstall the fill cap, and make problem jobs, the use of an effective sludge-
certain it is sealed tight. control additive may be required. If you
While making a delivery, the driver should check to treat an already fouled system with an
be sure the vent cap is in place, there is no water effective sludge dispersant, tiny dark
around the fill, the vent pipe is solid, and there is no particles are released from the biofilm as it
water in tank. breaks down. These particles are similar to
those that result from fuel instability.
On above ground outdoor tanks: are the tank legs Unstable fuel is usually dark in color
stable on a solid foundation? Are there signs of rust, burgundy cherry to coffee colored. In both
weeps, wet spots, deep scratches, or dents on the tank cases, the double filter system described
surface, oil leaks, or signs of spills, and does the tank above seems to the best answer.
need painting?
Sampling of tank bottoms should be done routinely
(during the tune-up) for cleanliness and lack of water.
Replacing the
oil filter element
If excessive sludge and water are found, they Cartridge type filtershut off the oil
should be removed as soon as possible. then loosen the nut on the top of the filter
Hold up on deliveries to problem tanks until the head and lower the can from the head. (Use
sludge and water problem is solved. caution; the can is full of oil.) Remove the
element and the gasket and clean inside the
Once the sludge and water are removed from the
canister. Inspect the old element. Excessive
tank: fill the tank with kerosene or specially treated fuel,
sludge or evidence of water calls for action.
tune-up the burner, hand-pump the oil lines thoroughly,
Check the inside of the can for pitting and
then replace the filter, strainer, and nozzle. Schedule a
rust. Install the new element and new
follow-up call a month later to see to it that the tank and
gaskets, reassemble, open the oil valve, and
lines remain clean.
bleed the air out of the filter through the
The tanks fill boxes, fill pipes, vent caps and pipes bleeder.
and remote fills should be checked for cracks and leaks
on every delivery and tune-up. Often the problem is a Spin-on typeshut off the oil and using
hole in the vent pipe just below ground level. Dig a few a filter wrench, loosen and spin off the oil
inches of soil away from the vent to check for rusting. If cartridge. Cut and remove the old center
the fill box is in a driveway, it should be a mushroom- stud O ring and replace it with a new O
type fill box with a watertight gasket rather than a ring. Remove the outside filter gasket on the
metal-to-metal fit. new filter and apply a thin coat of petro-
leum jelly to both sides of the gasket.
When additives are used, they should be added
Carefully replace the filter gasket. Fill the
before filling the tank, if possible, to facilitate proper
cartridge with clean oil and spin it onto the
mixing.
filter head. Bleed the air from the filter.

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
Fuel additive treatment containers. Know and follow the local

Additives are designed to prevent or laws concerning disposal of sludge and
retard fuel deterioration. Numerous types of water bottoms.
additives are available on the market. A
successful fuel treatment program requires Types of additives:
knowledge of the quality of the fuel in the
tank and the specific service problems. Cold flow improvers: Flow improvers
Using an additive off the shelf without are designed to lower the cold temperature
testing may be more harmful than doing operability limit for the fuel, and to avoid
nothing at all. wax plugging of the filters. Pour point
reducers or anti-gels lower the temperature
at which fuel gels or solidifies, and cold
Selection of additives: The multifunc- filter plug point reducers lowers the
tional aftermarket additives available for temperature at which wax plugs the filter.
heating oil are proprietary products that Once wax has formed in the fuel, an
offer a range of properties.
additive will not change the waxes present.
To dissolve wax, a solvent such as kero-
Guidelines: sene, must be used.
Define the problem and the additive Dispersants: Dispersants or detergents
that is needed. keep the little chunks of junk floating in
fuel so they can slip through the fuel
Make sure the fuel sample being tested system and be burned, rather than letting
represents the fuel being treated. them settle to the bottom of the tank. Initial
use of dispersant may cause filter plugging
Will the additive be used once, or is
as existing deposits, sludge, and dirt are
continuous treatment required?
broken up, suspended in the fuel and
Does the additive perform more than picked up by the pump.
one function? Antioxidants and metal deactivators:
Fuel degradation caused by oxidation or
Does the additive supplier have
aging leads to gum deposits. Antioxidant
technical support if there are questions
additives can slow this process. Dissolved
or problems?
metals, such as copper, can speed aging and
Can the supplier provide a way to degradation, and produce mercaptide
determine effectiveness in specific (sulfur containing) gels. To minimize these
cases? effects, metal deactivators combine with
the metals and render them inactive.
Follow all safety and handling instruc- Periodic monitoring of fuel stability is
tions on the labels and Material Safety recommended if these additives are being
Data Sheets that should accompany the used.
package.
Biocides: Serious problems can arise
Follow the recommended treatment from microbial proliferation, including
rates. sludge formation, acid and surfactant
formation leading to operational problems.
Properly dispose of the additive (Translation: Critters can grow in the oil

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
and debris are generally introduced into the

fuel through careless handling.
Use of rags for cleaning components

The rags used for cleaning can be a
source of trouble. Using a rag contaminated
with sludge or microbes can introduce these
contaminates to a clean system. Also, if they
are of a loose weave or have frayed edges,
strings or fibers, lint from these rags can get
into the system and plug the nozzle.
Tank cleaning
With massive accumulations at the
bottom and on the sides of the tank,
Figure 2-4:
Tank shed
mechanical cleaning, fuel filtration, the use
covering an tank. They create a sludgy mess that will of additives and a preventative maintenance
outdoor, above cause lots of no heat calls.) Biocides kill or program are the only way to effectively
ground tank prevent the growth of bacteria and other remove the sludge. Portable tank cleaning/
microorganisms. They must be fuel-soluble filtration machines are available. Their
and must be able to sink to the water in the effectiveness depends upon the condition
bottom of the tank where all the microbes of the tank, access to the interior, and the
live. Microbiological organisms in fuel are operators skill. Before attempting to clean
bacteria, molds, and yeast. Since biocides the tank, let the burner draw the oil down as
are poisons, you have to very careful. Read low as possible to minimize the amount of
the label to determine product use, treat- fuel you will have to dispose. There are
ment rate, and human exposure hazards companies that offer tank-cleaning service.
warnings. However, cleaning a residential heating oil
tank is usually expensive and difficult, and
a tank replacement may be more economi-
Preventative maintenance cal and effective.
Good housekeeping means doing
everything you can to minimize dirt and Tank replacement
water from entering tanks. Water promotes If the tank has gone too far, tank and fuel
the growth of microbes, which use the fuel treatment remedies will only buy you some
as a food source, and accelerates the growth time. A tanks surface contains microscopic
of sludge and internal corrosion of the pits and craters where bacteria can hide.
tank. Water can enter the tank through Once fresh fuel is added and a bit of water
cracked or leaking fill pipes and vents. condenses, the bacteria can reproduce at an
They should be checked periodically and astounding rate and sludge formation
whenever water contamination is suspected. begins. Often, the only solution is to
Varying air temperature and humidity can replace the tank and oil lines. Never pump
cause condensation within the tank. Dirt the oil from the old tank into the new one.

Chapter 2
Heating Oil
You will be transferring contaminates that

caused the problem in the first place. It will If you are installing (or maintaining)
take surprisingly little time to make the nice an outdoor, above ground tank, it is
new tank as dirty as the old one.
recommended you paint it a light
If you are installing (or maintaining) an color to reflect the light. This will help
outdoor, above ground tank, it is recom- keep the tank cooler and minimize
mended you paint it a light color to reflect moisture condensation inside the
the light. This will help keep the tank
tank. Also, there are several types of
cooler and minimize moisture condensation
tank sheds available. They minimize
inside the tank. Also, there are several
water build-up and frozen lines as the
types of tank sheds available, Figure 2-4.
They minimize water build-up and frozen tank temperature is steadier.
lines as the tank temperature is steadier.
Keep the tank full

Topping off oil tanks, especially outdoor #2 oil and 5% or less B100 biofuel. We call
above ground tanks in the spring, helps a 5% blend B5. Bioheat can be used in
prevent condensationthe less air in tank, oilburners with little or no modifications to
the less condensation. the equipment or operating practices.
While flashpoint is higher, ignition with
blends of 5% or less is no problem. The
Bioheat fuel viscosity is higher, yet still within ASTM
Biofuel is a renewable, biodegradable limits for heating oil; but flow rate and
combustible liquid fuel. Biofuel is manu- atomization are similar. Bioheat will create
factured by processing vegetable oils such slightly less deposits on the heat exchanger
as soy and rapeseed (canola). It is also thanks to the reduced sulfur levels.
made from waste cooking oils and trap
Bioheat fuel has strong public appeal as
grease, tallow, and animal fats such as fish a renewable fuel. It has good lubricity
that will help with low sulfur fuels. It
increases our fuel source diversity,
reducing dependence on foreign crude
and is a potentially huge market for
American agriculture.
oil. Biofuel has an ASTM specification
D6751 for pure biofuel (B100). It has 10-
12% oxygen, so it will increase excess air Summary
Most of our fuel problems are created in
to the flame. Its heating value is 125,000
the customers tank and heating system
Btu per gallon. It has a slightly higher
long after delivery. Oilheat reliability is
density and higher cloud and pour points
dependent on the technicians in the field,
than #2 oil.
keeping customers systems operating at
Bioheat fuel is a blend of 95% or more peak safety, dependability, and efficiency.

Chapter 3
Oil Tanks and Piping
Chapter 3
Introduction External corrosion is caused by

The comfort, cleanliness and efficiency electrical activity that occurs between
of todays oilheat systems rely on clean, different parts of the tank; between the tank
uncontaminated fuel reaching the oilburner. and its piping; or between the tank and
To achieve this: other metals in the area. For external
corrosion to occur, there needs to be:
Install tanks properly.
1. an anode something to give up
Maintain tanks by regularly inspecting
electrons (the tank);
them and fixing minor defects before
they lead to major problems. 2. a cathode something to accept the
electrical flow (piping, metals in the
Replace aging tanks before they fail.
ground, etc.);
The proper installation of an oil tank is a
3. an electrolyte something for the
relatively easy process, provided it is
electricity to travel through (water).
installed in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions and applicable There is not much you can do to prevent
codes and regulations are followed. external corrosion in existing unprotected
underground (buried) tanks. Later in this
Local codes normally require you to chapter, well show the types of tanks that
install tanks in accordance with either their can stand up to the corrosion factors that
own code, the National Fire Protection exist underground.
Association (NFPA) or the International
Code Council (ICC). Its best to check with To reduce exterior corrosion for above-
the local authority having jurisdiction to ground tanks, make sure that:
determine which regulations you need to The tank has clearance on all sides so
follow. that debris cant accumulate and hold
This chapter gives an overview of oil moisture against the tank.
tanks; for more detailed information, we There is sufficient clearance under the
recommend that you read NORAs oil tank tank so that plant growth does not
manual, Heating Oil Storage Tanks, Guide come in contact with it.
for Quality Installation and Maintenance.
Scratches and rust are repaired
immediately.
Why tanks fail The tank is painted on a regular basis.
The most common cause of failure is
corrosionthe deterioration of the tank Internal corrosion is caused by sludge
due to reaction with its environment. produced by bacteria. For internal corro-
Chapter 3Oil Tanks and Piping 3-3

Chapter 3
sion, Figure 3-2, is to eliminate the water

at the bottom of the tank. Removing the
water is just the beginning. You must also
determine how the water got into the tank
and take corrective steps to prevent water
from building up again. Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-1: Various

sion to occur at the tank bottom, there
layers of material
in the tank needs to be bacteria and water in the tank,
see Figure 3-1.
The bacteria live at the oil/water
interface; they eat the oil and create a Figure 3-3: Bacterial Bug Tracks
substance that, when mixed with water,
creates an acid that corrodes the metal in The most common causes of water
the tank. in tanks are:
The best way to reduce internal corro- Condensation
Figure 3-2: Broken tank gauges (outside tank)
Internal
corrosion Loose or missing fill and vent caps
with pin hole
magnified Pumping oil from an old tank into a
new tank
Failing to drain water from a tank
before installation.
Condensation can be greatly reduced by
installing tanks indoors or in an enclosure.
If a tank is located outside, you can reduce
condensation by painting it a light color
and protecting it from direct sunlight.
Gauges and caps should be inspected
regularly and replaced when necessary.
3-4 Oil Tanks and Piping

Chapter 3
Following manufacturers instructions larger or smaller, but in general, it is best

when installing new tanks and performing to apply the 1/3 rule when possible.
the inspection procedures described at the
end of this Chapter, you will greatly reduce Location
the amount of water-related problems and There are three possible locations for a
extend the lives of your customers tanks. tank installation:
1. Inside a buildingusually in the
Properly installed and maintained tanks
basement, utility room or garage
can last for several decadesmuch longer
than most equipment in the home. How- 2. Outside, aboveground
ever, like everything else, tanks eventually
3. Outside, underground
need to be replaced.
Before selecting a tank location, be sure
to consider regulations regarding
Installation considerations setbacks from:
When it is time to install a new or
Heating equipment and other
replacement tankanswer these three
ignition sources
questions:
Property lines
What size tank will be best?
Buildings, doors, windows, vents and
Where is the best place to install it?
air intakes
What type of tank will be best?
Meters
Also remember to locate the tank where:
Size The delivery vehicle can safely park
Although large tanks are often installed
during filling
for delivery efficiency, an oversized tank
can cause service problemssuch as: It will be accessible for inspection
and servicing
Poor fuel qualityfuel oil has a shelf
life and deteriorates over time. An oil release will not easily enter a
drain, well or waterway
Corrosionlarger tanks usually build
up more water from condensation. It will not be exposed to corrosion
and/or damage from dripping water,
On the other hand, tanks that are too
falling ice, vehicles, etc.
small require frequent deliveries, leading to
problems during peak delivery season.
Inside tanks
In general, the right size tank is one that NORA recommends above ground,
holds about one-third (1/3) of the indoor tank installations whenever possible.
customers annual consumption. Therefore, These installations offer a number of
a customer who uses 900 gallons of oil a advantages over outside tanks, including:
year should have a 275 or 330-gallon tank.
The oil is usually warmer, which
(900/3 = 300)
means it burns better and wont gel or
There may be special situations that have cold weather performance
require you to install a tank that is either problems.

Chapter 3
There are fewer temperature changes, 2. All tanks should have a vent alarm
which means the oil will last longer.
3. All tanks should have a tank gauge
If a leak develops, it will cause an
4. All systems should have an oil filter;
odor, which quickly alerts us to the
it can be located at the tank, at the burner
problem.
or at both the tank and burner.
Its easier to inspect.
5. The copper oil line from the tank to
Less condensation in the tank. the burner (shown here running under the
It is important that you follow codes and floor) should not touch concrete or soil.
instructions regarding: This can be done by sliding the copper oil
lines into plastic conduit or plastic pipe or
A. Distance from the tank to the burner by using a coated copper line.
(At least 5 feet.)
There should be no fittings in the copper
B. Size and height of the vent pipe
lines below the floor. Figure 3-4.
C. Size of the fill pipe
D. Fusible valve at the tank Above-ground
E. Fusible valve at the burner outside tanks
If there is no room for a tank inside the
In addition: building, it must be installed outside, see
1. The fill and vent lines must be Figure 3-5. In these cases, it is a good idea
pitched toward the tank to install the tank in secondary containment
Figure 3-4:
Typical indoor
installation
Coated Copper Line

Chapter 3
thermal shut-off valve.

The oil filter should
NOT be installed
outside. It can be
installed right after the
valve where the line
enters the building or
at the burner.
Underground
tanks
Environmental
regulations and
insurance concerns
have greatly reduced
the number of in-
Figure 3-5: Outside above ground tank
ground installations,
or in an enclosure to protect it from the Figure 3-6, and many homeowners with
elements. buried oil tanks have replaced them with
above-ground tanks.
The outside oil line should be connected
through the top of the tank and insulated to Unless there is no acceptable location
where it enters the building. Once the line available, NORA recommends that all new
Figure 3-6:
is inside, it should be connected to a oil tanks be installed above ground. Typical older
underground
installation
Vent Line
1 " Minimum
Inspection
2" Fill Pipe Port
Anti-Siphon
or Ball Swing Joint Tee
Check Valve Swing
Joint
" Copper Tubing

Fuel Storage Tank
Valve
Oil Filter
Loop Oil Lines

Chapter 3
Type
Once you have determined the proper
size and location to install a new tank, your
customer can choose the type of tank based
Figure 3-7:
on price, warranty and level of spill
Ob-round protection. There are many choices:
tank
Above ground
tanks
Ob-roundThe 275- Figure 3-9:
gallon Ob-round steel Externally
tank, Figure 3-7, has been coated tank
the standard for decades
and is the most common
tank. Ob-round tanks are Externally coated ob-roundThis
currently available in a corrosion resistant tank has a polyethylene
number of sizes from coating on the outside of a standard ob-
slightly over 100 gallons to round tank, Figure 3-9. The coating
330 gallons. protects the tank from external corrosion
and serves as release barrier should the
tank corrode internally.
FiberglassThis corrosion proof tank
Figure 3-8:
Bottom tap is available in both single and double wall
models and in 240 and 300-gallon capaci-
ties. The double wall unit is a tank within a
tank if the inner tank leaks, the outer
tank prevents a release of oil, Figure 3-10.
Newer ob-round tanks have the oil

drawn from the bottom of the tank to
reduce the amount of condensation and
sludge build-up in the tank. Figure 3-8.
CylindricalThese tanks are often
found in mobile homes and in places where
space considerations made it easier to
install and service than an ob-round tank.
They are typically available in sizes
ranging from 160 to 320 gallons. Figure 3-10: Fiberglass tank

Chapter 3
Polyethylene/steel These double wall 2. Sacrificial anodes that protect the steel
tanks combine an inner tank made of
3. Nylon isolation bushings that electri-
polyethylene with a steel outer tank. The
cally isolate the tank from the fill pipe, vent
outer tank protects the inner tank and pipe, oil lines and other attached piping
provides secondary containment. See
Figure 3-11. ACT-100 and ACT-100U
These tanks include a much thicker
protective coating and offer protection
similar to the Sti-P3 without sacrificial
anodes, Figure 3-13.
Figure 3-11: Polyethylene/steel tank
Underground tanks Figure 3-13: ACT-100

Steel
Sti-P3These tanks combine the Fiberglass (FRP)
strength of steel with a factory installed Fiberglass reinforced plastic tanks never
corrosion protection system, Figure 3-12. rust because they are made from corrosion
Sti-P3 tanks feature: resistant materials, Figure 3-14.
1. A protective coating over the steel Once youve determined the right size,
that prevents external corrosion location and type of tank to install, you
Figure 3-12: Underground steel tank Figure 3-14: Fiberglass (FRP) tank

Chapter 3
must become thoroughly

familiar with the current
version of the manufacturers
installation instructions before
you begin an installation.
Installation
procedures
Be sure to follow the
manufacturers installation
Figure 3-14: instructions and all applicable
Cover work
codes and regulations during
areas Figure 3-15: Above ground vent pipe/fill and vent cap
the installation. This
next section emphasizes
some of the important
steps in tank installation process. flue gas outlet. All steel fittings should be
malleable, not cast.
Work neat
Protect the customers property The fill pipe should be clearly marked as
and the components that you are a fuel oil fill. The vent cap should have a
installing. It is much easier to screen to prevent bugs from making a nest
prevent a mess than to clean it up. in the vent pipe, Figure 3-15.
Cover work areas with drop cloths or
builders paper or other material, Vent alarms
Figure 3-14. All above
ground and
Piping connections indoor tanks
It is imperative that all connections are should have a
made tight and leak proof. All threaded vent alarm
connections should be joined with a pipe installed, Figure
compound that is non-teflon, oil resistant, 3-16. The vent
and remains flexible. Be careful when alarm alerts the
applying pipe compound and make sure to delivery person
wipe away excess compound so it does not that the tank is
get into the tank or oil lines. filled to the
proper level. Vent
Fill and vent pipes alarms are not Figure 3-16:
The fill and vent pipes should be made always required Vent alarm
of schedule 40 steel, be pitched toward the for residential
tank and terminate outside the building at a buried tanks because a special filling device
point at least two feet from any building (vent-a fils, bazooka, deep fill, etc.) that
opening, and five feet from any air inlet or includes a vent alarm may be used.

Chapter 3
Oil lines Plug or cap

For normal residential use, 1/2" O.D. oil Plastic or
lines are recommended. Copper oil lines metal plugs
should be connected with flare fittings. are used to
Compression fittings must not be used keep water
(slip fittings, where the oil line enters the and debris
top of the tank, are the exception and are out of a new
acceptable). tank during
shipment and
Oil lines should have as few fittings as storage. They
possible and all fittings should be acces- must be
sible. removed and Figure 3-18:
Oil filter installed
discarded
in suction line
Thermal shutoff valves during
Indoor tanks should have a thermal installation and any unused tank openings
safety shutoff (Firomatic) valve in the must be plugged with threaded steel plugs.
suction line at the tank, see Figure 3-17.
Outside tanks should have a shut off valve Tank inspection
where the suction line enters the inside of
procedures
the building.
Oil tanks should be inspected on a
regular basis so that potential problems can
Filters be discovered and corrected before they
An oil filter should be installed in the affect tank longevity and system perfor-
suction line. See Figure 3-18. mance.
Figure 3-17: Thermal safety shutoff valve NORA recommends three levels of
inspectionan initial inspection performed
before a delivery is made to a new tank or
a new customer; a routine inspection
performed during routine maintenance or
tune-ups; and brief, pre-delivery inspection
each time the tank is filled.
1.) Initial inspections and evaluations

NORA recommends that all tanks should
be inspected and approved for delivery
before the first delivery to a new customer
or a new tank.
An initial inspection provides the
opportunity to notice flaws in the tank, not
reported by the customer, which may

Chapter 3
prevent a problem in the future. It will also inspection. For example, the tank gauge
ensure that the fill and vent pipes are may have become defective, a tank leg may
properly connected and correctly identified. start to corrode, or another problem may
In those cases where a new tank has been have arisen long after the tank was initially
installed for an existing customer, the tank approved for delivery.
inspection should include procedures to In many situations, routine inspections
ensure that inactive fill and vent pipes have detect minor problems that have recently
been removed. started and that can be easily corrected
The inspections are different for above- before they cause a problem.
Figure 3-19: ground tanks and buried tanks.
Inspection of 3.) Brief, pre-delivery inspection
above ground tank 2.) Routine inspections NORA recommends a no-whistle-no
NORA recommends that additional tank fill policy.
inspections be conducted as an Oil delivery personnel should perform a
integral part of preventative brief visual inspection before and after
maintenance tune-ups. each delivery. While this inspection
While not as comprehen- normally isnt documented, its important
sive as the initial inspection, that fuel drivers understand the need to
routine inspections are verify addresses and check tanks for
equally important. obvious defects before and after delivery.
Routine inspections
can detect problems that The step-by-step inspection procedures for
above ground and underground tanks are on the
occur after the tank has following pages.
passed the initial

Chapter 3Oil Tanks and Piping 00
00 Astounding Customer Service
Chapter 4
Fuel Units and Oil Valves
Chapter 4

Figure 4-2:
Cutaway of oil
valve
To Nozzle
Easy Flow Air
Bleed Valve and
Introduction unit, Figure 4-1, contains one
Gauge Port
Function of fuel units: These components set of fuel pump gears.
lift the oil from the tank to the burner, The pressure-regulating
deliver oil at a constant and regulated valve controls the pressure of
pressure to the nozzle, and provide clean the oil discharged to the Check Valve
cutoff of fuel. Assy. Special
nozzle. A cutaway of this Piston Assy. Special
valve is shown in Figure 4-2. Removeable Sleeve
Component parts This assembly consists of a Standard
of the fuel unit valve body and matching Pressure Adjusting

Spring Special
The fuel unit contains a set of piston. In the closed position,
machined gears, which provide both the piston is held against the
vacuum and pressure. The single stage fuel nozzle discharge port by a
Figure 4-1: Single

stage fuel unit
No. Description 6 By-pass Plug

1 Vacuum Gauge Connection Port 7 Supply Fuel Line Port
2 Pressure Regulator Adjustment Screw 8 Capillary Tube Connection Port
3 Pressure Gauge Connection Port and Bleeder 9 Oil Delivery Port
4 Pump Cover Screws 10 Pump Cover O-ring
5 Return Fuel Line Port 11 Pump Cover
Chapter 4Fuel Units and Oil Valves 4-3

Chapter 4
spring located behind the piston. When the R.P.M. rating of the gear pump must be the
fuel pump gears develop sufficient pressure same as the burner motor.)
to overcome the spring tension, the piston
is forced back, allowing oil to flow through A shaft seal is provided to prevent oil
the nozzle discharge port. The pressure from leaking out of the fuel pump housing
adjusting screw regulates the spring tension around the rotating shaft. Lubrication is
controlling the pressure of the oil dis- provided to this seal through internal
Figure 4-3: charged to the nozzle. porting.
Strainer screen
and gasket.
The strainer screen, see Figure 4-3,
within the fuel unit reservoir, Operation of the single
filters the incoming oil and stage fuel unit
helps to prevent any contami- The single stage fuel pump, Figure 4-4,
nation from entering the produces both pressure and vacuum.
nozzle. Pressure is the force created by the meshing
A solid shaft extending of the pump gears, and is expressed in
through the pump housing seal pounds per square inch (PSI). Pressure
drives the gear pump. The end moves the oil away from the pump.
of this shaft is connected to the Vacuum is expressed in inches of mercury,
burner motor by a flexible and is abbreviated as in. Hg. Normally we
coupling. (Note that the simply show the numerical value of the
Figure 4-4:
Diaphragm Valve
Suntec Industries;
Cutaway example
single stage Pressure Gauge Port Optional Return
fuel unit
Nozzle Port To Seal Chamber
From Seal Chamber

Cone Valve
Caution: This valve must be
set at the factory or authorized
service station. Do not tamper Easy Flow
with this in the field. Bleed Valve
Note: Do not try to adjust
nozzle pressure with gauge
in this port.
Inlet Port Return Port

Return To Inlet
4-4 Fuel Units and Oil Valves

Chapter 4
vacuum with an inch (") mark. Example: return to the strainer

10" of vacuum. Vacuum brings oil to the chamber and would For acceptable
pump. We need about .75" to 1" Hg of require a return line from vacuum, figure
vacuum for each foot we lift the oil, 1" of the pump back to the tank. 1" Hg per foot of
vacuum for each 10 feet of horizontal run, If there were no return lift plus
1" per ten feet
and " for a clean oil filter. For example, if line, the high-pressure oil horizontal run
we have 4 feet of lift from an underground would be forced into the and add 1/2" for
tank, plus 10 feet of oil line run to the front seal chamber, which the oil filter
burner, and add the oil filter, the calculated would rupture this seal. In
vacuum reading should be 5.5". A vacuum most pressure fuel units, this
gauge reading of from 5" to 6" is accept- seal can only withstand 10
able. PSI of pressure. You should
When the motor turns the pump shaft, oil always check to be sure that
enters the strainer chamber through the the bypass plug has not been
intake port, either by gravity or by the installed when using the unit
vacuum developed on the intake side of the on a one pipe installation. The bypass plug
gear pump. As the gears rotate, the teeth is only installed when using a two pipe
squeeze the oil and discharge it on the system.
pressure side to the pressure regulating
valve. The pressure adjusting screw on the Pressure regulating
regulating valve controls spring tension, valve operation
which determines the pressure at which the The discharge oil pressure of the fuel
oil will force the piston open and be unit can be adjusted between 100 and 200
discharged through the nozzle port. This PSI. Normal pressure setting on a high-
pressure is about 80% to 95% of the pressure burner is 100 PSI, but some
operating pressure. The minimum factory burners are designed for higher oil pres-
set operating pressure is 100 PSI. sure. For variations in this pressure setting
The pump can deliver 5 to 20 times the and its resulting effect on nozzle perfor-
amount of oil required by the nozzle. This mance, see the Nozzle Chapter # 5, of this
excess oil is bypassed by the pressure manual. Also refer to manufacturers
regulating system and returned to the specifications for recommended pump
strainer chamber. The total oil capacity of a pressure on flame retention burners.
gearset is referred to as TGSC or Total Gear On burner shutdown, spring tension
Set Capacity. The bypassed oil returns against the pressure regulating piston will
through internal porting in the pressure cause the piston to close, shutting off oil
regulating valve and pump body. As the discharge to the nozzle at a pressure
excess return oil is no longer at pressure, approximately 20 percent below operating
some of this oil is used for the lubrication pressure. Therefore, if the pump pressure is
of the shaft pump seal. adjusted to its normal operating 100 PSI,
In order for the excess oil to return to the shutoff pressure will be about 80 PSI.
the strainer chamber, the bypass plug For pumps with high-speed cut off, the cut
located between the pump and the strainer off pressure may be different than 20
chamber must not be installed. If this plug percent. What is important is that the
were in place, the excess oil could not pressure should drop and hold.

Chapter 4
Pressure
Gauge Optional
Piston Port Return
Assembly
Pressure Legend
Adjusting Suction
Screw Gear Set Pressure
Nozzle Port Return
Nozzle Pressure
High Speed Models

to Strainer
Diaphragm
Cone Valve Valve Low Speed Models
to Seal Chamber
Intake
From Tank
Positive
Strainer Second Stage
Gearset
Lip Seal
Input Shaft
To Strainer
By-pass Plug
First Stage
Gearset Return to Tank
Figure 4-5:
Suntec Industries; single stage fuel unit should be piped with
cutaway example One pipe system
two-stage Most of todays Oilheat systems require a return line to the tank or fuel de-aerator.
fuel unit only a suction line to bring the oil from the This is called a two pipe system. An
tank to the burner. We call these one pipe example of such an installation would be an
systems. Older single stage fuel units should abnormally long run from the oil tank to
be piped only as one pipe where oil can the unit. If a single stage fuel unit two pipe
flow to the unit under gravity conditions; system has an operating intake vacuum
that is, the burner is located level with or over 10", unstable flame conditions,
lower than the bottom of the oil tank. carboned-up firing assembly, after fire, and
Newer single stage pumps operate at a noisy flame may result. High vacuum may
maximum of 6" of vacuum on a one pipe also shorten the life of the fuel unit.
system. They can create much more, but
the oil will begin to give us trouble over Two stage fuel unit,
6". If your calculated vacuum is less than
two pipe system
6" and you are using a new fuel unit, it
If more than 10" of vacuum is required,
should be installed one pipe.
you should install a two stage pump or
booster pump. The two-stage fuel unit has
Two pipe system two sets of fuel pump gears. The first set
If more than 6" of vacuum is required, a purges the pump of air and supplies an

Chapter 4
uninterrupted flow of oil to the second

stage that pressurizes the oil to the nozzle.
Figure 4-5 shows the oil flow in a two
stage pump. The first gear set provides the
vacuum to fill the strainer chamber as well
as the low pressure oil supply to lubricate
the shaft seal. From the shaft seal chamber,
the oil flows to the low-pressure side of the
pressure regulating valve and then back to
the tank. The second set of gears provides
the pressure for the oil taken from the
strainer chamber, with the surplus oil being
bypassed through the porting in the
Figure 4-6
pressure regulating valve and back to the
strainer chamber.
Note that the bypass plug is installed in Figure 4-7
this unit because two stage pumps must
always be two pipe. If a two-stage pump is
connected to one pipe, it becomes a single
stage pump. The first stage will only take
oil from the cover and return it to the
cover. Installing two stage pumps on one-
line systems is a waste of money. Not only
does the pump cost more, it also uses more
electricity to turn the second set of gears.
Even though single stage pumps are
capable of creating 20" of vacuum, we
need two stage pumps because fuel oil
starts to break up or vaporize at vacuum
levels as low as 6.7" (Figure 4-6). When
this happens, foamy oil collects in the
vacuum, only foam free oil is picked up
pump and the pump begins to cavitate. The
and delivered to the nozzle. It is recom-
pump sends this foam directly to the
mended that all two-stage pumps be
nozzle, causing unstable atomization,
mounted right side up so the air will collect
smoke, and soot. Also when the burner
in the top of the pump and can be sent back
shuts down, the air bubbles in the nozzle
to the tank.
expand, pushing oil out of the orifice,
creating after drip. The two stage pump In a two pipe system with a two stage
may correct the foaming oil problem. The fuel unit, it is not advisable to exceed 17"
first set of gears brings the oil into the of intake vacuum. Figure 4-7 shows the
pump, and returns any foam back to the effect that 20" of vacuum has on a pump.
tank via the return line. It is important to With long oil line runs where excess
use the lower intake port so even at 17" of vacuum is required, or for overhead

Chapter 4
burners, the use of a Most fuel pump manufacturers say that

booster pump is required, the maximum vacuum for a one pipe
Figure 4-8. The installation system is 6"; therefore to convert from two
and associated piping of a pipe to one pipe, your calculated vacuum
system using a booster fuel must be less than 6". If you need over 6",
pump is fully described consider installing a de-aerator in the oil
later in this section. line, especially if the line comes out of the
top of the tank, so the pump will not get air
Figure 4-8:
Booster
Avoid two pipe systems bound.
pump Two pipe oil systems should be avoided if
possible. With a two-pipe system you are Fuel de-aerators
filtering way too much oil. The average oil Fuel de-aerators shown in Figure 4-9
pump, pumps over 15 gallons of oil an hour. have been developed to eliminate air
The average burner fires at 1 gallon per problems caused by excessive vacuum.
hour. This means you are filtering over 15 Here is how the system works:
gallons of oil for every one burned. You are
using up the filter 15 times faster than 1. Oil is drawn from the tank to the de-
needed. You are cleaning the oil tank through aerators through a single pipe. A dual-pipe
the filter. This is very expensive and incon- system, operating between the unit and the
venient. oil pump allows the device to remove the
air. Only the amount of oil that is burned is
The second problem is that the average replaced from the oil tank. The single pipe
return line is under about two pounds of system eliminates the need to circulate
pressure. A lot of oil can leak out of a small unnecessary oil and
pinhole under two pounds pressure in the its impurities Figure 4-9: Fuel de-aerator
hundreds of hours a year a burner runs. The throughout the
burner will not be affected by a return line system.
leak. The only way you know you have a
2. The surplus
leak is when the customer runs out of oil or
oil is pumped
the oil shows up in the sump pump pit. This
back to the de-
is way too late!
aerator, instead
If these were not reasons enough, it of back to the
appears that two pipe systems are sludge tank.
machines. Copper is a catalyst that can affect
3. De-aeration
hydrocarbons. Prolonged exposure to copper
increases the
causes little hydrocarbon molecules to clump
pumps suction
together into big, long hydrocarbon strings.
capacity while
They can plug up nozzles, strainers, and
reducing its sensitivity
filters. Since we pump over 15 gallons an
to minor leaks in the
hour and burn only one, think of how many
suction line.
times each little hydrocarbon molecule has to
travel back and forth to the burner through 4. As surplus oil cycles
all that copper pipe before it is finally through the de-aerator loop, it
burned. On each trip the fuel gets a bit less absorbs heat from the ambient
stable and a few more hydrocarbon strings air and the pump gears friction,
show up in the tank. reducing cold oil problems.

Chapter 4
Booster fuel units

Booster fuel units are normally used to
assure an adequate supply of oil to one or 1/2 in. O.D. TubingInlet Line Suntec Boost Pump
more overhead furnaces. They are usually and Motorset
capable of lifting oil 15 feet and supplying
the oil up to 35 feet above the pump. They
can be used as continuous or intermittent Filter
duty transfer units for filling a small H
(15 Ft.
overhead feeder tank or for other similar Max.)
purposes. Booster pumps are a fuel unit and
1/2 in. O.D. Tubing
motor. Figure 4-10 shows a Booster Fuel Return Line
Unit.
Tank Approx. 3 inches
Figure 4-10:
Booster fuel Figure 4-11:
unit Booster fuel
R unit; low
pressure side
installation
Figure 4-12: Booster

fuel unit; auxiliary tank
installation for Vent
multiple furnaces
2 Ft. Min.
Aux.
The pressure regulating valve assembly
Tank
functions as a relief valve. A vacuum Feeder
breaker is recommended as a protection to Lines
insure an instantaneous supply of oil when 35 Ft.
more than one burner is being supplied. Max.
Suspended Furnaces
Piping: Suction and return lines should
be sized to the specific model boost pump Shut Off Valve
and lift location. Follow manufacturers 1/2 In. O.D. Tubing
Auxiliary Filter Inlet Line
instructions. All fittings should be of the 1-1/4 In. Pipe
flare type. A return line from the fuel
pump bypass connection to the tank is
required in all installations. Extend the 1/2 In. O.D. Tubing
Return Line
return line to the same depth in the tank as
the suction line. Also check local code
before making the installation. Figure 4-11 15 Ft. Suntec
shows the input or low pressure side of the Max. Lift Tank
Boost Pump &
Motorset
installation. The Auxiliary Tank Installa-
tion shown in Figure 4-12 is another way
of hooking up multiple suspended furnaces.
Approx. 3 Inches
Figure 4-13 on following page shows a
Pressurized System installation.

Chapter 4
Pumps with integral

Manifold Air Bleed solenoid valves
Highest Point in Line There are two types of pumps with built
Max. Intake Pressure
at Burner 10 PSI Pipe Cap in electronic shut off valves called integral
0-30 PSI 1/2 In. O.D. Tubing solenoid valves. One is the blocking valve
Pressure Gauge Manifold Line
pump and the other is the by-pass valve
Solenoid pump.
Valves
The blocking valve stops the flow of oil
to the nozzle just like an externally mounted
35 Ft. #1 #2 #3 solenoid valve does. With this pump, the oil
Max. Suspended Furnaces is shut off two ways: with the electric valve,
Auxiliary
Filter Shut Off and the pressure regulating valve.
Valve
1/2 In. O.D. TubingInlet Line Suntec Boost Pump The by-pass valve pump has a valve that
& Motorset
controls the flow of oil to the nozzle
indirectly by diverting oil flow inside the
Filter pump. When it is time to shut off the oil
H flow the dumping valve opens, causing the
15 Ft.
Max. pressure to drop quickly and the pressure
1/2 In. O.D. Tubing regulating valve to close sooner. This is
Return Line opposite the blocking valve operation.
When the blocking valve opens, oil flows;
Tank Approx. 3 Inches
when the dumping valve opens, oil stops.
R Either type of valve will give you quick

cutoff, but to get delayed cut-in, and
cleaner starts, you need either a valve-on
Figure 4-13:
delay primary control, a hydro-mechanical
Booster fuel unit;
pressurized pump delay, or an electric delay device.
system
installation Fuel unit limitations
1. NFPA31, the National oilburner Servicing and testing
code, limits the shaft seal pressure to 3 PSI, the fuel unit
although most pumps can take up to 10 Primary venting and bleeding
PSI. In a one pipe system, when a pump runs out
of oil or picks up air due to high vacuum or
2. Single-stage pumps should not be a leak or break in the oil supply line, the air
operated beyond 6" of vacuum when must be bled from the fuel unit and line
hooked up one pipe. Single stage, two pipe after the tank is filled or the supply line is
installations should not be operated above repaired. Failure to do this properly can
10" of vacuum. cause pulsation, changes in flame condi-
3. Two-stage pumps should generally tion, or excessive dripping at the nozzle
operate below 12" of vacuum because at after the burner shuts off. There are two
very high vacuums, oil foams within the methods for air elimination in a one pipe
pump. system. If the system is a gravity feed and

Chapter 4
the unit is mounted so that the oil supply but may be done faster if the bleeder plug
line enters at the bottom of the unit, the is opened to expel air.
inlet port plug in the cover may be loos-
ened and removed. This will allow the oil to
Vacuum power bleed
flow by gravity into the unit and fill the
If the oil lines run above the oil tank and
strainer chamber. Then the intake port plug
should be replaced and the burner fired. back down to the burner (a siphon system)
proper bleeding of the pump is crucial. To
If it is not possible to fill the strainer bleed a pump line and everything else all
chamber in this manner, then the bleeder the way back to the tank, do the following:
plug on the side of the regulating valve First fill the pump with oil. Place a hose
chamber should be loosened, the burner over the bleeder. A device like the one
operated, and sufficient oil allowed to flow shown in Figure 4-15 works well for this
from this plug to purge the entire system of purpose. Open the bleeder one-half turn.
air until there is a steady stream of oil. If Make sure that the open end of the bleed
the pump has been completely drained of hose is immersed in oil in your pail or
oil it may be necessary to remove the
supply line and fill the unit with oil before Figure 4-15:
Bleeder
adequate suction can be obtained. In the
wrench
newer units, an Allen screw, or easy bleed
plug, Figure 4-14, has been provided in
this port to allow for bleeding. Continue to
bleed the pump for 15 seconds after the last
air bubble can be detected. After bleeding
the unit, always check the flame for
stability and burner shutdown to be sure all
Figure 4-14: bucket. Close the inlet valve at the tank and
Bleed valve start the burner. Wait until the pump starts
to whine. If you have a vacuum gauge
inserted, it will show 20" to 25" of
vacuum. (If white smoke starts coming out
of the hose, you didnt fill the pump and
the oil is burning.) Open the inlet valve and
bleed for several minutes. After a tune-up,
you would see some oil, then lots of
bubbles and then air free oil. Once its bled
out, close the bleeder with the pump
running.
Field pressure and cutoff checks

air has been purged from the system. Two of the most important service
Venting of air is normally not necessary in checks for a fuel unit are the output
a two pipe system with a two stage pump, pressure check and the cutoff pressure

Chapter 4
check. These checks can be made on some If a fuel unit operating pressure of at
pumps by inserting a pressure gauge into a least 100 PSI cannot be obtained, the
nozzle port, with others a tester may have problem may be, in addition to the above
to be used, Figure 4-16. You will need a items, one of the following:
pressure gauge capable of reading at
1. Worn pump gears.
least 300 PSI.
2. Nozzle capacity beyond pump
First operate the burner to
capacity.
determine fuel unit pressure, which
should normally be adjusted to 3. Motor not up to speed.
100 PSI or more depending on
4. Loose shaft coupling.
the burner manufacturers recom-
mendations. Turn the pressure 5. Defective pressure regulating valve.
regulator adjusting screw (nor-
mally clockwise) until the pressure Pressure check at cutoff
Figure 4-16:
increases 40 to 50 pounds (but not Once you are finished with the operating
Pressure above 200). If the pump cannot
pressure check, shut off the burner. Insert a
tester achieve at least 150 pounds, the pump gears
pressure gauge directly into the pump
or regulating valve are worn out and you
pressure port, Figure 4-17, and run the
should replace the pump. Then back off the
burner until the pump reaches its pressure
pressure adjusting screw (counterclockwise)
setting and then shut the burner off.
to the desired operating pressure.
(Note that cutoff pressure cannot be
Uneven or fluctuating pressure can cause
severe flame pulsation. A pulsating pres- measured at the bleeder port as the pres-
sure reading (gauge needle jumps about sure-regulating valve has an internal bypass
from high to low) may indicate: system which does not hold pressure at the
bleeder port on shutdown.) As soon as the
1. A partially clogged filter or burner shuts off, the pressure should drop
pump strainer. very quickly about 10 to 25%, and then
2. Air may be present in the hold that pressure. The pressure cutoff
pump caused by: reading should hold for at least five
minutes without change.
a. Loose strainer chamber
cover or defective strainer
chamber gasket. Figure 4-17: Pressure test
b. Air leak in the suction line.
c. Excessive intake vacuum.
3. Slipping pump coupling.
Note: Slight regular vibrations of the
needle are considered normal as the
resonance frequency of gauges is very close
to gearset frequency. Liquid filled gauges
can help dampen or eliminate frequency
vibrations and are preferred.

Chapter 4
Any decrease from the cutoff pressure screwed into the unused intake port. It is
indicates a defective or dirty pressure important that the vacuum gauge be
regulating valve (piston or piston seat) that securely tightened so that vacuum leaks
will result in oil dribbling from the nozzle will not develop around the threaded
and an after fire. The fuel pump should be fittings.
replaced in this case.
If the unit to be tested is set up for a
one-pipe system, a return oil line from the
Field vacuum check unit nozzle port should be provided to
While there are many reasons for the catch the oil removed from the strainer
following problems, one of the leading chamber during the vacuum check. Then
possibilities is a leaking suction line, run the burner, bleed the pump, and read
fittings or gaskets. If there is no other the vacuum. The vacuum reading should
obvious cause for these problems, you approximate the calculated vacuum.
should take an operating vacuum test to
If the gauge reading is substantially
determine if you have a leak.
above the calculated vacuum, there is a
1. Pulsating pump pressure restriction in the oil supply that may be
2. Oil pump noise caused by of one of the following:
3. Hard starting (ignition) 1. Plugged fuel filter
4. Poor flame retention 2. Kinked oil supply line
5. Noisy fire 3. Partially closed oil supply valve
6. Loss of flame during running cycle 4. Check or foot valve inoperative or

sticking
7. Burner flame will not establish after
long shutdown
Note: The excess vacuum caused by a
8. After fire partially clogged pump strainer
cannot be read on the gauge. Be sure
to look at the strainer through the
Checking system vacuum
inlet port before installing the gauge.
The first step is calculate what the
If it appears dirty, remove the strainer
vacuum should be, then test to see what it
and clean or replace it.
actually is and compare the two.
To calculate the vacuum, figure about 1" If vacuum reading is below the calcu-
of vacuum for each foot of oil lift, 1" of lated operating vacuum, the probable
vacuum for each 10 feet of horizontal run, causes are:
and " for a clean oil filter. If the actual 1. Clogged pump strainer
operating vacuum is significantly less than
the calculated vacuum, you probably have a 2. Air leak in the suction line or suction
line fittings
leak either in the pump or somewhere in
the line. 3. A suction leak around strainer
chamber cover plate and gasket
To do this test, a vacuum gauge capable
of reading 30" of vacuum should be 4. Worn pump gears

Chapter 4
Vacuum test chamber bolts, pump seal leak, or the pump

If the operating vacuum is less than the leaking at ports, or it could be the fittings
calculated figure, you have a leak to find. up to the shut off valve. Recheck the
First determine if the pump or fittings up gasket, plugs and fittings and try again. If
to the pump shut off valve are leaking by you are sure everything is tight, the leak
performing a Vacuum Test. may be in the unit itself, and you will have
to replace it.
1. Fill the fuel unit with oil.
10. If the vacuum holds, you know that
2. Shut off the valve closest to the
the fuel unit and all the piping up to the
pump. If there is no valve, disconnect the
shut off valve are OK. Now it is time to
supply line at the fuel unit.
open the shut off valve near the pump, and
3. On a two pipe system, disconnect the if there is one, shut off the valve at the
return line and place an open container tank, or at the wall where the suction line
below the return port of the fuel unit. enters the building. Do the test again. If the
vacuum holds, you know the leak is
4. If the system is single pipe, connect a
between the valve and the tank.
bleed hose to the bleeder port and the
opposite end in an open container.
Warning: We used to check for
Figure 4-18: 5. Install your vacuum gauge in the leaks using the pressure test
Hand pump alternate inlet port on the pump. (If there method. The problem with
was no shut off and you have disconnected pressurizing oil lines is it usually
the suction line, install the gauge in the creates more leaks than it finds.
inlet port.) We strongly urge you to never
6. Start the burner and open the bleed pressurize oil lines or tanks. This
port. Run it until a vacuum of 15" is includes blowing out the lines
reached. On a single pipe system you must with a CO2 cartridge; instead use
open the bleed port while the burner is a hand pump to suck the line
running to raise the vacuum. clear, Figure 4-18.
7. Once the vacuum is reached, close the
bleed port. (You may need to jumper the F- Visual test or sight glass test
F terminals on the primary control after for air in oil lines
burner start up to get the burner running When you detect air in oil lines, you
long enough to reach the vacuum reading.)
must find the source of the leak. The first
8. While the burner is running and you step is to tighten all fittings in the suction
have reached the required vacuum, on the line and tighten unused inlet port plugs in
two pipe system, plug the return port and the pump. Be sure there are no compression
turn the burner off. On a single pipe, close fittings in the oil lines. Then check the
the bleed port and turn the burner off. filter cover and gaskets, making sure there
9. Check the vacuum reading after is a good gasket on the pump cover. If none
shut down. The vacuum should hold of this eliminates the air, you must start
for at least five minutes. If the vacuum searching for the source of the leak. To
does not hold steady, you could have a confirm that there is a leak and to pinpoint
leak in the pump, a leak in strainer the source, use the Visual Test or Sight
chamber gasket, loosened strainer Glass Method.

Chapter 4
To do a visual test, use of a vacuum and test again. Proceed in this manner until
gauge and plastic tubing with fittings such you arrive at a fitting with no air coming
as the Oil Watcher or Clearview, see Figure into it, but air after the fitting. You know
4-19. Install the device between the pump, that fitting is leaking. Continue on until all
shut off valve and the suction line. Bleed the leaks have been found.
all the air out of the lines, then run the unit
To check for leaks in the return line:
and look for bubbles. One at a time,
More difficult to find is a leak in the
heading toward the tank, coat the fittings
return line. Over time, these can be the
with lithium grease. The grease temporarily
most troublesome leaks, because they can
seals the leak. When the leaking fitting is
go for so long before being detected. When
covered, the air bubbles will disappear.
the burner is running, return lines can have
Repair the leaking fittings and clean the
up to five pounds pressure. This can add up
grease off everything you have coated.
to a lot of lost oil in a short time.
An easier way to find leaks is by using
The best way to check for a leaking
an electronic sight glass. The electronic
return line is to hook the return line up to
sight glass is a tool used by many air
the suction side of the fuel unit and
conditioning technicians. It is a hand held
perform the operating vacuum test. The
meter that has two transducers which you
operating vacuum on the return line, when
can easily mount at any point in your
it is hooked to the pump as the suction line,
should be about the same as the operating
Figure 4-19: Oil leak test kit
vacuum reading for the original suction
line. If the vacuum is less than the return
line, it is either leaking or the orginal
suction line is partially plugged. The
potential problem with this method is that
the installer may not have run the return
line all the way to the bottom of the tank.
If you cannot draw oil up the return line
you will not know if it is a big leak, or the
line terminates at the top of the tank. Either
way your next tool will be a shovel to dig
up the top of the tank. (Do not hook up
the suction line as a return, it could plug it
up, or if there is a foot valve or other check
valve in the line, it will blow the pump
seal. Just vent the return oil into a bucket).
suction line. When operating, one trans-
ducer transmits and the other receives an If the operating vacuum is much less
ultrasonic signal. The pulse the signal than the calculated vacuum or the operating
receives tells the unit if there is air in the vacuum of the suction line, look for air in
pipe. If it detects air, it makes a noise. the oil. If air is present, there is a good
When using the electronic sight glass, chance that you have a leak. Check all
attach the sensors just prior to the first fittings and joints, as well as the optional
fitting in the line. If no air is detected, inlet plug on the fuel unit. Be sure all flare
attach the sensors just past the same fitting fittings are done properly and there are no

Chapter 4
compression fittings. Be sure all oil lines Nozzle discharge port location
that go through a wall or under concrete are For ease of installation, fuel units are
sheathed in plastic tubing. Be sure to use built with both right and left-hand nozzle
non-hardening oil pipe dope on threads. Do or discharge ports. Again, a right or left
not use Teflon tape on fittings; it will void hand port location is determined by holding
the pump warranty. the unit with the shaft pointing toward you.
Shaft sizes
Selection of replacement
Most oil pumps have either a 5/16" shaft
fuel units or a 7/16" shaft. The smaller shaft may be
It is good general practice to replace a
bushed up for substitute replacement.
fuel unit with one of a similar type, unless
you have determined that there is a mis-
Installation requirements
match between the fuel unit capacities and
Be sure that the replacement unit is
the operating requirements of the burner.
properly mounted and in line with the
Fuel unit manufacturers attach identifica-
motor coupling. The Allen screws or flange
tion plates to their units. These plates
mounting bolts, which hold the fuel unit to
contain serial numbers that identify the
the burner housing, must be securely
units and their operational characteristics.
Reference material for these identifying tightened. If the coupling between the
serial numbers is available from the motor and the fuel unit has Allen set
manufacturers and should be included in screws, these should be securely tightened
your burner service data, as it will make against the motor shaft, after tightening
selection of proper replacement units easier. unit-mounting bolts. To do otherwise may
When replacing fuel units, consider the result in a jammed coupling and damage to
following. the pump or the motor may occur.
Shaft rotation Pump strainers

Pumps are designed for either clockwise It is necessary to periodically clean the
(CW) or counterclockwise (CCW) rotation fuel unit strainer, Figure 4-20. To clean or
and proper rotational direction is shown on replace the strainer, loosen the strainer
the unit identification plate. With the unit
shaft held toward you, clockwise rotation
will be to the right, often shown by an Figure 4-20: Dirty strainer
arrow pointing to the right. Counterclock-
wise to the left, with an arrow pointing
left. This rotation must be matched to the
burner motor.
Rotational speed
The great majority of older domestic
oilburner motors operate at a speed of 1725
RPM, while most flame retention burners
operate at 3450 RPM. Pump speed should
be matched to motor speeds.

Chapter 4
chamber cover bolts and remove the cover vibrate against surrounding objects such as
and slide out the strainer. Whenever you sheet metal furnace covers, duct work, etc.
take the cover off the strainer, be sure to If oil line noise is a result of noise transmit-
scrape off the old gasket between the cover ted from the fuel unit, check the anti-hum
and unit body and replace it with the device in the pump. The return line on two
proper replacement gasket. Some Webster pipe systems may occasionally provide line
pumps have no strainers, but they do noises. If the suction and return lines touch
contain chopper gears that clean the oil and each other they can create line noise.
the cover should be removed on a routine
Tank noise: This is not a common
basis and cleaned out. Make sure you have
source of noise complaints. If such a
the proper gasket before you do this.
complaint should develop, the cause can
Clean the pump strainer screen in normally be traced back to transmission of
heating oil or kerosene and reassemble, noise by the oil lines. Tank noise can also be
making sure to tighten all cover bolts eliminated in many cases by a hum elimina-
evenly to prevent distortion of the cover. tor. A commonly overlooked source of tank
When putting the burner back into service, noise is improper installation of the return
be sure to bleed the air from the system and line. The end of the return line of a two
check for proper flame cutoff. Remember pipe system should be located approxi-
that the strainer is a secondary filter and mately 3" above the bottom of the tank.
that a proper installation also has an This will permit discharge of return oil to
external or primary filter. be at a point beneath the surface of the oil,
thereby eliminating the noise of return oil
Pump gaskets falling into the tank.
It is also important that the correct
gasket be used. Using incorrect gaskets can
damage the pump.
Potential leaks
in oil lines
Leaking suction and return lines can
Noise problems in fuel cause serious problems. We all must be
units, oil lines or tanks ever vigilant for possible pipe leaks.
Noise generated as a result of pump Treat every out of oil/automatic
operation, or noise transmitted by oil lines,
delivery as a potential leak that should be
is annoying to the customer and should be
further investigated.
eliminated.
Study oil deliveries; further investi-
Pump noise: In addition to noise
gate each tank that takes more oil than
created by worn internal parts in the pump,
projected.
misalignment of the fuel unit and motor
coupling shaft or loose installation bolts Respond quickly to any calls from
may be the source of noise problems. All customers for oil smells and concerns about
fittings and bolts should be tightened increased consumption. These can be early
securely. warning signs of trouble.
Oil line noise is the result of improperly Treat every water-in-the-tank call as a
fastened oil lines which are allowed to potential tank leak that must be investigated.

Chapter 4
Operating problems with the burner

can signify a leak, and any air in the oil
Figure 4-22: Construction detail with valve closed
pump call, poor pump cut-off, noisy
operation, and erratic fire calls, loss of
flame retention (flame pulsates on the end Stem
cone), loss of oil prime, rough starts or
Spring
shut downs, pump whine and pressure Coil
fluctuation, and after drip could all indicate
a leak.
Piston
In order to check for leaks in the suction
pipe and fittings you must first run an Seat
operating vacuum test, covered earlier in Fuel
the chapter. Flow
Orifice Body
Valves
Solenoid oil valves
Not allowing oil to flow until the burner
Figure 4-22: Construction detail with valve open
Figure 4-21: is up to full speed and air flow into the
Delayed oil heat exchanger has been established can
valve make for cleaner start up. The use of a
solenoid oil valve can delay fuel
delivery to the nozzle for anywhere
from 4 to 15 seconds after burner
startup. Figure 4-21 shows an oil
valve. To achieve a longer delay. a
primary control with a valve-on
delay feature and a non-delay valve
should be used. On burner shutdown, Fuel
Flow
the oil valve closes immediately,
providing a much more rapid shutdown
than is obtainable with the pressure control
valve on the fuel unit. Figure 4-22 shows
how the valve works.
Operation of the delayed action
In operation, this valve can solve many solenoid valve
problems associated with poor startup and The delayed oil valve may also help in
shutdown conditions such as: preventing a puff back as a result of poor
ignition. During startup, the burner motor
1. Pulsating starts
requires a substantial starting current. This
2. Puff back current requirement may rob voltage from
the ignition system, resulting in a weak
3. After fire as a result of a malfunc-
spark at the electrodes. When the motor
tioning pressure regulating valve
reaches operating speed, the current
4. Long term soot buildup in heat requirement of the motor drops appreciably
exchanger resulting from incomplete and the full supply voltage is available to
combustion on burner startup and the transformer. This results in maximum
shutdown ignition voltage at the time the delayed oil

Chapter 4
valve opens and oil is supplied to the The coil is electrically connected in
nozzle. parallel with the burner motor. See Figure
On burner shutdown, the delayed oil 4-23 for a wiring diagram. If the burner
valve closes immediately, shutting off the has interrupted ignition, be sure that the
fuel supply and providing a clean cutoff of solenoid valve is connected to the motor
the flame. Without the delayed oil valve, leads and not to the ignition leads. If the
the motor speed must decrease before the valve is inadvertently wired to the inter-
pressure regulating valve closes, which rupted ignition circuit, the valve will close
again causes smoke because of a lack of air. when ignition is cut off and burner will go
off on safety lockout.
Note: The delayed oil valve will only
produce a clean shutdown if the oil supply It is code in most jurisdictions, and good
system is free of entrapped air. The practice in all cases, to run the electrical
delayed oil valve will not control nozzle leads from the delayed oil valve through
after drip that results from air in the oil Greenfield tubing to protect electrical leads
supply system between the valve and the from the valve to the burner junction box.
oil nozzle. This air is caused by an air leak The oil valve housing cover is threaded to
in the suction line or pump fittings or accept Greenfield connectors or the tubing
high vacuum. itself. Use anti-short bushings on the ends
of the Greenfield. A handy device to have
Installation: The delayed oil valve is for the installation is a double Greenfield
installed on the output side of the fuel unit. (BX) connector that allows two pieces of
Standard 1/8" (I.D.) black iron pipe can be Greenfield to be connected to a single hole.
used to connect the inlet port of the delayed This will make the electrical installation
Figure: 4-23:
oil valve to the nozzle discharge port on the much easier in cases where the burner Delayed oil valve
fuel pump. Use of the 1/8" pipe provides a junction box does not have an extra outlet installation for
rigid mounting for the valve. hole. interrupted
ignition
Primary
Ignition
Control
Burner Trans.
Motor
Delayed
Oil Valve
Do Not Connect Delayed

Oil Valve To This Line

Chapter 4
A conventional fuel line flared fitting is the two leads of the switch together. As this
installed in the outlet port of the delayed field fix removes the delay feature of the
valve (in most cases this will be the same valve, a new coil should be installed at the
fitting you have removed from the nozzle earliest possible time.
discharge port) and the fuel line to the The delayed oil valve is needed on
drawer assembly fuel pipe should be burners with older pumps. Most of the new
burners utilize non-delay instant opening
solenoid valves because of the relative
unreliability of the thermal delay switch.
Figure 4-24 shows a solenoid valve.
Manufacturers have gone to micropro-

cessor based primary controls with Valve-
Delay-On and Motor-Delay-Off, com-
monly known as pre- and post purge
technology. The delay is built into the
primary so the delay timing can be more
precisely controlled. It is becoming
increasingly popular for manufacturers to
attach the solenoid valve, controlled by the
Figure: 4-24: primary, directly to the fuel unit. See
Drawing of a Figure 4-25.
solenoid valve
Anti-siphon valve and oil safety valve
Figure: 4-25: Fuel
pump with solenoid
If the oil tank is higher than the burner,
some codes require an overhead suction
line and an automatic valve that will break
reinstalled. With some small amount of the siphon should an oil line leak develop.
reworking, it should be possible to use the Two popular anti-siphon valves are the
same fuel line that was on the burner Webster Oil Safety Valve (OSV), and the
before installation of the delayed valve. Suntec PRV.
Figure 4-26 shows a Suntec PRV. Its job
Servicing: The most sensitive part of
is to protect against line leaks and tank
the delayed valve
system is the thermal
delay switch that is Figure 4-26: Suntec PRV
taped to the valve
coil. Should the
valve at any time fail
to operate due to a
defective time delay
switch, it is possible
to temporarily
remove this switch
from the circuit by
removing the tape
bindings and twisting

Chapter 4
siphoning as well protect the pump from Also install a shut off valve before the
excess head pressure. When the burner filter and at the fuel pump for ease of
comes on the pump creates a vacuum that service. If the tank is outside of the
pulls the valve stem down and opens the building, there should be a shutoff valve at
valve. When the burner shuts off, if there the wall where the suction line enters the
are no leaks the valve stem will stay down building.
and remain in this position. If there is a
leak between the PRV and the burner, the Foot valves
siphon created by the leak will close the Foot valves are check valves installed
valve, shutting off the oil supply to the line. on the end of the suction line in under-
If the red stem sticks out of the top of the ground tanks. They are no longer needed
valve, you know a loss of vacuum (siphon) and not recommended; however, they were
has occurred. common on older installations and some
If the top of the oil supply source is are still in the field. It is not unusual for
more than 8 feet above the fuel unit you them to get stuck closed and not allow oil
need to install a PRV. The NFPA rating for to flow.
the head pressure on a fuel unit is only 3
There are two options in this case:
PSI, about 8 feet. If the tank head (height
1. Run new oil lines from the tank to the
of oil supply above the unit) is greater than
burner.
8 feet, the supply oil pressure may exceed 3
2. If the return line extends to the
PSI and thereby shorten shaft seal life. If it
bottom of the oil tank, you can convert the
is necessary to locate the tank at a greater
height, a pressure reducing valve or an oil system to a one-pipe system by capping the
safety valve should be used in the oil suction line and using the original return
supply line. line as the new suction line. (Remember to
remove the bypass plug in the fuel pump).
Thermal safety valve Suntec has provided a very
A thermal safety shut off (Firomatic) helpful Technical Bulletin and System
valve should be installed in the suction line Trouble Shooting Flow Chart which
at the tank. The shut off valve should be reviews the service procedures for
UL listed and should be equipped with a both old and new style pumps, shown
on pages 4-23 thru 4-25.
fusible type handle that melts at 165F.

Chapter 4
Troubleshooting Fuel Units

No Oil Flow at Nozzle Oil level below intake line in supply tank. Fill tank with oil.
Clogged strainer or filter Remove and clean strainer. Replace filter element.
Clogged nozzle Replace nozzle.
Air leak in intake line Tighten all fittings in intake line. Tighten unused intake port plug.
Tighten in-line valve stem packing gland. Look for leaks in piping.
Restricted intake line Replace any kinked tubing and check any valves in intake line.
A two-pipe system that becomes air bound Check for bypass plug.
A one-pipe system that becomes air bound Loosen gauge port plug, or open the bleed valve, start the
burner, and drain oil until foam is gone. Check for high vacuum
(over 6" vacuum). Check for air leaks in pump or oil line.
Slipping or broken coupling Tighten or replace coupling.
Air Leak Loose plugs or fittings. Dope with good quality thread sealer or
pipe joint compound.
Leak at pressure adjusting cap nut Fiber washer may have been left out after adjustment of pump
pressure. Replace the washer.
Blown sealOne-pipe system Check to see if bypass plug has been left in unit. Replace fuel
unit.
Blown sealTwo-pipe system Check for kinked tubing, rust in pump, or other obstructions in
return line. Replace fuel unit. Check tank for water.
Noisy Operation Bad coupling alignment, loosen fuel unit mounting screws
slightly and shift unit in different positions until noise is elimi-
nated. Retighten mounting screws or replace coupling.
Pulsating Pressure Partially clogged strainer or filter. Remove and clean strainer.
Replace filter element.
Air leak in intake line Tighten all fittings and valve packing in intake line.
Air leaking around cover Be sure strainer cover screws are tightened securely. Install a
new gasket.
Improper Nozzle Cut-Off To determine the cause of improper cut-off, insert a pressure
gauge in the nozzle port of the pressure fuel unit. After a minute
of operation, shut the burner down. If the pressure drops approxi-
mately 20% from normal operating pressure and holds at that
pressure, the pump is operating properly and air is the cause of
improper cut-off. If, however, the pressure drops more than 20%
in 5 minutes, fuel unit should be replaced.
Air pocket remaining in nozzle line Run burner, bled pump, stopping and starting unit, until smoke
after disassembly and after-fire disappear.
Air leak in intake line Tighten intake fittings and packing nut on shutoff valve. Tighten
unused intake port plug.
Partially clogged nozzle strainer Replace nozzle. Clean and flush out oil line and pump.

Chapter 4
System
Troubleshooting
Diagnostic Flow Chart
Follow a logical sequence of
troubleshooting from the no-heat
call through to system operation
using the following chart for
similar sequence.
Chart courtesy of Suntec

Chapter 4

Chapter 5
Nozzles and Chambers
Chapter 5
Nozzles and
Combustion Chambers
Part 1: Nozzles
Measured Angle
Proper nozzle selection is the key to
efficient, clean combustion. By knowing
how to determine the proper firing rate, the
right spray angle, and the appropriate spray
pattern, you can ensure good reliable
combustion.
Construction of the nozzle

The oilburner nozzle is a precisely Atomized Oil
engineered product, manufactured to the
very close tolerances necessary to atomize
and meter fuel in the spray patterns and
angles required of todays oilheating Orifice
equipment.
Nozzles are made of either stainless Steel Orifice Disc
Swirl Chamber
steel or a combination of stainless steel and
Distributor with
brass, allowing them to withstand the Tangential Slots
temperatures, pressures, and variety of
fuels found in combustion environments. Body
Nozzle function
The nozzle performs three vital func-
Lock Nut
tions for an oilburner:
1. Atomizing: Heating oil must be
vaporized to burn. Although the vaporiza- Sintered Filter
tion is actually accomplished with heat, the
oil must be broken down into tiny
droplets first. This is called atomization Oil Flow
and allows the oil to vaporize quickly and
evenly for fast and quiet ignition. See
Figure 5-1.
Figure 5-1:
Nozzle;
cutaway
view
Chapter 5Nozzles and Combustion Chambers 5-3

Chapter 5
pattern and angle best suited to the require-

ments of each specific burner and combus-
tion area.
Effects of pressure
on nozzle performance
Historically, 100 PSI was considered
satisfactory for the fixed oil pressure
supplied to the nozzle, and all nozzle
manufacturers calibrate their nozzles at that
pressure. Many burner and appliance
(boilers, furnaces, and water heater)
manufacturers are recommending higher
pressures for their products. Higher
pressures create better atomization, i.e.
smaller droplets. See Figure 5-2.
Figure 5-2: Fuel pressure vs. droplet size
2. Metering: A nozzle delivers Greater Oil Pressure Will Make

a fixed amount of atomized fuel to the Average Atomized Drop Smaller
the combustion chamber. The
Mean Drop Size (Micron)
amount of fuel is measured in

gallons-per-hour (GPH) at 100
pounds pressure. For burning rates
below five GPH, there are more
that 25 different flow rates each in
6 different spray angles and six or
more spray patterns.
3. Patterning: A nozzle is
expected to deliver the fuel to the
combustion area in a uniform spray Oil Pressure (psi)
How a nozzle works

Heating oil, under pressure (100 psi) passes
through the strainer to remove contamination,
then through a set of slots, cut at an angle
into the swirl chamber. The angle of the
ejected oil creates a high velocity swirl, like a
tornado. As the oil swirls against the swirl
chamber walls it creates an area of low
pressure in the center. This pressure differen-
tial moves the oil out through the orifice in a
hollow tube shape where it spreads into a
film that stretches until is ruptures into
billions of tiny droplets.
5-4 Nozzles and Combustion Chambers

Chapter 5
In Figure 5-3 we can see how the spray

from a nozzle changes as the pressure
increases. At low pressure, the cone shaped
film is long and the droplets are large and
irregular. As the pressure increases, the
spray angle becomes better defined. Once a
stable pattern is formed, any increase in
pressure does not affect the spray angle
directly in front of
the orifice. How-
Oil Nozzle Type A ever, at higher
Ordering Table
pressure, the angle
of spray further
away from the 300 PSI reduces the droplet diameter by Figure 5-3: Nozzle
about 28%. Lower pressure means larger spray droplets
orifice does start to
narrow by one to droplets that are much harder to vaporize
two degrees. This is and burn. While pressures greater than 100
Semi-Solid
because the droplets PSI are sometimes desirable, never operate

are starting to slow at less than 100 PSI. See Table 5-1 on
down due to air following page.
resistance and the
air the spray draws Spray pattern
in moves the There are many different spray patterns
droplets inward. offered by manufacturers. Although all
This is the same spray patterns are hollow to some degree,
effect that causes a nozzles are grouped into three general
shower curtain to be classificationssolid, hollow, and semi-
drawn into the solid. See Figure 5-4.
Solid
shower spray.
As you might Hollow cone: As the name implies, the
expect, pressure greatest concentration of droplets is at the
increases cause a outer edge of the spray, with little or no
corresponding distribution in the center. Generally, hollow
increase in the cone nozzles are used on low firing rate
amount of oil burners, particularly those firing less than 1
flowing through the GPH. This is an important advantage in
nozzle. A nozzle fractional gallonage nozzles, such as those
rated at one gallon- used in mobile home furnaces, where cold,
per-hour at 100 PSI high viscosity oil may cause a reduction in
Hollow Cone
will deliver about spray angle and increases in droplet size.

1.23 gallons-per- Hollow flames also tend to be quieter.
hour at 150 PSI.
Increasing pressure Solid cone: Here the distribution of
also reduces the size droplets is more uniform throughout the
of the droplets in pattern. These nozzles work best when the
the spray. For air pattern of the burner is heavy in the
Figure 5-4: Nozzle example, an in- center or where long fires are required.
spray patterns crease from 100 to They provide smoother ignition for burners
Chapter 5 Nozzles and Combustion Chambers 5-5

Chapter 5
Table 5-1:
Nozzle capacities Nozzle Flow Rate vs. Pressure (Approx.)
US gph
Flow Rating Flow Rates in US GPH
USGPH @ 100 PSI Pressure PSI
GPH 125 145 175 200 250 300
0.40 0.45 0.48 0.53 0.57 0.63 0.69
0.50 0.56 0.60 0.66 0.71 0.79 0.87
0.60 0.67 0.72 0.79 0.85 0.95 1.04
0.65 0.73 0.78 0.88 0.92 1.03 1.13
0.75 0.84 0.90 0.99 1.06 1.19 1.30
0.85 0.95 1.02 1.12 1.20 1.34 1.47
1.00 1.12 1.20 1.32 1.41 1.58 1.73
1.10 1.23 1.32 1.48 1.56 1.74 1.91
1.20 1.34 1.44 1.59 1.70 1.90 2.08
1.25 1.40 1.51 1.65 1.77 1.98 2.17
1.35 1.51 1.63 1.79 1.91 2.13 2.34
1.50 1.68 1.81 1.98 2.12 2.37 2.60
1.65 1.84 1.99 2.18 2.33 2.81 2.86
1.75 1.96 2.11 2.32 2.47 2.77 3.03
2.00 2.24 2.41 2.65 2.83 3.16 3.46
2.25 2.52 2.71 2.98 3.18 3.56 3.90
2.50 2.80 3.01 3.31 3.54 3.95 4.33
2.75 3.07 3.31 3.84 3.89 4.35 4.76
3.00 3.35 3.61 3.97 4.24 4.74 5.20
3.25 3.63 3.91 4.30 4.60 5.14 5.63
3.50 3.91 4.21 4.63 4.95 5.53 6.06
3.75 4.19 4.52 4.96 5.30 5.93 6.50
4.00 4.47 4.82 5.29 5.66 6.32 6.93
4.50 5.03 5.42 5.95 6.36 7.12 7.79
5.00 5.60 6.00 6.60 7.10 7.91 8.66
5.50 6.10 6.60 7.30 7.80 8.70 9.53
6.00 6.70 7.20 7.90 8.50 9.49 10.39
6.50 7.30 7.80 8.60 9.20 10.28 11.26
7.00 7.80 8.40 9.30 9.90 11.07 12.12
7.50 8.40 9.00 9.90 10.80 11.86 12.99
8.00 8.90 9.60 10.60 11.30 12.65 13.88
8.50 9.50 10.20 11.20 12.00 13.44 14.72
9.00 10.10 10.80 11.90 12.70 14.23 15.59
10.00 11.20 12.00 13.20 14.10 15.81 17.32
11.00 12.30 13.20 14.80 15.60 17.39 19.05
12.00 13.40 14.40 15.90 17.00 18.97 20.78
13.00 14.50 15.70 17.20 18.40 20.55 22.52
14.00 15.70 16.90 18.50 19.80 22.14 24.25

Chapter 5
Figure 5-5:
Manufacturers use
different
designations for
their spray
patterns
firing over 2 GPH. An interesting charac- hollow. We call these semi-solid patterns.
teristic of solid cone patterns is that they
Your job as a technician is to select the
become more and more hollow as flow
nozzle that puts the oil spray where the air
rates increase, particularly above 8 GPH. In
velocity delivered by the burner is greatest.
addition, increased pump pressure tends to
In most modern equipment, the appliance
make both hollow and solid patterns more
manufacturer designates the nozzle to use.
hollow.
Figure 5-5 describes the manufacturers
Semi-solid: Many burners perform well different designations for their spray
with solid or hollow spray patterns. To patterns.
accommodate these designs, nozzle
manufacturers have developed patterns that Spray angle
are a compromise between solid and Spray angle refers to the angle of the
cone of spray from the nozzle.
Figure 5-6: Spray angles Spray angles are available
from a 30-degree angle to a
90-degree angle to meet the
wide variety of burner air
patterns and chamber shapes.
Generally, round or square
chambers are fired with 70 to
90-degree nozzles. Short wide
chambers need a short fat
flame. Long narrow chambers
usually require 30-degree to 70-degree solid
cone nozzles. The spray pattern and angle
must be such that all the droplets burn
completely in suspension in the combustion
area. Unburned oil must not strike (impinge)
on any cold surface such as the chamber
walls or floor, the crown sheet of the heat
exchanger, or the burner end cone. Impinge-
ment of unburned drops will cause high
smoke and will lead to future service calls.
The correct spray pattern and angle depends
on the air-oil mixing design of the burner
Figure 5-7: and the shape of the combustion chamber.
Spray angles based on chamber design See Figures 5-6 and 5-7.

Chapter 5
Flow rate Burner air

Whenever it is possible,
Atomizing nozzles are
determine the
patterns
available in a wide range manufacturers recom- Burner air patterns are
of flow rates. Generally, mendations on nozzle much like nozzle spray
with hydronic and warm selection and never patterns in that they fall
air heating systems, the overfire the rating of a into solid and hollow
smallest firing rate that heating appliance.
classifications.
will adequately heat the
Burners with solid air
building on the coldest
patterns are often re-
day of the year is the proper size to use.
ferred to as open-end burners. There is no
Another guideline is to select a flow rate
restrictive air cone in the end of the air
that provides a reasonable net stack
tube to direct the air effectively in any
temperature regardless of the connected
desired pattern. This produces high veloc-
load. This avoids acid condensing in the
ity air down the middle of the air pattern
stack, which occurs at about 150 to 200F.
and works best with a solid nozzle and
If the appliance is undersized for the load
narrow spray angles. This situation does
(highly unlikely), it may be necessary to
not apply to flame retention burners.
fire to the load and ignore the efficiency. A
nozzle that is too small will not produce Flame retention burners are equipped
adequate heat and hot water. A nozzle that with air handling devices in the air tube that
is too large will cause the unit to short afford better mixing of air and oil vapor in
cycle, reducing efficiency and wasting fuel. the combustion area. Many flame retention
Whenever it is possible, determine the burners can fire both solid and hollow
manufacturers recommendations on nozzle nozzles with good results because of the
selection and never overfire the rating of a strong recirculation air pattern they pro-
heating appliance. duce. This recirculation of air and oil in the
chamber also affects the fire box pressure.
Dual filtration In the flame retention burner, the flame
Double filtration nozzles are available front is held very near the burner head. It
for mobile home installations and other creates a flame that is less likely to pulsate
units with very low firing rates. In addition or produce soot. Nozzle selection for these
to the standard nozzle filter, these nozzles burners should follow manufacturers
have a secondary internal filter located recommendations and the following general
immediately before the metering slots. This guidelines:
extra filter gives the nozzle 35% more
nozzle filtration. The internal filter does not Burners with flow rates up to 2
change the nozzles performance; it just GPH: Hollow nozzles can be used success-
increases its longevity. fully for most applications, even on burners
with most of the air down the middle.
There is also a nozzle available from
Hollow nozzles in lower firing rates
Delavan Spray Technologies for low firing
produce the quietest operation. It is often
rates that uses two swirl chambers and
better, especially in furnaces, to sacrifice 1
short metering slots, keeping the oil
or 2 points in efficiency for quiet operation.
contaminants in suspension and flushing
them from the orifice. Particles are not Burners with flow rates between 2
allowed to collect or stick together, limiting and 3 GPH: You may use hollow or solid
buildup and plugging. nozzles depending upon the burner air

Chapter 5
pattern. At this higher firing rate, spray in a proper nozzle box. They are available
patterns are not as critical. from the nozzle manufacturers.
Burners with firing rates above 3 Handle nozzles carefully. Pick them up
GPH: Here it is advisable to standardize on by the hex flats only. Do not touch the
solid nozzles which produce smoother strainer or orifice. Even clean hands have
ignition in most burners. Burners with enough dirt on them to plug up the tiny
hollow air patterns are the exception. Check slots inside the nozzle. Obviously, you
the manufacturers recommendations. should never disassemble a nozzle you plan
to use.
Nozzle brand interchange Only install nozzles with clean tools to
Replacing nozzles of one brand with reduce the possibility of contamination. If
those of another can sometimes present possible, use a nozzle changer or nozzle
problems. There are subtle differences wrench when changing a nozzle. Most
between manufacturers because they use open-end wrench handles are too long and
different methods of production and increase the possibility of stripping the
evaluation. nozzle adapter threads. Before installing a
The burner manufacturers test their new nozzle, flush out the nozzle line and
burners in different appliances and deter- adapter with clean oil, kerosene, or a
mine what type nozzle, from which nozzle solvent.
manufacturer, works best in that particular Before you install the nozzle in the
application. Burner manufacturers publish adapter, be sure the inside of the adapter is
nozzle recommendations called OEM clean and free of carbon or contamination.
Specification Guides. Be sure to have this Carefully examine the sealing surface of
information at hand. the adapter to be sure there are no
scratches or nicks. These can be caused by
If you are working on a unit not listed in
careless handling, or just wear and tear. If
the Specification Guide, you will find that
it is scratched or nicked, then replace the
generally, all hollow nozzles have similar
adapter. Do not take a chance here. A leak
spray patterns and may be interchangeable.
between the nozzle and the adapter can
The variation shows up mainly in the solid
cause serious problems. Do not put any-
nozzles, and if you must change brands,
thing on the nozzle threads! Screw the
you will have to do some testing to deter-
nozzle into the adapter one-eighth to one-
mine the best nozzle for that application.
quarter turn past hand tight (about 88 to
Check with your supply house to secure a
138 pounds of torque).
nozzle interchange chart to help you in your
testing. The nozzle orifice face is polished to a
mirror finish. Do not ruin it with a wire or
Nozzle care and pin, or by bumping it with a wrench. This
service suggestions will ruin the spray. If a nozzle is dirty, or
plugged, change it. It is impossible to clean
Never, under any conditions, interchange
it out properly. It is tempting, especially in
the inner parts of a nozzle with those of
the middle of the night to try to clean out
another nozzle. Each nozzle component is
the orifice with a pin or tooth pick. It will
matched exactly to all the other components
not work. Replace it!
of that nozzle. In fact, you should leave a
nozzle in its original container until you A good quality nozzle should last at
install it. You should store all your nozzles least two heating seasons. Contamination

Chapter 5
and excessive heat are the main causes of

Figure 5-8
nozzle failure. Contamination can be
limited by installing a good oil filter in the
supply line. If there are excessive tank
Proper Spray Angle Matched to Air Flow bottom sediments in the tank, you may
need to clean the tank and adopt a fuel
additive program. For severe cases, replace
the tank.
Nozzle
Nozzles should not be very hot when
operating because of the amount of air and
fuel traveling past them. Nozzles overheat
from poor or no over-fire draft. Over-fire
draft should be at least -.01" to keep
nozzles cool. There are some exceptions to
Inches
this rule. As usual, manufacturers instruc-

Inches tions take precedence. Be sure the end of
the burner air tube does not extend into the
chamber. The face of the end tube should
be flush with the face of the chamber, or
recessed about one quarter inch.
Figure 5-9
Air-oil mixing
Fuel Spray Angle too Wide and flame patterns
What constitutes a perfect oilburner
flame? Theoretically, each droplet of oil
that leaves the nozzle orifice should be
Nozzle completely surrounded by air. It should be
vaporized and then burst into flame
totally burning all the hydrogen and carbon
atoms in the fuel. This air volume, gener-
ated by the burner fan, and, in most
Inches
applications, aided by the draft-over-the-

fire, should be adjusted to deliver the exact
Inches
amount of air required by the fuel being
fed through the nozzle, see Figure 5-8.
Fuel Spray Angle too Narrow
It is impossible to reach this perfect
state in the field, but it is a good target to
shoot for. The closer you come to this
perfect air-oil match, the cleaner, quieter,
Nozzle more efficient and odor free the flame will
be.
There are six elements for the perfect
air-oil match. They are: air volume, oil
Inches
volume, oil pressure, oil spray pattern, oil

spray angle, and the air pattern of the
Inches burner. The air pattern of the burner is the

Chapter 5
most important factor. This is unfortunate,

because you cannot control or adjust air Viscosity vs. Temperature
No. 2 Fueloil
pattern; it is fixed by the burner design.
Also, you cannot see the burner air pattern;
you must rely on trial and error in our
quest for perfection. See Figure 5-9.
Your tools in your search for the perfect
Viscosity, SSU
flame are: the smoke tester, stack thermom-
eter, draft gauge, pressure gauge, CO2 or
O2 tester, the manufacturers recommenda-
tions and the experience of the person who
was there before you. Always use the
condition of the unit as you found it as
your best guide to what needs to be done.
If you find the unit running well and
reasonably clean, the nozzle installed in the
unit is probably pretty close to being the Temperature F
right one. However, if the unit is not
running well, it may be time for some Figure 5-10:
changes. The single greatest factor in Viscosity vs.
2. Start with an 80-degree hollow temperature
combustion inefficiency is excess air. It
nozzle, and adjust for a 1 smoke and mark change
absorbs large quantities of heat and carries
the air band opening.
it wastefully up the chimney. It also
reduces the flame temperature, decreasing 3. Try an 80-degree solid nozzle and
the rate of heat transfer to the heat ex- take another smoke test. If it is lighter, you
changer. Both of these raise stack tempera- have a solid air pattern; if the smoke is
tures, which lower efficiency. heavier, it is hollow.
The best burner adjustment is one that 4. Try a 60-degree hollow or solid
allows a smokeless, sootless operation with nozzle as indicated by the previous two
a minimum of excess air. We determine tests.
excess air by measuring the percentage of 5. Select the nozzle that creates the
oxygen (O2) in the flue gases. You will lowest smoke and highest efficiency.
learn more about this in the combustion
6. Once the tests are completed, record
chapter.
the results. Post the results near the burner
and report them to the office where they
Nozzle application should become a permanent part of the
procedure customers service history.
If the manufacturers recommendations
are not available, or if you are upgrading
Effects of viscosity
an old unit with a new burner, the follow-
on nozzle performance
ing is a step-by-step procedure you may
One of the important factors affecting
use for selecting the best nozzle.
nozzle performance is the viscosity of the
1. Set the over-the-fire draft to -.02", fuel. Viscosity is the resistance to flow
check the oil pressure, and install a nozzle the thickness of the fuel. Thus, gasoline is
that does not exceed the rating of the thin, having a lower viscosity, while
appliance. grease is thick, having a higher viscosity.

Chapter 5
spray becomes narrower. The flame is

Colder Oil Causes More Oil
to Flow from the Tip of the Nozzle
longer, thinner, bigger, and less stable. This
creates incomplete combustion that means
Droplet increased smoke and soot. It is also harder
Spray to light cold oil, so ignition is delayed, and
if the viscosity is very high, flame out and
no heat result. See Figure 5-11.
Outside, above-ground storage tanks
Liquid suffer most dramatically from the problems
Oil Cone of cold oil. Lets say you do a tune up on a
sunny hot summer day. The temperature of
Nozzle Tip the oil in the tank is 80F. You adjust the
burner to run clean at that viscosity. As the
temperature drops, the oil becomes much
Swirl Chamber
thicker and the amount of oil flowing out
Warm Oil
of the nozzle increases, causing the burner
Cold Oil
Oil spins rapidly
to over-fire. Not enough air is delivered
Oil spins slowly
Large air core Small air core and smoke increases. The angle of the
Lower oil flow Higher oil flow spray decreases and the fire gets longer and
Figure 5-11:
Comparison of
warm vs. cold oil What makes the viscosity of oil
Average Droplet Size Increases
on nozzle flow increase? Temperature is the main factor as Oil Temperature Drops
rates in changing oil viscosity. As the tempera-
ture of the oil goes down, the viscosity
% Change in Mean Droplet Diameter
goes up. The viscosity of No.2 oil is 35

SSU (seconds saybolt universal) at 100F.
When the temperature drops to 20F, the
viscosity goes to 65 SSU. See Figure 5-
10 on previous page.
The effects of increased viscosity can
be confusing. As the viscosity of the fuel
flowing through a nozzle increases, so
does the flow rate. Here is how it hap-
pens. As higher viscosity oil passes into REDO
the nozzle through the tangential slots
and into the swirl chamber, the rotational
velocity slows down. As a result, the
walls of the tube of oil leaving the nozzle
orifice are thickermore oil enters the Fueloil
Fueloil temperature, degrees
temperature, degrees
chamber and the oil droplets are bigger.
Figure 5-12:
The result is that the flame front moves Nozzle droplet size in relation to temperature
out into the chamber and the angle of the

Chapter 5
hits the back wall, which also increases

smoke. The thick stream of oil makes for Oil Line
Electrode Insulator
larger droplets that result in delayed Assembly
ignition and smoke. Suddenly, the appli-
ance is full of soot. Fortunately, as the oil
gets colder, so does the air. This increases
draft. The stronger draft draws in more
combustion air and helps accommodate the
increased volume of combustion gases.
This can happen to a lesser degree to Start HelperTM
underground tanks that are normally at Pre-Heater
about 50 to 55 F, and even to indoor tanks Static Plate
Nozzle
that are at room temperature. As oil trucks
are not heated, it takes several days for a
fresh load of cold oil to warm up in an Figure 5-13:
underground or indoor storage tank. Until Nozzle line
oil. Remember, it also increases the flow pre-heater
the oil warms, you can have viscosity
rate, so size the nozzle correctly. Another
problems. See Figure 5-12.
solution to cold oil is to install a nozzle line
The easiest way to cut down on the pre-heater. This simple, strap-on device
effects of cold oil is to increase pump increases the temperature of the oil arriving
pressures. This decreases droplet size and at the nozzle to about 100 to 120 F. See
better defines the spray angle, which makes Figures 5-13 and 5-14.
burners less susceptible to high viscosity
The nozzle line heater
is wired in parallel with
Fuel Flow During Startup the limit control so it is
With and Without Pre-Heater energized whenever there
is power to the heating
Fuel Flow (gal./hr.)
system. It works on
electrical resistance.
When the resistance gets
too high, it stops heating.
As the unit cools, the
resistance drops and it
heats up again. Pre-
heaters draw about one
amp and only heat the
fuel to about 80 degrees
above the ambient
temperaturebetween
120 and 130Fduring
stand-by. When the
Seconds From Start burner is running, the
cold oil brings the
Figure 5-14
temperature well below

Chapter 5
120. Yet another way to help with this the end-cone is flush or slightly recessed
problem is to blend kerosene or additives from the chamber face. Check for after-
with heating oil. drip. Any of these problems could be the
cause of your thermal instability.
Thermal stability Another cause of overheating is a hard
If you find a fuel failure but the filter
brick chamber. When replacing an old non-
and strainer are clean and the nozzle is
flame retention burner with a new flame
plugged with coke (a dull black substance),
retention burner, it is tempting to leave the
the problem is probably thermal stability.
old chamber in place. The problem is, new
Oil can become unstable in the prolonged
burners have much higher flame tempera-
presence of heat, particularly when in
tures than the old burners. It did not matter
contact with copper and other yellow
with the old burners cool flame that the
metals. As the oil sits in the nozzle and
hard brick chamber held its heat for hours.
drawer assembly and its temperature rises,
it can form coke. This is more of an The white-hot flame from the new burners,
installation issue than a fuel issue. however, heats the chamber to very high
temperatures. When the burner shuts off, the
Nozzles should not get old chamber reflects all this heat back and
hot. If the nozzle is hot overheats the nozzle.
There are three basic causes of enough to overheat the oil,
after-dripa defective pump shut you probably have either a The solution is to replace the old cham-
off valve, air entrapped in the bad draft situation, an old ber or line it with a ceramic liner. In some
nozzle line, and oil expansion in hard brick chamber cases, with big old dry base boilers, you can
the nozzle line caused by exces- reflecting excessive heat fill in the old chamber and install the new
sive radiated heat at shut down. back on the nozzle after burner in the clean-out door, firing against a
shut down, an after-drip target wallessentially creating a wet base
problem, or a draw boiler.
assembly and end cone Many units are very tight or operate
sticking into the chamber. There are good without a chimney and offer little or no
mechanical fixes for these problemsi.e. over-fire draft. The best way to avoid nozzle
post purge, draft inducers, interrupted overheating in these situations is motor-off-
ignition, ceramic chamber liners, and end delay (commonly called post-purge.) Using
cone amulets, to name a few. a solenoid valve, the primary control shuts
If you encounter a thermal stability off the flow of oil but keeps the burner
problem, find out what is causing the running for a few minutes, blowing air from
nozzle to get hot. The problem is most the burner air intake through the air tube and
likely to occur after burner shutdown. past the nozzlekeeping it cool.
Check the over-fire draft after shut-down.
Check to see if the draft regulator closes Nozzle after-drip
after shutdown. If it stays open, it will The quickest way to soot up a heat
reduce draft over-the-fire needed to cool exchanger is nozzle after- drip. This happens
the nozzle. Check electrode settings and when oil drips from the nozzle orifice after
the type of chamber. Check to be sure that the burner shuts down. If the combustion

Chapter 5
area is still hot, this oil burns with a smoky compressed to 1/7th its original volume by
fire. If the combustion area is not hot the 100 PSI pressure of the oil. When the
enough, the oil drips out and collects in the burner shuts off, the pressure eases back to
bottom of the chamber. When the burner normal and the air bubble expands back to
comes back on, all this extra oil lights and its original volume. This rapid expansion
results in smoke, soot and rumbles. pushes oil out of the nozzle, causing an
after-drip for several seconds. This can lead
There are three basic causes of after-
to delayed ignition, sooted heat exchangers
dripa defective pump shut off valve, air
and the smell of fumes.
entrapped in the nozzle line, and oil expan-
sion in the nozzle line caused by excessive This condition is diagnosed by looking
radiated heat at shut down. The first is easy into the combustion chamber at burner shut
to check. Install a reliable pressure gauge in down. If there is no view port, you can
the nozzle discharge port of the fuel unit. perform the same check by tilting the
Start the burner and let it run for the transformer back and looking through the
duration of the safety timing cycle. When it combustion head. If air is present, check for
locks out, the pressure should drop about air leaks using the procedure described in
20% and hold indefinitely. If it fails to the Chapter on Fuel Units.
stabilize and slowly descends to zero, you
Expansion of oil in lines can also cause
know the pressure-regulating valve in the
after-drip. For every degree F of tempera-
pump is no good and the pump should be
ture rise, there is a .04% expansion of
replaced.
volume. After-drip occurs when the burner
If air is trapped in the nozzle line or shuts down and the temperature of the oil in
adapter, it will cause an after-drip. See the nozzle line and adapter rise because of
Figure 5-15:
Figure 5-15. A bubble of trapped air will be the heat from the appliance. Hard refracto-
Air trapped in
nozzle line
(1) Air bubbles trapped in oil line are compressed

while oil is under pressure during firing period.
This illustration
reproduced with
permission by McGraw-
Hill Companies from
Domestic and
Commercial Oil Burners,
(2) Same air bubbles expanding after burner has shut down Charles Burkhardt,
Copyright, 1969, Third
and oil pressure has been released. Expanding air forces Edition, published by
oil through nozzle orifice causing after-drip and after-fire. McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Chapter 5
Figure 5-16:
Hago Ecovalve
ries, such as firebrick, tend the oilburner. They also eliminate after-drip
to radiate more heat after associated with air bubbles in the nozzle line
shut down and thus are more or expansion of the oil caused by reflected
likely to have this type of heat from the combustion chamber. Figure
after-drip. To prevent this, 5-18 shows how these valves reduce
line old refractory with hydrocarbon (smoke) emissions.
ceramic. These check valves are built into the
nozzle strainer assembly and must be
Oilburner nozzle installed or changed at the time the nozzle
anti-drip valves is changed. The check valve is calibrated to
Another solution is the open and close within a very tight toler-
use of nozzles with check ance of the burner operating pressure. For
valves. These nozzles are this reason, different nozzle check valves
designed to cut-off fuel flow from are manufactured to match different
the nozzle quickly. See Figures 5-16 operating pressures. If you are about to
change the operating pressure of a burner,
and 5-17.
you should first check to see if it has a
Nozzle check valves also eliminate check valve installed. If it does, be sure to
the incomplete atomization that can install the right check valve for the new
occur on start up and shut down of operating pressure.
Figure 5-18: Standard vs. anti-drip valve; emissions chart.

Dark tint area is a standard nozzle,
light shaded area is with a nozzle check valve.
Figure 5-17:
Delavan
ProTek valve
Hydrocarbons PPM
Steady State
Burner Burner
Start off
Without Check Valve With Check Valve

Chapter 5
contacting or impinging on cold surfaces. It

Part II: also reflects heat back into the burning
Combustion Chambers zone, ensuring clean, quick combustion. If
the chamber is too small or the wrong shape
for the burner air pattern, or the nozzle is
Introduction too close to the floor, there will be flame
The flame from the oilburner is con- impingement, causing smoke and soot. With
tained in the combustion chamber. A non-flame retention burners, an oversized
chamber must be made of the proper chamber refractory will not reflect enough
material to handle the high flame tempera- heat back into the burning zone to burn the
tures. It must be properly sized for the carbonsmoke will be created. If the
nozzle-firing rate and it must be the correct chamber sides are too low, combustibles
shape and the proper height. Combustion will spill over the top and burn incom-
chambers have a profound effect on the pletely. It is your job to be able to diagnose
first three of the four rules for good heating an incorrectly built chamber as well as to
oil combustion: build and design a correct one.
1. The oil must be completely atomized

and vaporized. Chamber materials
Chambers should heat up quickly, reflect
2. The oil must burn in complete
as much heat back into the burning zone as
suspension.
possible, and cool off quickly when the
3. The mixture of air and oil vapors will burner shuts down. There are five common
burn best in the presence of hot types of materials used in combustion
refractory. chamber construction.
4. A minimum amount of air must be
supplied for complete, efficient Insulating fire brick: The porous nature
combustion. and lightness of this brick makes it highly
resistant to the penetration of heat. The side
To burn the oil in suspension means that of the brick facing the fire glows red hot in
the fire must never touch any surface about 15 seconds while the rear surface
especially a cold one. The cold surface will remains relatively cool. (The bricks come in
reduce the temperature of the gases turning a variety of sizes and are available in pre-
the vaporized carbon in the fuel into smoke cast chambers). For fires up to 3 GPH, you
and soot before it has a chance to burn. For can use 2000F firebrick. It will take up to
combustion to be self-sustaining, the heat 3000-degree temperatures, but structurally it
produced by the flame must be sufficient to cannot take the starting violence of a large
ignite the fresh mixture of oil vapor and air fire. Proper refractory cement should be
coming into the combustion zone from the used with the insulating brick so the
burner. The hotter the area around the expansion of the brick and cement will be
burning zone, the easier and more com- equal.
pletely the oil will burn.
The combustion chamber provides the Common fire brick or hard brick: This
necessary room for all the oil to burn before weighs more than insulating brick and it

Chapter 5
absorbs much more heat before it begins chamber first. If the old chamber is deterio-
reflecting any back into the burning zone. It rated, wrap the material with a stainless
is unsatisfactory for residential purposes, steel binder. If the old chamber was too
but is used in commercial units because it small or the wrong shape, lining it will not
stands up better to the shock loads of high help. Ceramic chambers become brittle
firing rates. The brick comes in the standard after firing. Do not touch it with a vacuum
size of 9" long by 4.5" high, and 2.5" deep. cleaner hose or flame mirror after it has
It is also made in runners and pre-cast been used. The material is intended for
chambers. firing rates below 3 GPH, and will with-
stand about 2,300F. It can be purchased
Metal fire chambers: Metal chambers by the foot or is available in pre-shaped
Figure 5-19: are used primarily in factory-built pack- sizes. The material gives quieter operation,
Combustion aged units because they can be shipped in less smoke and fuel savings.
chamber design place without damage or breakage and do
not require bracing. Metal cham- Molded chamber: Many manufacturers
bers are much better than com- install their own molded chambers in their
mon fire brick. However, they are packaged units. They are usually made of
sensitive to improper nozzle semi-insulating refractory material.
selection and overfiring. A nozzle-
firing rate that is too high, or a
lopsided fire can distort or even Chamber shapes
burn a hole through the wall of The best shape for a chamber is round or
Good Combustion the chamber. Direct flame im- oval so the hot gases can sweep back
pingement on the chamber must smoothly. In a square or rectangular cham-
be avoided. Metal chambers must ber, eddy currents develop in the corners
have free flowing air behind them requiring more excess air to burn com-
to keep them from burning pletely. The correct height is most important.
through. Do not put any kind of All combustion should take place in the
insulating material, including chamber. There should be little if any flame
Preferred
Shape soot, around the chamber. The above the chamber. The top of the chamber
higher flame temperatures of should be about as far above the nozzle as
flame retention burners is tough the floor is below it. See Figure 5-19.
on metal chambers; it is usually a
good idea to replace a burned out Sizing the chamber
metal chamber with a pre-cast The gallons-per-hour firing rate deter-
Eddy ceramic one. mines the size of the chamber. A firing rate
Current
Pockets of .75 to 3 GPH requires 80 square inches of
Ceramic chambers: Ceramic chamber floor space per gallon of fuel. A
material is excellent for chambers. firing rate from 3.5 to 5 GPH requires 90
It reflects heat quickly while square inches, and over 5.5 GPH requires
absorbing very little and it is easy 100 square inches per gallon. See Table 5-2
to install. If the old chamber is and Figure 5-20.
still in good condition, you may
use ceramic blanket material to Installing a low
Eddy line the old chamber. Be sure to firing rate chamber
Current seal any air leaks in the old There are many very good pre-cast
Pockets

Chapter 5
Table 5-2: Combustion chamber sizing data (preferred)

Square Square Dia. Round Rectangular HEIGHT FROM NOZZLE TO FLOOR IN INCHES
Oil Inch Area Combustion Combustion Combustion Conventional Conventional Sunflower Sunflower
Consumption Combustion Chamber Chamber Chamber Burner Burner Flame Burner Flame Burner
gph Chamber Inches Inches Inches Width x Length Single Nozzle Single Nozzle Twin Nozzle
.75 60 8x8 9 5.0 x 5.0 x

.85 68 8.5 x 8.5 9 5.0 x 5.0 x
80 Square Inches per Gallon
1.00 80 9x9 10-1/8 5.0 x 5.0 x

1.25 100 10 x 10 11-1/4 5.0 x 5.0 x
1.35 108 10-1/2 x 10-1/2 11-3/4 5.0 x 5.0 x
1.50 120 11 x 11 12-3/8 10 x 12 5.0 x 6.0 x
1.65 132 11-1/2 x 11-1/2 13 10 x 13 5.0 x 6.0 x
2.00 160 12-5/8 x 12-5/8 14-1/4 6 x 7.0 x
2.50 200 14-1/4 x 14-1/4 16 12 x 16-1/2 6.5 x 7.5 x
3.00 240 15-1/2 x 15-1/2 17-1/2 13 x 18-1/2 7.0 5.0 8.0 6.5
90 Square Inches
3.50 315 17-3/4 x 17-3/4 20 15 x 21 7.5 6.0 8.5 7.0

4.00 360 19 x 19 21-1/2 16 x 22-1/2 8.0 6.0 9.0 7.0
per Gallon
4.50 405 20 x 20 17 x 23-1/2 8.5 6.5 9.5 7.5

5.00 450 21-1/4 x 21-1/4 18 x 25 9.0 6.5 10.0 8.0
5.50 550 23-1/2 x 23-1/2 20 x 27-1/2 9.5 7.0 10.5 8.0

6.00 600 24-1/2 x 24-1/2 21 x 28-1/2 10.0 7.0 11.0 8.5
6.50 650 25-1/2 x 25-1/2 22 x 29-1/2 10.5 7.5 11.5 9.0
7.00 700 26-1/2 x 26-1/2 23 x 30-1/2 11.0 7.5 12.0 9.5
100 Square Inches per Gallon
7.50 750 27-1/4 x 27-1/4 24 x 31 11.5 7.5 12.5 10.0

Usually Not Used In These Sizes
Round Combustion Chambers
8.0 800 28-1/4 x 28-1/4 25 x 32 12.0 8.0 13.0 10.0

8.50 850 29-1/4 x 29-1/4 25 x 34 12.5 8.5 13.5 10.5
9.00 900 30 x 30 25 x 36 13.0 8.5 14.0 11.0
9.50 950 31 x 31 26 x 36-1/2 13.5 9.0 14.5 11.5
10.00 1000 31-3/4 x 31-3/4 26 x 38-1/2 14.0 9.0 15.0 12.0
11.00 1100 33-1/4 x 33-1/4 28 x 29-1/2 14.5 9.5 15.5 12.5
12.00 1200 34-1/2 x 34-1/2 28 x 43 15.0 10.0 16.0 13.0
13.00 1300 36 x 36 29 x 45 15.5 10.5 16.5 14.0
14.00 1400 37-1/2 x 37-1/2 31 x 45 16.0 11.0 17.0 14.5
15.00 1500 38-3/4 x 38-3/4 32 x 47 16.5 11.5 17.5 15.0
16.00 1600 40 x 40 33 x 48-1/2 17.0 12.0 18.0 15.0
17.00 1700 41-1/4 x 41-1/4 34 x 50 17.5 12.5 18.5 15.5
18.00 1800 42-1/2 x 42-1/2 35 x 51-1/2 18.0 13.0 19.0 16.0

Chapter 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 Figure 5-20: Recommended minimum inside

Firing Rate Length Width Dimension Suggested Minimum Dia. dimensions of refractory-type combustion chambers
(gph) (L) (W) (C) Height (H) Vertical Cyl. NOTES:

1. Flame lengths are approximately as shown in column 2.
0.50 8 7 4.0 8 8 Tested boilers or furnaces will often operate well with
0.65 8 7 4.5 9 8 chambers shorter than the lengths shown in column 2.
0.75 9 8 4.5 9 9 2. As a general practice, any of these dimensions can be

exceeded without much effect on combustion.
0.85 9 8 4.5 9 9
3. Chambers in the form of horizontal cylinders should be
1.00 10 9 5.0 10 10 at least as large in diameter as the dimension in column 3.
1.10 10 9 5.0 10 10 Horizontal stainless steel cylindrical chambers should be 1
to 4 inches larger in diameter than the figures in column 3
1.25 11 10 5.0 10 11 and should be used only on wet base boilers with non-
1.35 12 10 5.0 10 11 retention burners.
1.50 12 11 5.5 11 12 4. Wing walls are not recommended. Corbels are not
necessary, though they might be of benefit to good heat
1.65 12 11 5.5 11 13 distribution in certain boiler or furnace designs, especially
1.75 14 11 5.5 11 13 with non-retention burners.
2.00 15 12 5.5 11 14
2.25 16 12 6.0 12 15
2.50 17 13 6.0 12 16
2.75 18 14 6.0 12 18
chambers available. If the existing chamber 3. Lay down a 1" layer of powdered
is in reasonable condition, ceramic liners are insulating material on the unit floor. This
an option. If you find yourself in a situation will reduce sound transmission and level
where the chamber must be replaced and uneven surfaces.
there is no pre-cast one available for that
4. If you are building the chamber on
furnace or boiler, you may have to build a
non-combustible material, lay down a
chamber. If so, the following step-by-step
1" floor of insulating fire brick.
procedure may be helpfulespecially for
dry base boilers. 5. Using insulating firebrick, build the
bottom half of the chamber in a shape
1. Remove the old chamber. suitable to the burners fuel and air pat-
2. Seal up any leaks in the unit base. terns.

Chapter 5
6. Pack rockwool or vermiculite around

the outside of the chamber.
7. Take a piece of smoke pipe slightly
larger than the burner air tube, and use it to
form the burner air tube opening. Then
build up the chamber around it, making
sure to observe the proper floor to nozzle
center line, and making the end of the
smoke pipe recess one quarter inch for the
inside face of the chamber.
8. Install the top half of the chamber
and pack, making sure that on a dry base
boiler the bricks extend at least one course
above the dry base.
9. Build up the front of the chamber and
finish off the outside with a 50-50 mix of
Portland cement and insulating material. A = Usable air tube length.
10. Use the same material to cap off Air Tube Insertion
the top of the chamber over the packed The burner head should be 1/4" back from the inside wall of the
vermiculite. Form the cap so it is pitched combustion chamber. Under no circumstances should the burner
from the chamber up to the boiler. head extend into the combustion chamber. If chamber opening is
in excess of 4 3/8", additional set back may be required.
11. Install the burner with the face of
the end cone one-quarter inch back from
Figure 5-21:
the chamber face. See Figure 5-21.
Burner
12. Snugly stuff the space around the There are advantages installation,
air tube with fireproof rope. to chamberless firing: chamber guide
Target walls are less expensive than
13. Cap off the inside and outside chambers.
around the air tube with the 50-50 mix.
Heat transfer to the water improves
14. Fire the chamber in short bursts because there is no insulating chamber
for 10 to 20 minutes to dry the chamber material between the cast iron and the fire.
materials.
Nitrogen oxide emissions are reduced.
Unlike dry base boilers and furnaces,
wet base boilers may be fired without a Flame temperatures are lowered since
chamber. The water jacket surrounds the there is no chamber to reflect heat back
fire zone. The flame from modern burners into the fire and the iron absorbs all that
are self-propagating, they do not need hot heat. Lower flame temperatures produce
refractory reflecting heat back into the lower NOx emissions.
flame to burn cleanly. Although a chamber
wall is not needed, a target wall with little Finally, when in doubt about nozzles,
wing walls is still a good idea. As with chamber, chamber design or chamber
chambers, the nozzle must be properly materials refer to the manufacturers
sized so the flame does not impinge on any instructions, ask your supplier, or call the
cold surfaces. manufacturers technical service hot line.

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
Introduction When the air and fuel burn, the

Air is needed to burn oil cleanly and temperature rises dramatically and the
efficiently. We must understand how to combustion gases expand to more than
supply air to the burner and how to ensure double their volume. This expansive
that all of the gases created in burning the pressure adds to the pressure created by the
fuel are vented to the outside. Additionally, burner fan and pushes the combustion gases
for non-condensing appliances, we must through the heat exchanger.
make sure the water vapor created during As the hot combustion gases travel up
combustion is vented to the outside prior to the chimney they create a pressure drop
condensing. behind them that sucks the combustion
gases out of the heat exchanger, Figure 6-1.
What is draft? Draft is the total effect of the positive
Draft is a current of air in an enclosed pressures of the burner fan, the expansive
area that is created by a difference in pressure of the flame, and the negative
pressure. In practical terms, draft is a force pressure of the hot gases escaping the top
that pulls or sucks the exhaust gases of the chimney.
out of the heating unit and sends them up Figure 6-1:
Chimney draft
the chimney.
During the combustion process hot Hot Air Causes Lower Weight (Pressure)
gases rise through the heating appliance to at Bottom of Chimney than Cold Air
the flue pipe and travel up the chimney,
creating negative pressure or suction, also
known as negative draft at the bottom of
the chimney.
The pressure difference is created
because:
When the burner is off and the chim-
ney is cold, the air inside the combustion
area, heat exchanger, flue pipe, and
chimney is at atmospheric pressure.
When the burner starts, the burner fan
creates static pressure as it pushes air into
the combustion area where it combines Hot Chimney Cold Chimney
with the fuel to create a fire.
Chapter 6Draft and Venting 6-3

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
Oilburners need steady draft Figure 6-2:

for proper operation. Insufficient Typical air flow for
or variable draft can cause combustion and
operational problems. For flue gases
example, a fire that pulsates or a
rumble in the appliance may
result from insufficient draft.
Chimney venting
creates natural draft
There are two types of natural
draft created in the chimney
thermal and currential.
Thermal draft is created when
the air in the chimney is hotter,
and therefore lighter (less dense),
than the air outside. As the
lighter air moves up the chimney, (See or no thermal draft. As the chimney and
Figure 6-2), more air moves in from the gases warm, the draft will strengthen. As
surrounding room to replace it. the outside air cools, the temperature
Currential draft is caused by the suction difference increases, and draft increases.
created as wind rushes over the chimney Other conditions that affect draft
top, creating a negative pressure in the include wind velocity across or into the top
chimney. Because wind is variable, of the chimney and flow restrictions in the
currential draft is unpredictable and must chimney, flue pipe, or heat exchanger. It is
be controlled. Occasionally wind will blow important that the chimney be properly
down the chimney causing a down draft. constructed, clean, and have no air leaks
A variable draft is created by a pressure through cracks and gaps.
difference between the top and bottom of
The placement of the chimney and its
the chimney.
construction can also affect draft. A
chimney operates best when it is warm and
What affects draft dry. Therefore, a chimney with one or
Draft is created by a pressure difference more of its walls outside the building does
between the top and bottom of the chim- not work as well as an inside chimney.
ney. The draft produced by a chimney is
The outside chimney heats up slowly
variable, not constant. The temperature of
and cools off rapidly. Additionally, the
the outside air, the temperature of the flue
chimney must extend at least two feet
gases, the barometric pressure, and humid-
above nearby objects, such as the roof
ity of the air all affect draft.
peak, trees, and other buildings within 10
When the burner is first fired, the feet. Overhanging trees or high buildings
chimney is full of cool air and there is little can affect the draft and can cause wind
6-4 Draft and Venting

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
Table 6-1
Theoretical Chimney Draft for Various Conditions
Case 1 OUTSIDE AIR = 60F
AVG
CHIMNEY CHIMNEY HEIGHT IN FEET
TEMP. F 10 15 20 25 30
100 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03

200 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.09
300 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.14
400 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.14 0.17
500 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.17 0.20
600 0.07 0.11 0.15 0.19 0.22
700 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24
800 0.09 0.13 0.17 0.22 0.26
900 0.09 0.14 0.18 0.23 0.27
Case 2 OUTSIDE AIR = 0F
AVG
CHIMNEY CHIMNEY HEIGHT IN FEET
TEMP. F 10 15 20 25 30
100 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.08

200 0.04 0.05 0.09 0.11 0.13
300 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.14 0.17
400 0.07 0.10 0.14 0.17 0.20
500 0.08 0.11 0.15 0.19 0.23
600 0.07 0.12 0.17 0.21 0.25
700 0.09 0.13 0.18 0.22 0.27
800 0.09 0.14 0.19 0.23 0.28
900 0.10 0.15 0.19 0.24 0.29
Draft = 0.01467 X Height X ( 1 - ( [ OAT + 460 ] / [ TEMP + 460 ] ) )
Where:
Draft = Inches Water Column
OAT = Outdoor Air Temperature
TEMP = Average Chimney Temperature = (Tin - Tout)/2
Based on information in the North American Combustion Handbook, Second Edition, 1978.

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
currents to tumble, causing down draft. will reduce the amount of air drawn
(Figure 6-3). through the appliance. Air flowing up the
chimney is replaced by air being drawn
into the building through windows, doors
Improper or variable draft or other gaps in the building envelope.
can cause problems
Variations in chimney draft can change The most common locations for these air
the amount of combustion air entering the leaks are around the burner mounting
burner. Low draft will cause the burner fan flange, between the base and the floor,
to push against higher air pressure resulting between the base and the heat exchanger,
in less air for combustion and a smoky fire. between the sections of a boiler, and
High draft will cause too much air to rush around clean-out and inspection doors and
into the combustion zone resulting in plates. Figure 6-4 shows outdoor air
reduced efficiency. Excessive draft will infiltration caused by the heating system
and chimney.
also cause excess air to leak into the unit,
further increasing stack temperatures. Table
6-1 (previous page) shows how draft is
affected by outdoor temperature, chimney
Effects of draft
height and chimney temperature.
on stand-by losses
Whenever the air inside the chimney is
Changes in draft can cause severe warmer than the air outdoors, the chimney
problems with older units. Variations in will create thermal draft. This is good
draft have a strong effect on non-flame when the burner is running, but not when
retention burners. These older burner fans the burner shuts off. Most pre-1970s heat
produced very little static pressure and exchangers have very large, open passages
relied on the pressure drop created by the that offer very little restriction to air flow.
chimney to help draw in their combustion
It is very easy for the draft from the still
air. Because thermal draft is very weak warm chimney to draw warmed air from the
during a cold start up with these
burners, they tend to rumble and smoke
Figure 6-3: Down draft
until the chimney warms up.
Effects of draft
on air leakage
High draft will draw air into the
appliance through leaks. This air will
cool the combustion products while
increasing their volume, reducing the
efficiency of the heating system.
Ensuring the draft is proper (See
Draft Regulators) will help improve
efficiency. Additionally, sealing all air
leaks with furnace cement or high
temperature silicone wherever possible

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
building into the burner air intake and up

through the heat exchanger. As it does so, it
also takes heat from the heat exchanger as
it goes up the chimney. This new hot air Exhaust Gases
keeps the chimney warm, which, in turn,

keeps producing draft that cools the Chimney
building.
Old equipment, especially boilers, have
very high stand-by losses. New burner air
intakes, air handling parts and combustion
heads are not as wide open as the old ones, Cold Outdoor Air Enters House
to Replace Exhausted Air Indoor
and new heat exchangers are much more Outdoor Air
restricted than the older types. The result is Air 70F
0 - 60F
much higher efficiencies, less off-cycle
heat loss and much lower oil consumption. House Exhausted Air by
Heating Unit and Chimney
Draft regulators
It is necessary to regulate draft because Draft
natural draft is so variable. The most Regulator
To Draft
common draft regulator is the by-pass or Fuel Level
Damper
air-bleed type. Since it responds to changes
in barometric (atmospheric) pressure, it is
also called a barometric draft regulator or Fuel Boiler
To Burner
damper (Figure 6-5). Tank
The regulator consists of a counter

weighted swinging door that opens to allow
room air to flow into the flue and mix with
the exhaust gases. The room air dilutes and
cools the exhaust gas which reduces the Figure 6-4:
temperature difference between the gases drops below the draft regulator setting, the Outdoor air
infiltration caused
leaving the chimney and the outside air. counterweight closes the draft regulator
by the heating
This reduces the draft. When the draft door. system and
It is important to understand that no chimney
Figure 6-5: Draft regulators
draft regulator can
cause an increase
in draft, it can
only decrease draft
over-the-fire. It
also cannot prevent
down drafts caused
by wind currents
blowing down the
chimney.

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
units are close to -.05 inches. Draft is check-

Correct Location Incorrect Location
ed at two places: over-the-fire (draft at the
top of the combustion area) and in the flue
pipe, as close to the breech as possible.
(Not Less Than 18" Away from

Before any measurements or adjustments
Wood Joints or Ceiling are made, the condition of the draft regula-
tor should be checked. The pivot shaft
Primary Control
should be horizontal, not cocked, and the
" Holes for door should swing freely. Have burner run
Combustion Tests
long enough to be sure that the chimney is
Boiler warm.
or
Furnace
Draft over-the-fire
10" or More
Draft over-the-fire is the most important
draft measurement and should always be
measured first. The over-the-fire draft must
Figure 6-6: be constant so burner air delivery will also
Draft regulator The draft regulator should be installed in be constant. The setting must be high
locations: the flue pipe between the chimney and the enough to ensure that combustion products
Correct and stack mounted primary control, if there is do not leak into the building, but are drawn
incorrect one. It should be at least 10 inches to 12 through the heat exchanger. Normally, an
inches from the control and 18 inches is over-the-fire draft of -.01" to -.02" will be
preferred. If installed closer to the control, sufficient.
the cool air from the regulator can cause
If the over-the-fire draft is higher than
the unit to shut off on safety even when the
manufacturers recommendations (typically -
system is operating properly. See Figure
.02"), the draft regulator weight should be
6-6 for draft regulator locations.
adjusted to allow the door to open more. If
Some newer heating appliances are the draft is below manufacturers recom-
designed to operate without a draft regula- mendations, the weight should be adjusted
tor. The burners create enough static to close the regulator door. However, some
pressure to move the combustion products equipment is able to operate under very low
up the chimney and the heat exchangers are or zero draft. In fact, some appliances
tight enough to resist the effects of strong operate under positive pressure, so that
and variable negative draft. when an over the fire reading is taken, the
draft is positive.
As with all Oilheat appliances, always
follow the manufacturers instructions If the draft regulator door is already
regarding draft. wide open, you may need to install a larger
or second regulator.
Measuring chimney draft
We measure draft in inches of water Draft at the breech
column. One inch of water column is the After setting the over-the-fire draft, the
pressure difference required to lift a column draft at the breech should be measured. The
of water one inch up a tube. Typically, draft in the flue pipe will be slightly higher
chimney drafts required for oil-fired heating than the over-fire draft due to the restric-

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
A burner operating at more than zero

Draft over-the-fire is the most smoke will cause soot deposits to build in
important draft measurement and the heat exchanger. These deposits increase
should always be checked first the draft drop, lowering over-the-fire draft,
reducing combustion air, and creating more
smoke. The increased smoke causes even
tion caused by the heat exchanger. This more soot to build up, increasing draft drop
restriction, or the lack of it, is a clue to the even further. The result is a quickly
design and condition of the heat exchanger. plugged heat exchanger.
A clean heat exchanger of good design will Sometimes there is little difference
normally cause the breech draft to be in the between the breech draft and the over-the-
range of -.03" to -.07" when the over-the- fire draft, usually with older units origi-
fire draft is from -.01" to -.02". The nally built for coal. If a boiler measures a
difference between the breech draft and the low efficiency with a high stack tempera-
over-the fire draft is often called the draft ture (600F or more), it may be possible to
drop or pressure drop across the heat install baffles in the heat exchanger
exchanger. If the breech draft is -.07" and passages. However, as with most older
the over-the-fire draft is -.02", the draft equipment, the best alternative is to
drop is .05". recommend a new boiler or furnace of
higher efficiency.
Excessive draft drop may indicate heavy
soot and scale deposits in the unit. It is
important to understand that over-the-fire Chimney sizing
draft is indirectly controlled. It is a func- Proper chimney sizing is important for
tion, not only of the draft created by the the safe and efficient operation of all
chimney, but also of restrictions in the heat heating appliances. As the requirement can
exchanger. vary depending upon the size and design of
How draft controls work

Static pressure of the cool air exerts pressure on the
outside of the furnace or boiler, the breeching, and flue.
The pressure difference between the room air and
heated gas (air) causes products of combustion to flow
(draft) through the unit and rise through the breeching
and chimney. Room temperature air enters through the
barometric draft control in the precise amount needed to
overcome the excess drafts caused by temperature
variations, wind fluctuations and barometric pressure
changes. Combustion of fuel is complete and the
process is stabilized. The velocity of combustion gases
through the heat exchanger is slowed so more heat is
extracted.

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
the appliance, the manufacturers instruc- from a combustible wall or ceiling as a fire
tions must be followed. prevention measure. It should never be
smaller than the flue pipe collar at the
breech of the boiler or furnace. The flue
Installing flue pipe pipe should be as short as possible and
Be sure to check the condition of the
should not exceed 10 feet of horizontal run
flue pipe during each service call. If it
unless a draft fan is used. It should have a
looks questionablereplace it. The stack
minimum of " per foot pitch from the
temperatures on new high efficiency units
appliance up to the chimney and be run
are much lower and are more likely to
with minimum number of elbows. Use
cause condensation and rusting of the flue
45-degree elbows instead of 90s when
pipe. This is extremely important because
possible.
combustion gases can enter the building if
the flue pipe is porous or disconnected. The flue pipe should be firmly joined
with sheet metal screws and supported with
The flue pipe must be at least 18 inches
straps or wire. It should be tightly fitted to
the breeching and installed into a clay or
metal thimble that is securely cemented
into the chimney. Be sure the thimble and
pipe do not protrude beyond the inside wall
of the chimney tile.
No sort of dampers, except for the
barometric damper (draft regulator) should
be installed in the flue pipe or breeching.
They are not needed and could cause
problems if they close accidentally.
Chimney and
draft problems
Insufficient draft can occur with too
many appliances connected to a chimney.
Whenever connecting two or more fuel
burning appliances to a single chimney,
verify that there is sufficient draft for safe
operation of all units. Insufficient draft also
occurs when obstructions such as soot,
loose bricks, birds nests or other foreign
objects build up in the chimney and restrict
flow. See Figure 6-7 for common chimney
troubles and their corrections.
Lack of air in the furnace room

Insulation, tight windows and doors, and
tight construction can prevent outside air
from entering the building. As a result, the
building cannot breathe. Oilburner

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
Figure 6-7: Combustion chimney troubles

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
combustion requires a great deal of air to or boiler. This can be done in two ways:
operate properly. It competes with the 1. The two flue pipes can be joined
fireplace, exhaust fans and the clothes dryer together with a Y connector, as shown in
for air. All of these appliances drawing on Figure 6-9. (T connectors should NOT be
the air in a tight house make it difficult for used as they often cause venting problems
the oilburner to draw in enough combus- for both appliances.) The exit, or chimney
tion air. side of the Y should be at least one size
larger than the largest flue pipe.
With the building so tight, the indoor air
2. If you do not use the Y fitting, you
pressure drops below the outdoor air
can make a second opening in the chimney.
pressure and the appliance becomes back-
vented. Odors, soot, smoke and carbon If two or more openings are provided
monoxide may be drawn into the building. into one chimney flue, they must be at
Isolated combustion (ducting outside air different levels. The flue pipe from the unit
directly to the burner) is the best solution with the lower firing rate should enter at
to this problem and there are many effec- the highest level consistent with available
tive isolated combustion air options headroom and clearances to combustible
available. (See Figure 6-8) material (see Figure 6-10). A separate draft
regulator should be installed for each
appliance.
Water heater and furnace
stack connections Developments affecting
When an oil-fired water heater is
installed, it is usually necessary to connect
chimneys and exhaust
Figure 6-8: Typical High efficiency equipment has brought
installation of an the flue to the same chimney as the furnace
about changes that can affect chimney
outside air kit draft. Some of these developments, such as
lower flue gas temperatures, reduced firing
rates, and cold start boilers, will reduce the
draft produced by chimneys, and can cause
operational problems.
Intake Draft Control
Air Hood The most serious consequence of
lowered flue gas temperatures is condensa-
tion. The water vapor in the combustion
products can drop below the dew point, and
turn into water. Because of the sulfuric
oxides present in the gases, this water is
Furnace/Boiler acidic. It creates scale in the heat ex-
changer, corrodes the flue pipe and attacks
the cement in the chimney. A net flue gas
Outside Wall
temperature of at least 350F is recom-
mended to avoid this problem. Corrosion
resistant chimney liners also help.
Chimney check
VRV-Vacuum The objective of a chimney check is to
Relief Valve
Field AirBoot or BigBoot TM
identify obvious and serious chimney
problems. It is not intended to be a detailed

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
inspection. If any chimney damage or

Figure 6-9: Water heater stack connections
deterioration that would inhibit the safe
operation of the heating appliance is found,
Draft Y Connector
the owner of the building should be Regulators
notified immediately. A qualified chimney
professional should be called-in for a
follow-up inspection. See Figure 6-11 on
following page.
The chimney check should

include the following:
If there is one, visually inspect the
Heating
clean-out at the base of the chimney for Plant
excessive or abnormal debris. Be sure the
clean out door is shut tight and sealed when Water
Heater
you are finished.
Remove the flue pipe from the chimney
breech and inspect the inside of the
chimney with a light and a flame mirror for
signs of damage or deterioration. Debris, Each section sized to handle combination of all appliances attached
mortar, brick, and pieces of liner material at
the base of the chimney are signs of
trouble. Figure 6-10: Water heater stack connections
Go outside, walk around the building, 10' or Less
and observe the exterior of the chimney. If
you observe damage, deterioration, or that
the chimney is leaning to one side; further
inspection by a chimney professional is
required.
" Rise/Running foot
Chimney caps
and draft inducers
Chimneys may suffer variable draft due
to changes in wind or air turbulence A Water
simple and inexpensive Heater
Figure 6-12: (Lower
Chimney cap
solution to this gph)
problem is to install a
cap (Figure 6-12) or Boiler/Furnace
hood over the top of (Higher gph)
the chimney. However,
these caps can rust
and discolor roofs, so
ensure that a high
The larger appliance firing rate enters the chimney below
grade stainless steel is the smaller appliance firing rate
used.

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
Figure 6-11: Chimney check

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
Another alternative is to use a draft systems that do not use a chimney for oil-
inducer, Figure 6-13. Draft inducers are fired heating systems. The technology takes
electrically powered fans installed in the two different approaches: power- venting
flue pipe. They help to pull the air from and direct-venting.
Power-venting: a fan is attached to the
Figure 6-13:
Draft inducer
flue pipe at the exit terminal from the
building to pull the products of combustion
out of the heating unit. Power-venters do
not need a chimney and are usually
sidewall vented.
Direct vent: the static pressure created
by the burner fan pushes the combustion
gases through the heat exchanger and out of
the building. A direct-vented system is a
positive pressure system. No chimney is
needed with a direct vent system.
The advantages of alternative venting
systems are:
the unit and push it up the chimney. They
More positive control of draft
can also be used to boost the draft if the
natural chimney draft is too weak. A draft No chimney warm-up problems
inducer can also solve the loss of draft
Lowered cost in new building con
from the rapid cooling of combustion
struction and electric to oilheat
products in the chimney.
conversions (eliminates the chimney)
Poorly insulated metal flues and over- Figure 6-14: Draft
There is a significant reduction in inducer with draft
sized or unlined chimneys can cause a rapid
burner noise with direct venting proving switch,
cooling of combustion products and lead to typical installation
a loss of draft. A draft inducer can offer a
reasonable temporary solution but the ideal
solution is to line and insulate the chimney.
Induced draft has the advantage of
developing controlled draft under most
conditions. It can help to provide a clean
start with no rumbles and it can provide
adequate draft in a chimney that is too
small, too low, or too large. Installation of
a pressure or draft-proving switch is
required by codes and is strongly recom-
mended with an induced draft installation.
See Figure 6-14, the draft proving switch
is DIP-1.
Alternative
venting systems
In recent years, manufacturers have
created alternative forced draft venting

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
Eliminate back drafts caused when a to leave the instructions in an obvious place
nearby structure is above the top of the for the next technician.
chimney The installation and use of any alterna-
Reduction in system standby losses by tive venting system must not only follow
eliminating off-cycle chimney draft the manufacturers instructions, but also
comply with all local and state building
When installing or servicing either of codes. Most of the instructions and codes
these systems, it is very important that you conform to the following guidelines for the
Figure 6-15: read and understand the manufacturers location of the exit terminal of the system.
Vent hood instructions. When you are finished, be sure See Figure 6-15.
location
Vent Hood Location Requirements
Recommended Clearances:
Exhaust products contain sulfur
which can affect mechanical
equipment, metal objects
and vegetation

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
The following guidelines pieces of pipe and the slip joints on elbows.
are often required by code:
The minimum distance to combustible
Direct vent systems can be placed on
materials from any single wall, vent system
any wall, but if possible they should not be
component is 18 inches.
located on the wall facing the prevailing
wind (the prevailing wind generally comes The vent termination should not be
from the north and the west; if possible, mounted directly above or within three feet
locate on the south or east side of the horizontally from a gas meter, electric
building). meter or air conditioning condenser.
The vent terminal must be at least one
foot above grade level, and three feet away Power-venting
from any inside corner. It may need to be Power-venting is an economical alterna-
higher in areas with snowfall. tive to conventional chimney venting.
Power-venters use a motor and fan to vent
The vent terminal shall not be less than
the products of combustion from the
three feet above any forced air inlet into
appliance to the outdoors.
the building that is located within 10 feet
of the terminal. Power-venters are designed with the fan
located either outdoors or indoors just
The vent terminal shall not be less than
before the outside wall, as in Figure 6-16.
four feet below, four feet horizontally, or
This insures that combustion gases in the
one foot above any door, window, or
flue pipe are always under negative
gravity inlet into any building. The vent
pressure, so if there are any leaks, air will
shall not be installed in a window well. leak into the pipe and the combustion gases
The vent terminal shall not be less than will not spill into the building.
two feet from an adjacent building. The flue gases are discharged through a Figure 6-16:
The vent terminal shall not be less than double wall vent termination piece and an Power
venter,
seven feet above grade when
indoor fan
located adjacent to public walk-
ways. 24 VAC Relay coil
Approved
The vent terminal shall be Vent Hood
located so that flue gases are not 3-Wire Conductor
directed to jeopardize people, (Low Voltage)
overheat combustible structures or

materials, or enter buildings.
All positive pressure joints in
the vent system (all joints in
direct-vent, all joints on the
exhaust side of the power-venter) Measure Draft
Here Power Venter
are to be sealed with Permatex Barometric
#81164 high temperature sealer or Damper
equivalent to prevent leakage of Furnace
the products of combustion into
the building. We are referring
here to both the joints between

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
outside vent hood (Figure 6-17). Although the burner to operate. After the heating
these models have operated successfully for requirement is satisfied, the thermostat or
years, they often cause noise and vibrations aquastat circuit opens, activating the burner
in the building. They should be fastened motor off delay (post-purge) cycle. During
securely to the outside wall or hung from this cycle, the oil valve closes shutting off
the floor joists to reduce the transmission the flame, but the power-venter and the
of noise. burner motor continue to run for a period
Some power-vented systems use a double of time, venting the last of the combustion
wall exhaust connection that draws cooler products and cooling the burner compo-
outside air into the outer pipe, and the hot nents.
exhaust gases are contained in the inner pipe Inspection and maintenance: The
(concentric venting). This provides a layer of power-venter should be inspected once a
safety between the hot exhaust gases and the year.
combustible wall and floor joist materials
and pre-heats the combustion air. Check to be sure the motor and fan
rotate freely.
System operation: Power-venting
requires that the oilburner primary control To prolong the life of the motor,
has delayed valve-on and burner motor-off lubricate it as directed by the manufacturer.
delay features, similar to pre-purge and Inspect the power-venter wheel to clear
post-purge. When the thermostat or out any soot, ash, or coating that inhibits
aquastat calls for heat, the power-venter either rotation or air flow.
motor starts. After the power-venter motor
has come up to speed, the pressure switch Remove and clean the air sensing tube.
closes (in one to two seconds). This closes Remove all foreign materials before
Figure 6-17: the circuit to the burner primary, allowing operating. Inspect all vent connections for
Outside vent
hood looseness, for evidence of corrosion, and
for flue gas leakage.
Replace, seal, or tighten all of the pipe
connections as necessary.
Check the choke plate to insure it is
secured in place.
Check the barometric draft control to
insure the gate swings freely.
Check the safety system devicesstart
the heating system, and then disconnect the
pressure sensing tube from the pressure
switch. This should stop the burner.
Reconnecting the tube should restart the
burner.
For proper system installation, set-up
and testing, you must follow the
manufacturers instructions exactly. It is

Chapter 6
Draft and Venting
also a good idea when installing a power- The residential units can only push the
venter, that you also install a fresh air kit to exhaust gases and pull combustion air from
bring combustion air to the burner from about 20 feet maximum. This means that
outdoors. Many power-venters integrate a you must locate the boiler, furnace, or
fresh combustion air intake into their water heater as close to an outside wall as
system. If they do not, you should ensure possible.
that the pipes are spaced so that they do not
Things to consider when installing
interfere with each otherat least 12
direct-vent systems are:
inches apart. Fresh air should be brought in
Seal all joints on the venting system
from the same wall as the power-venter
with a high temperature sealant.
exhaust to equalize air pressure within the
vent and intake system. Combustion efficiency tests should be
taken at the port provided on the unit by
the manufacturer. Do not puncture the
Direct venting stainless steel vent tubing. Adjust the
Direct-vent systems use the power of the burner combustion with a window of
burner fan to push the products of combus- tolerance. Set the air to produce a trace of
tion out of the building. Direct-vent smoke. Take the CO2 reading at a trace of
provides sidewall venting without the use smoke and reduce the CO2 by 1.5% to 2%.
of a power-venter, extra motors, fans, or For instance, if the CO2 reading with a
wiring. Direct-vent systems feature sealed trace is 13%, reduce it to 11% to 11.5%
combustion, utilizing clean outside air for CO2. This will compensate for variations in
combustion. The direct vent system Figure 6-18:
fuel and outdoor temperatures, and other Direct side-wall
normally uses a stainless steel combination variables over the year. See Chapter 7 on venting and
vent hood. Figure 6-18 shows an example combustion for more details. outside
of a sealed combustion system. combustion air
Unlike chimney venting and power-

venting, with direct-vent the air pressure Sealed Combustion Furnace Sealed Combustion Boiler
inside the boiler or furnace and flue pipe is
greater than the pressure in the building. If
there is a leak in the heat exchanger or the
flue pipe, products of combustion will leak
into the building. Direct-vent systems are
sold as a complete package. You should
only use components that are supplied with
the manufacturers direct-vent system.
Mixing and matching, or do-it-yourself
engineering may void the manufacturers
warranty and may create a hazardous
condition.
Other drawbacks
to a direct-vent system are:
Surface discoloration of the building
may occur due to improper burner and
control adjustment.

00 Customer Service
Chapter 7
Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
Combustion theory extracted by the heat exchanger in the

As a technician, you have an obligation furnace, boiler, or water heater, and heats
to assure the equipment you are working on the air, water, or steam we use for space
is operating at peak performance levels. and domestic water heating.
Understanding combustion theory is the Every gallon of oil contains about
basis for adjusting oilburners for safe, 140,000 Btus per gallon. A Btu is the
clean, reliable, and economical operation. energy required to raise one pound of water
one degree Fahrenheitabout the amount
Combustion is a controlled of energy contained in a birthday candle
chemical reaction flame. In a typical oil-fired appliance,
Three things are needed to make a fire: every gallon of oil burned puts about
oxygen, ignition, and fuel. When heating 119,000 Btus into the building and about
oil is burned, the chemical energy in the 21,000 Btus go up the chimney. Figure 7-1.
fuel is converted to heat. Heating oil is 85% carbon and 15%
The oxygen required for combustion hydrogen. These fixed ratios of hydrogen
comes from the air that is delivered by the and carbon in the fuel combine with a
oilburner fan. The spark delivered by the specific quantity of oxygen to form
electrodes provides the heat needed to start combustion gases. Therefore a precise Figure 7-1: Heat
the combustion process. loads, heat loss
The heat from the spark vaporizes the oil

droplets delivered by the nozzle then lights
the vapor on fire. If the conditions for Heat Energy to Load
119,000 Btuh
combustion are right, this process contin-
ues until all the droplets vaporize and burn
completely and cleanly within the combus- Heat Energy Loss
tion zone. Up Chimney
(Stack Loss)
21,000 Btuh
Combustion is the rapid oxidation of any
material that will combine readily with
oxygen. Heat Energy
Input
The resulting flame contains the hot 140,000 Btuh
gases produced when the hydrogen and
carbon in the fuel react and combine with
the oxygen in the air. This reaction creates
light, and releases large quantities of heat. Heat to Load = Heat Energy Input - Stack Loss
This heat from the combustion gases is
Chapter 7Combustion 7-3

Chapter 7
Combustion
quantity of combustion air is needed so all product of combustion. Once combustion

the fuel will burn completely. Too much air gets started, we dont have to continue to
will lower efficiency, and too little air provide the heat source, because the heat
causes incomplete combustion and smoke. produced by the combustion process will
keep things going.
During combustion, new chemical
substances are created from the fuel and
the air. These substances are called com- What is air?
bustion gases. Most come from chemical Air is 20.9% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and
combinations of the fuel and oxygen, but 1.1% other gases. For every one part of
the gases can also include chemical oxygen, we get four parts nitrogen, see
combinations from the air alone. Figure 7-2. Nitrogen is an inert gas and
most of it goes through the combustion
When a hydrocarbon-based fuel (oil) process unchanged. It cools the chemical
burns, the exhaust gases include water reaction (burning temperature) and lowers
(hydrogen + oxygen) and carbon dioxide the maximum heat content deliverable by
(carbon + oxygen). Combustion gases can the fuel. Therefore, it is impossible to
also include carbon monoxide (CO), oxides achieve combustion efficiencies above 95%
of nitrogen (NOx, nitrogen + oxygen) and for most fuels, including natural gas, when
since sulfur is present in the fuel, sulfuric air is used as the source of oxygen for the
oxide (sulfur + oxygen). combustion process.
As the fuel and air are turned into With flame retention burners, some of
Figure 7-2: combustion gases, heat is generated. Heat is the nitrogen combines with the oxygen to
Combustion required to start combustion and is itself a form nitrogen oxide or NOx.
process in a burner
Combustion
Heat
138,690
Air
1,400 Cubic Feet Per Gallon Hot Nitrogen
21% Oxygen, 79% Nitrogen Vaporization Carbon Dioxide
CO2
Water Vapor
Spark H2O
Nitrogen Oxides
NOx
Excess Oxygen
Atomization O2
Sulfur Oxides
SOx
Free Carbon
Combustion
Fuel Oil Smoke
85% Carbon, 15% Hydrogen Carbon Monoxide
Trace of Sulfur CO
7-4 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
perfect combustion, every pound of oil

burned will produce 3.2 pounds of carbon
dioxide, 1.1 pound of water vapor, and
11.1 pounds of hot nitrogen. This constant
ratio of combustion gases allows us to test
the quality of a flame against this perfect
standard to determine optimum adjustment.
Heating oil atomization

and vaporization
Heating oil will not burn as a liquid. It
must be converted to a vapor before the
rapid reaction between the fuel and the air
Figure 7-3: Fueloil combustion in air can produce a flame. The oilburners job is
to convert the liquid fuel into a vapor so it
can be burned.
Heating oil flames
Combustion is a series of exact chemical The oil is pumped to the nozzle at high
reactions that create exact quantities of pressure (100 psi or more) where it is
combustion gases. It takes 14.4 pounds of broken up into a mist of small droplets
air to burn each pound of heating oil and (atomized). The droplets evaporate quickly
we produce 15.4 pounds of combustion when exposed to the heat of the spark or
gases, Figure 7-3. flame, producing vapors that burn easily
with the air supplied by the burner fan.
If we could achieve stoichiometric, or
perfect combustion, each gallon of oil
consumed would need 1,360 cubic feet of Combustion air supply
combustion air. The actual amount of air and air-oil mixing
required will vary by the heat value of the The better the air and the oil vapor are
fuel and the design of the burner. Heating mixed, the better our combustion. Burner
oil contains about 19,500 Btus per pound. air parts, (including turbulators, spinners,
Non-flame retention burners need at least end cones, and flame retention heads), are
1,700 cubic feet of air to burn clean. designed to give good mixing of the
Current burners need about 1,500 cubic atomized fuel droplets and the combustion
feet. air. Good fuel and air mixing assures that
all the fuel vapors contact enough oxygen
Buildings today are so well insulated for complete burning.
and weather-stripped that getting adequate
combustion air to the burner is becoming a In high pressure atomizing burners,
problem. When troubleshooting combus- several factors control the quality of air-oil
tion problems, get into the habit of asking mixing. The spray pattern of the oil
yourself, Where is my combustion air droplets must be similar to the air pattern
coming from? and Do I have enough to created by the burner.
burn all of my fuel?
Flame retention burners have much
Oilburner flames produce various better air/oil mixing capabilities than older
combustion gases in fixed quantities. With burners. They use high speed burner

Chapter 7
Combustion
motors (3,450 RPM) and air pattern eliminated, because it reduces efficiency,
shaping to create the high static air pressure increases service calls, and is a nuisance to
needed to make the high velocity air swirl homeowners. It can be prevented using
and the internal recirculation needed for modern burners and by careful adjustment
clean, efficient combustion. of burners using combustion test equip-
ment.
This recirculation is created by the drop
in pressure in the center of the air swirl, Excessive smoke wastes fuel because it
like the eye of a tornado. This pulls some of deposits soot on the heat exchanger
the hot flame gases toward the burner head, surfaces, Figure 7-4. This insulates the heat
the way the spray from a showerhead pulls exchanger, limiting its ability to extract the
in the shower curtain. heat from the combustion gases. A layer of
soot only 1/8" thick can reduce heat
These hot gases add heat to the fuel absorption by over 8%.
droplets coming out of the nozzle speeding
up their vaporization and burning rates, Efficiency loss caused by a smoky burner
which gives us a nice clean, stable fire occurs as the soot slowly builds up. Soot
close to the burner head. also affects the reliable operation of the
burner. If it builds up on the cad cell or the
bimetal of the stack relay, it can act like a
New oilburners should not flame failure and cause the control to lock
produce smoke out on safety, creating an unnecessary
Smoke and soot, which are nothing service call.
more than unburned carbon, are created by
outdated burner designs and incorrect Overfiring can cause smoke: If a unit
Figure 7-4: burner service and adjustment. Smoke is overfired, the burner will create heat
Soot affects fuel production is unnecessary and must be faster than the heating system can distribute
consumption to the building. When this happens, the
burner short cycles (goes on and off
Effect of Soot on Fuel Consumption frequently for short periods of time). The
problem is that older oilburners create
smoke when they start and stop.
Up to two thirds of all the smoke
produced by burners made before the year
2000 is produced on start up and shut
down. Therefore, properly sized nozzles
will produce less frequent burner cycling
and less smoke.
Sulfur
Sulfur exists in varying degrees in all
fossil fuels. The sulfur content of heating
oil ranges from 0.5% to 0.05% by weight.
When burned, the sulfur mixes with
oxygen to form sulfuric oxide (SOx). It
Soot Layer on Heating Surfaces reacts with the water vapor in the combus-
tion gases to create sulfuric acid aerosol.
7-6 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
When the acid condenses (at about 150 to is usually produced by insufficient combus-
200F), it adheres to the flue pipe and heat tion air. However, excess air and mismatched
exchanger surfaces in a film and reacts with oil to air patterns and ratios can also reduce
the iron in the pipe and heat exchanger flame temperature to a point where CO is
wall. This creates iron sulfates, the light produced. So, adding too much air to clean
yellow to rust colored crusty scale you find up a smoky fire can create CO. When any
clinging to the heat exchanger. part of the flame is reduced below 1,128F,
CO will be produced. Flame impingement
Scale buildup downgrades efficiency by
1% to 4% over the year. It also blocks flue also results in lower flame temperature and
passages, restricting air flow and increasing CO production.
smoke and soot. Sulfur levels in heating oil
are gradually being reduced, so this will be Ambient CO limits
Figure 7-5:
less of a problem in the future. (Recommended) Carbon
0 ppm. This level is most desirable, but monoxide levels
Carbon monoxide cannot always be achieved due to ciga- of concern
Carbon monoxide, or CO, is a toxic gas rettes, candles, and appliances such as gas
that can occur in homes and buildings stoves.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Levels
where combustion by-products are gener-
ated, not properly vented and allowed to 1-9 ppm.
accumulate. CO is a colorless, odorless, Normal levels
tasteless poison. Carbon monoxide is within
the home. Death Within 1-3 Minutes
readily absorbed in the body and can
impair the oxygen-carrying capacity of the 10-35 ppm.
blood (hemoglobin). Advise occupants,
Impairment of the bodys hemoglobin check for symptoms
results in less oxygen to the brain, heart, (slight headache,
Nausea Within 20 Minutes,
and tissues. Even short-term over exposure tiredness, dizziness, Death Within 1 Hour
to carbon monoxide can be critical or fatal and nausea or flu
to people with heart and lung diseases, and like symptoms),
to the young or the elderly. It may also check all appli-
cause headaches and dizziness and other ances, including the
significant medical problems in healthy furnace, water
people. At low concentrations, CO can go heater and boiler,
undetected and contribute to nagging check for other
sources including Nausea and Convulsions,
illnesses, and can compound pre-existing Death Within 2 Hours
health problems. Figure 7-5. internal combustion
engine operation in
Carbon Monoxide is a result of incom- attached garages.
plete combustion due to unburned fuel.
During combustion, carbon in the fuel 36-99 ppm. Frontal Headaches 1 to 2 Hours,
Life Threatening After 3 Hours
oxidizes through a series of reactions to form Recommend fresh
carbon dioxide (CO2). However, 100% air, check for Maximum Concentration for
conversion of carbon to CO2 is rarely symptoms, ventilate Continuous Exposure in Any
8 Hour Period
achieved under field conditions and some the space, recom-
Maximum Indoor Air Quality Level
carbon only oxidizes to the intermediate step, mend medical
carbon monoxide or CO. Carbon Monoxide attention. Desirable Level

Chapter 7
Combustion
100+ ppm. Evacuate the home order to detect its presence, we perform
(including yourself!) and contact emer- combustion tests and look for other clues
gency medical services (911). Do not for combustion or ventilation problems
attempt to ventilate the space. Short-term such as:
exposure to these levels can cause perma-
Sharp gas or oil smell
nent physical damage.
Stale or stuffy air
Carbon monoxide is released into homes
by vent blockage, flue pipe damage, heat Soot, rust, or scale build-up on or
exchanger cracks, and restricted air supply around appliances and vents
into the house. This last problem is pro-
Loose or disconnected chimney or
gressively getting worse as new homes
vent connections
become tighter in their construction, and
many homeowners are weather stripping Debris or soot falling from chimney,
and insulating their older homes. fireplace, or appliance
Most homes have a number of devices Excessive moisture on the inside of
such as exhaust fans, clothes dryers, and windows or walls
fireplaces, that remove air from the home. Chalky white powder forming on the
This suction is often stronger than the chimney or vent
suction of the heating systems chimney or
power vent. This back drafting causes the Visible smoke in the living space
emissions from the heating system, the Light off CO levels: High CO levels at
water heater, gas ovens, gas stoves, gas light off may be an indication of rough or
dryers, and wood stoves or fireplaces to delayed ignition, warranting further investi-
enter the living area and elevate CO levels. gation. The CO readings will peak on
startup, then dramatically drop. CO readings
Oilheats CO warning signs should stabilize within 10 minutes of
If you see smoke near the burner, dark operation and should never be rising during
smoke coming from the chimney, or smell operation.
a sharp raw oil smell, the burner is prob- Mechanical problems and CO: If the
ably producing unacceptable levels of
appliance being tested has sufficient combus-
carbon monoxide. With insufficient
tion air and is still producing higher than
combustion air, oilburners usually produce
acceptable CO air-free levels, it could be a
elevated smoke levels before high CO
mechanical problem.
levels are reached. This smoke is a warning
signal. Inspect the burner for cleanliness, proper
alignment, fuel pressures, and evidence of
The result is that the danger from high
impingement. Impingement occurs when the
CO levels is much lower from oilburners
flame hits an object that has sufficient mass
than any other hydrocarbon burner.
to transfer enough heat from the flame to
However, if oilburners are operated with
too much combustion air, it chills the flame cause low flame temperatures and incom-
and creates CO with no smoke! Improper plete combustion. This can be as simple as a
nozzle to air patterning can also produce screw poking into the heat exchanger or as
CO. major as a collapsed refractory.
Missing burner covers, improper air band
What to watch out for adjustment or oil pressures can also contrib-
CO is odorless and tasteless, therefore in ute to higher than normal CO levels.
7-8 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
CO ambient air testing process and tell us if we have set up the

(Combustion air zone & living space) burner correctly. In this section, we will
Ambient CO levels should be checked and explore how to use instruments to measure
the equipment should be run through a and improve efficiency, cleanliness, and
complete cycle if you suspect any combus- safety of the unit. We will also cover the
tion problems. reasons for high and low efficiency, and
how testing can pinpoint current and future
If at any time ambient CO levels exceed
problems.
100 ppm, evacuate occupants and call
emergency services. It is imperative to perform a combustion
analysis during routine service, or any time
The most common sources of CO are
changes are made that will affect combus-
exhaust from a vehicle in an attached
tion. Combustion testing provides numerous
garage, and depressurization of the home
benefits to the customer and service techni-
resulting in insufficient air for combustion.
cian including:
If CO is detected, all possible sources of
CO should be checked, includingbut not Saving money
limited towater heaters, gas ovens and
Saving time
stoves, the furnace, (non-electric) space
heaters, and vented or unvented appliances Avoiding callbacks
such as gas logs. Limiting liability
Maintaining equipment warranty
Combustion
efficiency testing Providing confidence
Combustion efficiency testing is one of Providing increased comfort
the most important things we do when
servicing oilburners, Figure 7-6. The tests Providing increased safety
determine the quality of the combustion Increasing energy efficiency
Lowering environmental emissions
Figure 7-6: Combustion efficiency test
Modern burners require proper setup,
making the use of instruments necessary.
Using instruments assures low smoke and
soot, improves your image, and increases
customer comfort and satisfaction. Todays
burners are superior to the older models
when set up correctlybut can be trouble-
some when setup incorrectly. You cannot see
a #2 smoke, you also cannot feel a 350
stack, smell a 6% CO2, or 100 ppm of
carbon monoxide, yet if you leave the unit
operating in any of these conditions, you will
not be doing your job.
With the older units, you could observe
the flame, see its shape and color, and
determine to some extent how the burner
was performing. However, even with the

Chapter 7
Combustion
older units, there is no way you can accu- how much improvement you have made in
rately determine whether the chemical the combustion efficiency, and how much
reaction is complete by just observing the money you have saved your customer.
fire.
The most important setting you make on Combustion
the burner is excess air. You cannot really do test equipment
this without instruments. If you give testing Combustion testing equipment can be
a fair trial, you will find it will reduce the separated into two groups: the manual
time required to accurately service, trouble- instruments (Figure 7-7), and the continu-
shoot, and adjust a heating system. ous sampling digital electronic instruments,
Figure 7-8. The manual equipment has been
Principles of
combustion testing
Figure 7-7: Manual instruments
Combustion test instruments measure the
composition and temperature of flue gases
as they leave the boiler or furnace. We use
this information to calculate the amount of
excess air and the combustion efficiency.
We also measure the amount of smoke and
draft produced in order to properly adjust
the flame and identify problems.
Combustion testing measurements:
Temperature of the flue gases
Draft produced by the chimney,
power-venter or venting system
Smoke concentrations in the
flue gases
Composition of the flue gases (excess Figure 7-8: Continuous sampling
air, CO2, O2, and NOx) digital electronic instruments
Carbon Monoxide concentrations in

the flue gases
The three things we adjust that affect the
combustion process are: fuel pressure,
combustion air, and draft. Other factors can
affect the combustion process, including
impingement, excess air leaks into the heat
exchanger, insufficient combustion air due
to tight construction or improper ventila-
tion, or an improperly installed venting
system.
If you perform combustion testing prior
to and after a tune up, you can calculate
7-10 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
Horizontal Flue Connection Vertical Flue Connection
Chimney Location for

Sampling Hole
Flue Pipe Note B Note A
Draft Regulator
Location for
Sampling Hole Note A Breeching
Note B
Oilburner
A. Locate hole at least one flue pipe diameter on the furnace or boiler side of draft control. Figure 7-9:
Measuring for
B. Ideally, hole should be at least two flue pipe diameters from breeching or elbow.
combustion
efficiency
used for many years and can produce pipe near the boiler or furnace outlet (the
reliable results if used and maintained breech), see Figure 7-9.
properly. With electronic testers, the hole may have
The problem is, testing with the older to be larger to accommodate the probe. The
manual equipment is time-consuming and hole should not be in an elbow.
only gives you a fuzzy snapshot of the With the older test equipment, you will
burner performance. (Each squeeze of a want to drill two holes to speed up the
wet kit bulb represents a different snapshot process. They should both be as close to the
of the flue gas. A manual test blends all breeching (the place where the flue pipe
those snapshots together into one reading.) connects to the furnace, boiler or water
heater) as possible.
The digital equipment is much quicker,
and does efficiency calculations automati- The holes should be at least 6" from the
draft regulator on the furnace or boiler side
cally. The best feature of the digital
of the regulator. There is no need to plug the
equipment is that they sample continu-
holes in the stack, but we do suggest that
ously, like using a video camera, so you
you insert self-threading screws or snap caps
can see the results change as you make the in the holes.
adjustments. It gives you a much better
idea of what is going on. You will also need a hole in the fire or
observation door over the burner. Some new
units do not have a door over the burner. If
Holes for testing this is the case, check to see if the manufac-
Measurements are taken through a three- turer has provided a special port for you to
eighths (3/8) inch hole drilled in the flue do your over-fire test. See Figure 7-6.

Chapter 7
Combustion
Manual combustion We also need a vacuum gauge to determine

test equipment the condition of the oil delivery system.
Figure 7-10: To successfully adjust oilburners with (See Chapter 4.)
Draft gauge the manual equipment, we need the
following: Steady state
For accurate test results, measurements
1. To test for draft, we need a draft
should be made after the unit has achieved
gauge. (Figure 7-10).
steady state. Steady state is the point at
Figure 7-11: 2. To test for smoke, we need a smoke which the stack temperature stops rising. At
Smoke tester and a smoke scale. (Figure 7-11). steady state there are no changes in the
tester
3. To test carbon dioxide (CO2) we need combustion gases, the unit has thoroughly
an Orsat tester. (Figure 7-12). warmed-up and will maintain constant
conditions as long as the burner runs. This
4. A stack thermometer is used to
will require you to run the unit for 5 to 10
measure the temperature of the flue gases.
minutes, until the stack temperature reaches
Figure 7-12:
(Figure 7-13).
its highest point and levels off.
Orsat tester 5. We need the combustion efficiency
slide ruler to calculate efficiency. Stack temperature
While not needed to calculate efficiency, The stack (flue gas) temperature is the
it is important to know if the oil pressure to temperature of the combustion gases leaving
the nozzle is correct, and to measure this the appliance, and reflects the energy that did
Figure 7-13:
Stack we need a pressure gauge capable of not transfer from the fuel to the heat
thermometer reading up to at least 300 pounds pressure. exchanger. The lower the stack temperature,
Step-by-step testing fine-tune the air to reach a zero smoke.

procedure CO2 or O2 : This is done last because
The traditional order for taking these if draft or smoke are wrong, it does not
tests is: matter what CO2 isyou cannot leave the
unit that way.
Stack Temperature: With manual
Calculate Efficiency: Once the air is
equipment, two holes will speed up
adjusted properly, take a final tempera-
testing and the thermometer should be
ture reading, then compare the CO2
placed into the unit on start and the rest
reading and the net stack temperature
of the testing done in the other hole
using the slide ruler to get the combus-
when the temperature reading stabilizes.
tion efficiency of the unit.
Draft: Do draft second because the
Important: Make a record of the
other tests will be affected by any
results of each test on a Combustion
increase or decrease of draft.
Survey Form, which should show all
Smoke: To adjust for zero smoke before and after readings. Then you will
number, you start by opening the burner know just how much improvement you
air shutter or adjusting the head. Then are achieving.
7-12 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
the more effective the heat exchanger design
Volume of Hot Combustion Gas, Cubic Feet Per Gallon of Fuel Burned
and heat transfer. Stack temperature is a
measurement of the heat exchangers ability
to draw the heat from the combustion gases.
As the excess air goes up, so does the
stack temperature, Figure 7-14. To under-
stand why this happens, we must look at
the heat exchanger. The longer the combus-
Flame Temperature F
tion gases are in the heat exchanger, the
more the heat the exchanger can pull from
them, and the lower the stack temperature
will be. As the excess air increases so does
the volume of combustion gases.
The volume of gases traveling through
the heat exchanger determines how fast the
gases must travel. The more air we put in,
the faster it goes, and the less time the
exchanger has to suck the heat out of the
gases.
Therefore, as the excess air goes up, the
stack temperature does too, even though the
flame temperature is reduced. As stack % Excess Combustion Air
temperatures go up, efficiency comes
down, and our customers heating costs Figure 7-14:
increase, see Figure 7-15. Relationship of
excess air, flame
temperature,
Figure 7-15: Efficiency vs. net stack temperature
and volume of
combustion gases
Efficiency vs. Net Stack Temperature The flue gas temperature and
No.2 Fueloil, 12% CO2 all other tests should be measured
in the flue gas hot spot. This is
the point in the center of the flue
where the stack temperature and
the CO2 are at the highest level
and the O2 is at its lowest level.
Efficiency %
The primary importance of

stack temperature is to provide
enough heat in the flue to prevent
water formation. If the tempera-
ture is not high enough, water in
the combustion gases can con-
dense in the flue pipe or chimney.
Condensing in non-condensing
Net Stack Temperature F
appliances can cause chimney

Chapter 7
Combustion
deterioration, liner failure, and rusting of chimney or venting material falls below the
the appliance. dew point temperature, condensation in the
flue will occur.
Take a gross stack temperature reading,
subtract the temperature of air entering the To prevent condensation, the stack
burner (ambient air temperature) from the temperature should range from 270F to
gross stack temperature to get the net stack 370F above the ambient air temperature
temperature needed for calculating effi- for non-condensing appliances. (With new
ciency. The relationship between the high efficiency equipment that does not
percentage of excess air in the flue gases have a draft regulator, combustion gases
(CO2 or O2) and the net stack temperature can be on the low end of this range; if there
is the combustion efficiency. is a draft regulator, they should be closer to
the high end.)
Causes of high stack temperature With the new condensing appliances, the
Soot Deposits: The insulating effect of stack temperature will be close to the return
soot deposits prevents good heat transfer air or water temperature from the heating
through the heat exchanger. Inspect the heat system and usually below 125F. The lower
exchanger, clean if necessary, and adjust the the heating system return air or water
burner to a zero to trace smoke. temperature, the higher the efficiency will
be on a condensing appliance.
Excess Air: Excess air cools the
combustion gases and increases their
volume. This results in lower heat ex- Using the dial type
changer efficiency. Excess air can be due to stack thermometer
poor air-fuel mixing, poor burner adjust- Slide the holding clip out to the end of
ment (more air than needed to stop smoke), the thermometer stem. Insert the small tab
and air leaks into the heat exchanger. into the top of sampling hole in the stack
and push the thermometer in far enough so
Overfiring: Firing a heating system at the tip is in the center of the flue pipe.
a higher GPH (gallons per hour) than it Operate the burner until the thermometer
was designed for causes high rates of gas reading is rising no faster than 3 degrees
flow through the heat exchanger and results per minute and record the reading. If the
in high stack temperature. stack temperature begins to approach 1,000
degrees, remove the thermometer, because
Dew point temperature readings above this temperature will
The dew point temperature is the damage it.
temperature below which the water vapor
contained in the flue gas turns
Draft
Draft is the flow of air and into a liquid. This change is
Draft is the flow of air and combustion
combustion gases through the often referred to as condensa-
burner, heating unit, and gases through the burner, heating unit, and
tion. Below the dew point
venting system. Draft is venting system. Draft is required to remove
temperature, moisture exists;
required to remove the flue the flue gases from the heat exchanger.
gases from the heat exchanger. above the dew point tempera-
ture, vapor exists. If the If draft is too low, then the combustion
7-14 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
An important
thing to
remember
air flow will be reduced, causing excessive tube. An important thing to remember when when using a
smoke. If the draft is too high, then too using the draft gauge is you must zero it draft gauge is
much excess air will be drawn into the unit out before using it. Atmospheric pressure to zero it
out before
and the combustion gases will be pulled changes all the time, so we take this
using it
through the heat exchanger too fast, variable pressure out of the equation by
lowering efficiency. adjusting the gauge reading to zero before
we take each test.
During steady state operating conditions,
the draft should be stable. Over-fire drafts To zero out the draft gauge place it on a
of -.01" to -.02"wc [water column, see level surface near where you are going to
below] are generally recommended for test and slide the lever on the side of the
residential units. Measurement and adjust- unit until the arrow points to zero. You
ment of draft are important because draft should also be sure the gauge is functioning
affects all other burner adjustments. properly by spinning the rubber sample
tube or blowing gently across the end of it
to be sure the needle is not stuck. It should
Draft measurement
move smoothly and return to zero.
To measure draft, we use a manometer, a
U-tube or a gauge. The U-tube is a glass
tube bent into the shape of a U. The tube is The most important draft
filled with water up to a zero mark on a reading on residential equipment is
scale etched on the tube. A sampling tube is the over-the-fire draft. On most
attached to the right leg of the tube, and it residential and light commercial
is inserted into the unit to be tested. The negative draft units, this reading
left leg is left open to atmospheric pressure. should be -.01" to -.02"wc. If upon
The draft on the right leg causes a reaching steady state you cannot
pressure drop on that side and pulls the obtain this reading, you should
water up in the tube, and the atmospheric next check the draft at the breech,
pressure on the open side pushes the water and adjust the draft regulator. If
down in the left leg. you still cannot achieve sufficient
over-fire-draft, then you probably
The difference between the water levels have one of the following problems.
in the two legs is the draft in inches of
water column. The suction from draft is so
slight the difference is only a few hun- Common causes of poor draft
dredths of an inch. One one-hundredth of
an inch of draft is expressed as -.01"wc. Chimney is too small for the load of
the attached appliances
Since it is a vacuum and not a pressure,
we call it negative draft. If the right leg Chimney is too large in diameter or
cross-section
measured a pressure higher than atmo-
spheric the water would go up in the left Chimney too short or improperly
leg and we would call it positive draft. constructed
Our modern draft gauges (manometers) Leakage of air into chimney, thimble,
are the mechanical equivalent of the U- stack, or breeching

Chapter 7
Combustion
Obstruction in chimney or at top Flue pipe does not have sufficient

of chimney pitch upward from breeching to
thimble; it should be at least " per
Top of chimney is lower than the peak
running foot
of the house
Flue pipe extends too far into the
Flue pipe diameter is too small. It
chimney flue
should never be smaller than the
breeching size Heat exchanger passages are clogged
Figure 7-16:
Effects of with soot and scale, too restricted, or
Too many 90 degree elbows
leaving a unit too baffled
in the stack
operating with
a 5 smoke Appliance is overfired; the volume of
flame and combustion gases is too
great for the heat exchanger design
and are creating back pressure or a
positive draft over the fire
Percent of Fuel
Unit is underfired, so that the chim-

Wasted
ney gases never get hot enough to

create normal draft conditions
Insufficient ventilation or combustion
air in the appliance room, starving the
flame for air and draft flow
Improper adjustment of the
Combustion
Efficiency
Percent of
draft regulator
Differences between breeching and
over-fire draft (draft drop): More than
.05" difference between the two draft
readings usually means trouble. Check
for heavy soot deposits in the heat
exchanger, particularly if the burner
was found with a heavy smoke
Temperature F
Net Flue Gas
Little or no difference between the

breeching and over-fire draft: If the
stack temperature is high, baffling or
heating unit replacement should be
considered
Over-fire CO2 higher than breeching
CO2: Check for air leaks between top
of combustion chamber and heat
exchanger outlet (Breeching)
Total Burner Operating Time (Hours) Visible openings for air leakage:
Study how the heating unit is put
7-16 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
together and check all joints for possible smoke) to a number 9

leaks. If you suspect air leaks, but cannot (heavy smoke). Any smoke
find them, temporarily set the draft numbers above a number 2
regulator to give maximum draft and run a cause rapid soot accumula-
candle or lighted match around the joints to tions on heat exchanger
see where the smoke is drawn in. Repair surfaces. This causes flue
the leaks and set the over-fire draft to -.01" gas temperatures to rise and
to -.02". Also, look for locations where efficiency to drop, Figure
light from the flame can be observed 7-16.
through cracks.
Excess combustion air is
needed to reduce smoke
Smoke concentrations to a mini-
After you have determined that draft mum acceptable number
conditions are correct, the next step is to (less than a number 1).
adjust the burner to create a flame that will
As we have discussed,
not produce smoke.
this excess air must be held
Keeping smoke to a minimum is a must to a minimum in order to
if the heating system is to operate at peak reach peak efficiency. Thus,
efficiency without further attention during correct burner adjustment is
the entire heating season. the proper balance between
smoke and combustion air.
We measure smoke concentrations by
taking a sample of the flue gases with a To reach high efficiency,
smoke tester and smoke scale, which we must adjust burners for
identify smoke numbers from zero (no Zero Smoke and low excess
air while
Figure 7-17: Smoke vs. percent CO2 curve maintain-
ing a high
Figure 7-18:
level of
Smoke scale
CO2 or a low level of O2,
Figure 7-17.
The typical smoke
Smoke Spot Number
tester draws a total of

2,200 cubic centimeters
(ten full strokes of the
sampling pump illus-
trated) of flue products
through a standard grade
filter paper. The color of
the resulting smoke stain
on the filter paper is
matched to the closest
Percent CO2 shaded spot on the

Chapter 7
Combustion
standard graduated smoke scale, Figure 7- smoke. By initially adjusting to a zero

18. This scale has ten shaded spots with an smoke you will be introducing an unknown
equal difference between successive spots. amount of excess air which can lead to:
Spot Number 0 is white, and represents lower CO2, cooler flame temperatures,
smoke-free combustion. Spot Number 9 higher stack temperatures, and possible
(darkest) represents the maximum smoke elevated carbon monoxide production.
that typically will be produced.
Remember that excess air cools the
combustion products and increases their
volume so that it is difficult for the heat
When pumping ten full strokes of the smoke tester
exchanger to absorb the heat before it
pump, do not pump too fast. Hold the handle at its most
escapes to the breeching and up the chim-
extended position a second or two between strokes. If
ney. Most new burners are designed to
you take more
operate at zero smoke.
than one sample
from a burner, use
Common causes of smoke and soot:
the same uniform
Poor fuel atomization: small fuel
method of pump-
droplets vaporize quicker than large ones.
ing each sample. If
Large droplets are caused by:
you fail to follow
this method, you Damaged or worn nozzles
could get two Low fuel pump pressure
different smoke
numbers, even Cold oil
though you have
made no adjust- Inadequate combustion air is caused by:
ments to the The burner air control is not open
burner. far enough
Poor chimney draft
An oily or yellow smoke spot on the Build up of soot and scale in the
filter paper is a sign of unburned fuel, heat exchanger
indicating very poor combustion (and
likely high emissions of carbon monoxide Accumulation of lint, hair, sawdust,
and unburned hydrocarbons). If too much and dirt on the air shutter and the
excess combustion air is supplied, the burner fan
combustion process will be chilled so much Restrictions of the air flow to the
that some of the fuel cannot burn. The room the burner is in, and the oper-
flame is actually being blown out. Further ation of exhaust fans that de-pressurize
evidence is liquid fuel in the heat ex- the building
changer, white smoke (fuel vapor) and
strong odors outside the home.
Effects of insufficient
To adjust for a zero smoke, first adjust combustion air
the burner for a trace smoke then open the For the proper operation and venting of
air gate just a bit farther to go to zero gas or oilheating appliances, sufficient
7-18 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
outside air must be supplied to the structure no doors or with fully louvered doors can
to make up for the air lost from venting be considered part of the unconfined space.
heating appliances, fireplaces, clothes
Note: If the actual free area of the
dryers, exhaust fans and other building air
louvers is not known, wood louvers are
losses.
assumed to have a 20% to 25% free
Insufficient combustion air can cause opening. Metal louvers or grills are
major problems for proper draft and assumed to have 60% to 70% free opening.
operation of both gas and oilheating
systems. Calculating
For years it has been assumed that when confined space
a heating appliance was located in an Example:
unconfined area, there was sufficient air for A room 20' by 30' with an 8' ceiling height
both ventilation and combustion. Today, in and the heating appliance is 140,000 Btu.
most cases, that is not true! New construc- See Figure 7-19.
tion standards, insulation, weather strip- Determine the maximum total input
ping, and energy efficient windows and firing rate allowable in a room without
doors have reduced the amount of air modification.
changes per hour.
The combustion and make up air Example: Boiler room 20x30x8 =
requirements in the codes are based on 1/2 4,800 cu ft.
air changes per hour. 4800 cu. ft. x 1000 Btu/50 cu. ft. =
For newer homes and conversion of 96,000 Btu
electrically heated homes, the air changes 96,000 Btu x 1 gph #2 fuel/140,000 Btu =
could be reduced to 1/3 or less air changes 0.69 GPH
per hour. Air problems are most notable on Result: If you fire greater than 0.69 GPH
the coldest days when heat loss is the or 96,000 Btus, you will need additional Figure 7-19:
greatest and there is a chance that windows combustion air. Calculating
or doors are closed for an extended period confined space
of time.
When installing new equipment or
troubleshooting problem equipment, the
first determination that needs to be made is
whether the equipment is located in a
confined or unconfined space. In accor-
dance with NFPA 31 and NFPA 54, an
unconfined space is defined as follows:
Any space whose volume is equal to or
greater than 50 cubic feet per 1,000 Btu (or
20 Btu/Cubic Foot). This is calculated on
the sum of the total input ratings of all fuel
burning appliances installed in that space.
Only areas connected to the space that have

Chapter 7
Combustion
To add air from an adjacent room, two Inadequate air swirl and turbulence
openings between the room could be made caused by outdated burner design
12 inches above the floor and 12 inches
Improper burner head size
below the ceiling. The size of these
openings is based on 1 square inch per Improper adjustment of air handling
1,000 Btu input. parts of the burner
To add air directly from the outside of Irregular or unbalanced fuel spray
the structure, two openings could be made. caused by a partially plugged nozzle
The size of these openings is based on 1
square inch per 4,000 Btu input. The above Off center installation of the nozzle
requirements are based on guidelines in Dirt or soot accumulation on burner
NFPA 31 or NFPA 54. air forming parts or air fan blades
Alternately, if operating in a confined
space, additional air may be added by a Defective or damaged burner parts
duct to the outside, sized on 1 square inch such as the end cone, air tube, fan,
per 5,000 Btu input. and motor coupling
Using a nozzle that is either too small
Incomplete air-oil mixing or too large for the burner head and
Improper mixing creates fuel rich and combustion area
fuel lean pockets in the combustion area Fuel pump pressure set too low
and prevents complete burning. Some of or too high
the causes are:
Figure 7-20: Cold oil producing larger fuel
Relationship Mismatch of the fuel droplet spray droplets, and increasing the firing
between excess and the burner air pattern rate beyond the air setting
air and CO2
Measure Percent CO2 to Determine

Percent Excess Air
Percent CO2 in Flue Gas
Percent Excess Air
7-20 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
Percent Percent
CO2 O2
(Oxygen)
Percent Excess Air Percent Excess Air
Figure 7-21:
Relationship of
CO2, O2 and
Flame impingement Correlation of Percent of
excess air
The flame must not touch any solid CO2, O2 and Excess Air
surfaces of the burner, the end cone, the Carbon Oxygen Excess Air
combustion chamber, or the heat exchanger. Dioxide (Approx.)
If this happens, the flame will be cooled 15.4 0.0 0.0
and the unburned carbon atoms will turn to 15.0 0.6 3.0
smoke and soot. Possible causes: 14.5 1.2 6.0
14.0 2.0 10.0
Overfiring, too large a nozzle or 13.5 2.6 15.0
excessive oil pump pressure 13.0 3.3 20.0
12.5 4.0 25.0
Incorrect oil and/or air pattern 12.0 4.6 30.0
11.5 5.3 35.0
Burner installed too high, too low, or 11.0 6.0 40.0
off center 10.5 6.7 45.0
10.0 7.4 50.0
Incorrect combustion chamber size or
The ranges that you will use most
shape, or base of the chamber frequently are bold-faced and in
full of soot color.
Partially plugged nozzle

Cold oil
Excess air: CO2 and O2
Smoky shut down As we add excess combustion air, the
Check the cut-off valve by using a amount of nitrogen and unburned oxygen
pressure gauge in the fuel pump nozzle increase. The amount of water and carbon
port. See the nozzle and fuel unit chapters dioxide remain the same because we have
for causes of after drip. (Chapters 4 and 5). already burned all the fuel; therefore the

Chapter 7
Combustion
percentage of CO2 drops and the percentage (O2) we can determine the quantity of
of oxygen starts to increase. (Figure excess air. They are the opposite of each
7-20). By measuring either the percentage other. As the percent of O2 increases the
Figure 7-22: of CO2 or the percentage of unused oxygen CO2% decreases. (Figure 7-21).
0% Excess air
Why we must control excess air

Properly adjusting the burner air shutter
is a compromise between too little air,
(Amount of water vapor which produces smoke, and too much air,
is not considered in % of
CO 2 determination which lowers efficiency. See Figures 7-22
and 7-23.
Earlier we found that a fixed quantity of
combustion air is required to burn each
pound of oil. We call this the theoretical
fuel-air ratio.
Oilburners require a controlled amount
of excess air above the theoretical value to
assure complete combustion and smoke free
1.00 lb. oil 1.18 lb. water
14.36 lb. air 11.02 lb. nitrogen operation. This excess combustion air
15.36 lb. total 3.16 lb. carbon dioxide serves as a safety margin to prevent
15.36 lb. total incomplete combustion and smoke.
The air pressure in the building is
always changing, the temperature of the
Figure 7-23: 50% Excess air fuel changes, and the draft produced by the
chimney is not constant. Excess air gives us
the safety factor we need for all these
variations.
While excess air is needed for reliable
clean operation, it also reduces efficiency.
When increasing air for more oxygen,
excess nitrogen comes along for the ride.
This dramatically increases the amount of
combustion gases that must be vented. Heat
exchangers need time to absorb the heat
from the combustion gases. The more gases
forced into a heat exchanger, the faster they
travel through the heat exchanger. This
gives the heat exchanger less time to pull
out the heat so the stack temperature goes
1.00 lb. oil
21.54 lb. air up, and the efficiency goes down.
22.54 lb. total 1.18 lb. water Limiting the amount of excess air can
11.02 lb. nitrogen
3.16 lb. carbon dioxide increase efficiency and save our customers
7.18 lb. excess air money.
22.54 lb. total
We measure excess air by determining
7-22 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
the percentage of oxygen (O2) in the sampling pump system to the analyzer.
combustion gases. For each 1% decrease in
2. The analyzer:
oxygen levels introduced into the combus-
tion process, efficiency increases by up to A. A body, which has two cavities or
1%. While some excess air is needed for cups at the top and the bottom, connected
complete combustion, we must set the air by a narrow tube with an adjustable scale
to the manufacturers specifications to alongside. (Figure 7-24).
ensure maximum efficiency. B. A valve system that either seals the
Another problem with excess air is that gases and liquid inside the analyzer, or else
it cools the flame. This creates incomplete lets a sample be pumped into the top cavity
burning in the combustion area and carbon while the narrow tube and the lower cavity
monoxide levels can rise. Therefore we are sealed off.
must exactly control the amount of excess C. A diaphragm, or flexible disc in the
air we allow into the burner. The only way bottom cavity, which prevents a vacuum
we can achieve this delicate compromise from forming inside the analyzer and lets
between smoke and efficiency is by using the liquid in the bottom cavity be drawn up
combustion test equipment. You cannot see into the narrow tube after CO2 is absorbed.
flue gases; the only way you can be sure
you are right is testing.
Using a CO2 analyzer
A. Prime and wet the instrument by
CO2 measurement tipping it over and then back once, and
The Orsat CO2 analyzer, named for its allow the fluid to drain from the upper
inventor, uses chemicals that absorb CO2 cavity while holding the instrument at a 45-
from a mixture of gases without absorbing degree angle. Next, hold upright and
any other gas. The chemical usually used is depress valve on top several times and Figure 7-24:
potassium hydroxide (KOH) because it has release the valve. Loosen the lock nut on An analyzer
the capacity to absorb large amounts of the sliding scale on the right
CO2. When it does so, it expands. By Valve
side. Slide the scale until 0
measuring how much it expands we can lines up with top of fluid in
determine the amount of CO2 in the gases. the center tube. Tighten the
There are two main parts locknut.
to this analyzer: B. Insert the sampling tube
1. The sampling pump: into the stack to draw the gases
to be sampled through the
A. The sample tube that is inserted into
sampling hole in the stack. This
the stack gases, or replaced by a longer
gives you a stack CO2 reading.
tube for over-fire sampling.
Scale
However, under certain
B. The yarn filter and water trap, which
conditions, it is desirable to
stops soot and water from entering the
determine the over-fire CO2. To
analyzer.
do this you must replace the
C. The sample pump, a rubber bulb with short metal sampling tube
rubber flapper suction and discharge check with a " metal tube about
valves that allow flow in only one direction 30" long. This must extend
into the analyzer. through the sampling hole in
the fire door to a point above
D. The rubber connector, which seals the Flexible Diaphragm

Chapter 7
Combustion
the center of the flame in measure the temperature of the flame due
the combustion chamber. to dilution of the gases and absorption of
Study the instruction the heat by radiation to the surrounding
manual and take the Place the rubber
time to learn how your
areas, we use a combustion equation to
connector end of sample
analyzer works before determine the quality of the combustion
pump on top of valve and
you expect it to process. The efficiency calculation is based
perform for you. Be push it down to open the
upon the theoretical heat value of the fuel
sure to follow the valve. Squeeze and release
manufacturers being burned minus the stack losses.
the rubber bulb 18 times
recommended
maintenance and
to pump combustion gases To calculate the combustion efficiency
service procedures. into the analyzer. Release with older test equipment, you need to
the valve while the bulb is know:
still collapsed on the 18th
1. The Net Stack Temperature: This is
stroke, and remove the
the measured or gross temperature as
rubber connector from the instru-
indicated by the stack thermometer, minus
ment.
the ambient or intake air temperature.
C. Tip the analyzer completely
2. The % CO2 in the Stack Gases: Do
over and back twice, allowing gas to
not use the % CO2 measured over the fire.
bubble completely through the
This is for air leak checks only. Test the
fluid. Hold at 45 degree angle for 5
CO2 at the breech.
seconds to complete draining of fluid. The
fluid has now absorbed the CO2 from the To calculate the steady state efficiency,
gas sample, and has been pulled up in the use combustion efficiency tables or the
center tube. Hold the analyzer upright and combustion efficiency slide ruler. Adjust
read the CO2 on the scale opposite the top the large slide to the right so that the net
of the fluid. stack temperature appears in the small
D. Depress the valve on top of analyzer window in the upper right corner marked
several times, release, and check to see that Net Stack Temperature; then move the
the zero setting has not changed. If it has, small vertical slide until the arrow points to
repeat the above steps. the CO2 reading. Through the window in
the arrow on this slide you now read the
E. If the CO2 analyzer is cold, run one figures: combustion efficiency in black and
or two tests to warm it up before using the on-cycle heat loss in red.
reading.
NOTE: The CO2 test fluid is hazard- Electronic combustion
ous. Do not invert analyzer while the test equipment
plunger valve is depressed. If fluid gets One drawback of manual combustion
on your hands, wash them immediately. test instruments is the time required to use
them properly. This is especially true when
Combustion efficiency the tests must be repeated during oilburner
calculations fine-tuning. New digital electronic testing
Since it is not possible in the field to instruments have been developed in recent
7-24 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
years that can reduce the time needed for capable of measuring oxygen percentage
oilburner testing and adjustment. (O2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO2- calculated), excess air, draft,
Digital instruments are faster, more
stack and ambient temperatures and many
accurate, more reliable, and have a higher
can even determine other gases like oxides
repeatability. Digital instruments stay in
of nitrogen (NO, NO2, NOx) for advanced
calibration, allow trending, allow more
flue gas emissions level readings. The only
complex functions and save time.
thing they cannot measure is smoke.
Digital instruments allow data to be
Since the electronic analyzers are
recorded and reported without human error,
sensitive to carbon build-up, to extend the
and provide reliable and accurate results for
life of the sensors and instrument, take
you and your customers. Data can be
smoke tests with a smoke tester, and adjust
recorded much faster than any technician
for a low smoke reading before using the
could ever do the calculations.
electronic analyzers.
With the optional printer, the data can be
The electronic analyzers eliminate the
recorded as an un-editable record, so the
cumbersome work required by the manual
print out is what was measured at the
test equipment and more importantly, they
jobsite. Permanent records allow the user to
eliminate human error caused by varying
track system changes and determine if the
interpretation of results we have with
system is operating within the design
manual equipment. With the electronic
parameters or if changes have taken place.
analyzers, any two technicians will get
Only digital analyzers allow you to take identical results.
real time tests.
The use of these electronic instruments
Study the instruction manual and take also indicates to customers that you are a
the time to learn how your analyzer works professional equipped with the most up-to-
before you expect it to perform for you. Be date testing equipment. It adds to your
sure to follow the manufacturers recom- image as an energy expert. This can assist
mended maintenance and service proce- with customer acceptance of energy
dures. Most manufacturers ask that you not conservation options, such as flame
expose the analyzer for extended periods of retention burners and new boilers and
time to freezing temperatures, as this has an furnaces.
impact on sensor life. In the winter, do not
Some of the electronic instruments
leave the tester in a cold truck over night.
compute efficiency and display the results
The electronic combustion analyzers use on a printed readout. This can be used to
advanced methods of measuring flue gas demonstrate to the homeowner the actual
composition and temperature through a efficiency of their boiler or furnace. This
single probe. information can serve as a sales tool to
identify the fuel savings that are available
A pump within the electronic analyzer
by installing new equipment and can also
draws a flue gas sample through a series of
provide a written record that everything
sensors. These electronic analyzers are
was as you say it was when you left the job

Chapter 7
Combustion
site. analyzer to zero in the stack unless

manufacturers design allows this.
Measurement procedure As with older test equipment, measure-
Connect the flue gas sampling probe
ments must be made in the stack between
assembly to analyzer per manufacturers
the barometric damper (if equipped) and
instructions. Verify the condensate trap
the breech. Allow burner to operate until
plug is properly seated in combustion
stack temperature stabilizes before testing.
analyzer, and that water trap and thermo-
couple are not touching the side of the
probe assembly. Before inserting the probe Observations to make before testing
into the unit, start the analyzer and allow it With experience, you will be able to
to do its start up procedure. This is called quickly pinpoint the likely problems in the
the zeroing process. Never allow the heating unit by looking at the instrument
results, and making a few quick observa-
tions.
Look at the flame. Is it normally
shaped? Is it lopsided? Is it striking the
sides or floor of the combustion chamber?
(Be sure the flame observation door is
closed when you do your tests. The air
flowing into the open door will lower the
CO2 readings and raise the stack tempera-
ture.)
Check the burner-operating period.
Burning periods of less than 5 minutes do
not usually produce enough heat to give
good results. Short burner operating
periods can be caused by overfiring of unit,
or by improper functioning of automatic
electrical controls.
Watch the flame while the burner
shuts down. A flame that lasts more than
two seconds after the burner shuts off may
be due to a poor cut-off. The primary two
causes are air in the oil or the cut off in the
fuel unit is defective. Refer to the Fuel
Units Chapter for testing pump cut off.
(Chapter 4).
Test for air leaks around the burner
air tube, the combustion chamber and all
access doors on the furnace. A common
cause of low CO2 readings is air leaks into
the unit. To see if the problem is air leaks,
take a CO2 test over the fire. If it is higher
7-26 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
than the reading at the breech, you have air

leaks into the heat exchanger. Because of
Stack Temp:
leakage, air has been pulled into the heat
6079% Efficiency 400F to 600F
exchanger passages by the negative draft
within the unit, lowering system efficiency. Stack Temp:
80+ Efficiency 330F to 450F
Keep a record
of efficiency tests Stack Temp:
They have a saying in the nursing 90+ Efficiency less than 125F
profession, If you didnt write it, you
didnt do it. Why go to all the trouble of Draft:
taking these tests if you dont brag about -0.02"wc Over fire
it? Create or buy an efficiency test report Draft (Stack):
form, and use it to record the results of -.04"wc to -.06"wc
your efficiency tests. These reports are
Carbon Monoxide:
important for three reasons:
Less than 50 ppm (diluted)
1. They serve as a starting point for
Smoke spot:
diagnosis and service.
Zero to #1
2. Efficiency test results can be valuable
Always Follow Manufacturers Specifications
sales tools when trying to convince custom-
ers to upgrade their equipment.
3. Having a written record can help
protect you if there is ever a future prob- Report to the customer
lem. Your report to the customer can be
With most of the electronic combustion written or oral. A properly written report,
test equipment available today, a printer including a conservative estimate of savings
option is available. This gives you proof you anticipate from any changes you have
that you performed the test. Additionally, it made or suggested, can build customer
provides time, date, and exact information good will and increase equipment sales.
as to burner performance when you left the
unit. This can be invaluable when having to Combustion air test
prove the burner operation at the time you Modern buildings are much tighter than
made the adjustments. the old buildings; some do not allow enough
air to leak into the building from the
Typical Combustion Test Readings outdoors to replace the air going up the
chimney. Winterization practices on older
Non-flame retention burners: homes have sealed many of the openings
Oxygen: 5 - 9% that formerly provided combustion air.
Flame Retention Oxygen: If the building does not allow enough
3 - 6% infiltration air in, provisions must be made
to bring in the outdoor air to replace the air
Carbon Dioxide:
used in the combustion process. The
1012.5%
following test will tell you if you have
enough infiltration.

Chapter 7
Combustion
1. Visually inspect the venting system A combustion analyzer can be used for
for proper size and horizontal pitch and be finding leaking cracks or holes in a furnace
sure there is no blockage, restriction, heat exchanger. The static pressure created
leakage, corrosion, or other deficiencies that by the system blower can overcome any
could cause an unsafe condition. positive pressure in the heat exchanger
causing air to leak into the fire side of the
2. Shut off the unit and any other fuel-
exchanger rather than out.
gas-burning appliance within the same
room. Readings that change when the blower
comes on after stabilization has taken place
3. Inspect burners for blockage and
are indicative of a combustion air, venting,
corrosion.
or mechanical problem such as a cracked
4. Furnaces: Inspect the heat exchanger heat exchanger. Furnaces can have cleanout
for cracks, openings, or excessive corrosion. doors leaking that will test positive for
leakage. This is not a heat exchanger
5. Boilers: Inspect for evidence of water
failure. Inspection door gaskets should be
or combustion product leaks. replaced and doors should be properly
6. Insofar as is practical, close all sealed.
building doors and windows and all doors
between the space in which the appliance is Procedure:
located and other spaces of the building. 1. Follow the manufacturers instruc-
Turn on the clothes dryer. Turn on any tions to properly zero the combustion
exhaust fans, such as range hoods and analyzer. Insert the combustion analyzer
bathroom exhausts, so they will operate at probe in the flue pipe.
maximum speed. Close fireplace dampers.
2. Start the furnace and observe the
7. Place the appliance being inspected in oxygen reading for stability (1-3 minutes).
operation.
3. When the blower starts, watch for a
8. Determine that the burner ignition change in the O2 reading. If the O2 reading
and operation is satisfactory. goes up, there is a leak.
9. Turn on all other fuel and gas- Corrective action: Attempt to visually
burning appliances within the same room. find the crack or hole.
10. Determine that all units are burning A. If you can find the defect, show it
properly. to the customer.
11. Use a monometer to test if the B. On the service invoice, write that
pressure in the room that the unit is in is your testing indicates a leak in the heat
less than the pressure outdoors. exchanger. (Do this even if you cannot find
12. Return doors, windows, exhaust fans, the leak.)
fireplace dampers, and any other fuel-gas- C. Inform the customer, in writing,
burning appliance to their previous condi-
that the heat exchanger has a defect and
tions of use.
that the furnace should be replaced. You
should not attempt to repair a heat ex-
Testing for a leaking changer.
furnace heat exchanger
7-28 Combustion
Chapter 7
Combustion
stroke sample of fresh air taken after very

dark smoke readings have been observed. If
Checking and caring
the air sample does not give a clean spot,
for the instruments
repeat until it does. In extreme cases, the
1. Smoke tester
tube, and possibly the pump, may have to
A. Clamp a piece of filter paper in the
be cleaned with soap and water.
smoke tester. Place a finger over the end of
sample tube and try to pull the plunger C. Sticky action of the plunger can be
handle out and then release. The handle helped by coating the plunger cup with
should return by itself to approximately the petroleum jelly (Vaseline) after wiping the
original position. If it does not, the hose, cup and the bore of the body clean.
paper holder, and plunger should be
checked for leaks. If leakage is indicated,
2. CO2 analyzer
the hose in the sampling line may need A. After about 200 samples have been
replacement. Leakage may also occur if the measured with the analyzer, the fluid will
surfaces of the filter paper holder are begin to lose its strength. This can be
damaged. These areas (on the nylon inserts) checked by measuring a sample in the
should be inspected. The plunger can be normal manner, after the height of the fluid
removed for inspection if leakage is is measured on the % CO2 scale, invert the
occurring across the plunger. instrument two more times, let it drain, and
B. A clean piece of filter paper should reread. If the % CO2 reading changes more
be clamped in the smoke tester and a 10 than a number, the fluid is becoming
weak and should be replaced.
B. The sampling pump should be
Figure 7-25: checked for leaks in the following manner:
CO2 analyzer
1. Place a finger over the end of the
sampling tube and squeeze the rubber bulb.
The bulb should stay collapsed. If it does
Rubber Connector
not, an air leak exists between the bulb and
Pump the sampling tube, or the discharge valve in
Discharge
Valve the rubber bulb is leaking, Figure 7-25.
2. Place a finger over the rubber
Sampling connector at the other end of the pump and
Tube seal off the hole tightly. Apply moderate
pressure to the rubber bulb. If the bulb
cannot hold pressure, a leak exists between
the bulb and the rubber connector or the
Pump suction valve in the rubber bulb is leaking.
Suction
Valve C. Any evidence of fluid leakage from
the analyzer should be checked. Such
leakage is an indication of possible air leaks
Filter & Water Trap in the analyzer, which will give inaccurate
CO2 readings.

Chapter 7
Combustion
D. If the CO2 scale will not slide low during summer should be avoided. The
enough to adjust the zero setting, it may be fluid should be checked for strength
necessary to add water or more KOH fluid following long storage periods.
to bring up the fluid level. Add 2 or 3
drops of tap water into the space around the
3. Oxygen
valve in the top of the analyzer. Depress the
(O2 analyzers)
valve and release it several times, allow the
Measuring the oxygen content of the
water to drain down, and then check fluid
surrounding air can check the accuracy of
level. If the level is still too low, add 2 or 3
oxygen sensors. When fresh air is drawn
more drops and repeat. This should be used
through the instrument, a reading of 20.9
only as a stopgap procedure until you can
percent O2 should be observed. The
obtain new potassium hydroxide (KOH)
instrument should be adjusted to this value.
fluid. If you cannot get a 20.9% reading, replace
E. If the fluid must be changed, refill the oxygen sensor.
kits are available and a spare should always
be kept on hand. This kit includes fluid, 4. Stack temperature gauge
gasket, screws, and filter yarn for the A. Other than checking for obvious
pump. To change the fluid: damage, the only problem that might occur
(1) Remove four screws in top of with a temperature gauge is a bent stem.
analyzer. The gauge will not read accurately with a
bent stem.
(2) Remove top and discard fluid and
rubber gasket (do not spill fluid, it is B. Many manual and electronic tempera-
harmful to hands, paint, etc.) ture instruments can be checked in boiling
water (212F), and readjusted if needed.
(3) Clean unit using soap and water.
(4) Pour in full bottle of new fluid. 5. Draft gauge
(5) Install new rubber gasket cover, and A. Check to be sure the indicator needle
new screws. Tighten screws evenly. The moves freely. This can be done by blowing
filter yarn in the sampling pump must also lightly across, and then toward, the end of
be changed. This filter yarn may be the sampling tube. The needle should move
changed more often than the fluid to smoothly and return accurately to the zero
provide easy sampling pump operation. setting position.
F. The analyzer should be stored in an B. The draft gauge should be checked

upright position with the valve on top to against an accurate manometer at least once
prevent any possible fluid leakage. When a year.
placing the analyzer in
the carrying case, it 6. Electronic analyzer
should be placed with its WARNING: calibration
valve toward the handle The analyzer fluid is hazardous. All manufacturer
side of the case. Exten- Always follow the manufacturers
instructions concerning
cautions for safe handling.
sive storage in warm equipment care and
places such as car trunks maintenance must be
followed carefully. Oxygen cells, batteries,
and calibration of the instrument must be
done as needed to assure accurate readings.
Electronic analyzers should be sent back to
the manufacturer for calibration as required
7-30 Combustion by the manufacturer. This will insure
Combustion Troubleshooting Guide Courtesy of Bacharach
7-31
Chapter 7Combustion
00 Customer Service
Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
Introduction almost magical way to take the potential

Our objective for this Chapter is to make energy locked up in coal, natural gas, oil,
you feel more comfortable with electricity waterfalls, and even inside atomsmove
and to give you the information you need that energy great distancesand ultimately
to service and troubleshoot electrical have it do useful work for us.
devices.
Any source of electricity must get the
The easiest way to learn about electricity energy from somewhere. The battery gets
is to define the words used to describe energy from a chemical reaction. The
electricity and its properties. Lets start generator gets energy from the work done
with the word electricity. Electricity is an turning the shaft. The work it does for
Electrical safety But any wet object has enough minerals

Electricity can be dangerous. It can in the water to provide an alternate path-
create three hazards: fire, skin burns, and way. The human body is over 50% water,
shock. Shock can cause muscle spasms, and when the skin is damp it will provide
unconsciousness and even death. a good pathway back to the source if there
is not an easier one. Never allow your
Proper installation of all electrical body to be that pathway! Always consider
equipment is essential. The National all electrical components to be energized
Electrical Code sets the standards. Local until you test and prove they are not.
communities can make this code law, and
in addition, they can make their own codes When you are working on electricity,
even more restrictive. remove all metal objects such as watches
and jewelry from your hands and wrists.
A common and dangerous practice is Until you are absolutely sure a circuit is
testing the ignition transformer with a shut off, only use one handkeep the
screwdriver. The transformer is putting out other in your pocket. This prevents the
10,000 volts and can give you a danger- electric pathway from going from one
ous and serious shock. hand to the other hand through your heart.
Electric energy needs a pathway from Be sure to replace any damaged or frayed
the source and back to the source. If you wires, protect wires from touching moving
do your job, this pathway is our electric equipment, and keep them clear of walk-
circuit. ways.
Chapter 8Basic Electricity 8-3

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
Oilheat is to power our motors that pump voltage pushes the electricity through the
oil and water, make the spark needed for wires, it keeps it under pressure.
ignition; and automatically control the
Once the electricity has finished doing
entire heating process.
its work (turning a motor, making a spark),
Electrical current flows through wires, it returns to where it came from under no
switches, and transformers to our heating pressure. The voltage is all used up.
appliances. Therefore, voltage supplied to the circuit is
Figure 8-1:
Water analogy The force that pushes the current voltage used by the circuit.
through the wire is called Voltage, which is
measured in Volts. The amount of current Amps = water flow
flowing through the wire is Amperes, or amps for short, are a way of
called Amperage or expressing the amount of electricity
Current, which is measured flowing through the wire, the rate of flow
in Amps. The Resistance to (current). They are like the gallons per
this flow is measured in hour flow of water through a pipe.
Ohms. The power used to Figure 8-1.
run our motors and create The voltage is like the force of the water
spark is measured in Watts. in the pipe and the amps are like the
To better understand these important amount of water flowing out of the faucet.
words, it might be helpful to compare
electricity to the flow of water in a pipe. Ohms = resistance to flow
As water flows through a pipe, it
Volts encounters resistance to the flow depend-
Voltage is like water pressure (pounds ing upon the physical characteristics of the
per square inch), and like water pressure, pipe. How much water flows through the
does not need an actual flow. Regardless of pipe, at any given amount of water pres-
sure, is affected by the size of the pipe and
the faucet being open or closed, there is
even the smoothness of the inner walls.
still water pressure in the pipe. Likewise,
there are volts at an electrical outlet even Amps also meet resistance from insula-
though nothing is plugged into that outlet tion, motors, circuits or anything that
and there is no flow. Of course, the restricts the free flow of electricity. This
potential for flow is there and that is why resistance to the flow of Amps is called
volts are referred to as electric potential; it Ohms.
could flow if the conditions were right
even though it is not flowing now. Resistance to flow makes friction
and friction makes heat
Voltage is the force created by the power
Resistance to flow, whether it is water or
source (the battery, transformer, or genera-
electricity, creates friction, and friction
tor). This is called the electromotive force
converts energy to heat. Electricity faces
(EMF).
much resistance trying to fight its way
When water comes out of a faucet, it through wiring, and it creates a lot of heat
flows under pressure. But when that water doing it. The greater the resistance to flow
drains out of the sink, it has no pressure in the wire, the more heat is produced. This
except gravity. Voltage is the same. As isnt all bad. The heat can be used to make
8-4 Basic Electricity

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
electric heaters for toasters, electric water

heaters, and electric baseboard heat. This The math
heat can also be used to make heat anticipa- Volts, amps, ohms and watts are all
tors in thermostats and safety timers in related to each other. If you change
primary controls. one, you change the others, too. These
relationships are described by two
Whats a watt? math formulas:
Watts are the power consumed by an volts = amps times ohms
electrical circuit. One amp (remember,
and watts = volts times amps
thats the amount of flow) driven by one
volt (the amount of pressure) through a Remember, if one changes,
circuit equals one watt of power, see Figure it affects the others.
8-2. This work can also be called horse-
power. One horsepower equals 746 watts.
Conductors
Some materials offer very little resis-
Figure 8-2: Whats a Watt?
tance to the flow of electricity; these
materials are called conductors. Most
1 Volt
metals are good conductors. Gold, silver,
copper, and aluminum are very good
1 Watt conductors. Thats why wires are made out
of metal. Also, some switches are made out
of mercury (a liquid metal).
1 Amp Wires are the conductors; they are very
much like pipes for water. In a water pipe,
not only does the pipe material affect the
If a circuit using one watt operates for resistance to flow, the size of the pipe or
an hour, this called a watt-hour. Sometimes, wire also determines how much resistance
AC power is called volt-amps (VA) or to the flow there is. A fat wire, like a fat
apparent power. As current or voltage pipe, offers less resistance than a skinny
increases in a circuit, the power consump- one, and a short wire offers less resistance
tion and work done also increases. Every than a long one. In electricity, temperature
electrical device needs a certain amount of is important, too. Cold conductors offer
power, so it is given a power rating based less resistance than hot ones. Force is
on it being supplied with a specific number needed to overcome this resistance. Re-
of volts and amps. If the right amount is member, in water, the force is called
not supplied, it changes the devices power pressure (pounds per square inch), and in
consumption and performance. electricity, the force is measured in volts.
Insulators
Did you know? Many materials offer a lot of resistance
Electric company bills are based to the flow of electricity, these materials
upon kilowatts per hour, kwh. are called insulators. Air, glass, porcelain,
A kilowatt is 1,000 watts. plastic, and rubber are all good insulators.
They stop the flow of electricity. These

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
Figure 8-3: materials are used to contain or

Water circuit
Electrical circuits
control the flow of electricity The most important thing to understand
along a conductor, such as a about electricity is the electric circuit.
copper wire. Because air is Electricity has to flow from a source out
a good insulator, the into the circuit and back to the source.
resistance of the air stops Figure 8-3.
the electricity at the end
of a wire like a wooden A typical circuit, then, has a conductor
plug stuck in the end of that carries the electric current from the
a pipe. If enough water source, through a switch, to a loadand
pressure is put on that plug back to the source. Current flows only in a
it will pop out and the water complete circuit. However, the energy it
will flow. If enough electric gains in the electromotive force (measured
pressure (volts) are put against the insulat- in volts) from the power source is lost in
ing air it, becomes a conductor and lets the the resistances (ohms) it encounters in the
electricity flow in the form of a spark. A circuit. The switch is a device that inter-
ten thousand volt transformer can make rupts the circuit. When it is open, electric-
electricity jump across the air space ity cant flow. When closed, the circuit is
between the ignition electrodes in an complete and the flow continues. See
oilburner. This creates the spark that Figure 8-4.
ignites the oil.
Figure 8-4:
Loads Open and closed switches
A load is a device that converts electrical
energy to some other form of energy in
order to do work. A load also creates
resistance that opposes electrical flow. Here
is an example: a light bulb converts electric
energy to heat and light because the
filament resists the flow of electricity,
getting so hot it actually glows. Another
example: a motor changes electric energy
into mechanical energy.
Some of the loads found in oil burner
circuits are:
Motorsin the burner, circulator, fan,
power venter, humidifier
Electromagnetic coilsin relays,
solenoid valves
Transformersin ignition and control
Heatersin the primary control safety
switch, thermostat heat anticipator

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
A complete circuit should always

include a load of some sort. If you just run
a conductor from the source back to the
source without going through a load, you
have a short circuit. Since there is no Fuse Switch
resistance to slow up the electrical current,
the amps just keep going higher and higher.
This increases the heat build-up from the Power
resistance in the conductor until it gets so Source Load
hot it starts a fire.
Fuses or circuit breakers are installed in
the circuit to prevent this from happening.
Circuit breakers are automatic switches that
cut off the current if it starts to reach
dangerous levels. Figure 8-5.
Figure 8-5:
The primary resistance to flow in a overcomes resistance to create flow. Any Fuse or circut
circuit is the thing doing the work, the change in ohms will cause the opposite breaker
protects the
load. It converts the electrical energy into change in amps because volts from the circut
another from of energy. However, the power source are relatively constant. An
conductor can also restrict the flow, increase in ohms reduces amps. A decrease
especially if it is undersized, too hot, or too in ohms increases amps. Increasing volts
long. increases amps, this is called Ohms Law,
Figure 8-6. It states: It takes 1 volt to
Resistance (ohms) opposes flow. Voltage push 1 amp through 1 ohm.
Figure 8-6

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
Series Circuit largest resistance. This is why poor connec-

A series circuit is one where there is tions in a circuit, where the resistance is
only one path for the electric current high, tend to overheat.
through the loads. Remember the old Since voltage applied to a circuit is
Christmas tree lights (each light is a load) voltage used by that circuit, more than one
where, if one burned out, they all went load in the same pathway will share the
out? That was a classic series circuit. Aside supply voltage. Loads in the same pathway
from the problem of losing one load and reduce the voltage to each load as well as
shutting off all the rest, the other drawback the current through the entire circuit. The
to a series circuit is that each load steals volts drop as they go from load to load.
electricity from the other loads. The current flow (amps) is affected by both
In a series circuit, the power is delivered the volts and the total ohms of the circuit,
in the greatest quantity to the point of and is the same in all parts of the circuit.
To review, in a series circuit the total
resistance (ohms) is equal to the ohms of
all the individual conductors, switches, and
Figure 8-7:
loads present in the circuit. The current
Volts, amps
and ohms in a flowing (amps) in all parts of the circuit is
circuit the same. By adding all the voltage drops
6 Amps
Fuse Switch of all the loads together it equals the
applied voltage (volts from the source).
Figures 8-7 and 8-8.
Power Load
120 Volts 20 Ohms
Source
Parallel circuit
A parallel circuit has separate branches
6 Amps for each load. This way, if one load burns
out, it will not affect the other loads. Also,
all the loads receive the same voltage.
The loads are parallel to each other. In a
parallel circuit, some of the loads and not
others can be turned on. For example, the
Figure 8-8:
Multiple loads burner motor and the ignition can run
in series separately, so the spark can be shut off
once flame is established.
2 Amps 20 Ohms
In a house circuit, all the lamps and
appliances are wired in parallel. This way
20 Ohms
120 Power 40 Volts each can be turned on and off separately.
Volts Source at Each See Figures 8-9B and 8-10B.
The resistance of the load in each branch
2 Amps 20 Ohms circuit determines the current (amps)
delivered to that branch. The current in the
common lines is equal to the current
flowing in the branch circuits served by

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
that section of the common line. Unlike in

a series circuit, the current may vary in Figure 8-9:
Series and parallel circuits
different parts of a parallel circuit. A
As the number of branch circuits
increases, the total current draw increases.
If you plug too many appliances into an
extension cord the amp rating of the wire
might be exceeded. The wire will get hot.
The overloaded circuit could cause a fire. A = Series circuit
B = Parallel circuit
Overloaded circuits also decrease the
voltage to all the loads. As the wire heats B
up, its resistance increases. The wire starts
acting like a load in series with the other
loads, and starts stealing electricity from all
the loads in the circuit. This is why the
oilburner should be wired with its own
individual circuits, not sharing the circuit
with any other loads.
Combination circuit Figure 8-10:

A
Oilheating systems use what is called a
combination circuit. The switches and limit
controls are in series with the primary
control. If any one of them opens, the 120 Volts
electric current to all the loads stops. All
loads are wired parallel to each other to
allow individual component control and to A = Series circuit
B = Parallel circuit
ensure full voltage is supplied to each load.
B
Safe capacity
for 120 volt circuits
To be sure you will not overload a 120 Volts
circuit, check the amps needed for each of
the loads connected to the circuit. This
information is on the label of the load. Add
up all the watts to be sure they are within
the safe capacity. The rated ampacity of
controls, switches, and conductors must be only flows in one direction, from the
followed. negative side of the battery through the
circuit to the positive side. Alternating
AC/DC current is what the electric company
Electric current is either direct current supplies. It changes direction, flowing back
(DC) or alternating current (AC). Direct and forth in the wire. Each back and forth
current typically comes from a battery. It change is called a cycle. In North America,

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
the electricity cycles 60 times a second, 120 Wiring diagrams

changes of direction. Wiring diagrams are sort of like road
The current delivers power to the load maps or blueprints that show us how a
no matter which way it is flowing. The circuit is designed. To install or service
voltage goes from and returns to zero 120 electrical equipment, you must be able to
times a second. A light bulb in an AC read the wiring diagram.
circuit glows dim and bright in just this One of the confusing things about
rhythm. wiring diagrams is that a complete circuit is
In a DC system, there are two kinds of always needed, and then the diagram starts
electrical chargespositive and negative. right out with a big space between the two
Positive is also referred to as hot and wires feeding the circuit. These two wires
negative as neutral. In an AC system, the are labeled + (positive or hot) and
switched line is referred to as hot (H) or - (negative or neutral), or as mentioned
L1 and the unswitched side is referred to as previously, they are now called L1 and L2
neutral (N) or L2. (Be careful: L2 is also (line 1 and 2). All three names mean the
labeled as the second hot leg in most same thing. When you see these labels, it
electric distribution panels. The L2 referred means there is a complete circuitwithout
to here is the neutral wire.) actually drawing it.
Separating electricity into two wires is If you follow L1 and L2 off to the left
called polarization. It is a way of making off the page, they go back to the circuit
sure the electricity goes where it is wanted. breaker, the main breaker, and all the way
You have probably noticed that most small to the big transformer hanging on the pole
in front of the building. From there they go
appliances have a wide blade and a thin
all the way back to the power plant. Just
blade on their plug. There is only one way
remember, the arrows on L1 and L2 are
you can plug these things in. This way the
pointing at the power plant, and they
appliances switch will control the hot wire,
represent a complete circuit. Figure 8-11.
not the neutral wire allowing for a safe
shut-off of current. If polarization is L1 is the electrically charged line that
reversed in heating systems, some controls causes electrical flow and L2 is the return
will appear to function normally, but the line home. The direction of flow is from
Figure 8-11: limit control will be interrupting the L1 to L2from charged to uncharged
L1 and L2 neutral. This is dangerous. pressurized to unpressurized.
point to the
power source Wires
Wire comes in many different sizes.
Wire sizes run from 0000 (4 naught, the
largest) to 40 (the smallest); the lower the
number, the fatter the wire. To size a wire,
consider the maximum voltage rating of the
wire and the amperage draw of all the loads
in the circuit.
The number of wires bundled together
in the wire sheathing (insulating jacket) is
printed on the sheathing after the wire

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
gauge number (14/2 and 14/3). Only MC cable is like BX, but with a green
insulated wires are counted, so 14/2 has a insulated grounding wire. Most codes
black, white, and a bare ground wire which require MC instead of BX for a sure
is not insulated and therefore not in the ground.
count. 14/3 has an added red wire. Ther-
Flexible metal conduit has no conduc-
mostat cables can have from two to seven
tors installed in it. The National Electrical
wires in them, depending on the added
Code specifies how it can be used and
functions of the thermostat (air condition-
how many conductors may be installed in
ing, humidifier, and fan functions.)
the conduit.
To make identification easier, the color-
coding of the wire insulation is standard- Switches
ized. Switches are used to stop the flow of
The spot where wires are joined together electricity. It is a simple idea; just cut the
or hooked to a control is the weakest link conductor and put an insulator (air)
in a circuit. Be very careful when making between the two cut pieces of the conduc-
these connections. All connections must be tor.
in a junction box or protected control box A switch is like a drawbridge installed
with clamps at the entrance and exit to be in the middle of a race course. Imagine
sure stress is not placed on connections if what would happen if during a race, you
the wires are pulled. suddenly opened the drawbridge, leaving a
If exposed to high heat or humidity, big hole in the track. All the cars would
connections may become dirty or corroded. stop; there would be no more current flow.
Always check exposed connectors (like the Thanks to the car brakes, the resistance
terminal block on primary controls), and would be very high but there would still be
always seal hidden connections with voltage. The cars would still have all that
electrical tape. Copper wire is recom-
mended for all oilburner wiring and is Did You Know?
required in some cases. When the switch is open, the
electricity flows out of the power
Armored cable source to the open switch. It can go
Any wiring around an oil-powered no farther. In a fraction of a second,
appliance should be protected by either the potential on the power side of
flexible metal conduit or armored cable. the switch reaches the same as the
There are two kinds of armored cable: BX potential from the power source,
and MC. and there is no further flow of
electricity. At the same time, the
BX has no ground wire. Its metal
potential on the other side of the
sheathing serves as the ground. Some
switch reaches the level from the
people mistake the thin metal bonding strip
other side of the power source, and
in the cable for a ground wire. The strip is
there is no current. When we close
easily broken and is used only to make a
the switch, the negative charge
conductive connection to a metal junction
instantly goes to the positive
box. Older BX used heavy steel sheathing.
potential on the other side and
Aluminum is now used because it is lighter,
electricity flows through the circuit.
easier to cut, and is a better conductor.

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
Figure 8-12:
Switching power available from the engines even if Another type of switch is a single pole
arrangements
they were not using it. double throw switch, or SPDT. This switch
(various setups)
is used to turn the electricity on or off in one
Electric switches open to stop the flow of
or the other of two separate circuits. This
electricity just like the drawbridge opens to
would be like a Y intersection. You can
stop the flow of traffic. Switches can be
decide to drive on one road or the other.
manually or automatically operated.
Some heat/cool thermostats have SPDT
For a switch to safely control a load on a switches.
typical oilheat system, it must be located in
Double pole single throw (DPST)
the source or hot line (L1), never in the
switches can make or break two separate
neutral line! Switches in the neutral line can
circuits at the same time. The two circuits
turn the load on and off but will not allow
being switched can be off the same voltage
work to be done on the load without the risk
or different voltages. This would be like a
of electric shock.
drawbridge that had a street and a railroad
There are many different kinds of track on it. The main breaker at the electric
switches. The most common switch is a panel is a DPST.
single pole, single throw switch, or SPST for
Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT)
short. They are either on or off. This is a
switches re-direct the power of two
swinging gate (or drawbridge) that can make
separate supply lines to two different
an air break in a conductor when it is open
circuits. See Figures 8-12.
and connect the break when it is closed. A
SPST switch turns everything in a single The contacts of automatically operated
circuit on and off. There can be many SPST switches in wiring diagrams are shown in
switches in one hot line. their normal (at rest) position when the unit

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
is not operating. Contacts on automatically opens on fall in the sensed condition, it is a

operated switches are classified as nor- reverse acting (RA) switch.
mally open (NO) or normally closed (NC).
The determination is made by the position Heat-only thermostats and high limits
of the contacts when the device is either not are direct acting switches since they open
energized or not sensing the condition it is on the rise in temperature. Cooling thermo-
designed to sense. stats, fan off switches in fan-limit controls,
low-water cutoffs, and reverse acting
Manual switches are operated by hand. aquastats are reverse acting because they
Examples of manual switches in oilburner open on the fall of the sensed condition.
circuits are the stair switch, the on/off
switch at the burner, the manual/auto fan
and thermostat switches and the reset
Timersbimetals
button on the primary control and motor. & warp switches
The reset button is an example of a manual As you will learn in the primary control
switch that also is switched automatically. chapter, one of the things an oilburner
circuit must do is shut itself off on safety
Automatic sensing switches respond to a in case flame is not established after the
change in conditions such as: temperature, burner has been energized.
pressure, flow, liquid level, light and
humidity. In many of these controls, there is a
timer switch that uses small electrical
Some switches open when the tempera- heaters in combination with bimetals.
ture, pressure, light, or liquid level rises Figure 8-13:
Figures 8-13 and 8-14 shows how it works.
and some open when one of these things Warp switch,
falls. If the switch makes (closes) on fall, A bimetal is composed of two different often used as a
this is called makes on fall or breaks strips of metal fused together. One end of safety switch in
controls
(opens) on rise. If a switch opens as a the strip is secured and a small electric
result of a rise in the sensed condition, this heater is placed under it. As it heats up, the Firgure 8-14:
Warp switch
is called a direct acting (DA) switch. If it two metals expand at different speeds. The locking burner
out on safety
Figure 8-13 Figure 8-14
Bimetal Bimetal
Spring
Heater Heater Spring
Reset
Button
Wires Contacts
Contacts Wires Spring Reset
Spring
Button
Insulators
Insulators
Contact Wires
Blades Contact Blades
Wires

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
through the wire. As electric current flows

through the wire, it creates a magnetic field
around the wire. A coil of wire creates a
stronger magnetic field than a straight wire.
The coil is called a solenoid. If an iron core
were placed inside the coils of a solenoid
and the solonoid is energized, the magnetic
field created magnetizes the iron core while
the current flows. This is an electromagnet.
See Figure 8-15.
Two factors affect the strength of an
electromagnet:
Figure 8-15: 1. The intensity of the current

Electromagnet one closer to the heater expands faster. in the coil.
Since the two pieces of metal are fused 2. The number of turns of wire
together and they are secured on one end, in the coil.
the quickly expanding piece of metal bends
away from the heat and makes the strip Electromagnets are rated in amp-turns.
warp. This is why it is called a warp
switch. Solenoid valves
To make a solenoid valve, an iron bar is
As you can see in the illustration, as the
placed into the center of a coil of wire and
bimetal warps, it releases the movable
electricity is sent through the wire. The
contact and the spring on the movable
electromagnetic force will pull and hold the
contact opens the circuit. This puts the
bar in the center of the coil. If a spring is
oilburner on safe and stops the flow of
attached to the iron bar (or valve stem), it
electricity to the heater, see Figure 8-15.
The only way to close this switch again is returns to its original position when the
to wait for the bimetal to cool and warp electricity is shut off. If a valve seat is put
back and then someone must push the on the end of the valve stem you have an
reset button to reset the moveable electrically operated valve. Figure 8-16.
contact under the lip of the
bimetal. Relay switches
Relays are electromag-
Electricity and netic switches found in
magnetism primary controls,
Electromagnetism operating controls, and
describes the relationship switching relays that
between electricity and use electromagnets to
magnetism. If you move a open and close. To
wire in a magnetic field, you create a magnetic field,
generate voltage if that wire is wrap a coil of wire
part of a complete electrical around a metal core. The
circuit. The generated voltage Figure 8-16: magnetic field magnetizes
will cause electric current to flow Solenoid valve the core and this electric

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
Movable Contact
Load L2
Spring
L1
Fixed Contact
To Control Circuit
Electromagnet Power Supply and
Switches
Figure 8-17:
Simple relay
magnet is used to open or close a switch The coil is usually energized by low
that is held in its normal position by a voltage. The switch can control either a
spring, see Figure 8-17. high or low voltage circuit. The working
limit of the switch is determined by the
The nice thing about this kind of amperage draw of the circuit it is control-
automatic switch is that low voltage wiring ling. Many relays are single pole double
can be used for the electric magnet and the throw switches, so you might have a low
switch that sends electricity through the voltage switch and a line voltage switch.
coil that can make or break a line voltage The way to keep track of all this is to label
switch. When the low voltage remote the coil with a number and a letter like 1K.
switch (thermostat) opens, the magnetism Then label the switch contacts controlled
immediately stops and the spring quickly by that coil 1K1 and 1K2.
returns the switch to its normal position.
This snap action reduces arcing as the Transformers
switch opens or closes. Transformers use electric power at one
voltage to produce an almost equal power
The biggest problem with relays is the
at another voltage. In our industry trans-
contacts. Dirty or corroded contacts add
formers operate on alternating current
resistance to the circuit, resulting in (AC); they are made of an iron core with
reduced voltage to the load, which can two separate wire coils wrapped around
create arcing that shortens the life of the two sides. The coil where the electricity
contacts. The good news is that most new goes in is the primary coil, and the coil
relays are enclosed in plastic to keep them where the electricity comes out is the
clean. A properly working relay will not secondary coil. Figure 8-18.
cause any voltage drop when closed.
Thanks to AC, the electric field in the
Relays are represented in wiring dia- primary coil pulses back and forth, causing
grams as the coil of wire and the switch. the magnetic field it creates to pulse back

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
and forth in the iron core causing the north magnetic field limits current flow by
and south poles to switch back and forth. pushing back against the source voltage.
This pulsating magnet field creates a
pulsing electric field in the secondary coil. Remember, current is not only caused by
voltage from the power source, it is caused
Step-down transformers have more by any electromotive force that acts upon
primary coils than secondary and reduce the conductor. As the electricity goes
voltage. Step up transformers have more through the coil of wire in the transformer
coils in the secondary coil and increase or solenoid, it creates a magnetic field that
voltage. There is no electrical connection resists the flow of electricity. It becomes a
between the primary and secondary coils. load. This is called this back emf because
The only connection between the two is the it counteracts the voltage (electromotive
magnetic field. force) from the power source.
When voltage is applied to the primary
coil, a magnetic field is generated which Motors
creates voltage in the secondary coil. The Motors turn electrical energy into
amount of voltage generated in the second- mechanical energy.
ary coil is determined by the ratio of coils
between the primary and secondary coils. If a permanent magnet is mounted on an
axle and placed between the opposite poles
Transformers are very efficient and can of two fixed magnets, the magnet on the
provide as much as 90% of the energy put axle will spin until its north pole faces the
into the primary side to the secondary side. south pole of the fixed magnet, and its
The small energy loss is due to the heating south faces north. (Like poles repel each
of the wires in the coils. other, opposites attract.)
Why are transformers If you could reverse the poles of the

and solenoids loads? fixed magnets just as the rotating magnet
The greater the current, the greater the was coming to a stop, it would force it to
magnetic field around the conductor. The turn another half circle until the opposite
poles lined up again. Figure 8-19.
Figure 8-18:
Basic design used If you make the fixed magnets electro-
in an iron core magnets every time the alternating current
transformer in the electromagnet changes direction the
poles in the magnet flip (north becomes
south and south becomes north) driving the
rotating magnet around again. It will keep
turning as long as the current in the fixed
magnets keep flipping. The fixed (station-
Primary Secondary ary) electromagnets are called the stator,
and the rotating magnet the rotor.
Measuring electricity
Since electricity can not be seen (except
for sparks), testing and measuring devices
are needed in order to properly trouble-
shoot heating and air conditioning systems.

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
To measure voltage (volts), amps (current), reading (range of value) you expect to get.
and ohms (resistance), you can buy a This way, you can pick which function to
device called a multimeter that lets you test use and which scale setting within that
all three. Your meter will come with function. To prevent damage to the meter,
directions on how to use it. Read and do this before connecting the meter.
follow those directions. Switching the function selection dial
while attached to a live circuit could
Using a multimeter damage your meter. Always discon-
The handiest device for electric testing nect the test leads or shut off the circuit
is the multimeter mentioned above. It can before changing the selection dial.
measure voltage, current and resistance.
Each function has a maximum and
You can buy analog meters that use a
minimum range. Exceeding the maximum
swinging needle to give you continuously
is dangerous to you and the meter. The
varying readings, or a digital meter that
closer you are to the middle range, the
gives readings with discrete numbers on a
more accurate your reading will be. Pick
screen. Digital meters are easier to read and
the range on the multi-position rotary
dont need to be zeroed out before use.
switch that gives you the most accurate
If you are reading a stable DC or AC reading while not exceeding the maximum
voltage or current, a digital meter is a good for the range. If you are not sure, always
thing. If you are measuring a slowly, start with the highest range and work your
varying current or voltage, a digital meter way down.
could be constantly refreshing itself,
Read your meters instructions to
making the display very hard to follow.
determine what the symbols on the dial
Before you can use your meter, you mean. The black lead should always be
Figure 8-19:
must decide what you want to measure (i.e. connected to the COM (common plug) Arrangements
voltage, current or resistance) and what jack. The position of the red lead varies of magnets to
create motion

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
with the different functions based on the the pressure is relative; that is, one point
symbols marked on your meter. must be measured against another.
Be careful how you treat your meter Electrical charge flowing from any
power source is at a high energy level;
Protect it from moisture and high
when it returns from the circuit, its energy
temperatures
is low. The power sources job is to boost
Replace worn or cracked test leads the energy level of the charge. The voltme-
When not in use store it in its case ter measures this change in charge (the
difference in energy level) through the
Check the battery for corrosion circuit.
Remove the batteries for long storage Somewhere in the circuit, the energy of
periods the flowing charge is converted into other
Do calibration checks against known forms by the load. When a light bulb is lit,
volts, amps, and ohms regularly the electric energy becomes heat and light.
To measure this conversion of energy
(change in charge), use a voltmeter. Figure
Measuring voltage
8-20.
A voltmeter is used to measure the
difference in electric pressure between two Remember, Voltage applied is voltage
points. Since a load creates a difference in used. Whatever voltage is applied to a
electric pressure (or force) as it does work, circuit will be used up by that circuit. This
Figure 8-20 is why measuring voltage is the best way to
find out if a circuit is working properly.
A voltmeter allows very little current to
go through it. It has very high resistance,
so it has almost no effect on the circuit
L1 being measured. When you connect the
leads from the voltmeter to two different
Volts, points in the circuit, it measures the
Open
Switch difference in potential (volts) between
those points. It tells you how much energy
Voltage
L2 Drop is being used between the points where the
two leads are touching the circuit.
To measure voltage, touch the one of the
voltmeters leads to each of the two wires
on either side of the load. This will
measure the voltage drop of that load.
L1
Voltage drop is the amount of electrical
energy that is being converted by that load.
Volts, If you touched the meter leads to L1 and
Closed L2, you would measure the voltage step-up
Switch
from the energy source.
L2 There will be no voltage drop across a
closed switch. The pressure drop across an

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
open switch will be the applied pressure of

the power source.
A voltmeter measures the difference in
electrical pressure or the potential differ-
ence in emf between two points in contact
with the test leads. Voltmeters are used in
parallel to whatever is being tested.
The two things to remember when
testing for voltage on a live circuit are:
There has to be resistance between the two Figure 8-21:
points being measured and there must be a Clamp-on
and neutral lines between the jaws you ammeter
complete circuit to make a zero reading
would get a zero reading even if there was
mean something.
current flowing in the wires. You can test
either the hot or neutral line, but not both
Measuring current at the same time. Since AC and DC
An ammeter measures the rate at which currents create different magnetic fields, be
the electric current flows from the power sure to set your meter for the current you
source, through the wire and load, and back are measuring.
to the source.
If the current you are measuring is too
There are two kinds of ammeters; in-line low for your meter to read accurately, you
and clamp-on. In-line ammeters are not can loop the wire around the jaws several
commonly used by service technicians in times to increase sensitivity. Just divide the
our industry. They are primarily used reading by the number of loops. Ten loops
during bench testing. is an easy number to use.
Figure 8-22
The clamp-on ammeter is easy to use. It
uses electromagnetic induction. Whenever
Clamp-on Ammeters
electricity flows through a wire, it creates a (Each Load is 100 ohms)
magnetic field around that wire. The
clamp-on ammeter converts the strength of
the magnetic field into a current reading.
To use a clamp-on ammeter, first pick L1
the correct scale (when in doubt start high)
then open the jaws of the meter, insert one
line between the jaws, close the jaws and
120 Volts
take a reading. This meter can be used
safely on a live circuit without disconnect-
ing the power since the magnetic field is
not affected by the wires insulation. See
L2
Figures 8-21 and 8-22.
Clamp over one line at a time because
the magnetic fields from each wire cancel
each other out. If you placed both the hot

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
To understand what your ammeter is will not be able to function normally and
measuring, you should know: the current draw might be less than the
listed rating.
The type of circuit
The design ampacity (current carrying Measuring resistance
capacity) of the components The ohmmeter is used to measure
The design current draw of the loads. resistance. It measures the resistance
between two points. It can measure just one
The design ampacity is usually marked load or a whole circuit.
on each component and must be higher
than the amp rating of the fuse protecting The ohmmeter has its own electric
that component. For example, a 15-amp source (a battery). Since it provides its own
fuse should protect components exposed to power, disconnect the circuit or device to
120 VAC. be tested from the power source. It mea-
sures the resistance between two points by
The design current draw of a load is applying a steady voltage from the meters
usually listed on the rating plate. The listed battery to a de-energized circuit or device.
design current draw, in amps, is for steady- Figure 8-23.
state normal operation. On start-up and
under increased motor load, there is a You can use the ohmmeter to see if
higher required torque and a slower theres is a complete circuit. This measure-
operating speed, the motor current will be ment is called continuity. If you touch one
higher. ohmmeter lead to a wire disconnected from
the power source going into a circuit and,
The surge current draw on initial start-
at the same time, touch one of the leads to
up of a motor may be four or five times its
the wire coming out of the circuit and there
normal current draw. Sometimes the surge
is no current returning to the meter, it
current draw is also listed on the rating
means the pathway between the two wires
plate.
is broken.
If a burner motor bearings are dry, or the
Figure 8-23: The ohmmeter will read infinite resis-
oil pump has rust in its gear set, the motor
Ohmmeter tance and there is no continuity. If, on the
readings other hand, 1 amp of current returns for
every volt applied to the circuit, there is no
resistance. The ohmmeter will read zero.
This is a short circuit. Any reading between
zero and infinite is the resistance to flow
for the circuit measured.
Unlike the voltmeter and ammeter, the
ohmmeter must never be connected to a
live circuit. It supplies its own power from
No resistance Measurable Infinite its battery, and it will be damaged if outside
(short) resistance resistance (open) current goes through it.
To use the ohmmeter, disconnect the
power supply and isolate the line or device

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
being tested from other paths back to the

source. Do this in case there is a capacitor
(a device that stores electricity) in the
circuit.
The ohmmeter must be zero adjusted L1
before every test. Just touch the two test
leads together creating a short circuit with Load Broken Load
zero resistance and use the zero adjustment Actually You Wanted
dial. Most digital meters automatically zero Tested to Test
adjust. If your meter will not read zero, the
battery is too weak and must be replaced.
L2
To test for resistance, disconnect L1 and
L2 (H and N wires) from the power source
and touch the two leads on either side of
Figure 8-24:
the component to be tested. If there is no Common
resistance the reading will be zero. If there putting out 10,000 volts and that can give ohmmeter reading
is no connection between the two points the you a dangerous and serious shock. Always error, isolate the
resistance will be infinity. The digital meter use proper test equipment. load to be tested
will read OL (overload). A reading between
Be sure to verify that all capacitors are
zero and the maximum scale setting is the
fully discharged before touching or
resistance between the connected points.
working on them. To safely discharge a
Not only must you isolate the circuit to capacitor you will need a 20,000 ohm 5
be tested from the source, it must also be watt resistor, two insulated screwdrivers
isolated from the rest of the circuit. Other- and two jumper wires with alligator clips
wise, you will get a false reading from the on both ends. Figure 8-25. Connect one
resistance of another load in a branch jumper wire clip to one wire of the resistor
parallel circuit. Figure 8-24. and clip the other jumper wire to the other Figure 8-25: Safely
resistor wire. Connect the clips on the discharging a
Electrical safety capacitor
Electricity can be dangerous. It can
create three hazards: fire, skin burns, and
shock. Shock can cause muscle spasms,
unconsciousness and even death.
Proper installation of all electrical
equipment is essential. The National
Electric Code sets the standards. Local
communities can make this code law, and in
addition, they can make their own codes
even more restrictive.
A common, but dangerous practice, is
testing the oilburner ignition transformer
with a screwdriver. The transformer is

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
opposite ends of both When you are working on electricity,

The lower jumper wires to different remove all metal objects such as watches
the wire screwdrivers, hold the and jewelry from your hands and wrists.
number, the handles of the screwdrivers Until you are absolutely sure a circuit is
bigger the
wire and the and touch the blades to shut off, only use one handkeep the other
more amps it opposite terminals of the in your pocket. This prevents the electric
can carry. capacitor. pathway from going from one hand to the
other hand through your heart. Be sure to
Electric energy needs a
replace any damaged or frayed wires,
pathway from the source
protect wires from touching moving
and back to the source. If
equipment, and keep them clear of walk-
you do your job, this
ways.
pathway is our electric circuit.
Any wet object has enough minerals in Fire
the water to provide an alternate pathway. Every wire has resistance and converts
The human body is over 50% water, and some electrical energy into heat. When
when the skin is damp it will provide a current flows, the wire warms up and keeps
good pathway back to the source if there is getting hotter until it reaches steady state
not an easier one. Never allow your body where the heat it loses to its surroundings
to be that pathway! Always consider all equals the heat being created. If there is too
electrical components to be energized until much current being drawn by the loads in a
you test and prove they are not. circuit, the steady state temperature of the
Testing Review
Multimeter Tips
Voltmeter:
Touch one lead from the meter to one side of the load or circuit to be tested and one to
the other so the meter is parallel to what you are testing. This test is done on a live circuit.
The reading is the difference in voltage from the spot where one lead is touching to the
spot where the other is touching.
Ammeter:
Now, energize the circuit and the meter will tell you the amps traveling to that load
or circuit. The clamp on ammeter is much easier and less intrusive to use. Close the
clamp around the single wire you wish to test while the circuit is energized and it will tell
you the amps flowing through that wire. The meter will read the amps through the wire
cover, so this test need not be done on bare wire.
Ohmmeter:
Disconnect the hot and neutral wires from the power source and discharge any
capacitors that may be in the circuit to be tested. The ohmmeter supplies its own power.
Touch the leads from the meter to the wires you have disconnected from the power
source and the meter will show the resistance of that circuit or load.

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
wire may be dangerously hot, creating a Amount of current

fire. This is called an overloaded circuit.
Type of voltage (AC or DC)
Common causes of overloads are:
The path the electricity takes through
Too many devices on the circuit
the body
Devices working harder than they
Amount of voltage
are supposed to
Time duration of the shock
Damaged or worn out devices
Condition of the skin
Current surge when a motor starts
To protect from shock, electricity must
A short circuit causes a sudden exces-
be kept in the wire. Install the circuits so
sive draw well beyond the capacity of the that in case the electricity escapes, it does
circuit. It happens if the resistance of the no harm.
loads is removed, or there is a direct
unrestricted current flow to ground, A shock is when an electric current
conductors touching grounded metal, or the passes through the body, causing spastic
source conductor is touching neutral. contraction of muscles. If it goes through
the heart, it may kill.
Fuses and circuit breakers Shocks happen when you touch a wire
To protect against any circuit carrying carrying lots of volts and some other part
too much current, every circuit needs a fuse of your body is touching something at
or circuit breaker. It is wired in series so all ground potential. Bare feet, especially
the current in the circuit goes through it. when wet, are very dangerous. A dry
These are automatic switches that open if human body is pretty resistant to electric
the current goes higher than their rating. flow, but a sweaty or otherwise wet one is a
very good conductor. Rubber soled shoes
Fuses are one time only devices. When
insulate your body from ground and
they blow, they must be replaced. Circuit
prevent the formation of a complete circuit.
breakers can be reset and used repeatedly.
Never used an oversized fuse or circuit Good insulation keeps the electricity
breaker; this defeats the purpose of the fuse inside the wire, but insulation may crack
or breaker and may create a dangerous with age or high temperature and may also
situation. You should find out why the wear off if it is touching a moving part. So
circuit is drawing too many amps, causing even if it was wired right at first, with age
the fuse or breaker to open. it may go bad and let electricity leak out,
presenting a shock hazard.
Shock protection To be sure that the electricity has an easy
The electric shock from a 120-volt way to get home without going through
circuit is dangerous and can be fatal. A you, install a ground fault protection
shock occurs when a person becomes part system (GFI- Ground Fault Interrupter).
of an electric circuit. The severity of shock Grounding provides a direct low resistance
depends upon: path from the circuit to ground.

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
For example, suppose the insulation on box. If you can, try to trace all the wires
the wire inside a burner motor cracks and going into the box to see if more than one
the wire is touching the motor case. If you goes back to the service panel. The goal is
kneel down on a damp floor to work on the to shut off all the electric wires going to
burner and you touch the motor with your that box before removing the cover.
hand, the current could flow through your
If this is not possible then treat the wires
body into the floor, and over to the ground
in the box as if they were hot. While
rod from the house servicea complete
holding the cover plate, use an insulated
circuit. This is a dangerous situation. To
screwdriver to carefully loosen the screws
stop this from happening, run a ground
(bare copper or green) wire from the burner and ease off the plate. To test for power,
back to the ground rod. use only one hand to gently pull out the
wires so all connections are at least an inch
This pathway will offer much less apart. Unscrew the wire nuts and use your
resistance to the electricity than your body meter to test for voltage.
and the cellar floor and the current will go
that way. Electricity is lazy; it will always Watch out for overcrowded
go the easiest way, the path of least resis- junction boxes
tance. Figure 8-26. Too many wires jammed into too small
All electric codes including the NEC a box can cause shorts.
National Electrical Codecall for careful Check for old and cracked insulation.
grounding. Connections from one wire to
another must be enclosed in insulation. Confirm polarization. White wires go
Every switch, outlet, and appliance must be to silver terminals. Black goes to brass. Be
protected. All these devices should be sure there is only one wire hooked to each
connected to each other by grounding wires terminal.
connected to a rod driven 10 feet into the
Check armored cable connectors. The
earth. The ground wire is the third prong
cut end of the metal cable can be sharp. To
on plug-in devices.
prevent the wire insulation from being cut
To protect us, the ground wire must go be sure protective plastic bushings are
from the load back to the panel without any installed at the cable ends.
breaks. The best way to check this is to
touch one lead from your voltmeter to the Safety tips
either the hot or neutral wire and one to the The Occupational Safety and Health
ground wire. If the ground is good you will Administrations (OSHA) electric safety
get the same reading as you would from regulations require that anyone doing
hot to neutral. electrical repairs must receive safety
training. They also require that employers
Stay on the lookout must adopt safe electrical work practices
for potential problems
and that a lock out tag out must be used for
When troubleshooting a circuit, electric
hard-wired equipment that is de-energized.
junction boxes often must be opened. This
can be dangerous. Sometimes wires from The key to safety is to know the dangers
more than one circuit might be hiding in a of electricity and how to avoid hazards.

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
Figure 8-26

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
The following are some safety tips:

Shut off the power! Lock out
tag out
Stay focused! Even after turning off
the power, work as if the wires are live.
Post a sign on the electric panel and
remote switch so no one will turn on the
power while you are working on the circuit.
Always check to be sure that the
equipment being used is grounded.
Always use insulated tools and be sure
the insulation is in good condition. Use
electrical tape on wire nuts and connec-
tions for added protection.
Water on the floor is a good conduc-
torwhen working in wet areas, be sure to
use protective equipment like rubber-soled
shoes.
Do not overload electrical circuits.
should remove locks and tags is the person
Use extra caution with extension
who put them there.
cords. Their insulation can be cut, and they
can be overloaded leading to increased To do a lock out tag to OSHAs satisfac-
danger. tion, a lockout device and tag stating not to
remove the lock should be placed over the
Inspect heating equipment before
circuit breaker, fuse box, or switch that will
starting repair to be sure it is de-energized.
prevent a person from energizing the
When inspecting a circuit, keep one circuit.
hand in your pocket to prevent hand-to-
It is difficult to put a lock on a stair
hand shock.
switch. As an alternative to locking out a
piece of equipment, tag outs can be used if
Lock out tag out it will provide an equivalent level of safety.
This procedure is used to be sure that no
one turns on a switch and energizes OSHA indicates that shutting off the
electrical equipment while you are working equipment in two places will provide such
on it. Use a tag or lock connected to the equivalence. For example, if you shut off
switch or circuit breaker to let other people the circuit breaker and emergency switch at
know you turned it off on purpose and you the top of the stairs and stick a note on both
want it to stay off. The only person who of them you have met the requirement.

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
Obviously this procedure is very Strip about three quarters of an inch of

important if the circuit breaker and remote insulation from the wire end. Then using
switch are in different rooms than the long nose pliers grab the wire just above
equipment you are working on. You do not the insulation and bend it back at about a
want some helpful person thinking they 45-degree angle. Move the pliers up
found the problem with the heater and about a quarter inch from the
turning on the breaker in the other room insulation and bend again in the
while you are hooking the black wire from opposite direction about 90
the primary control to the L1 wire. degrees to start a loop. Now
move the pliers another quarter
Practical tips inch and bend the wire into a
Splicing wires question mark?. Leave an
To splice wires first strip the wires with opening in the end just big
a wire-stripping tool. (Dont use a knife; it enough for the terminal
might nick the wire, reducing its electric screw. (You can buy a wire-
carrying capacity.) Slip the wire into the bending screwdriver to
correct hole in the stripper, squeeze, twist, make this job easier.)
and pull off the insulation. Figure 8-28.
Next hold the stripped wires together Make sure the terminal screw is un- Figure 8-28:
Strap and
and grab the ends with linemans pliers. screwed far enough, and then slip the loop wrap wire
Twist clockwise, making sure all wires over the screw threads, with the loop
turn. Twist them together like a candy cane running clockwise. Use the long nose pliers
into a neat looking spiral. Now snip off the to squeeze the loop around the terminal,
end leaving enough exposed and then tighten the screw.
Figure 8-27:
Wire nut metal so the wire nut will
just cover it. (About a half You should never attach two or more
inch is good.) Now slip on wires to one terminal screw. To make a
an appropriately rated wire multiple connection, make a pigtail wire
nut as far as it will go and by cutting a six-inch length of wire, strip
turn it clockwise until both ends, splice the multiple wires to one
tight, Figure 8-27. Finally end, and then attach the other end to the
wrap electrical tape around terminal screw.
the bottom of the nut and wires.
Hooking wires to a terminal Armored cable
Before you start, many devices come To cut armored cable, bend it about one
with the terminal screws unscrewed. Screw foot from the end and squeeze the bend
in any terminal screws for terminals you until the armor breaks apart slightly. If you
are not going to use. Now you are ready to have trouble, use a pair of channellocks to
hook up your wires. squeeze the wire. Figure 8-29.

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
Grasp the cable firmly on each side of Now attach the clamp (connector) to the
the break and twist the waste end clockwise cable. Remove the lock nut from the armor
until the armor comes apart enough for you cable clamp and slide the clamp down over
to slip in cutters. If you have trouble doing the bushing as far as it will go. Then
this with your hands, use two pairs of tighten the screw.
pliers.
Finally remove the knockout from the
Cut through one rib of the armor with a junction box, and poke the wire and
pair of side-cutting pliers. Slide the waste connector into the hole. Slide the locknut
armor off the wires. Remove the paper over the wires, and thread it onto the cable
wrapping and plastic strips. Leave the thin clamp. Use a hammer and screwdriver to
metal bonding strip alone. Use side-cut tap the locknut tight.
pliers to trim away pointed ends of the
sheathing that could nick a wire.
The next step is to slip the plastic
bushing over the wires. Slide it Cut Here
down into the armor so it protects
the wires from the sharp edges of
the armor. If there is a bonding
Bend and
strip, cut it to about two inches and Squeeze
Twist
wrap it over the bushing and around Clockwise
the armor to ensure conductive
Snip and
contact between the armor and the Remove,
Bonding Strip Trim Sharp
box.
Ends
Option: If you plan to do a great
deal of wiring, you might want to Figure 8-29:
Bushing Cutting
buy an armored wire cutter to speed
armored cable
up this job.
Basic Concepts about Electric Circuits
Electricity must have a complete path Resistance is the opposition to flow

from an electrical source through a load and measured in ohms or pressure drop.
back to the source.
A load offers resistance to an electrical current.
Conductors offer less resistance to electric It determines the current draw for any voltage applied.
current than insulators.
The load will only draw enough current to
Voltage is the electrical pressure difference overcome that resistance.
between two points in a circuit that causes
Voltage applied is voltage consumed.
electricity to flow.
It takes one volt to push one amp
Current is the rate of flow as measured
through one ohm.
in amps.

Chapter 8
Basic Electricity
field. Some of the electrons are at the back of the end zone.
In case you are interested The electrons have almost no mass, but they carry a
negative charge equal to the positive charge of the proton.
In this chapter we have talked about what electricity So a neutral atom has as many electrons in the space
does. We have not really covered what it is. That is surrounding the nucleus as it has protons inside it. The
because electricity can be confusing. However, some of electrons are held close to the nucleus by the electric force
you might be wondering what electricity actually is. So for of attraction between opposite charges.
those brave souls who want to know more, read on. If you
In different kinds of atoms, the electrons farthest from the
are already hopelessly confused, you can stop reading
nucleus may be bound strongly or weakly. The ones that
now.
allow their electrons to escape easily are called conduc-
Everything contains electrically charged particles, both tors. The atoms that hang on tight to their electrons are
positive and negative. These particles make up the atoms insulators.
that are the building blocks for everything in the universe.
The flow of free electrons in a conductor is what we call
Atoms are really, really small. It would take several million
electric current. If you throw a switch to turn on a lamp five
of them, lined up, to reach across the dot at the end of this
feet away, it takes 40 minutes for the little electrons to fight
sentence. Each atom is electrically neutral because it
their way through the conductor from the switch to the lamp.
contains equal amounts of positive and negative charge.
What turns on the lamp right away is a pulse, each electron
The positive charge of an atom is in the center, called pushing those ahead of it until the pulse reaches the lamp.
the nucleus. The nucleus is made of protons that have a The pulse travels almost at the speed of
positive charge and neutrons that have no charge. The light.
number of protons determines what kind of material the
If you are feeding the lamp with
atom is. For example, hydrogen has one proton, and
AC, it is not a pulse that travels but
oxygen has eight.
a wave. Each electron vibrates
Circling around the outside of the nucleus are elec- back and forth, passing its energy
trons. They are sort of like planets circling around the sun. along to the next, just like molecules
As in the solar system, there is a lot of empty space. The of air passing a sound wave or water
nucleus is like a marble sitting in the middle of a football in the ocean passing a wave.

00 Customer Service
Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
Introduction where from 14,000 to 20,000 volts peak.

The completely automatic electric
Both components supply this high
ignition system is an important part of
voltage electricity to the electrodes. A
oilburner technology. There are two
spark jumps from the tip of one electrode to
different main components used for
the tip of the other. The electrical arc then
ignition systems on oilburners: the ignition
transformer and the solid state ignitor. ignites the atomized oil.
The ignition transformer is a step-up Lets examine the various components

transformer using copper windings around of the ignition system shown in Figure 9-1.
an iron core. It steps up the incoming The voltage travels from the transformer
voltage of 120 volts to an output voltage of or ignitor through the ignition cables, buss
10,000 volts. This is accomplished by a 90 bars, or spring clips to the electrodes which
to 1 primary to secondary winding ratio are held in place by the ceramic insulators
around the iron core. (porcelains). When it reaches the tips of the
The solid state ignitor utilizes electron- electrodes it jumps the gap between them,
Figure 9-1:
ics to produce an output voltage of any- creating our spark. Ignition system
components
Ignition Electrode Ignition

Cable Bracket Electrode
Ceramic
Insulator
Ignition
Transformer
Chapter 9Ignition Systems 9-3

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
Oilburners use one of two types of higher with intermittent ignition because
electric ignition control systems: the spark burns nitrogen, creating NOx.
Interrupted ignition: the ignition spark
remains on for only a short time at the A strong spark
beginning of each burner operating cycle, The spark across the electrode gap at the
and is turned off once flame is established. tips of the electrodes must be strong
enough to withstand the velocity of the air
Intermittent ignition: the spark that
being blown through the air tube by the
ignites the oil vapors remains on as long as
burner fan. The air being blown through
the burner runs. Intermittent ignition used
the air tube forces the ignition spark to
to be called constant ignition, and some
form an arc toward the oil spray. This arc
manufacturers call intermittent ignition
extends into the spray causing the oil
constant duty ignition.
vapors to ignite, and the flame to establish.
The ignition voltage must be high enough
Interrupted ignition to create a spark that is hot enough to ignite
is better the oil. In some cases, widening the spark
Over time, the industry has switched will produce better ignition.
between interrupted and intermittent
ignition. Interrupted ignition has proven The transformer
superior because having the spark on The AC transformer is a device that
during the entire burn cycle detracts from receives electricity at one voltage and
performance for several reasons: delivers it at another voltage, either higher
Electrode life is significantly reduced. or lower.
Ignitor or ignition transformer life is Essentially, the transformer consists of

significantly reduced. two separate coils of wire wound on an
iron core. One winding receives the
Electrical consumption is increased electrical energy from the power source
dramatically. and is called the primary; and the other
Operational noise in increased delivers electrical energy and is called the
dramatically. secondary. If the secondary winding
delivers a voltage that is higher than the
Intermittent ignition may hide primary, then it is known as a step-up
combustion problems that can cause soot- transformer. On the other hand, if the
plugged boilers and oil running saturation. secondary voltage is lower than the primary
The constant arc keeps the flame burning voltage, then it is known as a step-down
even if it is belching smoke, soot, and transformer.
unburned oil. With interrupted ignition, a
The factor that determines whether a
poor flame goes out and the unit would go
transformer is of the step-up or step-down
on safety.
variety is the relative number of turns in
NOx (nitrogen oxide) emissions are the primary and in the secondary windings.
9-4 Ignition Systems

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
Figure 9-2:
Step-up transformers are used for ignition Transformer wiring
purposes on oilburners.
Generally, it will be found that ignition
transformers are made up of 90 to 100
Iron Magnetic
turns of fine wire in the secondary coil to Core Field
one turn of stout wire in the primary coil.
In the example, you will note there are
60,000 turns in the secondary and 690 turns
in the primary coil, a ratio of about 90 to
1. In Figure 9-3 on following page, we can Primary
Secondary
see what the ignition transformer looks like E = 115V
1 1
Transformer Wiring
E = 10,000 V
2
with its outer case removed. I = 23 ma
2
As voltage increases,
amps decrease
This is a good time to explain a most
important characteristic of transformers,
see Figure 9-2. The rule: If the voltage (E)
flowing out of a transformer is increased,
the current, or amperage (I), is always
decreased proportionately. For instance, if
the voltage is doubled, the current will be
cut in half. In the case of the transformer in
our example, the primary voltage of 115
volts is increased 90 times to 10,000 volts
in the secondary coil, where the current
flow (I2) is 23 milliamperes, which is 23/
1000ths of one ampere. Although not
shown in the example, the current flowing
in the primary coil can be determined by
multiplying .023 x 90, or about 2 amperes,
which is average for ignition transformers. Warning! All high voltage circuits, especially AC
This can be proven in the field by checking circuits, are potentially hazardous. Depending on the
amperage in the primary circuit with an size of the person, contact area and time, and voltage
amperage meter. characteristics (magnitude, frequency, and path),
electric shock can occur and cause bodily damage,
Moisture proofing burns, or death. Use extreme caution at the input or
It is important that both the primary and output end of an ignition transformer!
secondary coils of the ignition transformer

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
Secondary Primary
Coil No.1 Coil No.1
Secondary
Lead Direction of
Magnetic Flux
Laminated Steel
Magnetic Shunt
Secondary
Lead
Laminated
Steel Core
Mid Point of
Coils Grounded Secondary Primary
Here Coil No. 2 Coil No. 2
Figure 9-3:
Construction
of an ignition
transformer are covered with a tar-like compound, 3. The style of transformer high tension
whereas solid state ignitors feature epoxies clips
which serve the purpose of moisture 4. Secondary coil voltage
proofing the device. Epoxy, by its very
nature, is somewhat more resistant to 5. Primary coil voltage
moisture and acts as an excellent corrosion 6. Transformer body size
inhibitor and heat conductor.
Wiring ignition
If you must replace transformers
a transformer Wire the ignition transformer into the
When ordering replacement transform- burner circuit as follows:
ers, several facts must be known:
For intermittent ignition, attach a wire
1. The size of the mounting base and from the transformer or ignitor to the
location of mounting holes neutral wire, and the other wire to the
2. The position of high tension orange motor wire from the primary
terminals control. See Figure 9-4 for wiring a

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
Figure 9-4:
Wiring a primary
intermittent
igntion
Control Toggle Stair

Switch Switch Switch
Thermostat Cad Cell
primary intermittent ignition
(the spark is on whenever the
Fuse
motor is on).
High
For interrupted Limit
Switch
ignition, you need a primary
control built for this purpose.
Attach one wire from the
transformer or ignitor to the Low
Water
neutral wire and the other wire Cutoff
to the ignition wire or terminal Cad Cell Relay
Primary Control
on the primary control. Black
See Figure 9-5 for wiring a White
primary control interrupted Orange
ignition (the spark shuts off once

flame is established). Burner Ignition
Motor Transformer
Figure 9-5:
Wiring a primary control
interrupted ignition
Thermostat
Jumper
Legend: Screw Terminal " Quick Connect Terminal
Power Supply, Provide Disconnect Means

and Overload Protection as Required
Optional Feature on Selected Models
Refer to Device Label for Wire Color Code
Valve is Optional on Specific Models
See Figure 2
To
Remote
Cad
Alarm
Cell
Circuit
Junction
Box

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
Drawbacks to iron core This translates to approximately 9,000 volts

ignition transformers and about 19 MA short circuit current. A
An ignition transformer does just what it 10,000 volt 23 MA transformer only has a
claims to doit transforms voltage. There small margin of error built into it, and can
is a single copper winding on the primary be a problem.
side for every 90 to 100 windings on the
secondary side and that is how it transforms A few facts
voltage. This becomes a problem when Ignition transformers are insulated
input voltage drops. For every one volt you with tar. Tar can melt with heat and the tar
remove from the primary side, you remove oozes from the transformer and typically
ninety volts from the secondary side. The deposits on the combustion head assembly,
ignition of the atomized oil is not a result making for a nasty clean-up.
of the spark, but rather the result of the
heat generated from the spark. An ignition transformers tar-covered
windings are susceptible to moisture
Remember, the ability of an ignitor to infiltration. Moisture infiltration will cause
ignite oil depends on more than just high an immediate shorting of the component.
voltage; it depends on arc output as well!
Spark heat energy = voltage times current. Electrical consumption with an
You must provide between 600-700 ignition transformer is typically 80 to 100
Fahrenheit to ignite atomized No.2 fuel oil. watts of electricity. This is the approximate
equivalent to a 100 watt light bulb turned
on over the burner when the transformer is
running.
Note: 9,000 volts by itself is not what
is required to ignite oil; 9,000 volts is Finally, ignition transformers deterio-
considered sufficient to create an arc rate over time. During this deterioration,
across the air gaps between the they cause delayed ignition problems that
electrode tips normally used in oil- worsen until, finally, the transformer can no
burners. The secondary current longer light the atomized oil.
flowing through the arc heats the air
and lights the oil. The important factor Transformer testing
in creating an arc is voltage; the
Over the years, there have been many
important factor in igniting the oil is
and various methods of testing transform-
current. This is why Underwriters
ers. Regardless of the method used, one
Laboratory (UL) requires 10,000 V
thing must be kept in mind and that is to be
ignition transformers to have a short
sure the transformer has the correct input
circuit current of at least 19.5 MA
voltage to the primary coil. This is very
(11.6 MA across a 1/8" air gap). Most
important because the output of the
10,000 V ignition transformers our
transformer is relative to the input voltage.
industry uses are rated for 23 MA.
In other words, if the input is down by
10%, the output will also be 10% lower.

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
transformer. You should get a

Figure 9-6: One of reading of 3 ohms, plus or
several transformer minus 10% (2.7 through 3.3
testers available ohms). If your reading is
higher or lower, you should
replace the transformer.
3. Test the secondary side
of the transformer. Touch one
of your ohmmeter leads to a
secondary terminal and the
other to a mounting screw or
ground. You should get a
reading of 12,000 ohms plus or
minus 10% (10,800 through
13,200).
Several types of transformer testers are Then perform the same test from the other
available, Figure 9-6. These testers are secondary terminal to a mounting screw or
dependable and usually come in their own ground; you should read approximately the
carrying case with all the instructions. The same. If you get a higher or lower reading
one shown will also act as a backup that varies widely, you should replace the
transformer and can be left on the job as a transformer.
temporary solution and this can be espe- The following table is used with this
cially helpful with older obsolete burners. procedure for specific brands:
When using any one of these testers, read
the instructions for that particular tester
Trade Brand Primary Leads Secondary Posts
because competitive units will operate (each post to ground)
differently.
Allanson 2.4 ohms 9,200 ohms
Dongan 3 ohms 12,000 ohms
Resistance testing France 3 ohms 12,000 ohms
Another test for iron-core transformers

is to check the quality of the windings
using an ohmmeter. The following proce- Solid state oilburner
dure is used: ignition systems,
1. Turn the power to the unit off.
electronic ignitors
Manufacturers are now mostly using
Disconnect the primary leads from the
solid-state electronic ignitors. These units
circuit.
are known for their small size, light
2. Test the resistance across the primary weight, and starting power. They may be
winding. Attach the test leads from your for dedicated use on a particular type of
ohmmeter to the primary leads of the burner and are also available in generic

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
versions for retrofit applications,

depending on the mounting plate
Figure 9-7:
used. Output voltages of between Ignitors
14,000 volts and 20,000 volts
peak with amperages between 16
MA to 45 MA respectively, on the
secondary coil, are considered
normal, Figure 9-7.
A solid state ignitor is a radical
departure from the traditional
ignition transformers commonly
used on oilburners. Solid state
ignitors eliminate transformer
design shortcomings. Ignitors
utilize a solid state printed circuit board rate measurement and may harm the ignitor
with what is called a tank mechanism. and tester. Testing electronic ignitor
This technology allows the ignitor to have systems is different from testing ignition
a more constant output if the input voltage transformers because ignitors utilize a high
decreases. Therefore, we have fewer frequency output. The cycling operations
problems with voltage drops. of a solid state ignition system are 20,000
Ignitors are insulated with epoxy, not times per second. Standard AC transformers
tar. Epoxy is virtually resistant to heat and cycle at 60 times per second. This is the
will not melt on the combustion head reason you cannot test a solid state ignitor
assembly. This same epoxy makes the with a standard ignition transformer tester.
ignitor virtually impervious to moisture. The testing of electronic ignitors is more
Electrical consumption from an ignitor is complicated than testing the iron-core
30 to 50 watts, much less than the trans- transformer. Before you perform any of
former. Ignitors are made from solid state these tests, make sure the manufacturer
electronic components and are truly approves of the test, and be extra careful
ignition control systems. not to directly short the terminals without a
spark between them. In many cases, it will
short out the ignitor and destroy its internal
Testing electronic
circuitry. Keep in mind that ignitors are not
ignitor systems merely a pair of coils, but rather a complex
Since these units contain solid-state
electronic device made up of several
devices such as transistors, their trouble-
electronic circuits and components.
shooting and servicing should be done to
manufacturers recommendations. Do not The first basic test for ignitors is to place
use a transformer tester to test electronic an ohmmeter across the ignitor output
ignitors. Doing so will give you an inaccu- terminals with the power off and measure

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
the resistance from each ignitor post to former output terminals to within
ground, Figure 9-8. Normally, the ignitor to of an inch apart. Place a
is considered good if the resistance from milliammeter in series with the hot
each post to ground has no more than a line going to the ignitor and turn it
10% difference between posts. Each on, Figure 9-10. Again, the reading
manufacturer is different and they should should stay steady and not vary for
at least five minutes with a strong
blue spark throughout the test while
Figure 9-8: Ohmmeter test
staying within 10% of the rated
amperage draw for the device.
Cables, buss bars,

spring clips
In order to transport the high Figure 9-9:
voltage from the secondary terminals of the Spark test
ignition transformer, an effective and
efficient path must be provided to the
ignition electrodes. This path may be an
ignition cable, buss bars, or spring type
conductors.
Ignition cables are normally constructed
of heavy stranded copper wire covered with Figure 9-10:
be consulted for the proper output range special heavy insulation to insulate against Milliammeter
and differential. Its also important that you dampness, and ensure
verify continuity between the ignitor case transmission around,
ground and true ground. over, or under any other
conducting surface
Another test that is approved by most
between the transformer
manufacturers is to bring the ignitor output
location and the elec-
terminals to within to of an inch apart
trodes. The outstanding
and turn on the power, Figure 9-9. A
feature of ignition cables
strong blue spark should be generated.
is flexibility, permitting
Another trick is to let it spark for a few
easy handling, bending
minutes, five to ten in most cases, and see
and installation in any
if the spark changes from blue to orange;
burner. Some nozzle
if it does change, replace it.
assemblies are equipped
Finally, you can check both electronic with clips to hold the
ignitors and iron-core transformers with a flexible cable off the
common test. Bring the ignitor or trans- bottom of the burner air

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
tube, especially when the air tube is long; if of the porcelains and electrodes so that,
they are provided, use them. after adjustment, they cannot shift from
vibration or other causes and alter their
Buss bars are non-insulated heavy gauge
strips of metal that are made by the position. In many cases, the electrode
oilburner manufacturer to the length and holder is incorporated with the air spinner
shape to fit a certain model of burner; they or turbulator.
are not interchangeable with other models.
Spring clips are similar to buss bars, Electrode testing
except that contact with the transformer is and setting
maintained by spring tension. After some Figure 9-12 shows one method for
time, these clips can lose their tension and testing the porcelain insulator of an
prevent proper and desired contact. They electrode for spark leakage. A neon test
should be checked whenever the burner is lamp, with one probe touching the ceramic
serviced. insulator, the other end of the test lamp
free, is shown. By moving the one end of
Electrodes the test lamp over the surface of the
porcelain, it can be easily determined
Electrodes are metal rods made of
whether or not the ceramic insulator is
specialized steels, and partially covered
with a ceramic (porcelain) insulator,
Figure 9-11. These insulators are usually Figure 9-12:
made in two major external diameters Electrode test
(7/16" and 9/16"). As we can see in Do Not Touch
Figure 9-13, these porcelains come in
various lengths. They may be ordered in
individual lengths 4" to 30", or they may
be sized on the job through the use of a
special tool for cutting the porcelain
Figure 9-11: insulator. Neon Test
Electrodes
The porcelains serve two
purposes: They securely
position the electrode rods and Porcelains
they serve as insulators, Wire
protecting the metal rod
against shorting out to the
nozzle assembly. These
insulators are center bored to
fit the metal electrode rods, cracked. If the insulator is defective, the
either 1/8" or 3/32" in neon test lamp will glow when the probe
diameter. reaches the defect.
Electrode holders permit Figure 9-13 is a setting for electrodes
secure and correct mounting when one is not available from the manu-

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
facturer. The recommendations

of the burner manufacturer 5/32" Gap
should be followed whenever
they are available. Electrode tips
5/16" Above
should never be permitted to Center
touch or extend into the oil
spray, because a carbon bridge
will build up between them,
ultimately causing ignition
failure.
Ceramic insulators should 1/16" In Front of
always be treated gently. They Nozzle
should never be dropped or
packed loosely in service kits. Figure 9-13:
In field servicing, they should always be transformer terminal porcelain insulators Typical generic
wiped clean with a cloth, or cleaned with a are not crazed (small cracks on surface), setting
solvent. If they show signs of aging or cracked, or oil soaked.
cracking, they should be replaced immedi- It is important that all exposed metallic
ately. components of the ignition system be a safe
distance away from any other metallic part
Ignition service problems of the burner, since it is grounded. The
Correcting faulty ignition is important. shortest metal-to-metal distance throughout
Delayed or faulty ignition is the prime the entire ignition system should be that
cause of puffback. Puffback is the most distance between the two electrode tips.
disagreeable of all burner problems. It Common sense tells us that any other
occurs when ignition is delayed. Due to arrangement would cause the spark to short
out before the spark bridges the electrode
some fault in the ignition system, the oil
tips. The best way to avoid this problem is
vapor does not ignite until after the burner
to strictly adhere to the recommended
has run for some time. Then the accumu-
electrode tip settings as shown in the
lated vapors all ignite at once, creating
manufacturers recommendations.
more combustion products than the venting
system can handle. Delayed ignition can
cause soot to blow out of the draft regula-
tor, and in severe casescalled puff
Troubleshooting
backsit can knock down the flue pipe.
ignition problems
1. Connections at transformer
Ignition problems are usually the easiest junction box loose. Always check line
to recognize and solve. In most cases, we voltage connections from the neutral wire
find it necessary to merely clean the of the primary control and the orange wire
electrodes and cables, and be certain that all of the primary control (for intermittent
connections are tight and that the spark gap ignition) and the ignition wire of the
is in proper adjustment. We must make primary (interrupted ignition) to determine
certain that the electrode porcelains and the if there are loose connections at this

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
Correcting faulty junction box. If they are electrode tips are permitted to operate
ignition is loose, tighten them while extending into the oil spray, it will
important. securely. Also check for promote a carbon bridge between the
Delayed or faulty loose connections at all electrode tips, thus shorting out the spark
ignition is the terminals and make sure and ultimately causing ignition failure.
prime cause of
that wire nuts are tight. Clean the electrode tips and set them
puffback.
2. Test the trans- properly.
former. If the trans- 7. Electrodes too close to the nozzle.
former is defective, replace it. It has already been outlined that the
3. Loose connections at electrodes set too close to the nozzle will
either the secondary terminals promote spark shorting out from the
of the transformer, or loose electrode tip to the nozzle, thus creating a
connections where the high tension leads delayed ignition or ignition failure. Set
or buss bars are fastened to the elec- electrode tips according to prescribed
trodes. If these connections are found to be procedure.
loose, attempt to tighten them. If this fails 8. Spark gap too wide. If the spark
to solve the problem, replace the connec- gap is too wide, either there will be no
tors. Also clean out any dust or dirt that spark at all, or the spark will short out at
may have accumulated in or around the some other point along the ignition system.
secondary terminals of the transformer. As Again, set tips as instructed previously.
previously outlined, check the high voltage However, we are learning that in many
leads to determine if the insulation has applications today, and due to the changes
become defective. in fuel oil, a slightly wider than normal gap
4. Remove the porcelain insulators may result in smoother ignition. Ignition of
from the electrode holder to determine fuel is not an exact science and so a couple
whether they are cracked. In many cases of settings may have to be tried to find the
the porcelains will crack beneath the clamp best results.
of the electrode holder. Replace cracked or 9. Insulators not held securely. In the
crazed porcelains, even though they are still event the electrode support bracket is loose,
functioning properly. or the porcelains do not fit properly in the
5. Carbonized insulator. Carbon bracket, it is possible that the electrodes
accumulations on the ceramic insulators may move out of adjustment because of
will conduct electricity, thus causing the burner vibrations. Set electrodes and
spark to short out against either the nozzle tighten the electrode support bracket
adapter, nozzle line, or the electrode holder. securely, but do not overtighten because
The carbon must be removed with a solvent that may crack the ceramic insulators.
or cleaner. Then the insulators must be
10. Puffbacks may be caused by lack
dried and checked for cracks and/or spark
of draft. If it is discovered that the ceramic
leakage. The procedure for checking for
insulators are heavily sooted and/or
spark leakage has been outlined.
carbonized and the electrode tips are
6. Electrodes in oil spray. If the properly gapped and properly set, then it is

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
a good possibility that lack of overfire draft Example 1

is causing the trouble. Refer to Chapter 6 Intermittent ignition = ignition is on
Chimneys & Draft. Puffbacks and carbon when burner runs. 1000 gallons / 1 GPH =
may be caused by a partially clogged 1000 hours of ignition on time.
nozzle. See Chapter 5 on Nozzles.
11. Ignition on time should be
Example 2
checked. This, of course, concerns inter- Interrupted ignition = timed
rupted ignition primary controls. The or sequenced ignition.
ignition on time is easily checked by
connecting one lead of a 40-watt test light Cad-cell type relays
to the ignition wire of the primary, and 3000 starts x 45 seconds = 37.5
connecting the other lead to neutral or the hours ignition on time
white wire. Start the burner while watching 3000 starts x 30 seconds = 25 hours
the bulb time to determine the length of
time it remains on. With cad cell type 3000 starts x 15 seconds = 12.5 hours
controls, it should remain on for the length 3000 starts x 8/10 seconds = 40
of time specified by the manufacturer. minutes ignition on time
As we can see, we can dramatically
Ignition Control lower ignition on-time and prolong the
Most burner manufacturers today use useful life of our ignition systems and
interrupted ignition. On commercial/ reduce service calls.
industrial burners, ignition on times of
greater than 10-20 seconds are seldom Delayed ignition is one of the frus-
found. The purpose of interrupted ignition trating ignition problems we encoun-
is to ignite the fuel and shut off the system, ter. Some solutions are covered in the
prolonging ignition system component life. following charts provided by Beckett
For example, let us say that a residential Corp., Figure 9-14: Ignition Service
burner that consumes 1,000 gallons per Help Chart and Figure 9-15: Delayed
year is operating with a 1 GPH nozzle. For Ignition Problem Solving, on follow-
this example, let us assume the burner will ing pages.
start 3,000 times per year.

Chapter 9
Ignition Systems
Figure 9-14:
Ignition service
help chart
Designation Description Service Hints
1. 120V ac input wires Brings 120 volt to primary coil Wires must not be pinched against housing
when transformer is closed
2. Primary coil Current in this coil generates a

magnetic field
3. Iron core Transfers magnetic field into

secondary coil
4. Secondary coil Magnetic field from core induces

voltage in this coil
5. Insulating compound Keeps moisture out, conducts heat Should not be leaking out
6. Metal cover Protects internal of transformer Should not be punctured or severely dented
7. Mounting base plate Mounts transformer to Must not be bent and cause air to leak
burner housing from around transformer
8. Transformer output Insulates high voltage from ground 1. Must not be cracked
ceramic insulator and opposing terminal. Holds 2. Must be totally clean
ignition spring dimensions
9. Ignition spring terminals Transmits high voltage to 1. Must make good, clean contact to
electrode rods electrode rods
10. Electrode rods Transfers high voltage to electrode tips Must be clean
11. Electrode insulators Mounts electrodes and insulates Must be clean and not cracked
each electrode from ground
12. Arc gap and electrodes Specified gap (1/8 - 5/32) allows arc 1. Too close causes delayed ignition
to jump to other terminal and ignite 2. Too wide results in no ignition and
possible damage to secondary
3. Clean and properly adjust

Figure 9-15 Chapter 9
Ignition Systems

Chapter 10
Motors
Chapter 10
Motors
Introduction There are basic components of a motor:

Electric motors run the fuel unit, run the
Base: the device used to support the motor.
fan, providing combustion air to the fire,
run the circulating pumps in a hot water Rotor: The permanent magnets or wind-
system, and power the blowers in forced ings attached to the motor shaft that follow
warm air and air conditioning systems. In the rotating magnetic field created by the
addition, low voltage motors open and electromagnets in the stator and cause the
close zone valves and damper motors. rotation of the motor shaft.
Stator: The stator contains stationary
Motor components electromagnets and windings that create the
Residential and commercial oilburner field that causes the motor to turn. The
motors are generally AC motors. DC start and run windings are wound around
motors are sometimes used in some
the stator. When electricity flows through
specialty applications, such as power
these windings, it creates the magnetic
washers and road maintenance equipment.
field.
Most motors use AC split-phase induction
motors equipped with two sets of windings. Start windings: Electric current flowing
This type generally has low to moderate in these windings provides the extra power
starting torque with high amp draw on needed to start the rotor turning and are
start-up. turned off when the motor is up to full Figure 10-1:
Cutaway of
burner motor
Stator
Motor Windings Centrifugal

Switch
Self-Aligning
Sleeve Bearings Manual Reset
Thermal Overload
Rotor
Twin Oiling Ports
(If Applicable)
Chapter 10Motors 10-3

Chapter 10
Motors
speed. Starting windings will draw high are established by NEMA (National Electri-
Motors are typically
current (amps) during the starting phase cal Manufacturers Association). Some
rated by voltage, amp
for a split phase motor. motors have cooling holes in the motor ends
draw, direction of
called bells, but some bells are totally closed.
rotation, frame size, and Run windings: Electric current flow in
The end of the motor around the shaft is the
horsepower. these windings creates the rotating
shaft bell and the other end is known as the
magnetic field in the stator. This
end bell. The type of shaft bell can affect air
maintains the shaft rotation after the
pressure and flow for a burner. Shaft bells
start windings have been disconnected. The
with fewer air holes will generally provide
starting and running windings are oriented
higher pressure. A reduction in pressure and
perpendicularly to each other. The wind-
flow can negatively impact burner operating
ings are designed so that the current in one
characteristics.
lags the current in the other. The difference
makes the resulting magnetic field rotate, Not all manufacturers refer to rotation in
creating a torque that turns the motor shaft. the same manner. Some manufacturers
consider rotation when looking at the shaft
Start switch: Start windings draw many
bell, others by looking from the end bell
amps. On split-phase motors, we turn off
towards the shaft. Be aware of this when
the power to these windings once the motor
ordering a new motor or when installing a
has started to turn in order to conserve
replacement motor that needs to be wired to
electricity. The centrifugally operated
establish rotation.
switch used in split phase and capacitor
start motors opens and disconnects the start
winding after the motor reaches 75% to
80% of full speed. The power remains
Motor oiling
connected to the run windings. The There are two ways motors are lubricated:
centrifugal switch throw-out speed for a
3,450 RPM burner motor is about 2,800 1. Permanently lubricatedthis type of
RPM. motor does not have any oiling ports
and should not be oiled.
The flange end of the motor is sized to
bolt onto the oilburner casting. Although 2. Motors that require lubrication are
most burner manufacturers use the same oiled according to their duty cycle
size flange mount, you may encounter using SAE 20 oil.
some that are different. Generally, the Occasional Duty less than 2 hours
3,450 rpm flame retention burner motor a day: Oil every 5 years.
has a smaller M flange with a circumfer-
ence of 6". The N flange that can be Intermittent Dutyrun 2 to 12
found on older burners and small commer- hours a day: Oil every 2 years.
cial motors measures 7". Continuous Duty12 or more hours
Motors are typically rated by voltage, a day: Oil once every year.
amp draw, direction of rotation, frame size, Most oilburner motors
and horsepower. The motor rating plate see intermittent duty.
provides this information. The frame sizes
10-4 Motors
Chapter 10
Motors
Start switch ings, bound up fuel pump, or any other

The start switch of a motor is wired reason for the rotor to be locked in place.
internally in series with the start winding.
There are two parts to the start mecha- Motor wiring
nismthe stationary switch, with its Figure 10-3 shows the internal sche-
contactsand a governor. The governor matic of the split phase fractional horse-
holds the switch contacts together when the power motor pictured in Figure 10-1. It is
motor is not running and releases the used in most residential burners. Note the
pressure to open the contacts when the location of the start switch. Apart from the
motor is up to speed. This action must size and voltage shown on the motor
nameplate, there is also a frame number.
This refers to the type of cradle or mount-
ing the motor has.
Capacitor start motors

We use capacitors to build up an electric
charge and store it until it is needed. A
Figure 10-2:
capacitor is made of two conducting plates
Start switch
separated by an insulator. A capacitor start
occur quickly; if not, the start winding can motor has a starting capacitor inserted in
be damaged. The starting switch is a series with the start switch and starting
Figure 10-3:
centrifugal switch. Its contacts are weighted winding, creating a circuit which is capable Split phase motor,
and a spring holds them closed. As the of a much greater phase shift (and so, a internal wiring
motor shaft begins to turn, centrifugal
force pushes the weights against the spring,
opening the contacts of the switch. Figure Starting Overload
10-2 is a drawing of the centrifugal start Switch Switch
switch. (Centrifugal)
Locked rotor amperage

This is the amount of amperage that can
be measured for the brief instant when the
motor first starts. A motor will draw
Running
substantially more amperage on the start Winding 120
than it will while running. After starting, Volts
AC Line
the motor should only draw the amount of
Starting
amperage listed on the motor nameplate. Winding
The locked rotor amperage (not usually
listed on the motor nameplate) is the
amount of current present if the motor fails
to start after current is delivered to it. A
motor may not turn because of bad bear-

Chapter 10
Motors
much greater starting torque). Figure 10-4

Starting Overload shows the internal connections of a split
Switch Switch
(Centrifugal) phase motor with a start switch and also a
start capacitor in the line to the start
winding. Many circulator and commercial
oilburner motors are capacitor start motors.
Running
Winding Thermal or motor
Capacitor 120
Volts overload switch
AC Line The thermal or overload switch is wired
Starting
Winding in series with the motor windings and is
activated (opens) when an unusual increase
in temperature occurs inside the motor.
This switch protects the motor from being
damaged by overheating. If the motor
overheats, the bimetal in the switch will
Figure 10-4: Capacitor
start split phase motor warp then the switch will open and turn off
the motor. There are two types used in
oilburner motors:
Figure 10-5: Manual reset overload switch 1. Manual reset thermal

protectors are most common
and must be reset by pressing a
reset button. Figure 10-5 shows
Reset
the operation of a manual reset
Button overload.
Spring
2. Automatic reset; this
Bi-Metallic Trigger
Strip Released
type will reset itself (close)
after the motor cools down.
Heater
Strip Figure 10-6 shows the action
Heater (Bent)
Strip of an automatic reset overload.
In Figure 10-7, a schematic
wiring diagram shows the
location of the overload switch
Figure 10-6: Automatic reset overload switch in the circuit.
When the thermal overload
switch shuts the motor off, it
Motor Circuit
indicates motor overheating.
This is caused from either
internal failure or external
Heater Strip loading conditions.
Switch Heater Strip
(Cool) (Heated)
The following will cause
motor overload:
Bi-Metallic Disk
1. The line voltage is too
high or too low.
10-6 Motors
Chapter 10
Motors
Figure 10-7: Overload switch location 9. The motor is in a very hot

Overload
Device environment (the inside of a hot
vestibule of a furnace).
10. There is dirt in the
motor cooling vents; this will
To Line
also cause the motor to
overheat.
11. The motor is under-
sizedif the load
requirement exceeds
the nameplate rating Figure 10-8:
Ammeter
for horsepower (HP),
the motor will
eventually overheat.
Use a clamp around
ammeter (Figure 10-8) to
make sure the motor current
does not exceed 10% over the
2. The oil pump has seized due to rust motor nameplate current.
or debris in the gear set.
3. The motor bearings are bad. Wiring connections
and reversing rotation
4. The return is plugged. Some oilburner motors have an S cord
5. There is misalignment of motor to attached to the motor and connected to a
pumpcheck to see if any mounting bolts junction box. If this is the case, be certain
have loosened, causing improper seating of the BX cable or conduit to the junction box
the motor or pump to the burner housing. is tightly fastened to provide a good
Also, check to see if the pump coupling is bonding to ground. If Romex cable is used,
too long, causing pressure on the motor be certain the bonding wire is fastened to
shaft. the junction box.
6. The start switch is dirty or broken. The motor rotation on some oilburner
This prevents electricity from flowing to and blower motors can be electrically
the starting windings. With this switch reversed. The instructions may be found on
open, current will still flow to the run the nameplate of the motor or inside the
winding, but the motor will not start. The cover that provides access to the wiring
increased amperage will generate heat in connections.
the line and cause the overload switch to
trip out. The rotation of a motor is determined by
the direction of the current to the start
7. The centrifugal start switch has failed winding. If we reverse the connections to
to disconnect the start windings from the the start winding we can reverse the
AC power when the motor has reached rotation of the motor. The instructions with
approximately full speed; the motor will
each motor will identify these connections
overheat.
and how to change them. Figure 10-9
8. The fan or blower wheel is jammed shows how to switch the wires to reverse
or very dirty. rotation.

Chapter 10
Motors
Excessive oil can also be a

problem. Follow the recom-
mended lubrication proce-
dure.
Figure 10-10 illustrates the
types of bearings. Ball
bearings consist of a ring of
steel balls held in place
around the rotor. As the rotor
turns, the balls are free to
roll, aided by lubricating
grease. Because the rotor is
attached to the inside ring of
the ball bearing assembly,
Figure 10-9:
Reversing there is no end play (the fan wheel is not
rotation of free to move away from the motor flange).
burner motor
Bearings
The gap between the fan wheel and the
wires There are two basic types of bearings
housing is kept constant, minimizing air
used on most of the motors in our industry:
leakage and increasing the zero-flow static
they are sleeve type and ball bearing type.
pressure by as much as .3 to .4 inches of
Sleeve bearings, also called bushings or water column, compared to sleeve bearing
self-aligned bearings, are special metal motors.
sleeves around the rotor shaft. Oil is
applied between the shaft and
the sleeve; the thin film of Figure 10-10: Bearings
oil lubricates the shaft
and allows it to turn Sleeve Bearing Ball Bearing
with little friction.
Many modern
sleeve bearings are
permanently self-
lubricating and have
a sponge like mate-
rial that continually
supplies oil as the Sleeve Filler
Bearing Plug
rotor turns. Sleeve
bearings require increased
starting torque if they are
Shaft
Shaft
contaminated by rust or dirt. Worn,
dry, or tight bearings will cause motor Oil Wick
overload and possible thermal overload
lockout. Oil Well
10-8 Motors
Chapter 10
Motors
L1 L1
Start
Run (Main) Switch
Winding Auxiliary
Main Winding
Winding
L2 Start L2 Capacitor
Winding
Older Burner Motor PSC Motor
Figure 10-11:
Motor circuits
PSC (Permanent Split the capacitor (auxiliary) winding, and

Capacitor) motors the main winding remain in the
Most new oilburners feature PSC circuit the entire time the motor
motors. A PSC motor uses a capacitor (a is runninghence the name
permanent. PSC Motors
device that stores and releases an electrical
perform with better efficiency,
charge) in one of the windings to increase
offer equal or increased power
the current lag between the two windings.
output and lower starting and
Unlike conventional capacitor start motors,
running current than conventional
PSC motors have no centrifugal starting
split phase motors.
switch and the second winding is perma-
See Figures 10-11 and Table 10-1. PSC motor
nently connected to the power source. Both
Table 10-1: Heating system motor testing chart (courtesy Beckett Corp.)
Test Parameter Split Phase PSC Comments

Average starting current 15-25 Amps 7 Amps PSC has a decreased starting current,
(locked rotor current) which extends primary control relay life.
Average running current 2.0 - 2.4 Amps 1.5 Amps PSC draws an average 30% less current.
1
Approximate starting torque 55 - 70 oz-in 49 oz-in General mini pump starting torque requirement: 13 - 20 oz-in.
Average electrical power 200 Watts 170 Watts PSC draws an average 15% less power.
Efficiency 40 - 50% 60 - 65% Efficiency = output power (mechanical)
divided by input power (electrical)
AFG full load speed 3375 - 3450 rpm 2 3440 - 3460 2
PSC: Similar or increased output power.
1
Most standard oil pumps (for instance, the Suntec A or B models) do not require as much power or starting torque as the larger pumps (for
instance, Suntec J and H models), which often are provided with a 1/5 hp motor.
2
Rule of thumb: Air flow (cfm) is proportional to motor speed, and static pressure varies with the motor speed squared (if the speed
increases by 2%, the pressure increases by 4%).

Chapter 10
Motors
Diagnosing motor troubles

Typical heating system motors are reliable, but problems can occur. The following
should help you quickly pin point a problem. For more details, see Chart on page 10-16.
Motor Trouble Check List

1. The motor will not start
a. Is voltage present at the motor? Is it the correct voltage? (It must be
within 10% of nameplate.) Are all wiring connections tight?
b. Is the motor off due to overload? If manual reset, push the button. If
auto, wait for the motor to cool until it resets.
c. Is the capacitor (if needed) functioning? If in doubt, replace it with a
capacitor of the same rating.
d. Is the load on the motor excessive? If the motor starts after the load
is removed, this could be the problem.
e. Are the bearings on the motor seized or dry? If so, free up and lubricate.
2. Noises
a. Is motor lubricated? If not, do so, unless it is permanently lubricated.
b. Is the alignment of the motor shaft and the driven device correct?
c. On a belted unit, is the belt OK? Is it too tight or too loose? The belt
should have a 1" play.
d. Noise could be caused by shaft end-play (the distance the shaft will
move in and out of the motor). A new motor will have no more than
.035" of movement. If the shaft end play is more than .060", the motor
could be suspect.
3. Motor overheats
a. Is there adequate ventilation? Are the air venting slots on the motor
clean and unobstructed?
b. Is the load excessive? Use an ammeter to measure the current
draw. If the load or the draw is more than the nameplate rating, the
load must be either reduced or a larger more powerful motor must
be installed. Make sure that the driven device is unrestricted in its
operation.
NOTE: When checking the current draw of the motor, the service
factors must be considered. A motor with an amp rating of 4.0 and a
service factor of 1.25 can safely be operated at 5 amps.
c. Is the motor located in an excessively hot area?
10-10 Motors
Chapter 10
Motors
PSC motors are also frequently used in should be about 2 to 4 ohms. If the resis-
air handlers, fans, and blowers and other tance is much higher (in the range of 7 to
cases where a variable speed is desired. By 10 ohms) then the start switch is probably
changing taps on the running winding, but bad.
keeping the load constant, the motor can be
To double-check the measurement, pull
made to run at different speeds.
up on the shaft and note if the resistance
Troubleshooting dead spots drops to the proper 2-4 ohms. If it does, the
Dead spot is a common term for a switch is definitely bad and the motor
certain orientation of the rotor at which the should be replaced.
motor will not start. Two things can cause
The most important function of this test
dead spots. First, there could be a fault in
is to make sure the resistance across the
the manufacturing process. If so, the motor
motor leads does not change when the
may not have enough torque to start the
motor shaft is pushed down or rotated in a
burner. This condition is rare and cannot be
full circle. Rotate the shaft slowly and note
repaired. Second, if the start switch of a
the resistance. If it goes up to 7-10 ohms at
split phase motor is unevenly worn or has
any point in the rotation, you have found
shifted out of position, the contacts may
your dead spot. If it is the kind of motor
become slightly separated when the rotor is
where you can see the start switch, push
in a particular location. No current will
down on the switch and the resistance
flow through the starting winding and the
should increase from 2-4 to 7-10 ohms.
motor will not start. If this is the problem,
the motor should be replaced.
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting the start switch PSC motors
To check a faulty start switch, you need PSC motors have two major
an ohmmeter. The motor starting windings areas to troubleshootthe capacitor
have a much lower resistance than the run and the windings. Both are relatively
windings do. Use this difference to deter- simple to check and require only a
mine if the start switch is defective. When multimeter (Figure 10-12) with a
the start switch is functioning properly, capacitance range. On page 10-17, from
both the start and run windings are con- RW Beckett, is a PSC motor trouble
nected, resulting in lower resistance. If the shooting checklist.
start switch is faulty, the start windings will
not be connected or will intermittently be Checking capacitorsA failed capacitor
connected. This results in higher resistance will cause a PSC motor to either stop or
or fluctuating resistance as the motor shaft run more slowly than designed. The
is rotated. thermal protector will trip if a restart is Figure 10-12:
attempted. To check a capacitor, perform Multimeter with
Set the scale on your ohmmeter at its the following steps: a capacitance
lowest setting and zero out the meter by range.
1. Remove power from the burner and
touching the test leads together and adjust- carefully disconnect the two leads from the
ing the meter to show zero ohms. Turn off capacitor terminals.
the power, disconnect the motor input leads
and remove the motor from the housing. 2. Discharge the capacitor. To safely
Place the motor on its back, shaft up. discharge the capicitor follow the instruc-
Connect your meter across the black and tions on page 8-21 and Figure 8-25.
white motor input leads. If the start switch Caution: Capacitor discharge can cause
is functioning properly, the resistance physical harm due to electrical shock.

Chapter 10
Motors
3. Using the multimeter on the ohms nect the two leads from the capacitor
scale, observe the meters response when terminal.
the leads of the meter are connected to the 3. Connect one ohmmeter lead to the L1
terminals. motor power lead and the other meter lead
Note: Because the meter charges the to each of the capacitor leads, one at a time.
capacitor slightly in order to make a See Figure 10-15.
resistance measurement, if you desire to
repeat the measurement, discharge the Figure 10-15: PSC Motor wiring
capacitor first (step 2).
Main: Auxiliary:
4. The ohmmeter reading should jump 3 - 6 Ohms 14 - 18 Ohms
immediately to a non-infinite resistance
L1
value and then quickly increase again to
infinity. This should happen in a fraction of
a second since the capacitor will charge
quickly and then resist any more charge. If A
the meter settles to zero ohms, the capacitor
B
Figure 10-13: has short-circuited. If the meter resistance L2
Analog needle is infinite the entire time, the capacitor is
meter Capacitor
open circuited. A failed capacitor (open or
short circuited) should be replaced by a
capacitor of the same capacitance (micro-
4. Record the two resistance values.
farads or F) and a voltage rating at least as
great as the original one. In most cases it is 5. Repeat by measuring the other motor
best to replace the entire motor. power lead (L2) and each of the capacitor
leads, one at a time.
Test tip: The quick capacitor response is
more easily observed with an analog 6. Check with the manufacturers
needle meter (see Figure 10-13), than a instructions. From one of the power leads,
digital meter. With a digital meter, the you should have measured 3-6 ohms and 9-
resistance reading should gradually 18 ohms. From the other power lead, you
increase to infinite resistance (either should have measured a short (less than 1
quickly or slowly, depending on the meter). ohm) and 15-25 ohms. If you do not
observe these resistances, the motor
5. Using the capacitance function of the windings are faulty, and the motor should
multimeter, see Figure 10-14, and after be replaced.
shorting the capacitor, determine the
Figure 10-14: Miscellaneous things to look for:
Multimeter
microfarad output of the capacitor. The
reading should be Make sure bearings are in good
between 5-10% of the condition and oiled.
rating. Check and be sure there is no exces-
Checking the PSC sive end play on the shaft. This can cause
motor windings: noise and hard starting.
1. Remove power Is all the wiring in good condition? If
from the burner and not, replace and secure with appropriate
detach the motor power connectors.
leads from the burner.
On blower motors check belt size,
2. Discharge the width, and tension. Remember, over-
capacitor and discon- tightening is as bad as a loose belt.
10-12 Motors
Chapter 10
Motors
are satisfactory as long as they are covered Figure 10-16:

Make sure the motor is aligned with
once the fan wheel is installed onto the Beckett AFG
the driven device and the coupling is motor
tightened. motor. The back plate of the
fan wheel must be positioned
Make sure the motor is operating close to the motor end bell
within the proper amp ratings. according to the
Make sure voltage and rotation are manufacturers gap setting for
correct. maximum efficiency and
output. See Figure 10-16.
Blower
When choosing Use of a motor with Wheel
a new motor cooling openings that are not
Generally, heating system motors are covered will cause a loss of
designed to be non-serviceable items that static pressure at the burner
must be replaced when they fail. When retention head due to air 0.030" (1/32")
replacing a motor, look for the following: leakage and turbulence. Use a Feeler Gauge
Available From
1. Correct voltage. thickness feeler gauge to Motor Automotive or
measure the gap between the Hardware Stores
2. Correct rotation. Some motors have Note:
motor and the blower wheel. Do Not Use Motors That Have End Bell Openings
reversible rotation. Change if necessary.
Place the gauge on top of the Outside the Blower Wheel Circumference
Run the motor without the load to verify Reprensented by the Dashed Lines
motor and bottom of the
rotation is correct before connecting the
blower wheel. The setscrew
load.
must be centered on the flat of the motor
3. Frame designation, size, and mount- shaft. Then tighten the setscrew.
ing type. Example: most standard 1725
RPM burner motors are frame type 48N Burner couplings
and most 3450 burner motors are 48M A flexible burner coupling is a mechani-
frame. cal device used to connect two rotating
4. Is the speed of the new motor the shafts. It permits a small amount of mis-
same as the old? alignment between shafts. The Nylo-
FlexTM coupling, see Figure 10-17, fits
5. Horsepower is at least the same as the most burners, thereby reducing truck
old. inventory. These couplings are made up of
6. Shaft diameter and length must be two plastic ends and a center piece that is cut
the same as the old, or at least long enough to size. The molded ends are designed to
and the proper diameter to securely couple slip over the motor and pump shafts and do
to the driven device. Bushings are some- not require setscrews. They can be pur-
times used to increase the diameter of the chased with a variety of ends to match the
shaft. various pump shaft sizes.
7. Rated amperage must be at least as With this type of coupling, it is important

Figure 10-17:
high as the driven device will require. to slide the ends on the shaft to the end of Flexible
the flat portion or the coupling will move. coupling
Measure the length needed for the center
Replacing piece and cut it exactly to that
an oilburner motor measurement. The center piece
The specified motors for most oilburners is hollow and will slide over
either are the closed-end type or models any portion of the shaft extend-
with small cooling openings in the shaft bell ing beyond the end piece. Be
at the motor shaft end. The small openings sure the motor and the pump

Chapter 10
Motors
are mounted tight to the burner housing Belt driven blowers

before measuring the center piece. If you These are the most common type
cut the center piece too long, when the blowers on older oil-fired furnaces. These
motor and the pump are bolted in place, the motors are mounted to the blower and
pressure may put an undue strain on the drive it through pulleys and a V belt.
motor and may keep it from starting. Adjusting the size of the pulleys changes
the speed of the blower. The larger the
pulley on the motor, the faster the fan will
Warm air furnace turn. The larger the pulley on the fan, the
motors and fans/blowers slower the fan will turn.
The third most common use of motors in
our industry is for moving air through Variable pitch pulleys can be adjusted to
warm air and air conditioning ducts. Many increase or decrease size to change the
are multi-speed motors that can be operated speed without changing the pulley. When
at any of two or more speeds. In the case of adjusting the speed of this type of motor, it
multi-speed PSC motors, the speed is is imperative to take an amp reading to be
dependent on the load. sure that the increase in speed does not
work the motor beyond its rated capacity.
Three types of blower motors can be
found on warm air systems: Figure 10-19 shows some of the wide
variety of pulleys available. Note how the
1. The split phase, fractional horsepower adjustable pulley opens and closes to vary
motor used for belt driven blowers.
2. The capacitor start motor, also used Figure 10-19
for belt drive.
Figure 10-18: Standard Pulley V-Step Pulley
3. The multi-speed, direct drive motor/
ECM motor
blower assembly. These blowers are often
used on systems that also provide
air conditioning. They can run at a
slower speed for heating and faster
speed for the air conditioning.
These motors can be either Adjustable V-Pulley
PSC type motors or a newer
design called an ECM, see
Figure 10-18.
The ECM is a DC voltage
Closed Open
motor. ECM stands for Electrically Com-
mutated Motor. ECMs have grown in
popularity due to their low power con-
sumption, infinite motor speed capability diameter. Make sure it is not too far open
and reliability. The ECM has all the or closed causing poor seating of the V
efficiency and speed control advantages of belt. Figure 10-20 stresses the importance
a DC motor with none of the disadvan- of using the right size belt for the pulley
tages, such as carbon brush wear, short life, being used. Width of belts and pulleys
and noise. The ECM uses 1-phase AC input varies so be sure both are the same when
power and converts it into 3-phase opera- changing motor and pulley. Proper tension
tion. Three-phase motors offer superior on belts without over-tightening is impor-
efficiency and reduced noise. tant.
10-14 Motors
Chapter 10
Motors
Direct drive blowers the bearing assembly shaft.

These are blowers with the motor Figure 10-23 shows a
mounted inside the wheel of the blower three-piece circulator.
with the shaft of the blower connected Circulator motors often are
directly to the blower wheel. Some of these PSC motors, as shown on
are multi-speed PSC motors. In this case, page 10-9.
speed is adjusted by swapping the wires as
Circulator couplings
indicated on the wiring diagram on the
These are used on three-
blower.
piece circulators to couple
On both types of blowers, it is important the motor to the circulator
that the blower, Figure 10-21, pump. See Figure 10-23.
is clean and in good repair. These can wear and break.
Dirty, bent or broken
Excessive oiling of the
blades on the blower can
circulator can cause the
cause excessive amperage
rubber motor mounts to sag, causing the
draw due to increased
coupling to break; therefore check motor
load. Broken or bent Figure 10-20:
mounts when replacing the coupling. The
blades can cause vibration, Pulley belts
motor mounts need to be replaced if they
as the blower will be out of
have softened.
Figure 10-21 balance.
On some of these circulators, the coupling
Circulator motors
has tension pulling the shaft toward the
Hot water heating systems rely on
motor with a spring. This
circulator pumps to move the hot water
holds pressure on the Figure 10-22:
through the heating system. There are two
water seal in the circula- Cartridge
kinds: cartridge and three-piece circulators.
tor. Care should be taken circulator
With cartridge units, the pump impeller is
to maintain this pressure
fastened directly to the motor shaft as
during the change, or
shown in Figure 10-22.
water will leak out
Three-piece circulators feature a bearing around the circulator
assembly that connects the motor to the shaft. It is best to reduce
pump body. The bearing assembly shaft is the water pressure on the
connected to the motor shaft by a pump boiler while changing
coupling. The pump impeller is fastened to this type.
Figure 10-23:
Three-piece Power Pack Bearing Pump
circulator
Assembly Body
Coupler Impeller

Chapter 10
Motors
Heating system motor troubleshooting chart (courtesy of R.W. Beckett Corp.)
Trouble Cause What To Do

Motor fails Blown fuses Replace with time-delay fuses. Check for
to start grounded winding.
Low voltage Check for inadequate wiring or extension cords.
Check for low system voltage. Call electric company.
Improper line Check connections against diagram supplied with motor.
connections
Overload (thermal Check and reset overload relay in starter. Check heater
protector) tripped rating against motor nameplate current rating. Check motor load.
If motor has manual reset thermal protector, check if tripped.
If three-phase, one Indicated by humming sound. Check lines for open phase.
phase may be open Check voltage with motor disconnected, one fuse blown
Defective motor Repair or replace
or starter
Motor stalls Overloaded motor Reduce load or increase motor size.

Low motor voltage See that nameplate voltage is maintained.
Motor does not Not applied properly Consult motor service firm for proper type. Use larger motor.
come up to Voltage is too low at Use higher voltage tap on transformer terminals, increase
speed motor terminal due to wire size. Check for poor connections. Voltage unbalance.
line drop
Starting load too high Check load motor is carrying at start.
Motor takes too Excess loading; tight Reduce load; increase motor size. Adjust belts.
long to accelerate belts. High inertia load
Inadequate wiring Increase wire size. Check for poor connections.
Applied voltage too low Reconnect to a higher tap. Increase wire size. Check for
poor connections.
Defective motor Repair or replace.
Inadequate starting Replace with larger motor.
torque
Motor vibrates or Motor is misaligned Realign

is excessively
Three-phase motor Check for open circuit, blown fuses or unbalanced
noisy
running single phase voltages.
High or unbalanced Check wiring connections, transformer.
voltages
Worn, damaged, dirty Replace; check loading and alignment.
or overloaded bearings
Loose sheave or Tighten set screw(s); replace.
coupling
Is the motor off on overload? If manual reset, push the button. If auto, reset and wait for or assist the motor to cool until it resets.
Is the capacitor (if needed) OK? The simplest way to test the capacitor is to replace it with one of the same rating.
Is the load on the motor excessive? If the motor starts after the load is removed, this could be the problem.
Are the bearings on the motor seized or dry? If so, free up and lubricate.
10-16 Motors
Chapter 10
Motors
PSC Motor Troubleshooting
Condition Cause Recommended Action
Motor does not start No power to motor Check wiring and power from primary
control lead. If necessary, replace control, limit
controller or fuses (time-delay type).
Insufficient voltage supply Check power from primary control.
Thermal protector has Determine and repair cause of thermal over-
tripped load and reset (if manual re-settable).
Pump shaft will Disconnect motor from pump. Turn coupling
not turn to ensure free rotation of pump shaft.
Capacitor or windings Check capacitor and windings.
have failed
Motor bearings have failed Turn the motor shaft, which should turn easily.
Motor starts, but does not Motor is overloaded Disconnect pump from motor. Turn pump
reach full speed shaft to ensure free rotation.
Insufficient voltage supply Check power from primary control. Voltage
should be 110V - 120V.
Capacitor or windings Check capacitor and windings.
have failed.
Motor vibrates or Bearings are worn, damaged Replace motor.

is noisy or fouled with dirt or rust
Motor and pump are mis- Check pump to motor, motor to housing,
aligned with each other and pump to housing alignment.
or housing
Blower wheel or wheel Check blower wheel and balancing weight
balancing weight (if ap- (if applicable) for location and tightness.
plicable) is loose
Motor draws excessive Motor and pump misaligned Check pump to motor, motor to housing,
with each other or housing and pump to housing alignment.
Motor is undersized for Increase motor size if needed.
the application
Motor windings are damaged Check windings. If damaged, replace motor.
Checking the PSC Motor windings:

1. Remove power from the burner, and detach the motor power leads from the burner.
2. Disconnect the two leads from the capacitor terminals.
3. Connect one Ohmmeter lead to the L1 motor power lead and the other meter lead to each of the capacitor
leads, one at a time. See Figure 10-15.
4. Record the two resistance values.
5. Repeat by measuring the other motor power lead (L2) and each of the capacitor leads one at a time.

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
Chapter 11
Primary Controls
Introduction 3. To control the startup, run cycle, and

The safe, automatic operation of an shutdown of the oilburner.
oilheat system is dependent on the interac- All primary controls, whether old
tion between: thermo-mechanical or modern micropro-
The thermostat, which opens and cessor, operate on the same basic prin-
closes a circuit based on temperature ciples.
changes in the heated space.
The limit control, which opens and The primary control accomplishes
closes a circuit based on temperature or its mission by:
pressure changes in the boiler or furnace. Reacting to the presence or absence
The primary control, which regulates of flame
the operation of the oilburner. Managing oilburner startup by
In a properly designed, installed, and checking for a flame before energiz-
serviced oilheat system, these three ing ignition transformers (or ignit-
components work together to safely satisfy ers), burner motors, and oil valves.
a call for space heating, cooling, or water Supervising burner shutdown once
heating. the thermostat is satisfied or the limit
In a typical oilheat system, line voltage control opens.
flows in a series circuit from the fuse or All primary controls have line voltage
circuit breaker to a remote toggle (on/off) (120 VAC) circuits. In a basic heating
switch located away from the heating unit. system, line voltage is supplied to the
From there, it continues to a service switch primary control through the high limit
at the oil-fired appliance, then to the limit control when the temperature, in a water
controls, and then to the primary control, heater, boiler or furnace, or the pressure, in
which distributes power to the oilburner a steam boiler, is below the limit setting.
components (motor, igniter and oil valve). Once the limit control is satisfied, it breaks,
or opens the circuit, de-energizing the
primary control and shutting down the
Functions burner.
of the primary control
The primary control has three main Most primary controls also have low
functions: voltage circuits (24 VAC) to accommodate
thermostats and/or other devices. The low
1. To respond to the thermostat voltage circuit is closed when the thermo-
2. To respond to the limit control stat senses the need for an increase in room
Chapter 11Primary Controls 11-3

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
temperature. When the heat reaches the

right temperature and the thermostat is
satisfied, it opens the circuit.
For the primary control to activate the
oilburner, both the line and low voltage
Figure 11-1: circuits must be closed. In most cases, that
Parallel wiring means that if either the thermostat or the Figure 11-3:
for 24v limit control is satisfied (open) the primary Cad cell and its
thermostat and control will not activate the oilburner. wiring symbol
aquastat to the
primary In systems with a line voltage thermo-
stat, or with a low voltage
thermostat connected to controls
Thermostat other than the primary control, a
jumper is placed between the
primarys thermostat terminals, additional control. For example, a steam
permanently closing the low boiler with a domestic hot water coil will
voltage circuit, Figure 11-1. The normally have an aquastat wired to the low
primary control is activated solely voltage terminals on the primary control.
Aquastat
by the limit control. This enables the boiler to maintain domes-
tic hot water even when the room thermo-
Some systems have an addi- stat is not calling for heat.
tional control wired in parallel
with the thermostat. In those Did you know?
cases, the primarys low voltage Power outages do not affect flame
Primary circuit can be completed through detection. If power is lost during a running
Control cycle, the control will NOT go off on safety
either the thermostat or the and it will normally re-energize the burner
after power is restored.
Flame detection
Bimetal Primary controls detect both the pres-
Element ence and absence of flame. A safety feature
Ignition Relay of primary controls is that they will not
(RA117 only)
activate the oilburner for startup if the
Mounting Bracket
control senses a flame during the off cycle.
Recycle Adjust Lever This prevents additional fuel being pumped
into a unit that has a fire before startup.
Lever to Put Contacts
In Step Primary controls must react quickly to
Ignition Timing Adj. the presence or absence of flame while the
(RA117 only)
oilburner is running. The primary control
Motor Relay must shut the burner off promptly if no
Reset Lever on flame is established on startup or if the
Safety Switch flame is lost during the run cycle. If the
Transformer primary control did not shut off the
oilburner in these circumstances, the burner
Figure 11-2:
Honeywell RA117a
primary control
11-4 Primary Controls

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
could continue to pump fuel into the unit, spark across the electrodes that ignites the
creating a hazardous condition. oil is present whenever the burner is
When the primary control shuts off the running.
burner because no flame is detected, it is Interrupted duty ignition means the spark
referred to as being off on safety, in comes on for a short time
safety or in lock out. Once the primary at the beginning of each
control goes off on safety, it must be Did you know?
burner operating cycle and Primary controls that are designed for
manually reset before it can send power to is turned off once flame is interrupted duty ignition
the burner again, Figure 11-4. established, or for a fixed can be adapted for intermittent duty
ignition, but primary controls designed for
The amount of time that elapses from timewhich may include intermittent ignition cannot be used for
the start of a cycle in which flame is not a period of time after trial interrupted ignition.
detected, to the time the control goes off on for ignition, known as a
safety is referred to as trial for ignition Sparkout periodto insure a stable flame
or safety timing. Slight variations from is fully established. Interrupted duty ignition
an individual controls stated safety timing is preferred because it makes for quieter
often exist due to manufacturing tolerances, combustion, increases the life of the ignition
voltage variations, and temperature system, uses less electricity, and generates
changes. fewer nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions.
Figure 11-4: Low voltage safety switch Types of

primary controls
There are two basic types
Basic Concept of How a Safety Switch Operates
of primary controls com-
Bimetal monly found in the field
today:
Heater Thermal-mechanical
Spring
primary controls
Cad cell primary
Contacts
Wires Reset controls
Spring Button
Thermal-mechanical
Insulators controls, commonly called
stack switches or stack
relays, utilize bi-metals to
Wires detect flame and to mechani-
cally open and close electrical
Contact Blades
contacts to provide burner
control. They have spring
loaded reset buttons and a
Ignition modes thermal safety switch that must cool before
Oilheat systems operate in one of two the control is allowed to be removed from
ignition modes: intermittent duty or lockout.
interrupted duty.
Through the 1960s, stack relays were
Intermittent duty ignition means that the the industrys standard primary control and

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
there are many types of stack relays still heating unit and the draft regulator. It
operating in the field today. Fortunately, should be centered in the flue pipe at a
the manufacturers designed the wiring to be point where it will be exposed to flue gases
the same regardless of the make and model. between 300o and 1000oF. When the burner
Stack relays are typically mounted in the operates, heat rises and passes over the bi-
flue pipe, although you may occasionally metal element, which expands and moves a
find one mounted directly into the flue shaft. This closes contacts that enable the
collector or heat exchanger. burner to continue operating. If the bi-
metal is not sufficiently heated, a built-in
safety switch shuts the burner off in
Flame detection approximately 75 to 120 seconds and it
Figure 11-5: Stack relays employ a bi-metal heat- cannot be started again until the safety
Wiring diagram sensing element for flame detection. This switch cools down and is manually reset.
for RA117A with heat-sensing element MUST be in the path
24v 3-wire
of the combustion gases, between the
thermostat Wiring
The power or hot lead from the limit
L1 control is connected to Terminal 1.
L2 (Hot)
All neutrals are connected to
Terminal 2.
Burner One wire from the burner motor and
Motor High one from the oil valve, if used, are
Limit
connected to Terminal 3.
If the unit operates as interrupted duty
ignition, one wire from the trans-
Series 10 former is connected to Terminal 4.
Thermostat
For intermittent duty ignition, connect
the transformer lead to Terminal 3
along with the burner motor lead,
leaving terminal 4 empty
If the control has a green terminal, it
should be connected to ground.
Figure 11-5.
Power Supply, Provide Disconnect Means and Overload

Protection as Required Thermostat connections
If the control has two low voltage
Use Green Terminal to Connect Control Case to Ground
terminals for the thermostat connection,
If Using a Two-Wire Thermostat, Tape Loose Ends one of the thermostat wires connects to
of Red Wire (If Necessary)
each.
Contacts Break in Sequence on Temperature Rise
To Replace an Intermittent Ignition Device, Connect
If the control has three low voltage
Ignition Leadwire to Terminal 3, Instead of Terminal 4 terminals and the system has a two-wire
thermostat, it is connected to the W and B
terminals. If a 3-wire heat-only thermostat

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
is used, connect the red wire to Terminal R, Turn off the service switch at Did you know?
white wire to W and black wire to B. the unit. Cad cell resistance
looking into an
Remove the stack switch from inactive chamber
Operation of a stack relay the flue pipe or block the flow of oil should be at least
If all components are functioning by installing your pressure gauge in 50,000 ohms.
properly, the control is in standby mode the nozzle port.
until: Turn on the service switch.
Line voltage is applied through the Make sure that both the line and low
limit control to Terminal 1, AND a call for voltage circuits are complete.
heat from the thermostat completes the
circuit between W and B, or T-T. The control should energize and shut
off on safety in approximately 75 seconds.
Then Terminal 4 will be powered and
Terminal 3 will be powered a split second If the control goes off on safety within
later. 120 seconds, clean the bi-metal and
reinstall it.
The transformer will generate ignition
through the electrodes. If the control does not go off on
safety, replace it and be sure to check the
The motor will turn the fuel pump and timing on the new control.
burner fan. If theres a delayed oil valve
installed, it will open based on its delay
timing. Cad cell primary controls
Any system still operating with a stack
Once flame is established and heated relay is probably a good candidate for
flue gases pass over and expand the bi- replacement with a high-efficiency oilheat
metal detector element, the safety switch system.
heater will be de-energized, preventing the
unit from shutting off on safety. While the basic
functions of cad cell Did you know? Cad cell primary
The ignition circuit will be de-ener- primary controls are the controls, also called cad cell relays,
gized, shutting off the transformer if the same as those of stack were introduced in the early 1970s.
unit operates on interrupted ignition. relays, they feature a Modern oilheat systems operate more
cleanly, more efficiently and much more
The oilburner will then continue to run much quicker reaction
economically than systems designed
until either the thermostat is satisfied, time through visual, as when stack relays were the standard.
opening the low voltage circuit, or the limit opposed to thermal,
control is satisfied, opening the line flame detection.
voltage circuit. Either of these actions The cad cell primary control circuit is
causes the primary control to cut power to made up of two components: the flame
Terminals 3 and 4, safely shutting down the detector and the primary control.
oilburner. The primary control then returns
to standby mode.
Flame detection
The flame detector consists of a cad cell,
Safety check a holder to secure it in place, and a wiring
It is important to check the safety timing harness to connect it to the primary control.
of primary controls every time you perform The detector is installed in the air tube of
a service call. To check the safety timing: the oilburner where it can view the flame.

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
Did you know? The burner manufacturer the flame is lost during the running cycle,
determines the location of the cad cell; if very early model controls will shut the
for some reason an alternate location must system down after the safety timing (15 to
be used, make sure that: 45 seconds) is reached; later models will
make one attempt to restart. Recycle type
The cell has a clear view of the
controls will shut down for 1 minute, then
flame
allow startup, for any number of startup
Ambient light does not reach the cell attempts.
Ambient temperature is below the
cells rating (approx 140F, see specs)
Wiring
Movement, shielding or radiation of As with stack mounted primary controls,
metal surfaces near the cell does not the major manufacturers adopted uniform
affect cell function. standards regarding wiring connections for
Avoid extreme changes in flame light first generation cad cell primary controls.
reaching the CAD cell, as pass/fail In place of the numbered screw termi-
thresholds in the control may not nals on stack relays, cad cell relays have
function properly. color-coded wire leads pre-attached to the
The cad cell is a ceramic disc coated solid-state circuitry. These wire leads from
with cadmium sulfide and overlaid with a the control are connected to the wiring for
conductive grid. Electrodes attached to the the system components with wire nuts.
ceramic disc transmit an electrical signal to The hot wire from the limit control is
the primary control. In darkness, cadmium connected to the black wire of the cad cell
sulfide has a very high resistance to the relay. Some postpurge controls have line
passage of electrical current. As the cell is voltage connected to a red/white wire.
exposed to light, its resistance decreases
and current is allowed to pass. The hot wire of the burner motor,
igniter and oil valve are connected to the
For a cad cell relay to start the burner, orange wire. Postpurge controls have the
the flame detector must sense the absence valve connected to the violet wire.
of flame and resist the passage of current.
Once the burner starts and flame is estab- The white wire is connected to the
lished, the cell senses light, resistance neutral lead along with the neutrals from
drops, current passes through the circuit the burner components.
and the burner continues to run. The low voltage side of cad cell relays
If the cad cell does not sense enough typically has two terminals labeled T-T,
light when the burner starts, the control which can be connected to the thermostat.
will shut off on safety. It can not be started The cad cell flame detector leads are
again until the connected to the F-F terminals.
Cad cells can only see yellow and safety switch cools
white flames. This is why they are not
Figure 11-6.
off and is manually
used on gas controls. New low NOx
reset. Note that
oil burners burn with a transparent to
blue flame and biofuels flames are electronic safety Operation
also more blue. Manufacturers are switches do not The most common first generation cad
using infrared or ultraviolet detectors have to cool down cell primary controls you are likely to
to see these new flames. before resetting. If come across in the field are the Honeywell

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
Thermostat R8184G Protectorelay Control Junction Box Line Voltage

Thermostat
Black
Orange
Cad Cell
Figure 11-6:
Cad cell
White primary control
Power Supply, Provide Disconnect Means To Use R8184 with Line Voltage Controller, Jumper T-T Terminals and
and Overload Protection as Required Connect Line Voltage Thermostat in Series with Limit Controller.
R8184G or the White Rogers 668. They Safety check

both feature intermittent duty ignition and To check the safety:
operate as follows:
1. Turn off the power at the service
If all components are functioning switch.
properly, the control is in stand-by mode
2. Install a 1,000 ohm resistor across
until:
the F-F terminals to reduce resistance and
Power is applied through the limit simulate flame. It is OK to leave the cad
control to the black wire, AND a call for cell leads hooked up.
heat from the thermostat completes the
3. Turn on the service switch and make
circuit between T and T. Then, assuming
sure that both the line and low voltage
that the cad cell does NOT sense light
circuits are complete.
The control is energized and the
4. The control should NOT energize,
orange wire is powered.
because the resistor connected to the F-F
The igniter generates ignition through terminals simulates a fire in the chamber. If
the electrodes and the motor turns the fuel it does energize, replace the control.
unit and burner fan. If there is an oil valve
If it does not
installed, it opens based on its delay timing.
1. Turn off the service switch and
Flame is established and the cad cell
remove the resistor.
resistance decreases to fewer than 1600
ohms, de-energizing the safety switch 2. Disconnect one lead from the F-F
heater and preventing the unit from terminals.
shutting off on safety.
3. Turn on the electrical switch. The
As long as the cad cell senses flame, control should energize and the burner
the oilburner continues to run until either should lock out based on safety switch
the thermostat or limit control is satisfied. timing (15 45 seconds.) If the control

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
does not go off on safety, replace it and be above room temperature. Be sure that there
sure to check the timing on the new control. is not a fire burning in the unit.
4. If the control does go off on safety, Remove the primary controls cover and
reconnect the lead to the F terminal and visually check to see if the spring-loaded
press the reset button. The safety is work- mechanism has locked off on safety.
ing properly.
If the primary control is NOT off on
safety, check for proper voltage coming
Troubleshooting tips from the limit control.
If the oilburner does not start: If there is sufficient line voltage, remove
Verify that electrical switches are in the one lead from the F-F terminals. If the
ON position and that the thermostat is set burner starts, the problem is in the cad cell
sensor or wires. The cell may be sensing
light or the wires may have been
Cad Cell CheckoutBurner On shorted.
Air Tube Ohmmeter If the burner does not start, discon-
Ignition
Electrode C554A Light Cell nect all the thermostat leads and install a
Resistance
Under 1600 jumper. If the burner starts, the problem
ohms is in the thermostat or its wiring.
Primary Control
Did you know? Leaving the thermostat
Nozzle wiring connected to the control while
Blower testing may harm todays computerized
thermostats.
Remove Cad Cell Leadwires From the Primary Control
Start Burner
If the primary is off on safety, check
Jumper TerminalsAllows Burner to Run the combustion chamber to be sure the
Connect Ohmmeter to Cad Cell LeadwiresMust Read unit is not saturated with oil. If the
Less Than 1600 Ohms
chamber contains excess oil, follow your
companys procedures to eliminate the
oil. Never attempt to fire an oilburner
into a saturated chamber!
Cad Cell CheckoutBurner Off
If the chamber is free of excess oil,
Ignition press the reset button.
Ohmmeter
Ignition Transformer
Electrode Air If the primary control energizes but
Tube the burner motor does not turnshut off
the service switch and check the electri-
Primary Control cal connections and the burner motor
C554A reset button.
Nozzle
Blower If the burner runs and flame is
established but the control shuts off on
Start Burner
safety, disconnect the cad cell leads,
Remove the Jumper
press the reset and, before the unit shuts
Check ResistanceMust Be 100,000 Ohms or More
When Dark off on safety again, place a 1000-ohm
resistor across the F-F terminals. If the
burner continues to operate with the

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
resistor in place, the cad cell relay is

Burner Locks Out On Safety operating as designed and the
problem is with the cad cell flame
Check Primary Control detector.
Check Cad Cell With the unit operating, connect
With Without the cad cell leads to your ohmmeter.
Ohmmeter Ohmmeter A reading of zero ohms indicates a
Clean Cell
short circuit. Check for pinched or
Check
Resistance shorted cad cell wires.
Check Wiring
If the resistance is infinite, check
Check Flame for broken cad cell wires or a loose
Adjustment
or defective cell.
On most properly adjusted
burners, the reading will be 400
ohms or less. Some burners with large
static plates or small openings in the
Checking Cad Cell and Primary
retention head operate in the 400-800
Air Ohmmeter
Ignition Tube
ohm range. Very few burners operate
Electrode with resistance over 800 ohms.
Primary If the reading is greater than 1600

Control ohms, there is a serious problem with
Nozzle
the fire, the cad cell eye, its holder, its
Blower leads or its alignment. Remember the
cad cell needs to have a good view
Remove Lead Wires From Primary Control
through the air tube to the fire.
Start Burner
Jumper F-F (With 1500 Resistor) If the eye is coated with soot, it will
Control Locks OutReplace
Burner RunsTrouble is Cad Cell not be able to see the flame. Clean
Check Resistance the eye and continue your trouble-
InfiniteOpen Circuit (Cell Defective or Not Seated)
Greater Than 1600 OhmsCell Dirty shooting to find out why the eye is
or Not Sighting Properly dirty.
Cad Cell Check List

Ohmmeter Reading Cause Action
0 ohms Short circuit Check for pinched cad cell leadwires
Less than 1660 ohms Cad cell and application None
but not zero are working correctly
Over 1600 ohms Dirty or defective cell, 1. Clean cell face, recheck
but not infinite improper sighting or 2. Check flame sighting
improper air adjustment 3. Replace cell, recheck
4. Adjust air band to get good reading
Infinite resistance Open circuit Check for improper wiring, loose
cell in holder or defective cell

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
Second generation Recycle-on-flame-failure

cad cell primary controls Recycle-on-Flame-Failure means that
Second generation cad cell primary instead of shutting off on safety on loss of
controls have the same basic features as flame during the run cycle, the burner will
first generation controls, but steady ad- shut off within approximately 1.5 seconds.
vances in technology have led to a number After a wait of 60-90 seconds, the control
of improvements. will attempt to restart the oilburner.
For example, second generation cad cell
Operation
primary controls have electronic reset
Second generation cad cell primary
mechanisms which are not spring loaded.
controls operate similarly to first genera-
The reset button on these controls does not
tion controls.
pop-up when the unit shuts off on safety,
and the reset doesnt have a thermal If all components are functioning
component, so theres no cooling time properly, the control is in stand-by mode
required before the control can be reset. To until
bring the control out of safety lockout, you Power is applied through the
simply depress the reset button for three limit control to the black
seconds. wire, AND the circuit
Typical second generation cad cell between T and T is closed.
primary controls include:
Then assuming that the cad cell does
Safety monitoring circuit NOT sense light
This circuit monitors the contacts of two The control is energized and the
separate, redundant motor relays. Safety orange and blue wires are powered.
lockout occurs if the contacts of either
motor relay are found closed when they The ignition and motor start.
should be open, thus ensuring shutdown After the cad cell senses flame, the
even if one motor relay fails. ignition stays on for another 10
seconds, then shuts off.
Interrupted duty ignition As long as the cad cell senses flame, the
These controls have an additional wire oilburner continues to run until the thermo-
that is connected to the transformer or stat or limit control is satisfied.
igniter. With interrupted duty ignition:
If the control does not sense flame
Electrodes and igniters/transformers within the controls safety timing, lockout
last longer occurs. Pressing the reset button for 3
Electrical consumption, operational seconds resets the control.
noise and NOx emissions are reduced
Combustion problems leading to dirty Third generation cad cell
boilers and running saturations are primary controls
minimized Third generation primary controls

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
include a microprocessor in the printed and/or service company of the situation.

circuit boards. They feature interrupted
Limited resetThis feature protects
duty ignition, fifteen-second safety timing
against the repeated pressing of the reset
and include several new features.
button which floods the chamber with oil.
Valve-delay-on technology
If the control goes into lockout three
depending on the manufacturer, this feature
times during a single call for heat, it goes
may be referred to as valve-on-delay,
into a restricted mode, commonly called
delayed-valve-on, or other similar
latch up. The control can be reset only
wording. Through the use of an oil valve,
twice, regardless of the number of times the
valve-delay-on allows the burner motor
reset button is pressed. Instructions for
to get up to speed delivering full flow from
removing these controls from latch-up are
the fuel unit and full airflow from the fan printed on the underside of the control
before oil flows from the nozzle. This where the customer cannot see them.
optimizes fuel/air mixing at start up
resulting in a significant reduction of soot Limited recycleThis feature limits the
build-up and increased efficiency. number of times the control will attempt to
restart if the flame is repeatedly established
Motor-delay-off technologymay and then lost, preventing excessive sooting
also be referred to as burner-motor-off- from repeated combustion failure.
delay, or other similar wording. This
feature allows the motor/fan combination Diagnostic LEDsThese small, low-
to continue delivering full air flow for a power lights provide a significant amount
period of time after the oil flow through the of information to help the service techni-
nozzle has been cut off by an oil valve, cian quickly and accurately diagnose the
resulting in cleaner shut downs. situation.
Did you know? Many people in our industry

Conclusion
refer to valve-delay-on as pre-purge
Primary controls have evolved from
and motor-delay off post purge. This is
simple stack switches to microprocessor
not correct. The primary controls opera-
based controls that offer greater reliability,
tions do not fit the Underwriters Laborato-
safety and efficiency. Control manufactur-
ries (UL) definition of pre- and post-purge.
ers continue to develop new products with
advanced features that will make the
controls in use today seem as obsolete as
Dry alarm contactsThese auxiliary thermo-mechanical controls are now.
electrical contacts close when the control As an oilheat service technician its
goes into lock out or latch up. Through important for you to be aware of these new
various added controls (i.e. an auto dialer) controls so that you can continue to offer
can alert the homeowner, alarm company, professional service to your customers.

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
Specific Microprocessor-Based Primary Controls

The following section is intended strictly as an overview. While other
manufacturers may have similar controls, these are the units that you
are most likely to encounter. Also, remember that manufacturers
periodically add improvements and additional features to their controls.
It is critical to consult product specific literature to verify information
regarding individual controls, even if they are familiar to you.
Carlin shut the burner off and the 60200 will turn
Model numbers can be found just off power to the oil valve and complete a
above the thermostat and flame detector motor-delay-off cycle. After a wait of
terminals. 60-90 seconds, the red LED light will flash
Wiring diagrams are to the left, and for 65 seconds, then the control will
the controls timings are listed above the attempt to restart the oilburner.
model number. If flame is established during the trial
For example, this xxx has an xx- for ignition period, the burner will resume
second trial for ignition an xx-second normal operation. If flame is not estab-
recycle time, an x second valve delay on, lished in the trial for ignition period
an xx-second trial for ignition, and an the control will go into lockout.
xx-second motor-delay-off. Diagnostic LEDsthese primary
There may also be a revision designa- controls have two diagnostic LEDs: one red
tion printed on the lower right side of the and one amber.
label. Amber-on signals that the control is in
self-test.
Carlins microprocessor based controls, Red-on indicates that the control is in
models 50200 and 60200 feature: lockout
Limited resetalso known as Service-
Amber and red-on indicates that the
Model 50200
man Reset Protection. Once these controls
control has locked out three times during a
go into lockout three consecu-
single call for heat and is in latch-up.
tive times without establishing
flame, the control will go into Red flashing indicates that flame has
latch-up. In order to release been lost during a run cycle, after trial for
them from latch-up, depress and ignition.
hold the reset button. After
Amber blinking-off every 3 to 4
10 seconds, the two diagnos-
seconds while the control is in the standby
tic lights will blink alter-
mode indicates that the cad cell is sensing
nately. After another 20
light, or a diagnostic fault which disallows
seconds, the lights will stop
startup.
blinking. Release the button to complete
the reset procedure.
Wiring
Recycle-on-flame-failurein the event
of flame loss during the run cycle, within Thermostat and cad cell leads connect to
approximately two seconds the 50200 will the appropriate terminals.

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
The 50200 is connected in the same way After about 4 seconds, the amber
as earlier interrupted-ignition cad cell LED comes on. The test continues
relays: for 6 more seconds and, if success-
ful, the amber light turns off. If
The black wire connects to the limit
the test is not successful, the
control
control repeats the test until
The white wire connects to all successful.
neutrals
When a call for heat is initiated, Model 60200
The blue wire connects to the igniter the amber LED turns on and there is a 3 to
or transformer 4 second delay while the control performs a
safe start check. If no flame is sensed and
The orange wire connects to the
all internal conditions are correct, the LED
burner motor
turns off and the control enters valve-
The 60200 control has both valve- delay-on mode. The ignition is powered
delay-on and motor-delay-off features, and one second later, the motor is powered.
so the wiring is slightly more complicated:
After completion of the valve-delay-
The black wire connects to the limit on cycle, the control goes into trial for
control ignition. The oil valve is powered and
opens. Flame should be established within
The white wire connects to all
the trial for ignition period of 15 sec-
neutrals
onds. If the flame is not sensed by the end
The blue wire connects to the igniter of trial for ignition, the control goes into
or transformer lockout, the red LED comes on and the dry
alarm contacts close. The control must be
The orange wire connects to the
manually reset by pushing the reset button
burner motor
for one second and releasing.
The violet wire connects to the oil
Once the flame is established, the
valve
ignition remains on for a short time to
The red wire with white tracer (stripe) ensure flame stability and then shuts off.
connects to constant power
The burner will then run until the call for
heat is satisfied, at which time the power to
Operation
the oil valve will shut off. The motor will
The Carlin 60200 operates as follows:
continue to operate for the specified
Each time power is applied to the red motor-delay-off period. Once that cycle
wire with white tracer, the control performs is completed, the control returns to standby
a boot up test to verify internal operation. mode.

Chapter 11
Primary Controls

Riello primary controls the underside of the control. This diagram

Riello primary controls are designed should always be left in place to protect the
exclusively for use on Riello burners. printed circuit board of the control.
The Riello primary control, in combina- When working on these controls, most
tion with the coil of the oil valve and a cad experienced Service Technicians refer to
cell, monitors and controls all Riellos plastic laminated troubleshooting
functions of the burner. An card or the troubleshooting guide provided
auxiliary tap on the motor in the training manual.
windings provides a 46-volt AC
power supply to operate the
Operation
control. The oil valve provides
the starting and running circuits If all components are functioning
for the primary control through properly, the control is in standby mode
a logic board and safety until 120 volts is supplied through the limit
lockout switch. The ignition control to Terminal 5. Then assuming that
transformer is integrated into the the cad cell does NOT sense light:
primary control and provides interrupted- The control is energized and Terminal
duty ignition. 6 is powered, providing 120 Volts AC to
There are no thermostat terminals on the motor.
current Riello primary controls. An addi- The auxiliary winding tap provides 46
tional device, such as a switching relay, Volts AC to power the control.
must be used for low voltage thermostat
connections. The motor starts and establishes a 10-
second valve-delay-on.
The Riello controls safety switch is
equipped with a contact allowing remote The oil valve opens, supplying oil to
sensing of burner safety lockout. Should the nozzle line, and at the same time the
burner lockout occur, 120 Volts AC is ignition is powered.
supplied to sub-base Terminal 4 to activate Once the cad cell senses flame, the
any connected remote alarm systems. ignition circuit is opened and the spark
shuts off.
Wiring
All wiring is connected through the As long as the cad cell senses flame,
controls sub-base terminals. the oilburner continues to run until the
demand for heat is satisfied.
A wiring diagram is supplied with
each control and serves as an insulator on If the control does not sense flame
11-16 Primary Controls Chapter 11Primary Controls 11-17

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
within approximately 5 seconds after demn the control:

valve delay-on, the control shuts the
Cad cell faulty or sensing light before
burner off on safety.
trial for ignition.
If the cad cell loses sight of the flame
Coil wires are reversed on Terminals
at any time during the firing cycle, the
1 and 2 or on Terminals 1 and 8.
control immediately closes the oil valve to
prevent oil flow, then goes back into Open coil circuit, Terminals 2 and 8.
valve-delay-on mode and makes one To check this, connect your ohmmeter
attempt to relight. between terminals 2 and 8; if the coil
circuit is open, the reading will be 0 ohms.
Safety check Open coil circuit, Terminals 1 and 2.
Turn off the service switch Reading should be 1235 ohms or less.
Remove the control box from Notethis is for the 530 SE primary
the sub-base control only. An open coil circuit on
Remove the cad cell from the Terminal 1 will cause the 483 SE control to
control box lock out.
Replace the control box on Insufficient voltage between Termi-

nals 3 and 7. It should read 42 to 52 Volts
the sub-base
AC. If you have lower voltage, check the
Turn on the service switch and make incoming supply. If there is proper incom-
sure that the line voltage circuit is ing voltage, above 102 Volts AC, change
complete the burner motor.
The control should energize and the If a burner with a 530 SE control
burner should go off on safety approxi- continues to purge and light off with
mately 5 seconds after the valve-delay- immediate flame dropout, or a burner with
on cycle. If the control does NOT go off a 483 SE control cycles on and off in quick
on safety, replace it and be sure to check succession, check the following:
the timing on the new control. The metal yoke for the coil may be
missing or improperly installed.
Troubleshooting tips
In general, it is good practice to check Coil wires 2 and 8 may be reversed.
that the control box spades and sub-base There may be low resistance on the
terminals are making good contact, and to coil holding circuit, terminals 1 & 2.
verify that there is between 42 and 52 Volts Resistance should be 1350 ohms, plus or
AC between terminals 3 and 7 while the minus 10%. If the resistance is low, change
motor is running. the coil.
If the burner stays in valve-delay-on, The following pages show reference
check for the following before you con- guides for the Riello primary control.
1-17 Chapter 11Primary Controls 11-17

Chapter 11
Primary Controls

Chapter 11
Primary Controls

Chapter 11
Primary Controls

The Honeywell R7184 Offno flame

Honeywells controls differ from
2 seconds on, 2 seconds offrecycle
Carlins. It is also extremely important to
note that some Honeywell models utilize 1/2 second on, 1/2 second off
different wire color-coding. lockout and latch-up.
Standard features The LED can also be used to check cad
of the Honeywell R7184 include: cell resistance. When the burner is running
after the ignition has turned off, quickly
Limited resetThis control can
press and release the reset button. Hold it
be reset only two times before it
for only a half-second or less. The LED will
goes into restricted lockout, or
flash from one to four times depending on
latch-up mode. The reset count
the cad cell resistance:
returns to zero each time a call
for heat is successfully com- If the light flashes oncecad cell
pleted. To reset the control from resistance is normal: 0-400 ohms
latch-up, press and hold the reset Two flashes means resistance is
button. The LED will go out. normal: 400800 ohms
Continue holding the button for
approximately 30 to 45 seconds Three flashes is normal: 8001600
until the light comes on again. ohms
Limited recycleShould the flame be Four flashes indicate limited resis-

lost while the burner is firing, the control tance of more than 1600 ohms
shuts down the burner, enters a 60 second Lockout can occur above 4000 ohms.
recycle delay and then attempts a restart.
During the recycle delay, the LED will flash Pump priming cycleTo facilitate
slowlytwo seconds on, two seconds off. priming, the control can be placed in a
Do not confuse this with the burner being purge routine by pressing and quickly
in lockout. If the flame is lost three releasing the reset button while the ignition
consecutive times without successfully is on. If the control has not locked out since
satisfying a call for heat, the control goes its last complete heating cycle, the lockout
timing will be extended for up to 4 minutes
into lockout and must be reset manually.
and the ignition will operate in the intermit-
Diagnostic LEDThe diagnostic LED tent mode for this cycle only.
has four states: Communications portMany
Onflame present Honeywell residential combustion controls

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
have a communications port that allows for delay feature which may be field selected
data interchange between the control and to 30 seconds, 2 minutes, 4 minutes or 8
other products, such as diagnostic tools, minutes or fixed at 15 seconds. In addition
modems, zoning systems, and home to the violet wire for valve on delay,
automation. there is a red wire that connects to the limit
control, while the black wire connects to
Wiring the Honeywell R7184 constant power to achieve the burner
Currently there are four models of the motor-off delay feature. All other wiring
R7184: A, B, P and U. On each model, the is consistent with the B model.
thermostat leads and cad cell leads connect
to the appropriate terminals. R7184U
The U model has all of the features of
R7184A the P models with selectable on and off
The black wire connects to the limit delays, plus low voltage dry alarm contacts
control that are located above the thermostat
terminals. On the U model you have the
The white wire connects to all ability to adjust dip switches that enable or
neutrals disable both the valve on delay and the
The blue wire connects to the igniter burner motor-off delay. This makes the U
or transformer model control the same as the A control.
This way you only need to stock one
The orange wire connects to the control on your truck. All other wiring is
burner motor consistent with the P model.
R7184B Model designations and revisions

The B model has a 15-second valve-on Honeywell puts the model designations
delay feature requiring the installation of and revision information for the R7184
an oil valve. This control has an added next to the control part number and/or
violet wire that connects to that valve. The prints it on the side of the control. Revi-
other wire from the valve is connected to sions are numerical and indicate which
the neutrals. All other wiring is consistent improvements or changes are included in
with the A model. the particular control. For example, Series 1
controls have different cad cell indicator
R7184P ranges; Revision 2 changed the pump
The P model has both a fixed 15-second priming cycle from 45 seconds to 4 minutes
valve-on delay and a burner motor-off- and added the limited recycle. Some

Chapter 11
Primary Controls
Honeywellcontinued conditions are correct, the control

revisions have wires, while others have enters valve on delay modeand the
spade connectors. ignition and motor are powered for 15
seconds.
Series 4 and later controls have added
safety features. If a Series 4 control detects Trail for ignition: Then the control
flame eight seconds into valve on delay goes into trial for ignition. The oil
or 30 seconds into burner motor-off- valve is powered and opens. Flame
delay, the control will go into lock out. should be established within the trial
This is to prevent poor starts and shut- for ignition timing of 15 or 30 sec-
downs due to bad oil valves. This means onds. If no flame is sensed by the end
that these controls CANNOT be operated of trial for ignition, the control goes
without an oil valve. If the fuel unit has to into lockout and must be manually
be replaced, you MUST use one with either reset. The dry alarm contacts close and
an integral or external oil valve. It also complete the circuit to activate any
remote alarm that is connected.
means that if you are replacing an earlier
control with a Series 4 or later control, you Carryover: Once the flame is
cannot simply cap off the violet and/or established, the ignition remains on for
black wires as you could with earlier 10 seconds to ensure flame stability,
revisions. There is also a series 5 control. then shuts off. The burner will then run
See Becketts website for details. until the call for heat is satisfied, at
which time the power to the oil valve
Sequence of operation will shut down.
Currently, the most sophisticated
Burner motor off delay: The
Honeywell R7184 is the U model. Lets
motor will continue to operate from 30
take a look at how it operates.
seconds to 8 minutes depending on
Standby: When a call for heat is how the dip switches are set. Once this
initiated, there is a 2 to 6 second delay burner motor-off delay cycle has
while the control performs a safe start been completed, the control returns to
check. If no flame is sensed and all internal standby mode.
11-16
Chapter 12
Limit Controls/Thermostats
Chapter 12
Limit Controls
and Thermostats
There are a large variety of limit No matter what they look like, limit
controls, thermostats, and switching relays controls are just switches. You may want to
used in oil-fired heating systems. At first review the section on switches in the basic
glance, it can be confusing. Remember, electricity chapter before you go any
these devices are just switches that turn further.
things on and off.
Some of these switches are turned on Electrical control circuit
and off by the warping or flexing action of The hot (L1) electric power wire for the
bimetal blades. Some use magnets and basic oilburner circuit begins at the service
springs. Some are controlled by a fluid that panel fuse, or circuit breaker, travels to the
expands and contracts quickly. Some are main switch, then to a junction box that is
line voltage and some are low voltage. usually located on the ceiling near the
Some need transformers to change the burner. Many states and local codes require
voltage so that low voltage switches can a thermal or Firomatic switch at this
control line voltage loads. Some controls junction box. From the junction box, the
now use solid-state microprocessors and hot line (which is a black wire) runs to the
other electronic devices. servicemans switch, through the high limit
Figure 12-1: Basic
oil burner control
circuit
Basic Oilburner Circuit Showing

Switches, Motor, and Ignition Transformer
L1
Fuse Emergency Line High-Limit Primary
Switch 1 Switch 2 Control
L2
Chapter 12Limit Controls and Thermostats 12-3

Chapter 12
control and then to terminal #1 or the black the local fire marshal or other authority to
lead wire of the primary control. From the make sure that your installation complies
primary control, wires are connected to the with all local requirements. In some areas,
oilburner motor and ignition transformer. only licensed electricians are allowed to
All wires up to this point carry 120 volt install line voltage wiring.
line voltage.
The low voltage (24 volt) side of the
The neutral white (L2) wire of the oilburner control circuit usually starts at the
control circuit also starts at the main step down transformer in the primary
entrance service panel, and passes to control. The low voltage circuit turns the
terminal #2 or the white lead of the burner, circulator, or blower on and off, and
primary control. On a modern circuit, there opens and closes valves in response to
should never be any switches or fuses in temperature changes in the heated space
the neutral side of the circuit. Older homes and the appliance.
with knob and tubing wiring often have
fuses on both the hot side and the neutral See Figures 12-1 and 12-2.
side of the circuit. And sometimes switches,
limits, and fuses are put on both sides by Burner switch
mistake. Never assume anything when it The burner switch is used to shut off the
comes to electricity. Always test! burner in an emergency or as a convenience
Also, before doing any wiring, check with switch when servicing the oilburner. There
Figure 12-2:
Circuit wiring
Thermostat H N
High Line Emergency
Limit Sw. Sw.
Fuse
Primary
Junction
Box
Motor Trans
12-4 Limit Controls and Thermostats

Chapter 12
are usually two disconnect switches. The rate will cause the
first is called a customer or emergency bonded bimetallic Spirit Level
switch and it is normally located at the element to bend or
head of the basement stairs or at the warp with temperature Mounting
entrance to the heater room. The second changes. By bending or Slots
switch is a servicemans switch and may moving when heat is Be Sure
Wall
include a fuse. This switch is located on or applied to it or taken Hole is
Plugged
near the furnace or boiler. away, it creates a
mechanical force that
R
Thermostats flips a mercury switch
Principles and design to make or break a pair Terminal Mounting
Screws Slots
A thermostat is a mechanical or electronic of switch contacts.
Making or breaking a W
switch that automatically opens or closes a Plumb
circuit as room temperature changes. The contact means closing Line
thermostats purpose is to start the burner or opening a circuit. Plumb
Line
and/or circulator or blower when the Remember, as with all Diamond
Guides (2)
temperature is below the established setting, mercury switches, such Spirit Level
and to shut them off when the heat demand thermostats must be
is satisfied. Thermostats must be extremely installed level. Figure
sensitive to temperature changes. In older 12-4 shows how to
thermostats, a bimetal element warps or level the T87 thermo- Leveling
Post (2)
unwinds in response to temperature change stat.
to open or close a switch. In the solid-state
thermostat, the room temperature changes 3 wire thermostats vs.
the resistance of an electronic device that 2 wire thermostats Mounting
Opening for Slots
will act in various methods to open and close Very old style Thermostat
thermostats needed Wiring
circuits.
three wires to operate.
The majority of thermostats installed in
When replacing an old
the field still use a bimetal element and
three wire thermostat with a new two wire, Figure 12-4:
mercury switch to function. The T-87 thermostat
eliminate the red wire. Today there
following text covers this type
are some three wire thermostats
of thermostat, Figure 12-3
that operate some zone valve
shows the most common
motors and dampers. A
type in use. The replace-
circuit is necessary to drive
ments are mostly
the valve or damper open
electronic and will be
and another circuit must
discussed later.
drive it closed. The switch-
The bimetallic ing action of these thermo-
element comprises two stats is single pole, double
dissimilar metal strips, throw as opposed to a single
bonded together, which pole, single throw switch for
expand or contract with a the two wire circuits. Thermostats
Figure 12-3
change in temperature at different of this type are never connected to
rates of speed. This difference in expansion primary controls.

Chapter 12
Low voltage and line voltage ing heater to increase the sensitivity of the
thermostats thermostat. It reduces the mechanical
In some older systems, line voltage differential. The heat anticipator is a small
thermostats were used to directly control electrical resistance heater that fools the
the circulator without the use of a switch- thermostat into thinking it is warmer in the
ing relay. Line voltage thermostats are not room than it actually is.
as sensitive as low voltage types and this
often leads to wide fluctuations in the room The heater is wired so that electric
temperature. If open blade contacts are current flows through it when the thermo-
used in the line voltage controller, the stat calls for heat. The anticipator heater
contacts will eventually burn, and pitting of creates heat within the thermostat near the
the contacts is the result. At this point we bimetallic element. This causes the thermo-
can lose control of the room temperature. stat to break its contacts prior to the room
Line voltage thermostats are mostly used in air reaching the temperature of the dial
commercial and industrial applications. setting, so the burner is turned off slightly
ahead of the time that the room air tempera-
ture increases to the dial setting of the
Heat anticipating principle thermostat. The blower in a warm air
The differential of a thermostat is the system continues to operate, bringing the
number of degrees temperature change that room air temperature up to the dial setting.
are required to cause its bimetal or bellows With a hot water or steam system the heat
to move the required distance to close or in the radiators or baseboard will raise the
open its electrical contacts. The number of room temperature after the thermostat shuts
degrees difference between the opening off the burner and circulator.
and closing of a thermostat is called the
mechanical differential. For example, if a The anticipating heater must be adjusted
thermostat opened at 70F, and its contacts to match the current that is supplied to the
closed at 68F, its mechanical differential thermostat. We must adjust for the number
would be 2. of amps supplied to the heater, because the
Figure 12-5:
T-87F heat
greater the number of amps, the quicker the
Manufacturers incorporate an anticipat- heater will heat up. Current flow in this 24
anticipator
volt circuit generally varies from 0.05
amperes to 0.6 amperes, depending on the
make and model of control. When setting
the heat anticipator, consider the length of
the wire and other resistances in the circuit.
The current from the control to the thermo-
stat heater circuit should be measured with
an amperage meter and the anticipator set
to the amps in the low voltage circuit.
If an ammeter is not available, set the
anticipator to the amp rating found inside
the cover of the control to which the
thermostat is directly connected.
Figure 12-5 shows the location of the
heat anticipator in a heating and cooling
thermostat. Notice the anticipator in the R

Chapter 12
to W circuit. This is because the anticipator

is only used for heating and not in the
circuit R and Y that would be used if this Hole Suitable for
thermostat were used for air conditioning. Pencil Point to
Move Indicator
Figure 12-6 shows the heater indicator and
the scale in a thermostat.
In some installations, longer operations Heat
Anticipator
may be needed to assure delivery of heat Indicator
throughout the house. To lengthen opera- Scale
tions, move the heater indicator preferably

not more than half a division in the direc-
Figure 12-6:
tion of the scale arrow. To shorten opera- Location of the thermostat T-87F heater
tions, move the indicator in the opposite A thermostat should be installed about adjustment
direction. 5 feet from the floor on an inside living or
dining room wall, or a wall where there is
If the operating control supplies 0.4
good natural air circulation. It may be wise
amps to the thermostat circuit and the
to select several good locations, pointing
anticipating heater of the thermostat is set them out to the homeowner, and then let
at 0.8 amps, the burning cycle will be long. them choose from the suggested locations.
However, if the heat anticipator of the
thermostat is set at 0.2 amps while the Some locations that will cause trouble are:
control is supplying .4 amps, then the 1. Above a TV, stereo, computer,
burner cycle will be short. In the latter case, or lamp
the burner will operate on and off for short 2. On or near an outside wall
periods of time (short cycling). 3. Near a radiator or air register
4. In line with the air Figure 12-7:
Electronic thermostats
stream from a register
Electronic thermostats 5. On a wall containing
Figure 12-7 shows some examples of
steam pipes, hot water
electronic thermostats. These thermostats pipes, warm air risers,
rely on solid-state technology to not only or chimneys
operate the equipment, but to maintain and 6. On a wall with high
store temperature settings, day and date, internal air movement
and number of cycles. Unlike the earlier 7. Behind a door or
mechanical thermostats that had only one other obstruction
day per operation cycle, many of these to free air circulation
thermostats can have four different settings 8. In an over radiated or
for all seven days of the week. under radiated room
9. Near a window or
The difference in electronic thermostats
door frequently
over manual and mechanical clock types is
opened to the outside
the lack of an adjustable anticipator. 10. In a room with a
Instead the electronic thermostat must be heat source such
programmed according to cycle rate as refrigerator, stove,
adjustment. Once these settings are made or fireplace
at the time of installation, the thermostat, 11. On a wall or partition
and its circuitry accommodate for the subject to excessive vibration
correct number of cycles.

Chapter 12
Mounting thermostats Remember, in electricity, open

Servicing or installing a thermostat is means that there will be no
a job for clean hands. Do not mar or soil flow of electricity and closed
wall surfaces. means electricity can flow
Be absolutely sure that all wires are through the switch.
connected to their proper terminals and that
all connections are tight. If a color code is
being used, be certain that it is followed.
If mercury switches are used in the Warm air limit controls
thermostat, be absolutely certain the Warm air limit controls protect the
thermostat back plate and/or the thermostat furnace heat exchanger from excessively
itself are level. high temperatures and operate the blower.
All excess wire should be pushed Both the high limit control and the fan
back into the hole in the wall, and the hole control may be operated by a bimetallic
should be plugged with putty to prevent element inserted in the plenum, or through
cool air drafts from affecting the thermo- an electronic control panel. The line
stat performance. voltage high limit control in series with the
primary control may employ either metal
Limit controls to metal contacts or a mercury switch to
A limit control is a temperature or pressure make or break the circuit.
actuated switch. Limit controls are gener- Fan and limit controls are usually
ally divided into two groups: the high limit combined into one housing. In this in-
or safety controls and the low limit or stance, the helix type bimetallic element
operating controls. Limit controls are of operates both the fan control switch and the
either the direct acting or reverse acting high limit control switch. Figure 12-8
type. Direct acting controls break (open) shows a combination fan and limit control.
their contact on temperature rise while the A single dial as shown in Figure 12-9 (old
reverse acting controls make (close) their
contacts on temperature rise. Remember, in
electricity, open means that there will be no Figure 12-8:
flow of electricity and closed means Combination fan and limit control
electricity can flow through the switch.
The high limit is a safety device that
turns off the burner should temperatures
get too high within the furnace or boiler, or
steam pressure become excessive in a steam
boiler. This control should be line voltage,
wired in series with the primary control so
that it can turn off only the oilburner, never
the circulator or system fan. The circulator
or fan must stay on to remove the excessive
heat produced. A low limit or operating
control is a limit that is used to control the
operation of the burner and blower or
circulator.

Chapter 12
To Release Stop, Press

Stiff Wire In Hole
Center Right Hand
Pointer Pointer Scaleplate
(Fan On) (Limit Opens) Adjustable
Limit Stop
Left Hand Safety Stop
Pointer
(Fan Off)
Fan Off
Set Point Lever
Fan On Limit Set Point Lever

Set Point Lever (Factory-Set
at 200F (93C)
Figure 12-9:
and newer version) has indicators for the Limit terminals and fan terminals (old High limit
fan on position and the fan off position as and new) connect the line voltage wires of
well as an indicator for the high limit the heating system electrical circuit. As
setting. shown in Figure 12-10 on following page.
The function of the fan control is to The heat sensing element, or bimetallic
operate the system blower when the air element, expands and contracts with a
temperature is within the fan control dial change in furnace temperature. Since the
settings. The fan control will permit the fan element is helical in shape, it turns with a
to operate when the air temperature in the circular motion, either clockwise or
furnace rises above the fan on setting as counterclockwise, depending upon whether
prescribed for the specific system or the the furnace air is being heated or it is
manufacturers requirements. The fan cooling off.
control will also prevent blower operation
in the event the air temperature is below the The operation of the fan switch control
fan off setting of the fan control. This as shown in Figure 12-10 is as follows:
prevents cool air from being forced into the
living area during cold weather. 1. If the furnace temperature is the same
as the room temperature and the fan on
Many fan controls provide for manual
indicator is set at 140F, the fan off
operation to provide for summer air
indicator set at 110F and the thermostat
circulation. After the burner has been on
then calls for heat, the burner is turned on.
for a short period, the element of the fan
control will sense the desired amount of 2. As the burner produces heat, the air in
heat in the plenum or bonnet of the the furnace begins to rise in temperature
furnace, and start the blower. The blower and the helical element reacts to this change
will then run as long as there is heat, which in temperature. In its attempt to expand,
can be for some time after the burner has the bimetal causes the scale plate to turn in
stopped. a clockwise direction. Once the scale plate

Chapter 12
Figure 12-10:
Limit and fan
terminals has reached the fan on position, 140F, the In the event that the fan fails to operate,
fan switch will close its contacts and the the air filters are clogged, or a blower belt
fan will be turned on, forcing warm air into is broken; the temperature in the furnace
the living area. would continue to rise, going beyond the
fan on position and ultimately reaching the
3. The burner will continue to operate
high limit indicator setting of 200F as
until the room thermostat is satisfied, at
shown in Figure 12-10.
which time it will turn off. However, the fan
will continue to operate until the air Upon reaching this point, the limit
temperature has dropped below the mini- control would open its electrical contact
mum setting or the fan off indicator setting. and prevent line voltage from reaching the
Once this point has been reached, the fan primary control. This in turn would prevent
control will then open its electrical line voltage from reaching the oilburner
contacts, and the fan will stop. motor and ignition transformer thus
causing the oilburner to go off. The high
The heat exchanger of the furnace is still limit control would continue to hold its
hot, although the burner, controlled by the electrical switch contacts open until the air
thermostat, is not running; warm air temperature in
currents will continue to rise to the bonnet. the bonnet had dropped below the 200F
Under certain conditions this heat may be mark minus the differential of the switch.
sufficient to again elevate the temperature (Normally 25). The helical element would
to 140F, and the fan switch will again at the same time cool, rotating in a counter-
operate the fan until all of this heated air is clockwise direction, causing the limit
delivered to the living area. indicator to also rotate in a counterclock-

Chapter 12
wise direction until the scale plate had combination control is wired into the
traveled below 175F. Once this point has heating system electrical circuit. In this
been reached, line voltage power would illustration, the limit control is wired
once again be restored to the primary directly into the hot line of the line voltage
control and if the room thermostat is still circuit and is in series with the primary
calling for heat, the burner would once control. The high limit control should never
again operate. be wired to the neutral wire of the furnace
unit.
Always consult local codes and ordi-
nances or regulations and manufacturers Figure 12-12 lists some typical warm air
instructions before installing a fan limit limit settings and fan control on and off
control. The helical element of the fan settings; the lower these settings can be
Figure 12-12
limit control must be
located in the furnace
plenum or at a Warm Air Limit Settings
location where it will Types of Systems Limit Fan = On Fan = Off
be subjected to a Average furnace, average system 200F 140F 110F
representative airflow Oversized furnace and/or oversized fan and/or short air ducts 170F 130F 90F
and temperature. It Undersized furnace and/or undersized fan and/or long air ducts 230F 160F 130F
must not be located
near cold air returns
or the humidifier, nor in a dead air spot without creating uncomfortably cool air
where there is poor circulation. It must delivery into the living area, the more
definitely not touch any internal parts of economical the operation of the heating
the furnace. system will be.
Figure 12-11 is a schematic wiring Referring to Figure 12-11, note that the Figure 12-11:
diagram showing how a Honeywell L4064B Warm air
fan motor is wired into the system circuit
circuit
Oil-Fired Forced Warm Air System

Stack Detector
Thermostat Primary Control Ignition Transformer
Fan and High Burner

Limit Control Motor
Fan
Limit
Fan
L1 (Hot) L2 Motor
Power Supply

Chapter 12
in parallel with the primary control and the terminal connections are provided as an
high limit control. The fan control should option. A means for operating continuous
always be connected on a warm air system indoor air circulation is also available as an
in this manner to enable the fan motor to option. See Figure 12-14 for ST9103A
operate independently of the burner. wiring connections and Table 12-1 for the
operating sequence.
Electronic fan timer center
Most new warm air furnaces incorporate
air conditioning, heating, humidification
Steam system controls
Pressure controls
and air cleaning in one unit. They also
Limit controls that respond to changes in
feature multi-speed direct drive blower
steam pressure are called pressure controls,
motors. To operate all these devices, they
or pressuretrols. As is the case with warm
need an electronic fan center. A good
air limit controls and hot water controls,
example of this device is the Honeywell
ST9103A Electronic Fan
Timer, Figure 12-13. It Figure 12-14:
Figure 12-13:
integrates the control of all Honeywell ST9103A
Electronic fan
timer burner and system fan wiring connections
operations in an
oil furnace.
This control
serves as the
central wiring
point for most of
the electric
components of the
furnace. The
ST9103A allows
the thermostat to
control heating,
cooling, and system
fan demands and run
the oilburner primary
control as well as up
to a four speed circu-
lating fan. It also
monitors a limit switch
string, which energizes the
circulating fan whenever
the limit switch opens.
Electronic air cleaner and
humidifier convenience

Chapter 12
Table 12-1
Action System Response
Thermostat calls for heat. ST9103A closes oil primary control T-T connections.
(W terminal is energized) Ignition system and oil primary control start the furnace. Oil flows as long as
oil primary control senses flame.
Burner motor is energized and heat fan on delay timing begins. When timing is
complete, the circulating fan is energized at heat speed and warm air is
delivered to the controlled space.
Thermostat ends call for heat Oil primary control is de-energized, terminating the burner cycle.
Heat fan off delay timing begins. When timing is complete, the circulating fan
is de-energized.
ST9103A returns to standby mode (oil primary control and circulating fan are off.
Burner fails to light Oil primary control locks out within lockout timing (timing depends on
oil primary control).
Burner motor is de-energized.
If heat fan has started, it continues through the selected delay period.
Established flame fails Burner motor is de-energized and oil primary control goes into recycle mode.
If selected heat fan off delay is longer than the recycle delay timing, the heat fan
continues to run through the next trial for ignition.
Thermostat begins call for cool Circulating fan is energized at cool speed.
(G and Y terminals are de-energized) Cooling compressor turns on immediately.
Thermostat ends call for cool Circulating fan and cooling compressor turn off immediately.
(G and Y terminals are de-energized)
Thermostat begins call for fan Circulating fan is energized immediately at cool speed.
(G terminal is energized) ST9103A may be factory-configured to operate heat speed in this mode.
Thermostat ends call for fan Circulating fan is de-energized.

(G terminal is de-energized)
Limit switch string opens Oil primary controls shuts off burner.
Circulating fan is energized immediately at heat speed.
ST9103A opens oil primary control T-T connections.
Circulating fan runs as long as limit string stays open.
If there is a call for cooling or fan, the circulating fan switches from heat speed
to cool speed.
Limit switch string closes ST9103A begins heat fan off delay sequence.
Circulating fan turns off after the selected heat fan off delay timing.
ST9103A recloses oil primary control T-T connections.
Oil primary control is energized, initiating burner light off.
Continuous circulating fan is connected Circulating fan is energized at low speed when there is no call for heat,
cool or fan.
If fan operation is required by a call for heat, cool or fan, the ST9103A
switches off the continuous fan speed tap before energizing the other fan speed.
Electronic air cleaner is connected Electronic air cleaner (EAC) connections are energized when the heat or cool
(Optional connectors are available speed of the circulating fan is energized. EAC connections are not energized
for 120 Vac electronic air cleaner) when the optional continuous fan terminal is energized.
Humidity control connected Humidifier connections are energized when burner motor is energized.
(Optional connectors are available
for 120 Vac humidifier)

Chapter 12
pressure controls will also complete or

break a circuit by opening or closing their
contacts. Their contacts may be constructed
of the metal to metal design, or they may be
of the mercury tube type. The operating
range of a pressure control must never
exceed the design pressure of the boiler.
All residential and most commercial boilers
are of the low pressure type with a maxi-
mum pressure range not to exceed 15 PSI;
therefore, pressure controllers must be
limited to the 0 to 15 PSI range.
Figure 12-16:
Occasionally a steam system may be Pressuretrol
required to maintain pressure and the use
of an operating controller may be neces-
sary. In this case, two separate pressure
controllers are necessary, one acting as the
12-16 show a vapor control and a pressure
safety limit and the other as the operating
control.
limit. Residential steam systems require
less than 2 PSI. In both cases the switching mechanism is
actuated by a diaphragmthe steam
Most pressure controls are not sensitive
pressure counteracts the pressure exerted
enough for the low operating pressures
by the spring in the control. The tension of
Figure 12-15: required for some residential steam sys-
Vaporstat
the spring is predetermined by the pressure
tems. In these systems, you
adjustment screw, or main scale set point
will get better results with
screw.
a Vapor Control that
operates on ounces of It is important to read the pressure
pressure instead of pounds. adjustment instructions for the particular
pressure controller being adjusted. On some
As the steam pressure controls, the differential is subtractive,
changes, an expansion or meaning that if the pressure cut out is set
contraction of a bellows for 3 PSI and the differential is set for 2
actuates the switching PSI, the cut in point will be 1 PSI. On
mechanism. The cut-in and other controls, the differential is additive
cut-out pressures can and if the cut in point is set at 1 psi and the
usually be independently differential is set at 2 PSI, then added
set to meet any require- together, it would give us a cut out point of
ment. The snap-acting 3 PSI.
switch type does not
The cut out point is the pressure at
require leveling.
which the oilburner will shut off. The cut
If mercury switches are employed, the in point is the pressure at which the burner
control must be leveled. Figures 12-15 and will restart. It is very important to remem-

Chapter 12
Figure 12-17:
Mercury tube
pressure switch
ber that if the cut out point is changed and
Differential Pressure Eccentric
the differential is left the same the cut in Adjusting
Adjusting Adjustment
point will also change. The same thing Screw Screw Screw Manual
happens in reverse, if the cut in point is Reset Lever
changed, the cut out point also changes. Scale Plates

Figure 12-17 shows a mercury tube
Mercury
pressure switch with the cover off, indicat- Switch
ing various parts and adjustment points. Differential
Setting
Indicator
The pressure control must always be Leveling
Indicator
installed above the water level of the boiler,
Pressure
and a pigtail, or siphon, as shown in Figure Setting
12-18, must be installed between the boiler Indicator
and the control. The siphon loop prevents
Differential
steam from damaging the control bellows. Lever
The pressure control should be installed Travel

Operating
Limit Slot
in the fitting provided by the boiler Lever
manufacturer, or in the pressure control
Diaphragm
mounting of the low-water cutoff. When Assembly
Figure 12-18:
Installation of a Pressure Control Pressure control,
siphon loop
Right Wrong

Chapter 12
making pipe connections, use pipe dope high limit controls, it is wired into the hot
sparingly. Excess dope may clog the small line in series with the primary control.
opening of the pressure control, thus
preventing it from operating properly.
Low-water cutoff
When mounting the pressure control and The low-water cutoff prevents a burner
the pressure gauge to the same boiler from operating if the water level is too low
fitting, follow the method shown in Figure in the boiler. This device is required on all
12-18, previous page. Be certain to mount steam boilers whether used for space
them in such a manner that their faces are heating or in a process application and may
perpendicular to the siphon loop circumfer- also be required on hot water systems. If a
ence. The reason for this is that the siphon hot water boiler is installed above the
loop tends to expand, thus causing a radiation, or even at the same level, a low-
forward and backward motion that could water cutoff should be used to protect the
cause the mercury switch in the pressure boiler in the event of a loss of water.
control to operate improperly if the faces of
Figure 12-20 shows a cutaway view of
these instruments were mounted parallel to
an external low-water cutoff. It is a float
the circumference of the loop.
operated device. There is also an internal
Figure 12-19: Figure 12-19 is a wiring diagram low-water cutoff with the float located
Pressure control showing the pressure control. Like all other inside the boiler.
wiring
Pressure Low Water

Control Cutoff
Low Voltage
Thermostat
Low Voltage
Aquastat
Burner
Motor
Ignition
Transformer

Chapter 12
Hot water limit controls

Hot water limit controls, sometimes
called aquastats, control the temperature of
the water in the boiler, and the temperature
of the domestic hot water. They are all just
switches that function automatically. In a Figure 12-21:
basic forced hot water system, these Single function
controls must perform three aquastat
functions:
1. They provide high limit
Figure 12-20 protection against excessive
boiler water temperatures.
2. They are employed for
With either type, when the float is in a the purpose of maintaining a
level position, it holds a single-pole single- pre-determined boiler tempera-
throw switch in a closed position. In the ture, especially in systems that
event the water level inside the boiler drops use tankless heaters for domestic
below the safe operating level, the float hot water.
will also drop, thus opening the switch and
3. They are used to keep
breaking the hot line circuit to the burner.
circulators from lowering the
Probe type low-water cutoffs are boiler water temperature too
becoming very common on most boilers, low.
replacing the float types. These cutoffs may
have timing devices to prevent nuisance Figure 12-21 shows a typical
shut downs should the boiler water surge. single function aquastat, the
Probe type cutoffs send a low voltage L4006 with two terminals and
charge through the water to ground on the Figure 12-22 shows a dual acting
boilers metal. Dont switch to a probe L6006 with three terminals.
control without first getting the boiler The high limit protection control
manufacturers recommendations as to prevents the boiler water temperature
where it should be installed. from rising to unsafe levels that
In Figure 12-19 (opposite page), the create steam. Low (operating) limit
wiring diagram shows how the low-water protection means that the boiler water
cutoff is connected into the main heating is not allowed to drop below a certain
plant circuit. The low-water cutoff is temperature. In the event the boiler
connected in the hot line, preceding the water temperature falls below the dial
pressure control and in series with it and setting of the low limit control, the
the primary control. Thus, the low-water burner would be turned on. Hot water
cutoff may be called a low water line temperature controls are either direct-
voltage safety device. Low-water cutoffs acting or reverse-acting. As explained
on steam boilers may be incorporated with, earlier, a direct-acting control will
or wired to, electronic solenoid water make its contacts, completing an Figure 12-22:
valves called automatic water feeders. electric circuit, on a drop in temperature Dual acting
aquastat

Chapter 12
and it will break its contacts on rise in thermistor, (Figure 12-25), will respond
Figure 12-23:
temperature. Reverse-acting controls make faster to rapid temperature changes than the
Hot water limit
(aquastat), their contacts on a rise, and will break their old immersion control of the bi-metal type
strap on type contacts on a drop in temperature. The or the capillary type. A thermistor is a heat
letter A after the Honeywell model number sensitive device that increases or decreases
normally indicates a control that will open resistance based on temperature.
its circuit on a rise in temperature. The B
control will normally close its circuit on a
Reverse acting aquastat
rise in temperature for use as a reverse
When the circulator is turned on by
control.
action of the room thermostat, the burner
Hot water limits may be of the strap-on often starts simultaneously. When the
type (Figure 12-23, or the circulator starts, it pushes hot water out of
immersion type, (Figure 12-24). the boiler to the radiators, and an equal
Normally, the strap-on limit volume of cool return water from the
control is installed close to the radiators and system piping flows back to
boiler on the main supply riser. It the boiler. This causes a drop in boiler
should never be mounted on a water temperature. Starting the burner at
pipe fitting such as an elbow or the same time as the circulator helps the
coupling. The strap-on type burner match its output to the heat content
control is not as sensitive to temperature leaving the boiler.
change as the immersion type controls and
Also, in the event that the water tem-
should not be used as a high limit control.
perature goes too low, the reverse-acting
Immersion controls should be installed in
circulator control will function to stop the
the tapped holes recommended by the
circulator until burner operation can
boiler manufacturer.
restore effective boiler water temperature.
The temperature sensing element on hot Then the circulator limit will again close its
water controls may be electronic ther- contacts to turn the circulator on.
mistors, thermocouples, liquid filled
Without the reverse acting aquastat, if a
elements, or helical bimetal elements.
thermostat calls for heat while someone is
Liquid filled elements, or capillary sensing
taking a shower, the circulator comes on
bulbs, are the most popular. Volatile liquid
and sends all the heat in the boiler into the
expands and contracts
radiation and the boiler temperature drops
dramatically with changes
below what is needed to produce hot water;
in temperature. This
the result is that the shower water tempera-
expansion and contraction
ture change can be quite noticeable. The
operates an internal
reverse acting aquastat shuts the circulator
diaphragm to open and close the
off until the burner can build
switch. When installing the heat
enough heat in the boiler to
sensing bulb in the aquastat well, Figure 12-25:
Figure 12-24: Thermistor keep the tankless coil hot
coat the bulb with the heat
Hot water limit and heat the radiation.
conductive compound,
(aquastat),
Immersion type
supplied with the control, The second reason for
to help transfer the heat a reverse acting aquastat
from the well to the is to keep the products
bulb. The immersion of combustion from
control equipped with a condensing in a high

Chapter 12
efficiency boiler. The new, high efficiency low limit (operating) control used for
boilers extract so much heat from the controlling the domestic hot water supply
products of combustion that they can lower should be installed on the boiler as close as
their temperature below the dew point of possible to the hot water generator on a
the combustion gases. At this temperature, tankless hot water heating unit. In the event
the water vapor turns to water. While it a tank is used for hot water storage, it may
does this, it picks up the sulfuric oxides in be installed in the hot water tank. With
the gases and creates sulfuric acid. This most hot water producing boilers, this
results in scale build-up on the heat control must be wired in parallel with the
exchanger. thermostat.
The reverse acting aquastat minimizes The reverse-acting circulator control
the scale build-up. When the boiler water should be installed in the boiler where the
temperature falls below the set point, the water returning from the circulator will
aquastat shuts off the circulator and the surround the temperature sensing element.
heat from the burner raises the boiler water Figure 12-26 shows all three types of
temperature. This allows the temperature of aquastats wired into a one zone circuit with
the combustion gases to stay above the dew the use of a switching relay.
point. See the chapter on combustion
theory (Chapter 7) for more detail.
Switching relays
Immersion aquastats should be Switching relays control a line voltage load
mounted as follows: with a low voltage thermostat. They are used
1. When mounting immersion Figure 12-26
aquastats, try to avoid
using bushings on the well. Aquastat Wiring with One Zone Circuit and Switching Relay
Bushings may prevent the
temperature sensing T-Start Low
Limit
element from extending far
enough into the boiler
water to be in the direct
path of the hot water.
Locate the element in
freely circulating water.
2. Handle the aquastat
with care. Do not damage
the sensing element. High
Limit
3. The bulb of the
immersion aquastat should L1
120 V
bottom in its well. L2
4. Be certain that the
sealing washer is in place
(remote control).
5. Make certain the
case is mounted level if a
mercury switch is em- Circ. Reverse Ignition Burner
ployed. Motor Acting Transformer Motor
Limit
The domestic hot water

Chapter 12
extensively on forced Figure 12-29: Panel used with circulators

hot water systems to
provide for multiple
zones. In order for a
switching relay to use
a low voltage switch
(thermostat) to
control the line
voltage loads (the
circulator), it must
contain a step down
transformer (from
120 to 24 volts), a
relay or relays and Figure 12-30: Zone valves panel
the necessary line and
low voltage connec-
Figure 12-27: tions.
Double-pole, single
throw (DPST) relay Most of todays switching relays are
double-pole, double-throw (DPDT), but
relays can be found in several configura-
tions. This is the oldest type and can
control only one load without exceeding
the contact current capacity of the relay.
Figure 12-27 shows a double-pole,
single-throw (DPST) relay that allows for
two devices to be switched at the same Multiple zone switching relays can also
time. A good application for this type of be used to reduce costs and simplify wiring
Figure 12-28: relay is where the switching relay turns on when several zones are used. Figure 12-29
DPDT switching relay
the circulator and shows a panel used with circulators and
primary control. Figure 12-30 shows a zone valves panel.
Figure 12-28 Note that both panels can work with all
makes and wiring configurations of
shows a DPDT
thermostats, zone valves and circulators.
switching relay for
use with a low
voltage, low (operat- Hydro air fan controls
ing) limit control. A Figure 12-31 shows a wiring diagram
typical use for this for a typical hydro air fan control. A hydro
control is to control air system uses boiler water pumped
an additional zone through a fan coil for heating. The fan coil
with a combination is mounted in an air handler along with the
control package that air conditioning coil from the compressor.
will provide for high With these units you can use hot water to
limit, low limit and heat the air flowing through the same ducts
circulator operation. used for summer cooling. The controls are

Chapter 12
the interface between the thermostat and Combination controls

the air handler. They have an isolated end When the controls are separate units and
switch to start the boiler and/or circulator. scattered around the boiler, they are
When the thermostat calls for heat, the referred to as non-integral controls. When
fan control energizes the end switch relay they are all in one box, high limit, low
limit and circulator controls are called
and allows the fan to operate at low speed
integral controls. They are also available in
when the water temperature is above the
dual capacity high limit and low limit, or
aquastat setting. When the thermostat calls
as triple function controls acting as high
for cooling, the fan control energizes the
limit, low limit, and reverse-acting circula-
condenser and operates on high speed.
tor limit.
Many of these relays also allow selectable
one, three, four minute delay on fan In older heating systems, non-integrated Figure 12-31:
operation in the heating mode.Many of control systems were used much more than Diagram of typical
these relays also allow selectable one, three, they are now. Todays systems are generally hydro fan control
and four minute delay on fan operation in integrated control systems that provide (Both HAFC 101 and
HAFC 201 are capable
the heating mode. control of both the burner and circulator by of 1 and 2 speed
applications)
HAFC 201 With 1 Speed Air Handler HAFC 101 With 2 Speed Air Handler

Chapter 12
the room thermostat, and are preferred will close and the circulator will start. The
because many new boilers have a boiler reason for this is that the low limit has a
water capacity of only a few gallons. Since built in differential of ten degrees. The
space and accuracy are also factors, these differential is added to the set point, less
combination controls are almost always the differential. So, you subtract 10 degrees
now integral packages. from the 170F set point to get 160F and
then add 20F to this number. In the
summer, the burner will operate between
Triple acting 160F and 180F working off of the 20
aquastat relays differential.
Dual and triple function aquastat
controllers incorporate all of the various The high limit switch is located in the
limit functions. Only one boiler water burner hot line and it must be closed to
immersion element is required, simplifying allow the burner to operate. It will always
installation. Figure 12-32 is a schematic remain closed unless the boiler water
diagram of a triple acting controller, the temperature is higher than 200F. This
Honeywell L8124A. This controller switch will again close the circuit when the
incorporates a line voltage circuit, a low water temperature drops below 190F
voltage circuit, and a switching relay, and based on its 10 fixed differential.
includes all three limit controls: low, high, When the thermostat is satisfied, the
and reverse. circulator will stop and the burner may also
Assume that the low limit is set to open stop, or it may continue to operate for a
at 170F, the high limit is set to open at short period if boiler water temperature is
200F, and the differential is set at 20F. below 160F.
The system may be analyzed as follows: This is the control operation during a
When the thermostat calls for heat, it normal heating cycle, from thermostat on
closes its switch, energizing the low voltage to thermostat off. Now when a hot water
circuit through the secondary (24 volt) coil boiler also provides domestic hot water, the
of the step-down transformer. The IK low (operating) limit functions, to cause
solenoid electromagnet is energized, the burner to run and heat the boiler water
pulling in the relay clapper, making contact year round to provide adequate domestic
IK1, closing the line voltage circuit to start hot water through the tankless or the tank
the circulator that also closes contact IK2 in type coil installed in the boiler.
the line voltage circuit to start the oilburner The low limit switch closes to run the
at the same time. burner when the boiler water temperature
The circulator limit switch in the drops below 160F. It is desirable to open
circulator hot line must be closed to allow the circulator switch at the same time so
the circulator to operate. It will be closed if that the circulator cannot operate until
the boiler water temperature is above proper water temperature is again restored.
180F. If this switch is open, only the The control manufacturer has incorporated
burner will operate, which will cause the a Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)
boiler water temperature to increase to switch installed in the hot line to both the
180F and then the circulator limit switch circulator and the burner for this purpose.

Chapter 12
Figure 12-32:
Schematic diagram
for a triple acting
controller, Honeywell
L8124A
Shows how the external connections will often

appear in the instruction sheet with the control.
Note that the hot line, starting at terminal 1, goes directly to a point midway between
the low limit switch and the circulator limit switch. This point is the hot side of a SPDT
switch that is actuated by the heat sensing element immersed in the boiler water.

Chapter 12
If the water temperature is below 160F, Since there may be differences in

the double-throw switch will close the hot control models as well as control manufac-
line to the burner by moving its contact up turers, you are urged to study the operation
to terminal B, allowing power to pass to B1 of the various makes of controllers covered
and the primary control. The thermostat in the data and instruction sheets supplied
terminals, T and T of the primary, are now by the manufacturer of the control.
closed so the burner starts and will continue
to operate until the water temperature
reaches 180F. Then the double-throw
Testing limit controls
switch will transfer its contact from B to W High limit controls
and the burner stops. The boiler water 1. With the burner operating and the
temperature has now been restored to room thermostat calling for heat, move the
effectively provide domestic hot water. limit indicator to the low end of its scale.
When the thermostat again calls for heat, 2. Allow the burner to operate so that
the circulator can operate. The burner can either the temperature or the pressure of the
be energized in two ways: first by an action furnace or boiler rises to the limit setting.
of the thermostat and second by action of The burner should shut down. If it does
the SPDT switch even when the thermostat not, then the limit control is either improp-
is not calling for heat. erly installed or defective.
3. If it does shut down, then set the
Figure 12-32 (previous page) also shows indicator at the desired temperature or
terminals ZC and ZR. These terminals are pressure.
used when circulated zones are added to the
system. When a call for heat energizes the
zone relay, the use of these two terminals Circulator controls
enables the control to act as though the 1. Set the thermostat to call for heat.
main zone circulator was called. The 2. In the event the boiler water tem-
control will start the burner and drop out perature is above the circulator switch
the circulator if the boiler water tempera- (reverse acting aquastat) setting, the
ture drops below the low limit/differential circulator relay should close its contacts
set point. This ensures consistent tankless and the circulator should operate.
coil performance. 3. Next, turn the thermostat down
below room temperature. This should
cause the circulator relay to open its
contacts and stop the circulator.
Caution 4.If the boiler water temperature is
below the circulator switch when the
Be careful when wiring hot water heating systems thermostat is turned up and calls for
with multiple zones not to hook one set of pow- heat, the circulator should not
ered terminals to another. The thermostat circuit operate until the burner has heated
(usually TT) is powered by the transformer in that the boiler water to the setting of the
control. Never hook wires from TT of one control circulator control. In the event the
to the TT of another control or switching relay. circulator does not operate as out-
This will apply 48 VAC to the circuit and burn out lined above, then the circulator
the controls. control is either improperly installed
or faulty.

00 Customer Service
Chapter 13
Heating Systems
Chapter 13
Heating Systems
This chapter introduces the basic The normal operation of a warm air
principles of oil-fired heating systems. furnace is as follows:
1. Thermostat calls for heat and activates
Part I the burner through the primary control.
2. Burner runs until a sufficient amount
Warm air furnaces of heat is built up to activate the fan control
Furnaces create warm air that is distrib- and start the blower. (Usually 140 degrees)
uted through the building through ducts. A
3. The burner and blower run together
warm air furnace utilizes a metal heat
until the thermostat has been satisfied and Figure 13-1:
exchanger that is designed to absorb heat
the burner shuts off. Typical warm air
from the oilburner flame and transfer that furnace
heat to the air that circulates through the
furnace and into the house.
It accomplishes this by having the burner
fire into a combustion chamber which is
adjacent to the heat exchanger. The resulting
combustion gases are vented to a chimney Return Air
via the flue pipe. This heated air is then Heat Exchanger
distributed to the house through supply
ducts while cold air from the building is
brought back to the furnace through return
Fan Limit
ducts, see Figure 13-1 Control
The advantage of warm air systems is air
cleaners, humidifiers, and central air Combustion Chamber
conditioning systems can be incorporated
into the unit to provide a total comfort Primary
indoor air quality climate control system. Combustion
Control
Warm air furnaces have a blower attached
to their ducts. The airflow the blower
creates is measured in CFM (Cubic Feet Per
Minute). It is important that the blower and
ducts be properly sized to move enough air
across the heat exchanger to remove the heat Filter
from the furnace and deliver it to the house.
Chapter 13Heating Systems 13-3

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
Figure 13-2:
Highboy furnace
4. The blower continues to run until the
heat in the furnace has been dissipated and
the fan control shuts it off. (Usually 100
degrees.) The blower may come back on
after a minute or two because some residual
Warm Air heat from the combustion chamber and heat
Outlet
exchanger has risen from the furnace to
activate the fan control once more.
Flue
Connection There are different types of warm air
furnaces for different applications. The
basic operation of these is similar but the
configurations vary.
Highboy furnace: The most common
furnace is the highboy. It gets its name
Burner and because the heat exchanger sits on top of
Filter
Controls
the blower within the furnace cabinet.
Return air is pulled in through the bottom
of the unit and circulated upward across the
Return Air heat exchanger and then out through the
Inlet top of the unit. See Figure 13-2.
Lowboy furnace: Where height con-
straints are a consideration, a lowboy
Alternate Location
of Filter and
furnace is often used. The blower is in a
Return Air Inlet compartment next to the heat exchanger,
thereby shortening the overall height of the
unit. See Figure 13-3.
Counterflow furnace:
Figure 13-3: These units are commonly
Lowboy furnace found in slab type construction
Warm Air Return Air
Outlet Inlet and mobile homes and look
Flue
much like a highboy in
Connection outward appearance, but differ
Filter in that the blower is located
above the heat exchanger.
Return air comes in through
the top and is distributed out
Blower
through the bottom of the unit.
In this type of furnace an
additional fan control is
Burner and
Controls
installed below the heat
exchanger. The upper control
turns the blower on when it
13-4 Heating Systems

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
senses the temperature of the air rising in

the unit. The lower control turns the
blower off when it senses a decrease in the
temperature of the air being blown down Return Air
through the furnace. See Figure 13-4. Inlet Filter
Horizontal furnace: A horizontal

furnace is often described as a highboy
furnace on its side. These units are nor-
mally used in crawl spaces or suspended
from a ceiling. The air travels through
these units in a horizontal pattern with
return air entering on one side and supply
air discharging through the opposite end.
See Figure 13-5.
Flue
Connection
The distribution system
Figure 13-6 (following page) shows the
main components and fittings found in a
warm air distribution duct system. The
distribution or duct system is comprised of
three main parts.
Burner and
Plenums: These are boxlike chambers Controls
connected to the furnace. There are two Figure 13-4:
plenums in the modem furnace, one on the Warm Air Outlet Counterflow
supply side and one on the return. The furnace
plenum should always be the same size as
Figure 13-5:
Horizontal
Flue
furnace
Filter Connection
Return Air Warm Air

Inlet Outlet

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
the opening on the furnace and be at least 1. Is there adequate return air? As a
14" long or high. general rule of thumb, there should be an
Trunks: These are usually rectangular equal amount of return coming back to the
ducts that connect to the plenums and are furnace as there is going out on the supply
run out through central areas of the house. side.
Branches: These are smaller ducts, As a minimum, the return should never
either round or rectangular, which connect be less than 80% of the supply. (100% is
the trunk lines to the individual registers. It better and with air conditioning 120%.) If
is a good idea to install locking dampers on the ducts appear to be adequate then check
each branch to allow for system balancing. to see if any return grills are blocked by
furniture or rugs.
Troubleshooting 2. Is the system balanced? Turn the

warm air systems system on and open any dampers. Check
Not enough heat each register to see that the same amount of
When responding to a service call for air comes out of each.
not enough heat or certain rooms in the If an imbalance is found, then the
house not heating, first see if the burner, register should be checked to be sure it is
controls and blower are operating properly, open. The individual branches should then
Figure 13-6: then look to the distribution system. Some be checked to be sure that dampers are
Warm air
distribution common problems to check are: properly adjusted.
system

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
3. Do the ducts run through cold 2. Is blower operating?

areas? Sometimes it is necessary to run
3. Is fan belt broken or slipping?
ducts in unheated areas such as crawl
spaces, garages or attics. When this situa- 4. Are pulleys slipping?
tion occurs, the heat loss from the bare duct
can cool the air coming out of the register. 5. Are air filters plugged?
If this situation exists then the ducts should 6. Are return air grills and ducts free
be insulated to stop this heat loss. of restriction?
7. Are supply registers and ducts free of
Short cycling restriction?
If the burner is short cycling or if the
unit is regularly shutting off on high limit, 8. Is unit over firing?
the following should be checked:
9. Is the duct system designed to meet
1. Are controls set properly? the requirements of the furnace?
Part II
Figure 13-7:
Hot water boilers and Heat to House
Basic hot water
heating systems heating system
A hot water boiler is a heat exchanger
that uses the heat from the oil flame to heat Radiator
water. This heated water is piped to
radiation in the building to supply space
heating. The cooled water is then pumped
back to the boiler where it is reheated.
Figure 13-7 shows a basic hot water
heating system. Piping Flue Gas
to Chimney
Usually the heated water leaves the
boiler at about 160 to 180F and returns at
140-160F.
Water Pump Boiler
Boiler designs
Boilers are constructed from cast-iron or Return
Heated Water
steel and can be either wet base or dry Water
base. Boiler
Heating
A wet base boiler has water surrounding Surface
the combustion chamber while a dry base
boiler does not. Oilburner Combustion
Chamber
The most common steel boiler is the
fire-tube boiler in which hot combustion

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
gases flow inside long tubes surrounded by first pass, and back-to-front in the second
water. These fire-tubes can be arranged pass before they are transported by the flue
vertically (up-and-down) or horizontally pipe to chimney.
within the boiler water. As the combustion
Some steel boilers include a third pass
gases rise through the tubes, heat passes
through fire-tubes for increased efficiency.
through the wall of the tubes to the water.
Some features of these boilers include low
Figure 13-8 shows a vertical fire tube
mass construction and reduced water
boiler.
storage for lower heat loss.
In horizontal fire-tube boilers, the hot
Cast-iron boilers are narrow sections of
gases travel to the back of the boiler and
cast iron that are joined to form the boiler.
then pass into the horizontal fire tubes
Each section contains boiler water on the
where more heat is transferred to the water.
inside, while hot gases pass in channels
This design is called a two-pass boiler
between the sections. The cast sections are
Figure 13-8: because the gases go front-to-back in the
Dry base vertical
joined together with either metal push
fire tube boiler nipples or non-metallic O rings.
Some cast-iron boilers have wet-legs
or wet-backs so that the combustion
Flue Gas chamber is partly enclosed by boiler water.
Water is supplied to each casting through
a common header at the bottom and top of
each section. The water flows upward and
Barometric it is heated by the hot inner surfaces of the
Damper cast-iron sections. The heated water leaves
the boiler through the outlet fitting and
Flue Pipe then it is piped to the radiation.
Extra attention is needed when assem-
Hot Water bling or servicing sectional boilers to be
Fire Tube to House sure that there is no way for air to leak into
the boiler between the sections. These must
Boiler be sealed tightly to prevent the entrance of
Return Water secondary air that lowers operating effi-
Water
ciency.
Hot Flame Gas
Combustion
Firebox and
Oilburner Chamber combustion chambers
The burner is fired into a combustion
area that may be lined with a refractory
Cross Section View material that reflects radiant heat back to
the flame. The reflected heat helps to

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
stabilize the flame by vaporizing the fuel forces the flow toward the boiler walls for
droplets more quickly. better heat transfer.
Dry-base boilers require a combustion Fire-tube boilers use turbulators to
chamber made of an insulating material prevent the flow of hot gases up through
such as ceramic fiber to reduce the heat loss the center of the tube. Some turbulators are
through the base of the boiler and to long narrow strips of metal that are twisted
prevent burning out the base. In wet-base into a spiral to give a spinning motion to
boilers the insulating properties of the the hot combustion gases. Turbulators
chamber are less important because the should always be put back into the tubes
surrounding boiler water recovers the heat. after the boiler is cleaned. If they are
damaged or badly corroded, they should be
replaced with new ones.
Heating surface
or heat exchanger
The heating surfaces of the boiler are Insulation
exposed to the hot combustion gases on Boilers and furnaces have thermal
one side and to the boiler water on the insulation on the outside of the heat
other side. Heat is conducted through these exchanger to reduce heat loss from hot
boiler surfaces from the hot gases to the surfaces. The outer jacket or casing must be
water. Larger surface areas give better heat securely fastened to minimize heat loss.
transfer. Many surfaces are designed with
contours, fins, pins or surface projections Boiler ratings
to increase the outer area and improve the Cast-iron and steel boilers are tested to
gas-side contact. verify heating capacity and efficiency. The
The heat transfer surfaces must be kept Hydronics Institute publishes boiler
clean so that good heat exchange can take ratings. Listings provided by the Institute
place. Soot deposits on the heating surfaces show the boilers Btu output and its Annual
act as an insulator. Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE). The
AFUE is calculated based on a testing
procedure specified by the US Department
Baffles or turbulators of Energy. The Gross Output is the total
Baffles and turbulators are objects
heat delivery in Btus per hour that the
placed in heating passages to redirect the boiler will deliver. The NET RATING
gas flow for better heat transfer. In older deducts a piping and pick-up factor
boilers, baffles were installed at the top of equal to 15 percent of the gross output for
some combustion chambers to improve gas hot water boilers. This factor takes pipe
contact with the heating surfaces. heat loss and boiler warm-up time into
Some older boilers were designed for account. This is important to assure that the
coal burning with very wide passages for boiler will deliver adequate heating at the
the hot gases. Installing baffles or fire- coldest times of the year. The NET RATING
bricks in the center of these passages should be used for selecting a boiler.

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
NORA has taken is the least expensive and easiest to install.

the next step and See Figure 13-10 for three examples of
has developed an Series Loop systems. It features a single
on-line calculator pipe that goes from the boiler outlet
which allows through each piece of radiation and back to
technicians to the boiler inlet. One of the series loops
compare the biggest advantages is that it will supply
efficiency of boilers heat to each of the pieces of radiation as the
by inputting the heat is pushed around the loop by the
amount of energy to circulator with a minimum of pipe and
heat the home and fittings. No special valves or fittings are
provide domestic required. The disadvantage of this system
hot water, Figure is that heat delivered to the last piece of
13-9. radiation is less than that delivered to the
Figure 13-9: first piece.
Image from FSA
Calculator on Piping systems
NORA's website: One of the features of hot water heat is One pipe system
nora-oilheat.org its flexibility. You will find a wide variety This system also features single pipe
of different hot water piping systems in the that connects the boiler supply to the return
field. Each is designed for specific applica- while supplying the radiation. What makes
tions and has its advantages and disadvan- it different from the series loop is all of the
tages. The following is a brief description sections of radiation are connected to the
of some different hot water piping systems single pipe main by the use of a standard
you are likely to encounter. tee and a special tee that form a branch
of the main circuit. See Figure 13-11. The
Series loop special tee is called by many names
Figure 13-10: The most common is the Series Loop. It including One-pipe, Venturi Mono-
Series loop Flo and Jet and it serves the purpose of
directing the flow of water so that each
section of radiation is supplied with water
at approximately the same temperature.
Through Wall
Under Door Figure 13-12 shows the special tees
required for single pipe systems.
Series-loop System
Seriesloop
2 Zones with
2 Circuits with Zone Valves or
Balancing Valves Separate Pumps
Or
Series-loop Baseboard with Tees
for Individual Radiators

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
Figure 13-11: One-pipe system

To Terminal Unit From Terminal Unit
2nd
Floor
Down
One-pipe fittings.
One-pipe Main Arrows show direction of water flow.
in Basement
2nd
Floor
Figure 13-12:
Monoflow tees
Two pipe system

This system incorporates the use of a
separate supply and return pipe from the
boiler to each piece of the radiation. The Supply Main
preferred way to pipe this is the first piece Boiler
of radiation to be taken off the supply is the
last returned to the boiler. Likewise, the last
supplied is the first returned. This produces Return Main
a uniform and balanced design that re-
quires no special valves or fittings. See
Figure 13-13.
Components of hot water Figure 13-13:

Two-Pipe
heating systems sections enclosed within a cabinet. They are reverse return
Radiation constructed of either cast-iron sections or
Hot water is an easily adaptable and steel.
transportable medium that lends itself to all
Baseboard radiation is constructed of
sorts of radiation. The five most common
cast-iron panels or copper pipe covered
types of radiation are the conventional
with aluminum fins that create surface area
radiator, the convector, the fan-coil unit,
for heat transfer. In larger system applica-
baseboard, and radiant panel.
tions, the pipe and fins can be constructed
The conventional radiator is usually of steel.
made of cast iron sections that either rest
Fan-coil or unit heaters are coils of fin
on the floor or mount on the wall. Radiators
tube element with a fan that blows air over
are normally found in older systems.
the coils. They are especially suited to
The convector is a series of finned-tube rooms where there is little wall space

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
available, such as kitchens and baths. They separate heat exchanger or boiler for
are also popular in garages and commercial heating garages, driveways and sidewalks.
applications.
Radiant or panel heating systems: Circulators
These are serpentine loops of non-finned The circulator is the key to the proper
pipe in floor, walls, or ceilings that circu- function of todays hot-water heating
late low temperature water. Residential system. Circulators are centrifugal pumps
radiant heat systems are becoming very that create a pressure difference that
popular in new homes. The piping can be produces flow in the system. The circulator
filled with anti-freeze and run from a motor rotates an impeller that pushes water
Typical Hot Water Heating System

with Cast Iron Wet Base Boiler

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
is almost always adequate

Figure 13-14: Pump resistance, Figure 13-15:
for residential applications. Pressure
TACO 00 circulator
See Figure 13-15. reducing valve
Pressure relief valve

The pressure relief valve
protects the boiler and
system from high pressure
conditions. Its discharge
Total HeadFeet
should be piped to an area

where the released water
will not scald the occupants. Relief valves
should always be sized to boiler manufac-
turers specifications. Residential hot water
boiler relief valves are set to open at 30
PSI.
Flow control valve

FlowGPM The flow control valve is
used to prevent gravity
circulation on a forced hot
water heating system. It is a
check valve opened by the
outward to the pump body. As the water is circulators force so the
pushed away it pulls water from the system heated water can travel
into the impeller. This movement of water through the system. See
creates head pressure, Figure 13-14. Figure 13-16.
Figure 13-16:
Pressure reducing valve Flow control valve
Air elimination or control
The pressure reducing valve allows for
Water holds a great deal of air in
the automatic filling and maintenance of
suspension. Cold water holds more air than
system water pressure. This valve takes
warm water and as water is heated, the air is
incoming service water pressure and
released. If air gets trapped in the system it
reduces it to an adjustable pressure. We
can stop the flow of water to that part of
need pressure to push water out of the
the system and cause a no heat call. Air
boiler and up in the system.
vents release air from the system and are
It takes one PSI of water pressure to often installed at the highest point to keep
push water 2.3 feet up a pipe. Typical air from accumulating. In addition, most
residential systems operate at 12 pounds systems, with the exception of the series
pressure because that much pressure will loop, have air vents installed in each piece
push water up 27.6 feet (sufficient height of radiation. Series loop systems typically
to heat a radiator up in the attic of a two have air removed through purge valves
story home). The factory setting of 12 PSI located in the return piping.

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
Air separators remove the on, the relief valve would open. To fix this
air from the water being problem we have the expansion tank. It is a
pumped from the boiler and tank full of air installed in the system, with
should be located in the supply a flexible diaphragm. When the burner
piping. fires, the water expands, pushes against the
diaphragm and compresses the air in the
Figure 13-17 shows the tank. When it shuts off, the water cools and
cross section of an air separa- the compressed air expands and pushes the
tor and the installation of one water back out of the tank.
on a steel expansion tank
system. Originally, all tanks were hollow steel
cylinders. These tanks worked on the
principle that as the system was filled with
Expansion tank water, a cushion of air was trapped in the
All hot-water heating systems tank and as the system water expanded, the
need an expansion tank. As water is air compressed. On cooling of the system,
heated, it expands. We cannot the water would contract and the air would
compress water, so in a closed decompress. Unfortunately, every time the
system it has nowhere to expand as water cooled it would absorb some air from
it is heated, so the pressure in- the tank and carry it to the system. Eventu-
creases instead. If we did nothing to ally all the air would be removed and the
Figure 13-17:
Air elimination address this, every time the burner came tank would become waterlogged and
require service.
The steel tank has been replaced by the
Figure 13-18:
flexible diaphragm design. See Figure 13-
Expansion tank Automatic 18. These tanks are pre-pressurized to 12
Vent pounds per square inch and have advan-
tages over the older design:
Air Scoop
1. Smaller size. About 1/3 to 1/2 the
size of the older tank.
2. The flexible diaphragm keeps the
water and air separated so the cooling water
cannot absorb the air from the tank. It
cannot become waterlogged unless the
Diaphragm diaphragm leaks.
Expansion
Tank
System zones
Hot water systems are easy to zone or
break into separate heating circuits or areas.
The two primary ways to provide for zone
control are circulators and zone valves.
Zone valves are 24 volt valves that provide
control to either a circuit or piece of

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
radiation. Figure 13-19 shows zone valves.

Securing Screws (2)
They can also be of the nonelectric type
installed on each piece of radiation.
Combinations of these two types can be
very effective and provide positive,
efficient and inexpensive total comfort Cover Retaining
control. Screw
Figure 13-19:
Electric zone
valves
Removable Head
Shaft
Removable Head
Valve Body Assembly
Part III
Steam heating systems overcome the friction that steam meets as it

Just like hot water boilers, steam boilers works its way around the system. We have
are heat exchangers that use the heat from to supply enough pressure back at the
the flame to heat water. A key difference is boiler to overcome the system piping
that steam boilers are only partially full of friction. The pressure needed is remarkably
water, so that when the water is heated it low, less than 2 PSI. Raising the pressure
turns to steam and expands by 1,700 times. higher than two PSI will cause problems
It is this expansion that pushes the steam because steam is a gas.
into the heating system. All we have to do
When you raise the pressure on a gas,
is get the air that is in the system out of the
way and the steam will rush in. you compress it. When you compress
steam, it takes up less space. It also begins
Additionally, it takes a lot of energy to to move more slowly. It takes longer for
turn water into steam. And, when that high-pressure steam to get out to the
steam turns back to water, it releases a lot radiators than it does for low-pressure
of energy. Thus, the steam can provide a lot steam. Also, high-pressure steam, since its
of heat to the residence.
more tightly packed, will take more water
out of the boiler than low-pressure steam.
Steam pressure This can lead to low-water problems back
The job of steam pressure is just to at the boiler.

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
Steam travels through a system because boilers job is simply to get steam (a gas)
of a subtle difference in pressure. Besides out to the last radiator before it turns into
friction, the fire in the boiler and the water (a liquid.)
condensing of the steam in the radiators
also leads to a difference in pressure The importance of the piping
throughout the system. The fire creates the around the boiler
initial pressure. Since all the air vents are Todays replacement steam boilers
open, the inside of the piping system is at contain much less water than the boilers of
atmospheric pressure and steam begins to yesteryear. As boilers became smaller, the
move from the higher pressure in the boiler piping around them became more and more
to the lower pressure in the system. important. If you want your replacement
boiler to work, you have to pay careful
As soon as steam begins to move, it also
attention to the boiler manufacturers
begins to condense into water. When steam
piping instructions.
condenses into water it leaves a partial
vacuum in its place. Since steam occupies Here are a few of the things the boiler
about 1,700 times the volume of water, manufacturers will tell you to do:
when it condenses it shrinks to 1/1700th of
Allow at least 24 inches between the
the space it occupied as steam. What were
center of the gauge glass and the bottom of
left with is a partial vacuum that makes the
the steam header
steam travel to the radiators. This is why
Figure 13-20: you dont need pumps to move steam. The Use full-size risers to the header
One-Pipe steam
system Pipe the system take-offs at a
point between the last riser to the
header and the equalizer
Radiator
Supply Valve Air Vent

Pipe swing joints into the
header
Radiator Riser Use a reducing elbow to
Take-Off Main Vent connect the header to the equalizer
The dimension labeled A in
Pressuretrol Riser
Figure 13-20 represents the
28" Minimum
Relief A Dimension distance you have to maintain
Valve between the center of the gauge
Equalizer
glass and the bottom of the lowest
Dry Return
Low Water dry return in the system.
Cutoff
Wet Return
Dimension A
Hartford Loop In one-pipe systems Dimension
A must not be less than 28 inches.
Dimension A provides the force
that puts the condensate back in the
boiler. Without it, water will back
up into the horizontal piping and
block the take-offs to the radiators.
The house will heat very slowly

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
and unevenly. Youll probably also have size and pitch of the pipes; the pitch must
water hammer. be at least one inch for every twenty feet.
See Figure 13-20 for the layout of a
New steam boilers must be skimmed
one-pipe steam system.
All steam boilers must be cleaned after
theyre installed to remove substances that If you dont follow these rules, you
can cause foaming and surging of boiler wind up with radiators that bang and air
water. It often pays to let the system run vents that spit. When replacing a steam
for a few days before you clean it to let the boiler be sure you maintain the pitch of all
cutting oil and dirt have a chance to settle the piping.
on the surface of the water. Skimming the
boiler is the best way to remove cutting oil, Relief valve
grease, sludge, etc., from the system; it The relief valve protects the boiler
includes: against a runaway fire. On steam boilers
Inserting a 1 " or larger the relief valve is set to open at 15 PSI.
nipple into a horizontal
tapping above the waterline Gauge glass
The gauge glass shows where the water
Raising the waterline to the
is in the boiler. Expect to see some minor
midline of the nipple
movement in the water line. Anything
Draining water until it runs between a half and three-quarters of an
clear and clean inch of up-and-down movement is normal.
Before you skim or clean any boiler,
Automatic water feeders
check the manufacturers instructions for
An automatic water feeder is sometimes
their recommendations.
installed to maintain a safe minimum water
level. While its not essential to the
One-pipe steam system systems operation, an automatic water
One-pipe steam takes its name from the feeder is a useful back-up safety device.
single pipe that connects each radiator to
the steam main. Both steam and condensate Main vents
travel in this pipe, but in opposite direc- Install main vents near the ends of every
tions. This is what often makes one-pipe main so steam will travel very quickly to
steam so difficult to manage. When steam every radiator in the building. If your main
and condensate travel in opposite direc- vents are working, steam will arrive at each
tions, you have to pay close attention to the radiator at about the same time.
Part IV
Domestic hot water dishwashers. The production of reliable,

Not only is Oilheat great for space inexpensive and efficient domestic hot
heating, it is also the best way to heat water provides for the health and comfort
domestic hot water for use in showers, of our customers and is one of our
baths, lavatories, clothes washing, and industrys strong points.

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
Domestic hot water systems fall into two which sits over a combustion chamber and
major groups, direct and indirect. is surrounded by insulation and an outer
casing. An oilburner fires into the combus-
A direct system is one in which the
tion chamber under the tank and the hot
water is heated directly by the heat from
combustion gases heat the water in the
the flame. There is combustion gas on one
tank.
side of a heat exchanger and domestic
water on the other. With indirect systems There are two designs of water heaters:
we use boiler water to heat domestic water. the rear flue heater where the gases pass
around the tank and vent out the back of
There are two types of indirect systems:
the heater, as shown in Figure 13-21, and
the storage system, where the water is
the center flue heater where the gases pass
heated and stored for later use in a tank,
through a freeway in the center of the tank
and the instantaneous or tankless system,
and vent off the top of the heater as shown
where the water is heated as it is drawn to
in Figure 13-22.
the fixtures.
Oil-fired direct heaters are typically
glass lined steel tanks that are constructed
Direct fired of steel and coated on the inside with a
hot water systems ceramic material. This coating helps protect
Direct fired hot water heaters use a tank, the tank from rusting and corrosion.
However, the ceramic material is
Exhaust not impervious to water and an
anode or sacrificial rod made of
magnesium is immersed into the
Exhaust tank water. This rod will break
down and give itself up to protect
the tank from the corrosive proper-
Out Out
ties of the air and chemicals
present in the water. These anode
rods should be checked routinely
Water Water and replaced when necessary.
Indirect fired
In In water heating
Internal tankless coil
Tankless coils are a copper coil
attached to a steel, cast-iron or
Oilburner brass mounting plate. The coil is
Figure 13-21: Figure 13-22: placed into the water and/or steam
Typical Rear Flue Typical Center Flue jacket of a steam or hot water
Water Heater Water Heater
boiler and the coil plate with a

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
gasket is then bolted to the boiler shell.

This system requires that boiler water
temperature be maintained high enough to Tankless Coil
heat the water as it passes through the coil.
There is no storage capacity in this system,
and during heavy draw it is unable to
provide enough hot water due to its limited Boiler
capacity. See Figure 13-23.
DHW Supply Out
External tankless coils are copper, cast

iron or steel tanks with a coil inside. See
Figure 13-24.
Boiler water is piped to the tank and it is Cold Water In
Sidearm
kept hot by gravity or forced flow circula-
tion. Many new systems feature an updated
version of the external tankless called a
plate heat exchanger. It is made of a series
of wafers or plates with internal porting.
The plates alternate between boiler water
and domestic water. See Figure 13-25 on
following page.
Figure 13-24:
External tanless coil
Figure 13-23: Internal tankless coil
Tankless coil
with a storage tank
This system, often called
Tankless Coil an aqua-booster, is a
combination of a storage
tank and tankless coil.
Cold Water In
Water is heated by the
coil and stored in the tank.
DHW Supply Out The tank temperature is
maintained by a recircula-
tion loop that allows the
water to go back to the coil
by forced circulation.
Forced circulation is
maintained by a non-
corrosive circulating pump
usually made of bronze or

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
stainless steel. The excellent warranties, improved efficiency,

temperature in the and high recovery rates make them very
tank is controlled by popular. Figure 13-27 shows an indirect
an aquastat installed storage type water heater.
in the tank. See
Figure 13-26.
Water heater components
A water heater is a closed vessel, filled
Indirect-storage with water, normally under city water
Figure 13-25:
type water heaters pressure. When the tank is heated, the tank
External plate
heat exchangers The Indirect-Storage type heater also called must contain and store two forms of
a coil-tank or indirect fired unit is a energy: heat and pressure. If the city water
storage tank with a coil of copper inside. pressure is lost, the tank must also be
The domestic water surrounds the coil and protected against excess vacuum. If
is heated by the boiler water that is circu- adequate protection is not provided then
lated through the coil. They are piped and the homeowner has a bomb sitting in the
controlled the same as an additional zone to basement.
the heating system and may be used on
Relief valves: All water heaters with
both hot water and steam systems.
storage capability should have a tempera-
Since boiler water is circulated, a ture/pressure (T&P) relief valve that is
standard circulator can be used rather than spring loaded, which will discharge water
a more expensive non-corrosive one. The (relief) if the temperature and/or pressure
domestic water temperature is controlled by in the tank become too high. The valve
an aquastat that turns the circulator and must be installed into the tank water
Figure 13-26: burner on and off. Although these units are directly so it will adequately sense the
Tankless coil more expensive than tankless coils, their temperature in the tank.
with a storage tank
There should never be any type
of shut-off devices installed on
either the inlet or outlet side of the
Aquastat
valve to prevent erroneous shut-off
Boiler
Control and loss of protection. There should
also be a drain line installed on the
Domestic outlet side of all pressure type
Tanless Coil Water valves to direct the hot water to a
Outlet
safe location, in the case of dis-
charge, to avoid damage or injury
Storage to any one nearby.
Tank
On tankless coil applications
where no volume of water is being
stored in a tank, a pressure only
Domestic
Water relief valve is used to protect the
Pump Inlet coil and piping from excessive
pressure
Vacuum relief valves: Protection

Chapter 13
Heating Systems
from a vacuum being exerted onto the tank ture. These valves are often Hot Water Outlet
is important since this can lead to a tank adjustable so the tempera- Temperature and
Pressure
implosion. If a vacuum occurs, the vacuum ture of the water may be Valve Outlet
relief valve automatically vents the closed regulated to satisfy
system to the atmosphere and allows air to individual preferences.
enter and prevent conditions that could
The elements in
damage the water heater.
these valves are
Tank Shell
A back flow preventer is a device much susceptible to liming
like a vacuum relief valve that will open a from the
vent line to the atmosphere when it senses a minerals in Boiler
vacuum. A back flow preventer should be fresh water Inlet and
Outlet
installed in the cold water feed line above and require Connections
the top of the heater. If there were a leak in periodic
the cold water feed to the tank and all the replacement.
fixtures were closed in the house, a vacuum Rebuilding kits are
would be pulled on the system. If the tank readily available. When
or system is not equipped with a back flow installing a tempering
preventer or vacuum relief valve, damage valve they should be Cold Water
to the tank may occur. installed at a level of Inlet/Drain
A tempering or mixing valve is used to 8"-12" inches below

Figure 13-27:
control the temperature of the water being the heater so that they will be protected Indirect storage type
delivered to the fixtures. In tankless coil from a heat build-up while not in use. water heater
applications, the temperature of the water The dielectric fitting protects the water
that has been sitting in the coil immersed in heater or storage tank against the galvanic
hot boiler water has the potential to scald reaction caused by the use of dissimilar
on an initial hot water draw at the fixtures. metals and stray current corrosion. These
As a hot water draw continues, the tem- fittings come in many sizes, materials and
perature of the water that has passed types and can also be used in place of
through the coil will not be as hot . In
pipe thread to solder adapter or union.
order to avoid the potential for scalding
and to balance the temperature of the water Pressure reducing valve and an
supplied during a draw, a tempering valve expansion tank. Although these items are
is used. mentioned here as optional, they may be
required by local codes. Since the domestic
A tempering valve has three ports for
piping connections, one for the hot dis- hot water heater or storage tank is a closed
charge side of the water heater, one for a system it should be protected by an
cold water connection, and one for the hot expansion tank specifically designed for
water supply to the fixtures in the house. the purpose. These expansion tanks should
The tempering valve is a simple device that always be installed on the cold water line,
contains an element that senses the tem- before the tank but after all service valves
perature of the water being supplied from and pressure reducing devices. The use of
the water heater and then mixes an appro- these tanks will prevent nuisance relief
priate amount of cold water to provide valve discharges and premature tank
domestic hot water at the desired tempera- failures due to excess pressure build-up.

Chapter 14
Preventative Maint./Tuneups
Chapter 14
Preventative Maintenance
Tune-ups
The preventive maintenance tune-up is properly and shut the burner off if a
the most important service our industry problem develops. You will also adjust the
offers. A properly performed tune-up burner to reduce the chances of a carbon
assures the customer that their heating monoxide build-up.
system is operating at peak safety, reliabil-
ity, and efficiency. Efficiency
When you use your combustion analysis
Four key factors for kit to adjust the system for maximum
a proper tune-up efficiency, youre actually helping your
Safety customer to conserve oil and save money.
The tune-up also gives you the opportunity
Efficiency to recommend new equipment to those
Reliability customers whose systems are not as
reliable or as efficient as todays modern
Cleanliness
oilheat equipment.
Safety Efficiency test

During the tune-up, you will check the
systems controls to be sure they work
Checking the system
Chapter 14Preventative Maintenance Tune-ups 14-3

Chapter 14
Equipment integrity parts, and supplies. You need to have at

Typically, you may replace certain failed least the following:
parts (nozzles and filters); look for and A complete set of hand tools including:
correct potential problems; lubricate
motors; and check controls. Standard
wrenches
depending on
Cleanliness the type of
Wiping down the Unfortunately, most of the work you do burners you
boiler jacket during a tune-up is not visible to the service, these
customer. An important part of can be
every tune-up is to make sure that standard,
what the customer does seethe metric or both.
outside of the unit and the area At a minimum, you will want to have a
around itare neat and clean when set of 1/4" through 3/4" standard open
youve finished. and box wrenches.
By focusing on these four factors Adjustable wrenchesan eight-inch
during the tune-up, you will save and a ten-inch handle adjustable
your customer money by minimiz- wrench.
ing their fuel consumption and help
Socket wrench kit1/4" to 3/4".
to avoid the inconvenience of an
oilburner breakdown during the Pliersgroove joint pliers (com-
heating season. monly called water-pumps or channel
locks), linesman pliers, locking pliers
(Vise Grips) and needle nose pliers.
Tools of the trade Allen wrenches (hex keys)
To successfully perform a tune-up, your a standard set.
Keep your tools truck must have certain tools, instruments,
neat in your truck Screwdriversan assortment of
slotted and phillips heads.
Nut drivers3/16", 1/4", 3/8" and 1/2".
Wire cutter and stripper.
Tubing cutters3/4" regular
and mini.
Flaring tool.
Flash light with spare batteries.
Drop light.
Jumper leads with insulated
alligator clips.
Tape measure12' minimum.
Drill and drill bits.
14-4 Preventative Maintenance Tune-ups

Chapter 14
For Riello Burners tor setting, and make sure that it is level
youll also want to have: and set 10 degrees above the room tem-
perature. Listen for the burner and/or
10mm and 12mm wrenches
circulator to start and then operate the
#4 and #5 Torx screw drivers emergency switch to be sure it works
4mm and 5mm Allen wrenches (long properly. Leave it in the off position.
and short handle) Step 2. Visually inspect the unit:
Test equipmentpressure gauge, Visually inspect the unit while you spread
vacuum gauge, electric meter, and complete sheets of newspaper or clean drop cloths to Inspect the
protect the work area. heating system
efficiency kit.
Verify the heat anticipa-
Vacuum cleaner, assorted adaptors and tor setting is proper for
flue brushes. the control and that limit
Suppliesfurnace cement, rags, controls are properly set
cleaner, drip tray, builders paper or other with the correct differ-
floor covering. ential. Note what kind of
filter and pump are
As a professional, you should keep your installed so you can
tools and supplies organized and in good bring the right replace-
condition. Not only will they serve you ment parts.
better, you will project the image of a
professional. Check the flue pipe to
be sure that it is properly
screwed together and
Tune-up procedure supported. If it is not, be
The following are the procedures for a sure to include a fix in
typical tune-up. Individual companies often your procedure.
develop tune-up procedures that vary from
these, so it is important that you follow If the unit has not been in operation for
your companys policies and procedures. some time, turn the burner on for about 5
minutes to dry the heat exchanger surfaces.
This is an effective way to perform a Check the draft drop by testing at the
tune-up in a thorough, systematic manner. breech and over-the-fire. If the drop is
Although there may be circumstances that greater than -.04 inches, there is probably a
make it impossible to do all the operations build up of soot and scale, or you may have
in the suggested sequence, we urge you to air leaks in the unit. Note any problems so
follow this outline whenever possible. that you can repair them during the tune-up
Step 1. Customer Interview: Give your and turn the unit off before proceeding.
customer a friendly and professional NOTE: If you run the burner, or if it was
greeting. Courteously ask if they have operating when you arrived, be extremely
experienced any problems or if they have careful when vacuuming the unit. Allow it
any questions. Listen carefully and address to cool enough to prevent hot embers from
their concerns. entering the vacuum.
Ask to see the thermostat and check for Step 3. Inspect the oil tank: NORA
obvious problems. Check the heat anticipa- recommends that if possible, technicians

Chapter 14
check the oil tank for water during tune-up. Checking pressure gauge on nozzle line
If you find water in the tank report it to
your supervisor so arrangements can be
made for it to be removed and an investiga-
tion made as to the source. Be sure to
tighten any tank plugs you may have
removed while checking the tank for water
when you are finished. See Chapter 3 for
tank inspection procedures and more
information on tank maintenance.
Fuel line
pressure gauge Step 4. Oil lines, valves, and filters:
Shut off the oil valve and
remove the filter canisteruse
a pan to collect the extra oil.
Clean and check the filter
canister and replace the mended setting. Check that the pressure
cartridge and gaskets. If you reading changes smoothly as you turn the
find evidence of excessive adjustment screw. A pulsating or bouncing
sludge or water, notify your needle could indicate a leaking oil line or a
supervisor so corrective action bad pump. After adjusting the pump back
can be scheduled. to its proper setting, wait until the unit
shuts off on safety and verify the primary
Inspect the oil line for leaks,
controls safety timing. When the unit shuts
kinks or dents. If the line is run
off, the pump pressure should drop no
underground check to be sure it
more than 15 to 20% and then hold steady.
is made of coated copper or run in protec-
If the pressure continues to drop, the pump
tive tubing; if bare copper is run under-
has a bad cut-off and requires replacement.
ground, report it to your office. Make sure
there are no compression fittings. If you Step 6. Nozzle or firing assembly:
Dirty strainer find any, replace them with flare fittings. Mark the position of the firing assembly on
the burner housingremove it and note the
Step 5. Fuel unit: Clean or replace the
nozzle type, size and spray angle. Verify
pump strainer, carefully scraping off the
that these match the unit data plate or the
old gasket before installing a new one.
listing in your manufacturers OEM guide.
Open the valve, turn the switch on and
Remove the nozzle and carefully drain
bleed the unit. Run oil through a clear tube
the oil into a container. Inspect the nozzle
into a container until there are no visible
adapter. Replace it if its stripped, cracked,
air bubbles. Check for leaks at the valve
or if the seat is worn. Flush out the assem-
stem, filter, and the pump gasket.
bly, fill it with clean oil and install a new
Disconnect the nozzle line from the nozzle.
drawer assembly and install your pressure
Clean, inspect and adjust the electrodes
gauge on the nozzle line. Operate the unit
using the appropriate gauge.
until the pressure holds steady and increase
the pressure 40-50 PSI above the recom- Clean and inspect the air tube, including

Chapter 14
the end cone slots and holes. Verify that the Step 9. Clean the flue pipe: Remove
air tube is inserted to the correct position. the flue pipe and brush it out, inspect the
pipes condition, replace it if necessary.
Reinsert the nozzle assembly into the air
tube and secure it in place, making sure it Check the draft regulator to be sure it
is in the same position that you marked swings freely.
earlier.
If the unit has a stack
Step 7. Burner motor, housing and relay, inspect and clean the
fan: Remove the burner motor and check helix and the relay contacts.
the burner housing for oil that could
Clean out the chimney
indicate a loose fitting, cracked flare or
base and check the chimney
leaking fuel pump seal.
for blockages. If theres an
Using a fan brush If there are oiling accumulation of broken brick
points on the motor; or liner, advise the customer
lubricate each with to contact a chimney profes-
3-4 drops of SAE 20 sional and note this informa-
non-detergent oil. tion on your service ticket.
Cooling slots should Adjusting draft
If the unit is equipped for power regulator on flue
be clear. Check the
venting, clean and check the fan blower
motor shaft for end
wheel. Oil the motor and check the draft-
play; if it is exces-
proving switch. Remember to check and
sive, replace the
clean the outside hood and exterior mecha-
motor. Inspect the
nism.
burner coupling to be
sure it is not worn or Step 10. Clean the heat exchanger
stripped. Clean the and combustion area: Remove any baffles
air inlets and fan and scrub the flue passages, keeping your
using a small brush. After you reinstall the vacuum hose close to the brush to avoid
motor, spin the fan a few times to make spreading soot. Look for signs of air or
sure that the motor, fan and pump are water leaks.
moving freely and that everything is Use a soot snorkel to clean the combus-
properly connected. Check all wires and tion area, being careful not to damage the
connections at the burner. Using a vacuum
chamber or target wall.
Step 8. Transformer and cad cell: Inspect the condition of
Clean and check the transformer bushings the refractory material
and springs. Inspect the ignition wires. and repair or replace it
Clean the cad cell eye and wires. Make sure as necessary.
the bracket is positioned correctly for good Step 11. Replace,
flame sighting. seal and fasten:
As you close the transformer, be sure the Reassemble the unit
electrodes are making solid contact with the using furnace cement if
transformer springs and that no wires are necessary to seal any
being crimped. air leaks. Double-check

Chapter 14
to be sure the flue pipe is connected with and bearing assembly. Check the circulator
sheet metal screws and is supported. couplings and motor mounts. Check the
Step 12. Fire the unit and check control settings to be sure theyll provide
operation: Start the burner, check the for proper heating, hot water, and circula-
appearance of the flame and make sure that tor operation.
there is no impingement. Cycle the burner Check the system pressure and the
to check for prompt ignition, smooth expansion tank.
operation and clean cut-off.
If there is an indirect water heater, check
Disconnect the thermostat leads and the circulator and control.
install a jumper across the T-T terminals to
keep the burner running. Check the
operation of the high limit control. Warm air system
Open the blower compartment to clean,
Step 13. Efficiency test and adjust- check and lubricate the blower if appli-
ments: Perform a complete efficiency test cable.
and record the readings. The readings
should be: Check the air filters and clean or replace
them. Note the filter size on your service
Smoke: zero to a trace
ticket and remind the customer to check
Draft: Unless the unit is designed for and clean/replace the filter regularly.
positive pressure, draft over-the-fire should
Check the condition and tension of the
be approximately -.02wc (negative point
fan belt, replace, and adjust as required.
zero two inches)
Check the blower mountings and
CO2: 10 to 12%
bearings for excessive wear. Then properly
Net stack temperature: over 350F reinstall the blower compartment door.
When you have finished adjusting the Check the blower limit settings.
burner, remember to remove the jumper
from the T-T terminals and replace the If there is a humidifier, check it for
thermostat wiring. proper operation, water leaks and mineral
build up.
Step 14. The heating system: The
following steps will vary depending on the
type of heating system you are working on. Steam boiler
If there is more than one thermostat, ask Check the low water cutoff by draining
the customer to set each one 10 degrees water from the system until the burner
above room temperature. shuts off. Check the automatic water
feeder.
Hot water system Clean the sight glass and replace it and
Check the zone valves and/or circulators the washers if necessary. If the glass fills
to be sure each operates properly. If with dirty, oily water, skim the boiler until
applicable, lubricate the circulator motor it clears up.

Chapter 14
Check the main vents and look for particular attention to potential sources of
evidence of leaks. oil leaks such as the filter canister, pump,
burner housing and oil valve.
When you have completed these steps,
be sure to return all controls to their proper Step 17. Make it shine: Spend a few
settings and double check to be sure that more minutes cleaning up. Wipe and clean
you removed any jumpers you may have all of the external surfaces of the boiler or
used. furnace and work area. Use only clean rags
so you do not leave an odor behind.
Ask the customer to reset all thermostats
to their normal settings. Step 18. Reset and record: Verify that
thermostats and
Step 15. Cleanup the work area: Once controls have been
youre satisfied that everything is working returned to their
properly, use a garbage bag to remove old proper settings. Fill
parts, oil absorbent and newspaper or drop out the service card
cloths so that nothing can fall out on your with the work you
way back to your truck. Use your vacuum have performed,
cleaner to clean the area around the system. the parts you have
Return your tools to their proper places in replaced, the
your truck and clean your hands. efficiency readings,
Step 16. Double-check your work: the nozzle size, and
Check your work area one last time. Pay the safety timing.
Fill out your
companys required Reading the
Make it shine before leaving
paperwork completely, including all of the service card
information on the service card plus the oil
level and anything that needs to be fol-
lowed-up on.
Step 19. Report to the customer:
Before you leave, explain what you have
done and be sure to follow-up on any
concerns discussed during the initial
interview. Explain the efficiency test results
and advise them about potential energy
saving improvements.
If follow up work is required, explain
what and why.
Have the customer sign the work order,
give them the appropriate copy and thank
them for their business.

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
Chapter 15
Service Procedures
Introduction Is the fuse blown or circuit breaker

The most interesting and challenging tripped?
part of an Oilheat Service Technicians job Is the thermostat set above the room
is troubleshooting. Think of all the parts temperature?
that must work together for a system to
Is there oil in the tank?
function properly; if any one of them
becomes defective, the system will mal- Is the blower door closed? (There is
function. Your job is like a detectives a switch on many blower doors that
you must prevents the system from operating if
figure out Using an electrical meter its not properly closed.)
what hap- Is there enough water in the steam or
pened, why it hot water system?
happened, how
to fix it and Are the air filters clean?
how to keep it There are many reasons for a customer
from happen- to require your expertise, among the
ing again. most common are:
The previ- No heat
ous chapters
Insufficient heat
have provided
you with an Too much heat
understanding No hot water
of the opera-
Water leak
tion of the various components of Oilheat
systems. This chapter explains how to use Oil leak
that knowledge to repair systems without Odors, smoke or soot
wasting time or replacing parts that are
working properly. Oil tank and/or piping
Before you get involved with in-depth Thermostats, controls or electric

troubleshooting, remember to check the supply
basics: Heat distribution system
Are all the switches on? Oilburner components
Chapter 15Service Procedures 15-3

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
You need to approach each problem ing: Effective troubleshooting starts before
carefully and systematically. you arrive at the customers home. When
Carefullynever do anything that can your dispatcher gives you the call, try to
put you, other people, or property in get important data such as:
danger. What problem did the customer
Wear appropriate Personal Protective report?
Wear protective Equipment and protect your work area with When was the last oil delivery?
equipment drop cloths, newspaper or builders
When was the last tune-up?
paper. Use insulated screwdrivers and
avoid working on live electrical When was the last service call, and
circuits. Do not press reset buttons what was done?
without first making sure that there is
When you arrive at the customers
not a fire or an oil buildup in the
home, listen to what the customer says and
combustion chamber.
ask questions to clarify the situation.
Systematicallythe best Service Depending on the type of trouble, you may
Technicians develop standard trouble- want to ask if any work has been done
shooting routines. They go from step recently that might have caused the situa-
to step until they find and correct the tion, such as other tradesmen working on
cause of the problem. the electric or plumbing, or if a chimney
sweep has just been performed.
A systematic approach starts with
logiclooking for the obvious solution Ask if they have pressed the reset
and then trying to narrow down the prob- button, how many times and what hap-
lem. Start with the easyif the heating pened after it was pressed.
system is not working, check that all
Once you think you understand exactly
electrical switches are turned on and that
what the problem is, proceed to the
there is enough oil in the tank before you
appliance area and on your way, check the
start disassembling the oilburner.
electrical switch and oil tank gauge. When
Most importantly, NEVER assume
anything. Dont assume that the
reset was only pressed once; Check service card
dont assume that the last
service technician installed the
correct nozzle; dont assume
that your dispatcher told you
the correct reason for the call
and dont assume that because
a customer says they have
plenty of oil that their tank
isnt empty.
An example of a systematic
troubleshooting routine:
Step 1. Information gather-
15-4 Service Procedures

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
you get to the burner, read the service card but shuts off on safety, you
on the unit to see what work previous should visually check the
You can protect
technicians have performed. cad-cell eye and leads; and the work area with
check the retention head for newspaper, builders
Step 2. The investigation: At this point, paper or drop cloths.
carbon build up. If the eye
you know what the problem is (no heat) Be careful when
and/or retention head is dirty, using drop cloths
and what work has been recently per-
clean them and continue because they can
formed. Now is time to narrow down your absorb oil and
troubleshooting to determine
investigation. cause you to
why theyre dirty. bring a mess and
Assume that you find the primary odors to your
If the eye and head are
control is off on safety. You know that in an next call.
clean, disconnect the cad cell
oilheat system, electricity flows from the
leads from the control, start the
circuit breaker to a switch to the limit
burner and install a 1,000-ohm
controls to the primary control to the
resistor across the F-F terminals
burner components. Since the control is off
to simulate a fire and connect
on safety, you can eliminate everything
your ohmmeter to the
from the primary control backthe limit
disconnected leads to check
controls, switches or circuit breaker cannot
the resistance through the cad cell. If the
have caused the problem.
resistance is high, the cell is either defec-
You have determined that the problem is tive or is not sighting the fire correctly. If
probably the fuel supply, the primary the resistance is below 1,500 ohms check
control or a burner problem. There could the leads again, either theyre crimped or
also be a low voltage situation. Use your the control is defective.
electrical meter to check. If the voltage is
If the burner starts but does not ignite,
correct, move on to the next step.
you know the problem is related to the
Step 3. Determine the problem: Next,

protect the work area and remove the Ohmmeter connected to leads
thermostat wires from the T-T terminals of
the primary control (to prevent damage to
the thermostat). Install a jumper between
the terminals to simulate the thermostat
calling for heat throughout the rest of the
service call.
Open the observation door to check for a
flame or excess oil in the chamber, if there
is no flame or oil, leave the door open to
allow any excess pressure to escape in the
event of a delayed ignition when the burner
starts.
Press the reset button and observe what
happens:
If the burner ignites and runs properly

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
combustion process. It could be an ignition your systematic troubleshooting routine,

problem, an oil problem or excess air. you may find the following:
If nothing happens, the control might Sometimes you will find the answer
be sensing flame. The cad cell leads might with less than five whys; sometimes it
be crimped together or the F-F terminals might take more than five. The key is to
might be shorted. keep asking until you are satisfied that you
know the reason for the problem and the
If the burner hums but does not start,
corrective action to take.
the burner motor might be defective or the
pump might be bound causing the motor
to shut off on overload. Step 5. The Hows: Once you know
the whys you need to correct the immedi-
Step 4. The 5 Whys: Professional ate problem and keep it from happening
Service Technicians look beyond the again. How do you do that? In the
symptoms to find the cause of the problem. situation we just reviewed in the 5 Whys
For example, if you press the reset button the following steps are required:
and the burner starts, you have not fixed 1. Replace the vent pipe
anything. You have to find out why the
control went off on safety and take correc- 2. Remove the water from the tank
tive action to keep it from happening again. 3. Clean the oil lines
When you find the cause of a problem, 4. Replace the fuel unit
ask yourself why did this happen?
Continue to ask yourself the same question 5. Replace the nozzle
and eventually you will get to the real 6. Replace the oil filter
cause of the problem. For example,
7. Reset the primary control (and
suppose a customer has no heat. During
burner motor if applicable)
8. Fire the unit
9. Adjust the burner and perform an
efficiency test
In some situations, you might not have
the time, equipment or experience neces-
sary to perform all of the Hows. In that
case, you should troubleshoot the situation
to the best of your ability and contact your
supervisor for instructions on how to
proceed.
Step 6Paperwork and exit. Once you

have completed the Hows, clean up your
work area, remove all debris to a receptacle
in your service vehicle and clean your
hands.
Complete your companys paperwork
and fill in the service card at the unit. Take

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
a last look around to make sure that the because something caused the breaker to
area is clean, that you have taken all your trip. Use an ammeter to determine if any of
tools, removed all jumpers and returned all the system components are malfunctioning.
controls and thermostats to their proper
If the primary control has the correct
settings.
input voltage, but no power is going to the
Give the customer the appropriate copy burner motor, igniter or oil valve:
of the invoice, explain what you did and the
1. Check to be sure that there is not a
efficiency test results and answer any
fire in the chamber. (Cad cell primaries will
questions they have. Thank them for their
not energize if a fire is sensed.)
business and return to your vehicle to move
on to your next call. 2. Make sure that the thermostat is set
well above room temperature and the heat
Helpful hint: try to avoid unplugging
anticipator is set to the current draw of the
any electrical appliances when performing
control circuit.
service. If you must unplug anything, ask
the customer for permission first and leave 3. If the burner still does not start,
your truck keys tied to the cord to ensure disconnect the thermostat wires from the T-
you will plug it back in before you leave. T terminals of the primary control and
install a jumper.
Troubleshooting If the burner starts, there is a problem
suggestions with the thermostat or its wiring.
The following is intended to help you
troubleshoot typical problems that you are 4. If the burner still does not start,
likely to encounter. It is not a list of all disconnect the cad cell leads from the F-F
terminals.
possible situations or each and every step
you should take to troubleshoot problems. If the burner starts, there is a problem
with the cad cell or its leads.
#1 No heatthe unit is cold and the
burner is not operating. If the burner does not start, check to
be sure that there is not a piece of wire or
If the primary control has no power: something else shorting out the F-F
1. Check the limit controls. If the limit terminals.
control has power coming through it there If there is nothing shorting out the F-
is a problem with the wiring between the F terminals, the control is probably
limit and the primary control. NOTE: Make malfunctioning. Use your ohmmeter to
sure you have checked all of the limit perform the test mentioned earlier.
controls; for exampleon a system with
both a high limit aquastat and a low water If the primary control is passing the
cut-off, you must make sure that both are correct voltage through to the burner
allowing electricity to pass through to the components but:
primary control. A. Motor runs but no flame
2. If the limit control has no power 1. Disconnect the nozzle line and check
coming to it, check the switch. If there is no the oil flow. If water is found in the oil,
power to the switch, check the circuit drain it from the tank.
breaker or fuse.
2. If the flow is good and water free,
3. If you reset the circuit breaker and check the nozzle and ignition system (see
the unit runs, do not leave right away next section B, on following page.)

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
Nozzle gauge
3. If there is no flow, check the oil
solenoid valve and bleed the pump.
4. If the pump cannot be primed, make
sure all valves are open and check for oil
(Stick the tank, the gauge may be wrong).
5. If there is sufficient oil, check the oil
filter and perform a vacuum test (see
Chapter 4), the oil line or tank vent may be
clogged.
6. If the vacuum is high, clean the oil Checking oil pressure
line with a push-pull pump.
7. If the vacuum is low, check the
coupling.
8. If the coupling is good, check the
pump strainer.
9. If everything checks OK, perform a
complete pump test (see Chapter 4.)
B. Motor runs with oil flow

but no ignition
1. Check the electrodes/porcelains/
ignition cables for defects. D. Burner fires but shuts off on safety
2. Check the electrode setting and nozzle 1. If a stack relay is installed:
position. Check the helix, clean and/or reposi-
3. Check the transformer connections. tion as necessary.
4. Verify that correct primary voltage is Check that there is sufficient
supplied to ignition transformer/igniter. temperature in the flue.
C. Motor runs with oil pressure and 2. If a cad cell control is installed:
ignition but no flame Check the cell, clean and re-position
1. Check the nozzle and replace as necessary.
if plugged. Check the air tube and end cone,
2. Check the oil pressure, set to manu- clean/replace as necessary.
facturer specs.
3. Check the air settingsadjust as 3. Check for water or air in the nozzle line:
necessary (too much air can blow out the If water is found, drain it from the
flame.) tank and lines

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
If air is found, perform pump tests to 7. Check that the reverse aquastat is set
determine why. (Chapter 3) properly.
4. Check air settingsadjust as

Warm air system
necessary.
1. Check that the fan-limit control is
E. Motor does not start set properly.
1. The motor might be off on thermal 2. Check that all dampers are open.
overloadif there is a reset, press it. If 3. Check that air filters are clean.
there is no reset, check to see if the motor
feels hot; if it does, give it a few minutes to 4. Check to see if the blower
cool down. is operating:
2. If the motor still does not start, the If it is, check the drive belt.
trouble is in the motor or motor circuit. If it is not, check the motor.
3. If the motor has a capacitor, check it
before you condemn the motor. Steam system
1. Check the water leveltoo much
#2 No heatthe unit is warm but no water in the system will prevent
heat is circulating. steam from rising.
If the oilburner operates properly but no 2. Check for closed hand or motorized
heat comes from the radiation or ductwork, valves.
the problem is with the delivery system.
3. Check the electrical circuits for
Make sure that all thermostats are set to
motorized valves.
call for heat, verify that heat anticipators
are properly set and: 4. Check the main vents.
5. Check the pressuretrol setting.
Hot water system
1. Check for closed hand or #3 Insufficient heatthe burner is
motorized valves. operating but the house is much cooler
than the thermostat setting
2. Check that there is sufficient
Sometimes this occurs because it is
pressure in the system.
much colder than normal and the house just
3. Check that the circulator is operating cannot keep up
properly. with the outside
4. Check the flow control valve. temperature and/or The best Service Technicians
the system (boiler, develop standard troubleshoot-
5. Check that the system is not furnace, piping, ing routines. They go from step
air bound. radiation, to step until they find and correct
6. Check that the high limit ductwork) might the cause of the problem.
is set properly. be undersized.

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
Your job is like a

detectivesyou
must figure out Other causes 1. Thermostat stuck, set too high,
what happened, for insufficient heat: improperly located or defective.
why it happened, A. Burner trouble
how to fix it
2. Limit control defective or
1. The burner might be under- set too high.
and how to keep
it from happening
fired. Make sure that the burners
firing rate is properly set for the 3. Flow control valve stuck.
again.
boiler or furnace. 4. Motorized valve stuck.
B. Control circuit #5 No hot water

1. Check the heat anticipator settings. Troubleshooting a no hot water call
with an oil-fired water heater is basically
2. Check that the thermostat is properly the same as troubleshooting a no heat call;
located. Thermostats are affected by the you check the burner and the limit control.
heat generated by lamps, appliances or When the hot water comes from a domestic
fireplaces and should not be located near hot water coil or storage tank, you should:
any heat source.
1. Check the aquastat settings.
3. Check that the limit controls and
reverse acting aquastats are properly set. 2. Check to be sure the water level in
the boiler is above the coil.
C. Heating systems 3. Check the mixing valve.
1. Check to be sure that the steam vents 4. If theres a storage tank installed:
are operating properly. Check the control setting.
2. Check that pipes and/or ductwork are Check the circulator.
properly insulated.
If the tank seems to be full of hot
3. Check that airflow through air filters,
water but the water coming from the hot
radiators, or baseboard is not obstructed by
tapping is cool, check the dip tube on the
dust, closed air dampers, carpet, furniture
inlet to the tank.
or curtains.
4. Check that the water level is adequate
#6 Water leak
in steam systems.
Depending on the severity of the leak,
5. Check that hot water systems are not this can be a minor inconvenience or a
air bound. major problem.
6. Check that blowers and their pulleys 1. USE CAUTION! Never work on
and belts are functioning properly. electrical components while they are wet or
. when youre standing on wet floors.
#4 Too much heat Helpful hintTreat all electrical circuits
When the customer complains of too as if they were energized even when youre
much heat the most likely causes are: sure they arent.

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
2. If a relief valve is leaking: 3. Circulator flange gaskets can leak.

Tightening the flange may stop the leak but
Steam systemcheck the steam gauge
and the pressuretrol. Remember that it is usually better to replace the gaskets
residential steam systems should operate at once they start leaking.
a maximum of 2 PSI and steam relief 4. Older style circulators often had a
valves open at 15 PSI. If the relief valve separate bearing assembly that would leak
opens, it is likely either the valve or the water from a weep hole when they became
pressuretrol is malfunctioning. defective. With this type of leak, you can
Hot water systema number of things either change the bearing assembly or
can cause the relief valve to open on a hot replace the entire circulator with a modern
water system: water lubricated model.
A full expansion tank. 5. If the boiler itself is leaking, it is

usually beyond repair. Turn off the electric
A bad diaphragm on a pressurized power and the water supply to the unit,
expansion tank. drain the remaining water from the system
A malfunctioning or improperly set and contact your supervisor for instruc-
aquastat. tions.
A misadjusted or malfunctioning Helpful hintCustomers often complain
pressure-reducing valve. of water leaks during rainstorms. These
water leaks are sometimes caused by
A leaking domestic hot water coil.
rainwater coming down the chimney and
A malfunctioning relief valve. leaking onto the floor.
Water heatercheck the aquastat and Remember that each gallon of oil burned
the domestic hot water pressure. creates a gallon of water in the combustion
gases. If the boiler water temperature drops
Helpful hintmany municipalities
below 130 degrees, the water in the
require the installation of backflow preven-
combustion gases will condense in the heat
tion devices that can cause heating system
exchanger, mimicking a water leak.
relief valves to open. Often the only way to
stop the valve from opening is to install a
domestic water expansion tank. #7 Oil leaks
Oil leaks are a serious concern because
they can lead to significant damage. Your
approach to these calls will depend on the
Remember that each gallon of oil
severity of the leak.
burned creates a gallon of water in the
combustion gases. If the boiler water Minor leaks typically occur at:
temperature drops below 130 degrees, 1. Brass fittings: If the system has
the water in the combustion gases will compression fittings, they should be
condense in the heat exchanger,
replaced with flare fittings. If a flare fitting
mimicking a water leak.
is leaking, turn off the oil supply then

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
disassemble and inspect a minor leak, put a magnet patch on it and

the flare. If the flare looks call you supervisor for instructions.
to be in good condition
6. Oil lines: oil lines, especially those
reconnect it, tighten it, in contact with concrete, can develop holes
clean it with an absorbent and leak. Do NOT cut out the leaking
rag and run the burner. section and replace it with a new piece of
After several minutes copper. When a leak develops, replace the
inspect the fitting closely, line from the tank to the burner; if the line
if theres any evidence of is buried in or contacts concrete, install
a leak cut out the flare, re- coated copper tubing or install the line in
secondary containment.
Compression fitting
If you encounter a more serious leak, try
to stop the flow of oil, shut off any sump
pumps in the
Flair fitting
area and close Staining indicates
a leak in oil line
off floor coming through
concrete floor
drains and
flare the copper, reconnect it and keep
any access to
checking until youre sure the leak has been
groundwater.
stopped.
Contact your
2. Malleable fittings: If you find a office
leak at a malleable fitting, inspect it closely immediately
before taking it apart. If the leak appears to and spread
be coming from the area where the fitting absorbent while you
is threaded, disassemble it, clean it, apply wait for help to arrive.
pipe joint compound and reconnect it.
If the leak appears to be coming from a #8 Odors, smoke, or soot
crack or sand hole, replace the fitting. Several different problems can cause
these troubles, among them are:
3. Fuel unit: If a leak appears to be
1. Delayed ignition
coming from a fuel unit, check that all of
the fittings, plugs and bolts that hold the 2. Combustion problems
cover are tight. If the leak continues, check 3. Dirty or defective chimney or flue
the gasket; if it is leaking, replace it. If the
pump is still leaking, replace it. 4. Insufficient air in boiler room
4. Oilburner: Most burners have a 5. Air leaks in the boiler

weep hole in the bottom that allows oil 6. Defective heat exchanger
to drain from the housing. If you find such
7. House fan sucking air down the
a leak check:
chimney
The pump seal.
The nozzle adaptor. #9 Noise
For an after-drip from the nozzle. These calls are often frustrating because
the noise can be intermittent. When you
5. Tanks: Minor leaks at tanks often arrive, the noise may have stopped and you
appear as drips or wet spots. If the tank has will have to run the burner through several

Chapter 15
Service Procedures
cycles and raise all the thermostats to get it

to start. Some heating system noises
originate in the area near the heating
system, but can only be heard in the living
area.
Noises can come from:
Worn pump gears
High vacuum
Air in oil line
Oil lines in contact with each other,
boiler/furnace jacket, beams, or other
items
Air in a hot water heating system
Electrical circuithum from relays,
transformers, motors, etc
Improper control settings (too much
pressure or temperature)
Circulators
Blowers
Zone valves
Loose covers on controls
Water pipes
Heating pipes and baseboard
Chimneys
Conclusion
Much of what you learn about trouble-
shooting will be due to your on-the-job
experiences. We hope that you will remem-
ber the 5 Whys and always look beyond
the symptoms for the cause.
A final piece of troubleshooting advice:
Listen, look and think before you rip, tear
and destroy.
The following Troubleshooting charts

were provided by Beckett Corp. and
Riello. We thank them for allowing
us to share them with you.
.
provided by

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
The technician peak potential and cleanliness while

as an energy expert producing minimal air emissions and
A service technician must ensure that the carbon monoxide levels.
customers heating system is operating as
efficiently as possible. Efficient equipment
Combustion
is more reliable and cleaner burning.
Customers with efficient heating equipment
efficiency tests
Using instruments improves efficiency,
are more satisfied with their oil dealer and
ensures minimal smoke and soot, lowers air
with Oilheat. In this chapter, we will
pollution emissions, and ensures safe
examine what constitutes an efficient
operation. It also cuts call backs, improves
system, how heating systems waste energy, our image and increases customer satisfac-
and what we can do to be sure our custom- tion.
ers are getting the most comfort for their
energy dollar.
Steady state vs heating
As an energy expert system efficiency
you must: Combustion efficiency tests are vital to
Inform customers of new technol- proper servicing of equipment; however,
ogy advancesCustomers trust techni- they only measure the efficiency when the
cians; therefore, we can supply valuable burner is running. Heating System Effi-
advice to customers. ciency is the actual heating efficiency of
the home for the year. (It is also sometimes
Install and adjust equipment for called Seasonal Efficiency.) You cannot
peak efficiencyProperly adjusted Oilheat measure it on a service call. It involves the
equipment is the safest, most reliable, most amount of fuel consumed, the total degree
efficient, cleanest, most environmentally days for the year, the temperature the
friendly and most comfortable heat avail- customer heated their home to all year, and
able. the amount of hot water consumed. It is the
Service the equipmentTake difference between the Btus purchased and
Btus used.
responsibility for the operation of your
customers equipment.
Keep track of new technology
Heat losses
in oilheating systems
Measure and record combustion The purpose of an oilheating system is
efficiencyUse test instruments to ensure to transfer the heat from the burner flame
customers equipment is operating at its to the home. No heating system, regardless
Chapter 16Energy Conservation 16-3

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
of the fuel it uses, can operate at 100 The actual efficiency of an oilheating system
percent efficiency. Some heating energy is is affected by many factors, including:
lost before it ever reaches the radiators,
convectors or supply registers in the house.
These losses reduce overall system effec- Installation factors:
tiveness and increase fuel use. It is impor- Selection of burner/boiler or
tant we understand the many types of heat burner/furnace
loss that reduce efficiency. Figure 16-1.
Heat can be lost through: Chimney design or upgrades
Burner on-cycle Boiler or furnace sizing
Burner off-cycle Boiler water or furnace air operating
Jacket or Casing temperatures
Figure 16-1:
Flue heat loss Pipes or Ducts, and Piping or ducting design
(on and off
cycles) Air infiltration Burner adjustment
Isolated combustion air.
Flue Heat Loss Service procedures:

(on and Off Cycles
Barometric damper setting
Sealing air leaks into the boiler or
Piping or Duct furnace
Heat Loss
Burner adjustment: (excess air
Useful Heat
Delivered and smoke)
to Home
Cleaning boiler or furnace heat
transfer surfaces
Jacket Heat Loss Proper nozzle sizing.
Other factors that affect efficiency:

Location of unit
Chimney Draftheight, materials,
construction
Air Infiltration
Induced Source of combustion and draft
by the
Heating System
relief air
and Chimney Fuel Energy
Burner design & operating pressure
Zoning of distribution system
16-4 Energy Conservation

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
Integration of domestic water heating

system
Sensible Heat Loss
Mass of the boiler or furnace Depends on Volume of
Exhaust Gases
Water Vapor Loss

Combustion test equipment
Fixed Property
must always be used to adjust of Fuel
the burner for peak efficiency
Service procedures have a significant

effect on boiler or furnace efficiency. Even
the most efficient heating unit will waste
fuel if it is not serviced periodically and if
it is not adjusted properly. When the full
efficiency of the boiler or furnace is not
reached, then oilheats efficiency advantage Boiler
is reduced. Routine service using standard- Or
Furnace
ized procedures, including vacuum cleaning
and precise burner adjustment, are a vital
part of good service. Always record
efficiency test results.
Burner Adjustment
Affects Sensible
Heat Loss
Burner on-cycle heat loss
One of the biggest heat losses from
central heating systems through the flue is
the venting of exhaust gases while the Figure 16-2:
burner is operating. See Figure 16-2. Burner on-cycle
heat loss
Combustion air and fuel enter the burner at of the water vapor contained in the com-
room temperature (usually about 65F) and bustion of exhaust gases. Water is produced
heated combustion products leave the boiler when oil is burned. This water is trans-
or furnace, normally between 400 and formed to steam and leaves the heating
700F. Heat loss can be reduced by better unit. Eight-thousand Btus are lost with each
burner adjustment, clean heat exchanger gallon of water that is vented as steamor
surfaces, or equipment replacement. about 6.5% of the total energy in fuel oil.
Flue heat loss consists of two compo- This loss is also called latent heat loss (it
nents; water vapor loss (a fixed property of is the energy required to convert water
the fuel) and sensible heat loss (varies with from liquid to vapor).
burner adjustment, equipment design and It is possible to reclaim the heat contained
servicing). in the water by lowering the exhaust tem-
The water vapor of flue loss is a result perature until the water condenses out of the

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
flue gases. Condensing equipment, which

FLUE HEAT LOSS DURING BURNER OPERATION deliberately condenses the water in the
combustion gases, is available in some
(Percent of Total Heat Content of Fuel Oil)
heating appliance lines. These units are
designed to handle the water and the acids
Average Typical Range Comb. Eff. that are created in this process.
Old Oil Heating Units 28 20 - 35 72% To prevent condensation in conventional
New Oil Heating Units 13 11 - 19 86% heating units, exhaust gas temperatures need
to be 350F or more. The 350 exhaust gases
Minimum for Non-Condensing 10 89%
also produce the chimney draft that is
required by conventional systems for normal
flue gas venting.
Sensible heat loss depends on the
Figure 16-3: temperature of exhaust gases and their total
Off-cycle volume. Increased excess air increases the
heat loss
volume of combustion gases, which also
increases the velocity of these gases through
Chimney Draft Pulls the heat exchanger. The faster the gases
Heated Air at 145 - 220F move through the heat exchanger, the less
heat can be extracted. This raises stack
temperatures and lowers efficiency. Lower-
ing excess combustion air and/or flue gas
temperature can reduce sensible flue heat
loss.
New oil-powered appliances operate very
efficiently, with flue heat losses ranging
from 11 to 15%. This is close to the highest
value possible for non-condensing systems.
Remember that a net stack temperature of
Hot Surfaces about 350F or more is required to avoid
in Boiler or Furnace
water condensation and to maintain adequate
chimney draft. Sidewall vented units can
operate with somewhat lower temperatures.
Off-cycle heat loss

Burners in home heating systems do not
operate continuously, but cycle on and off. A
Cold Air in typical burner will run between 15 to 20% of
at 50 - 70F the time and remain idle for the remaining
80 to 85% of the time.

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
Burner off-cycle heat loss is caused by spheric gas burners depend upon draft to
air flowing through the heating unit when pull air in. This is why oilheat exchangers
the burner is idle. The draft of the chimney can be more restrictive than gas, making
creates negative pressure in the heat them more efficient.
exchanger. It pulls cold air into the boiler Low mass combustion chambers (includ-
or furnace at the burner air inlet and ing ceramic fibers) will store less heat than
through other leaks in the unit. This air high-density firebrick materials, so they
travels across the hot combustion chamber will have lower losses. Similarly, small low
and flue passages where it is heated and mass boilers or furnaces store less heat than
carries the heat out of the house through their older heavier counterparts and will
the chimney. have lower off-cycle losses.
The size of this loss varies with burner Oversized heating units have longer off
design, chimney draft, the operating periods and off-cycle loss will be higher. A
temperature of the unit and installation. It heating unit that is closely matched in size
is an important cause of inefficiency, to the buildings heating requirements will
especially for older and oversized units. provide the lowest off-cycle heat loss and
Figure 16-3 shows off-cycle loss. highest efficiency.
Off-cycle is also affected by the tem- Proper heating system adjustment and
perature of the boiler or furnace during the maintenance also affects burner off-cycle
burner off-period. The higher the operating heat loss. Three examples are: air leaks into
the heating unit, temperature control
temperature, the greater the burner on-
settings of the boiler or furnace, and fuel
period.
firing rate.
Restriction of off-cycle airflow by the
burner can reduce heat loss. Generally,
Air leaks
older burners were designed with open Air leaks into the heat exchanger should
combustion heads that provide very little be avoided whenever possible because they
restriction to off-cycle airflow. In contrast, provide a path for off-cycle airflow. Initial
high-speed flame retention head burners start-up and annual servicing procedures
reduce off-cycle airflow and thereby reduce should include sealing all such leaks before
heat loss. This is a primary reason why the final burner adjustment.
oilheating systems have much lower off-
cycle losses than typical natural gas heating Some common locations for air intru-
units. sion include the space between the burner
air tube and the combustion chamber
Natural gas heaters often use open opening, the connection between the
atmospheric burners that do not restrict combustion chamber area and heat ex-
off-cycle airflow through the heating unit. changer, the space between sections of cast
Additionally, traditional gas units have iron boilers, heat flanges, and loose-fitting
large draft hoods that continuously remove clean out and flame inspection doors.
heated air from the home. Oilburners push Eliminating these unnecessary air leaks will
air into the heat exchanger while atmo- reduce off-cycle airflow and heat loss.

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
Temperature settings off-cycle loss. Recall that heat loss varies

The water and air temperature controls with the off-period time and that large
also affect heat loss. The blower on a firing rates produce long burner-off times.
furnace operates until the low temperature The solution to this problem is to reduce
limit is reached, but heat remains in the the nozzle size, provided that the burner
furnace and can be lost during the off will perform well with the smaller firing
period. The low limit set point often is rate. With fixed head burners, it may be
adjustable and lower settings can sometimes necessary to change the combustion head if
prevent unnecessary heat loss. Aquastat you are drastically reducing nozzle size.
settings for boilers have the same effect. Selecting the correct nozzle size is an
Maintaining excessive boiler temperatures important part of proper service proce-
increases off-cycle losses. dures.
Reducing firing rates on older units
Figure 16-4: Heat Excessive firing rates works because most of them are oversized.
loss through the Fuel nozzles that are too large for the The three exceptions to this are: steam
boiler or furnace heating requirement of the house increase boilers, boilers with tankless coils, and any
jacket
appliance where the steady state stack
temperature is less than 400F. In these
Heat Loss three cases, the units should be fired to
their maximum rating. New units that are
properly sized for the load should be fired
to the manufacturers recommendations.
Older units have high stand-by losses

Older appliances have larger losses than
modern units. Replacement of these
outdated units is often the best option for
homeowners. Several design features of old
units promote heat loss, including:
Heat Loss Heat Loss Open burner head designs (non-flame-
retention) that allow air to flow during
off-cycle
Larger more massive heating units that
store (and lose) more heat during the
off-period.
Heat Loss Dense combustion chamber materials
that can increase stored heat and off-cycle
loss
Heat exchange passages that are less
Dry Base
Boiler Illustrated
restrictive than modern units, allowing
Heat Loss larger off-cycle airflows.
Steam boilers that operate at higher

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
temperatures than hot water systems. The Pipe and duct heat loss
off-cycle heat losses for old units, espe- The heat from a boiler or furnace is
cially steam boilers may be more than transported to the home through hot water
20%. (or steam) pipes or warm air ducts. Heat
loss that occurs between the heating unit
Jacket heat loss and the living space causes system ineffi-
Useful heat is lost through the walls of ciency (see Figure 16-5). The level of
the boiler or furnace. This is referred to as efficiency depends upon how and where the
jacket or casing loss and it reduces the pipes or ducts are installed, the size of the
amount of heat delivered to heated areas of distribution system, the amount of thermal
the home, Figure 16-4. The size of this loss insulation and the location of the pipes and
depends on the heating unit design and the ducts within the building.
location of the boiler or furnace within the Hot water piping that is not insulated
house. adequately can increase fuel use. The water
Jacket heat loss is largest when the in pipes leading to the radiators is generally
between 180 and 200 Fahrenheit. These
burner is operating and heat from the flame
pipes often are located in cool basements
passes through the combustion chamber and
and in other unheated spaces. If these pipes
out of the unit through its outer jacket.
are not insulated, heat will be lost from the
Heat losses through boiler jackets were
boiler water before it reaches the radiators
measured at Brookhaven National Labora-
in the house. More fuel must be consumed
tory and ranged from about 1% to 12% of
to compensate for these heat losses.
the fuels heating value. Generally, wet-
base boilers had the lowest losses and dry- Similarly, heat loss from warm air
base units had the highest. Old boilers, ducting reduces the useful heat output of a
especially coal-conversion units with large furnace. Furnace ducts typically waste more
firebrick combustion chambers, had the heat than piping losses. There are two Figure 16-5:
largest jacket heat loss. reasons for this. First, warm air ducts have a Heat loss from
warm air ducts and
hot water pipes
To House From House

Radiator
Warm
Air Hot
Heat Ducts Heat Heat Water Heat
Loss Loss Loss Pipes Loss
Warm Hot
Air Water
Furnace Boiler

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
Figure 16-6:
Outdoor air Heated Air and Exhaust Gases large surface area through
infiltration induced which heat can be lost. Second,
by heating system
Chimney
warm air can escape directly
from leaky joints in the ducting.
According to studies by the US
Department of Energy, ducting
losses can be as high as 40%.
The level of heat loss is
Cold Outdoor Air Enters House different for each system and it
to Replace Exhausted Air
Indoor depends upon the placement of
Air
70F ducts within the house. Warm
Outdoor
Air air ducts in cold areas such as
0 - 60F unheated basements, attics, or
House Exhausted Air by
Heating Unit and Chimney crawl spaces must always be
insulated and all joints must be
sealed.
Draft
Regulator
To Draft Outdoor air
Damper infiltration
The air that goes up the
chimney must be replaced by
Boiler cold outdoor air drawn into the
Fuel Tank To
Burner building. This cold air must be
heated to indoor temperature,
Figure 16-6. The amount of
heat needed to heat this cold
Typical Heat Losses For Oil-Fired Hydronic Boilers

Actual Losses Vary From System To System
Figure 16-7: Useful Heat Useful Heat

Typical heat To House (76% to as low as 40%) To House (86% )
losses for oil
fired heating
units
On-cycle On-cycle
Flue Loss Flue Loss
(16-22%) (12%)
Off-cycle Off-cycle
Flue Loss Flue Loss
(6-20%) (2-3%)
Distribution Distribution
Loss (0-40%) Loss (0%)
Air Infiltration Air Infiltration
Loss (0-16%) Loss (0%)
Jacket Loss Jacket Loss
(2-6%) (0-1%)
Fuel Energy 100% Fuel Energy 100%

Typical Installation/Efficiency High Efficiency/Properly Installed

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
air depends upon on-cycle airflow through transfer more than 85% of the fuel energy
the heating unit (boiler-burner or furnace- directly to the home. Old units may operate
burner design). If the unit is outside or is in in the 60 to 76% range. See Figure 16-7.
a non-heated portion of the home that has
plenty of excess air, air infiltration is not Equipment modifications
important. Air infiltration loss is greatest to improve efficiency
for heating appliances that operate with New oil boilers and furnaces are often
large quantities of excess combustion air, more efficient than their gas counterparts.
units with air leaks into the heat exchanger, While older oil boilers and furnaces are less
or units that have large off-cycle airflows. efficient than the newer units, they can be
Efficient boiler-burner or furnace-burner modernized, and their operating efficien-
combinations will operate with low air cies can be improved. Heating system
infiltration losses. modifications to improve efficiency range
Air infiltration heat loss for oilheating from low-cost adjustments such as adjusting
systems is usually about 2% of the total for proper combustion and sealing excess air
fuel energy, but some studies indicate that leaks to equipment replacements such as
it can be as high as 12%. This figure is installing new flame retention oilburners or
considerably higher for propane and natural new boilers or furnaces. The table below
gas-fired heating units, and it is one of the summarizes the efficiency gains from those
efficiency advantages of oil-fired equip- improvements.
ment. The best solution for air infiltration This next section will identify a number
is isolated combustion, whereby outdoor air of equipment modifications that save
is piped directly to the burner air intake. energy. These are:
Flame retention burners
In summary
New, highly efficient oilheating units Replacement boilers or furnaces
Savings For Every $100 Fuel Costs by Increase of Combustion Efficiency

Assuming Constant Radiation and Other Unaccounted-for Losses
From an Original To an Increased Combustion Efficiency of:

Efficiency of: 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95%
50% $9.10 $16.70 $23.10 $28.60 $33.30 $37.50 $41.20 $44.40 $47.40
55% 8.30 15.40 21.50 26.70 31.20 35.30 38.90 42.10
60% 7.70 14.30 20.00 25.00 29.40 33.30 37.80
65% 7.10 13.30 18.80 23.50 27.80 31.60
70% 6.70 12.50 17.60 22.20 26.30
75% 6.30 11.80 16.70 21.10
80% 5.90 11.10 15.80
85% 5.60 10.50
90% 5.30

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
Pipe or duct insulation time available for the fuel and air to react,
Heating systems tune-up promoting complete combustion. This
swirling and recirculation pattern also
Thermostat set back reduces smoke formation, requires less
Combining equipment modifications excess combustion air, and provides higher
efficiency.
Flame retention burners The flame is more stable in flame
The main difference between old non- retention burners. It forms a tight shape that
flame retention and flame retention burners is held near the burner head. Thats where
is the way the combustion air and fuel are the name flame retention comes from.
combined. The flame retention burner has a Flame retention burners can operate effi-
specially designed burner head (end cone) ciently in heating units where marginal
and a high-pressure fan that produces more chimney draft or where oversized combus-
recirculation within the flame for better fuel- tion chambers could cause problems with
air mixing. The swirling air pattern increases older burner designs.
the contact between the fuel droplets and the With flame retention, the flame is
air. In addition, a recirculation zone is stabilized by the high velocity airflow and it
formed within the flame. does not need radiant heat reflected back
This recirculation pattern draws some of from the combustion chamber for stable
the hot combustion gases back toward the operation. This eliminates some of the flame
burner head. This helps to vaporize the oil problems experienced by older burner
droplets by direct contact with hot gases. designs. A drawing of non-flame retention
Figure 16-8: Recirculation also provides a longer path and flame retention combustion is shown in
Non-flame retention length through the flame. This adds to the Figure 16-8.
and flame retention
combustion.
Non-Flame Retention Combustion Flame Retention Combustion
Nozzle Nozzle
Combustion Air Combustion Air
Flame Retention
Air Vanes Combustion Head
Combustion Chamber Combustion Chamber Rear View
Non-Flame Retention (Optional) Stainless Steel
Target Combustion Head
Wall Rear View
Cast Iron
Circumferential
Slots
Radial Vanes

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
Excess air reduces efficiency and

Lower Lower
flame retention burners operate with Off-Cycle
On-Cycle
less excess air than older burner Loss
Loss
designs. Flame retention burners
require 20 to 30% excess air while
older burners need 50 to 100% more
to achieve low smoke numbers. The
difference in the flue heat loss for
these burners is often about 10%.
The second advantage of flame
retention burners is reduced off-cycle
heat loss. The flow of off-cycle air Less Excess
Less Excess
through the heating unit is reduced by Combustion Off-Cycle
the narrow openings of the air band Air Air Flow
Air
and the flame retention head. There-
fore, off-cycle heat loss is less. This
improves the heating system efficiency. Figure 16-9:
See Figure 16-9. Flame retention
burners operate with
Installation requirements ceramic liner insert if needed. less heat loss.
Be sure to check the condition of the Install the new burner. Carefully follow
combustion chamber before installing a the recommendations of the burner manufac-
new burner. Many older chambers are not turers.
suitable for the flame produced by a
flame retention burner. Modification of Seal all air leaks around the heat
the combustion chamber may be required. exchanger, and the burner air tube. Air leaks
See Chapter 5 for more details about can increase both on-cycle and off-cycle heat
loss.
chamber upgrades.
Adjust the burner using combustion test
Be extra careful when installing new equipment to an efficiency of 80% or higher.
burners into dry-base boilers and Some burners have adjustable head positions.
older furnaces because it may be Use the setting recommended by the manu-
possible to burn through the base. facturer for the installed fuel nozzle size. If a
fixed retention head is used, be sure that the
Important considerations in an head is the correct size. Use the head size
installation procedure include: that matches the fuel nozzle rating.
Select the most efficient fuel nozzle
size for the job. Many boilers and furnaces Test all safety controls for proper
operation.
are overfired and operate at lowered
efficiency. Remember that flame retention Perform final checks of burner
burners operate with higher efficiency and operation.
a smaller nozzle is usually advisable.
Installation of flame retention head
Inspect the combustion chamber and burners as replacements for older units can
repair or replace it. Add a high temperature be an effective and economic means for

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
conserving heating oil if the old boiler or Many older burner designs use open
furnace is suitable. end cones that cannot restrict off-cycle
airflow. Secondary air openings and leaks
Expected energy savings increase off-cycle heat loss.
Most homeowners with older oilburners High stack temperatures increase on-
can reduce their fuel cost substan- cycle heat loss. This is caused by wide open
tially, with savings from 15% to as flue passages without baffling designed for
Note: AFUE, Annual Fuel
high as 25%. The combination of burning coal. If the stack temperature is
Utilization Efficiency, is a US
Department of Energy stan- low burner cost and high fuel excessive for a clean unit with the correct
dard for measuring the savings make retention head firing rate and burner adjustment, then the
efficiency of heating appli- burners one of the best conservation design of the boiler or furnace is the
ances. AFUE ratings are used investments available to
to compare the efficiency of problem.
homeowners. Your service depart-
different makes and models of Combustion efficiency testing can help
furnaces and boilers. ment can also benefit. New burners
usually require fewer service calls. to identify low efficiency boilers and
furnaces that need to be replaced.
Replacement of boilers Expected energy savings

or furnaces Replacement of obsolete boilers and
Many older heating units are inefficient furnaces with modern, highly efficient
and oversized and replacement with a new models can reduce fuel cost more than any
oil-fired boiler or a furnace is better than other single option available to home-
any add-on modification. New high owners, even insulation and storm windows.
efficiency oil boilers and furnaces have Field studies show that replacing a boiler or
Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiencies furnace will often save between 18 to 32%,
(AFUEs) from 82% to 95%. Replacing with typical payback periods of 3 to 6 years.
old and outdated heating units will cut fuel
consumption and increase customer
satisfaction.
Pipe and duct insulation
Hot water pipes and warm air ducts often
No simple method can evaluate the waste large amounts of energy when not
efficiencies of older units. However, some insulated. These losses reduce system
design features of older systems tend to efficiency and increase fuel consumption.
increase heat loss and lower efficiency. Pipe and duct loss is avoidable with the use
Some of these are: of thermal insulation. All heating system
Designs that allow substantial jacket distribution lines that run through unheated
heat loss by: spaces should be protected against heat loss.
Dry-base combustion chamber

Boiler pipes
Poor or missing jacket insulation
The heat loss from this piping system
Side arm hot water coils depends upon several factors:
Massive combustion chambers Temperatures of the hot water or steam
constructed of heavy firebrick within the pipes

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
Length of piping system service procedures involve a Service routines save fuel
number of steps that include and prevents equipment
Degree of thermal insulation
(but are not limited to): breakdowns that are a
Temperature of the air (or other nuisance to both homeowners
Visually inspecting the and service departments.
material) surrounding the pipes
entire heating system
Performing a combustion efficiency
Warm air ducts
test; be sure to check the draft drop
Ducts that distribute heated air to the
through the heat exchanger by
house lose heat in two ways.
comparing the draft over fire and at
Heat flows from the heated duct walls the breach.
to the colder surroundings
Vacuum cleaning of all heating
Heated air escapes from leaky duct surfaces including the boiler or
joints furnace flue passages (when re-
Both of these losses reduce the useful quired).
heat delivered to the house and increase Checking to be sure the flue pipe and
fuel consumption. Many warm air ducts chimney flue are clear and in good
pass through unheated areas, such as attics condition
or crawl spaces. Because of the cooler
surroundings, heat loss into these areas is Cleaning all burner parts including the
large. Inspect all warm air ducts for leaks air fan and housing, ignition elec-
and proper insulation. Use seamless trodes, and burner head.
insulated ducts on new installations. Replacing fuel and air filters.
Sealing air leaks around the burner and
Expected energy savings
heat exchanger.
Boiler Piping:
Insulating piping may save 5-10 percent. Using combustion test equipment to
measure efficiency.
Warm Air Ducts:
Insulation and sealing leaks may save up Adjusting the burner for high effi-
to 40 percent. ciency and low smoke number.
Modifying system and readjusting
Heating systems tune-up until peak efficiency is obtained.
Periodic cleaning and adjustment of all Recording final combustion efficiency
heating systems assures the highest level of for tuned system.
efficiency, safety, and fewest service calls.
Service routines save fuel and prevents Checking all combustion safety
equipment breakdowns that are a nuisance controls.
to both homeowners and service depart- Heating system tune-ups reduce on-cycle
ments. See Chapter 14 for more details on flue heat loss and assure good long-term
proper tune-up procedures. efficiency. Reduced excess combustion air
You may wish to develop a checklist to lowers flue heat loss and low smoke
be filled out during each tune-up. Good settings avoid soot accumulations and

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
gradual efficiency loss. off long enough for water or heat pipes in
If there is a significant The combustion tests outside walls to freeze up. Additionally, if
bout of severe cold give a sound basis for the setback is too great, it will take a long
weather, customers
using setbacks may recommending various time to get the home back up to a comfort-
not be able to get the efficiency modifica- able temperature. This may require more
house back to a tions. New equipment energy than you saved by setting the tem-
comfortable sales should be recom- perature back. A maximum of five degree
temperature. Having setback is recommended.
mended once the
customers not use the
setback or switch to efficiency is deter-
manual in extreme mined to be below Combining equipment
cold is a good idea. standard. modifications
It is difficult to estimate fuel savings
Expected energy savings when more than one modification is
Typical savings from a applied to the same heating system. The
tune-up are about 3% for expected savings cannot be determined by
systems that are regularly simply adding together the savings for each
adjusted. If a heating system individual modification as more than one
has been infrequently tuned or is of them may address the same losses. The
out of adjustment due to equipment malfunc- most economical first cost retrofit is the
tion, then the fuel savings will be higher. For one that saves the most fuel for the lowest
cost.
example, the efficiency of a boiler or furnace
with a partially plugged fuel nozzle and
sooted heating surfaces can be improved by Steps for advising
10% or more after a tune-up. your customer
Measure combustion efficiency
Thermostat set-back
Inspect the heating system
The thermostat is the single best device
homeowners can use for energy conserva- Evaluate primary equipment upgrades
tion. The greater the difference between
Recommend secondary energy saving
indoor and outdoor temperatures, the more
options
energy it takes to maintain it. For every
degree you lower the thermostat setting, up Present recommendations to customer
to 3% can be saved on the heating bill.
Todays heating equipment is greatly
It is possible to save some energy by improved over the old equipment. Replac-
lowering the thermostat setting if the ing an old inefficient oversized boiler or
building is empty for long periods during the furnace is one of the best investments our
day and again at night when all the occupants customers can make.
are sleeping. Set back thermostats are
Where else can they get over a 20% tax
available that do this automatically.
free return on investment; abundant hot
If the set back is too great in sub-freezing water; a more comfortable, cleaner, quieter
conditions, the heating system may be shut home; help improve the environment;

Chapter 16
Energy Conservation
lower their cost of living; and increase the speak to your sales people about investing
value of their home? This is such a great in conservation.
deal, the new equipment should be selling As the one who services their heating
itself. Unfortunately, oilburners cannot equipment, you have established credibility
talk. They need our help. with your customer. By suggesting an
upgrade may be in order, you are extending
Advantages of new this trust to the sales person and have given
equipment them a great running start.
High Efficiencysaves energy which If you recommend that a customer
saves customers money. consider new equipment, you must be sure
Clean Operationseasier to service that you tell the sales person about it. When
you recommend new equipment you have
and better image as clean modern fuel.
given your customer a problem. He thought
Low Air Pollution Emissions his system was OK, now you are telling
properly adjusted new oil equipment him that it is not. Your sales person had
has the lowest emissions. better get to the house right away to solve
the problem before the customer solves it
Improved Reliability requires less
himself with some other heating contractor
emergency service.
or a switch in fuel.
Greatly increases customer
satisfaction.
It is vitally important that we install
Additionally, if customers invest in new new oil-fired heating equipment in all
oil-fired equipment, they will not be of our customers homes. New
tempted to switch to gas heat. The new equipment makes customers
equipment will save them so much money satisified and insures a bright future
for the Oilheat Industry.
and be so reliable, they will brag about it to
their friends. You will keep your old
customers and they will help you get new
ones. If your company does not have sales
people and it is your job to sell the equip-
ment, you need to learn all you can about
How to sell new the art of selling. There are many good
equipment books, tapes and seminars on selling.
It is vitally important that we install new Selling is a skill you can learn and, like any
oil-fired heating equipment in all of our skill, it improves with study and practice.
customers homes. New equipment makes NORA has published a book on this
customers satisified and insures a bright topic titled Efficient Oilheat, An Energy
future for the Oilheat Industry. If your Conservation Guide. It is the basis for the
company has equipment sales people or NORA Gold Technician Certification
your service manager does the selling, your Program. The book, as well as all of
job is to identify equipment that should be NORAs books and tapes, is available at
upgraded and recommend the customer norastore.org.

Chapter 17
Customer Service
Chapter 17
Providing Astounding
Customer Service
Service technicians customers leaving, 66% said they switched
oilheats ambassadors because lack of interest in the customer by
As a service technician, you will have the companys service providers. Fourteen-
more face-to-face contact with customers percent left because of unanswered
than any one else in the oilheat industry. complaints. Whether customers leave or
Therefore, you are one of your industrys stay depends on your work.
most important ambassadors. What you say,
One important customer satisfaction
how you say it, what you do, how you act,
study found that most customers do not
and how you look all determine how
complain. For every one complaint you
customers feel about you, your company
hear you have 20 unhappy customers and
and oilheat. Your customers trust you to
6 very angry ones who do not call. Com-
take care of their problems and keep them
plaining is too much trouble and they do
comfortable. Your companys and your
not know who to complain to. However,
industrys reputation is in your hands. A
they do get even. Seventy percent of
good attitude and good people skills are
disappointed customers would rather
just as important as your technical ability.
punish the service provider than complain.
Providing exceptional service is important
They take their business elsewhere and
and this chapter has tips on how to deliver
then tell their friends about it.
it.
The average upset customer will tell ten
Whats in it for you? friends and 18% of them will tell more than
When a customer requests a specific 20 people! This means for every complaint
technician, writes a letter of recommenda- you get from an unhappy customer, at least
tion, or tells their friends good things about 270 people have heard something bad
your company, it is because of your about your company.
technical skills, your attitude and your
The good news is that whenever you
people skills. Raises and promotions are
exceed your customers expectations, they
often based on people skills too; your
will be pleased. Happy customers will tell
managers know when you deliver good
at least five friends about the experience.
service.
The only way to be sure that your custom-
ers are saying nice things about you and
Why extraordinary service your company is to make sure every
is so important customer is thoroughly satisfied.
Many interesting studies have been
conducted to determine what impact The key to successful customer relations
service has on customers attitudes. One is to put yourself in your customers
popular study examined why customers placeto treat your customers as you
leave one company for another. Of the would like to be treated. Do the job right
Chapter 17Customer Service 17-3

Chapter 17
Customer Service
the first time. It means being cant keep. If you tell a customer you are
helpful, friendly, thoughtful, going to do somethingdo it. As a service
THE tactful, and polite. As you technician, your job usually requires
GOLDEN know, customer service is a keeping promises made to customers by
RULE:
unique and challenging your company. The most common promises
Do unto others
as you would profession. You are often the are appointment times for service calls. Your
have them do only link a customer has with customers want to know exactly when you
unto you your company. The few are coming to their home.
moments you spend with a You have to communicate with your
customer is all it takes for them dispatcher so he/she can judge the arrival
to form an opiniongood or times for your future calls. The ultimate
badabout your company. beneficiary of good communications and
What you say and how you say accurate promises is the service technician.
it, will determine if the cus- Isnt it nicer to work for a customer who is
tomer stays or goes. It also determines if delighted that you arrived on time rather
they tell their friends good things about than one who is angry because you are late?
your companyor bad things.
If, for some reason, you find that you
Its a relationship must break a promise, do it as quickly as
Your companys relationship with your possible. The sooner you give your customer
customers is very close. Many of your the bad news, the less they will be inconve-
customers will buy from your company for nienced.
as long as they live in their homes. Natu-
rally, they expect more than a take the Moments of truth
money and run attitudethey expect your It is helpful to think of customer relations
company to keep its promises. in terms of Moments of Truth. Every time
you come in contact with a customer, you
Customer disappointment is usually have a chance to make either a good or a bad
based on bad customer relations rather than impression. Each customer contact is a one-
bad technology. They wont leave if the time opportunity to distinguish yourself from
burner breaks, but they will leave if you let the competition. Successful customer
them down by not fixing the problem or relations mean making all the Moments of
failing to let them know what is happening. Truth good ones. If the service provider
Many technicians tend to take complaints
gets it wrong, they may be erasing all
personally and then feel a need to defend
memories of good treatment. If they get it
themselves. Its important to remember that
right, they can undo all the mistakes that
the customer usually isnt upset with you;
happened before.
theyre upset with the situation. To the
customer, the service call is an interruption You can make all of your moments of
and many of them have to adjust their truth good ones by being patient, under-
schedules, miss work and lose wages just to standing and professional. If there is a
wait for their system to be repaired. problem, you need to acknowledge it and
apologize for the inconvenience. Be sure to
Keep promises use your customers name, confirm you are
Breaking promises is the fastest way to listening, and if authorized, give the cus-
lose a customer. Never make a promise you tomer a choice in the resolution.
17-4 Customer Service

Chapter 17
Customer Service
What customers want this problem. Your satisfaction is very

when things go wrong important to us and I will do all I can to set
Customers want their heating system to this right.
function properly. When theres a problem,
they want it taken care of quickly. When Customers want to be treated in a way
something goes wrong, they want action, that suggests that the company cares about
NOT excuses. They want you to fix the them and about fixing the problem. Custom-
problem and let them get on with their day. ers generally do not expect service providers
They want you to be respectful of them, their to be perfect, but they do expect us to care
property and their time. enough to repair the problem with a minimal
amount of inconvenience.
Instead of quietly taking their business
elsewhere, the complaining customer is
telling you, I care enough to tell you The steps
something is wrong. I am willing to stay if I to problem solving
get some satisfaction. It may sound strange, Listen to the complaint: If the
but the first thing to say to a complaining customer is upset, let them vent. You have to
customer is, Thank you for telling us about deal with emotions before you can solve

Chapter 17
Customer Service
problems. Be prepared respond poorly. When

Ask yourself :
to listen more than How did I leave their heating you are in this frame
talk. Say things like, system? and What did I say about of mind you are no
I understand why my fellow employees and company? help to your customer,
you are upset; I would Make your moments of truth good your industry, or
ones. You hold our reputation in your
be angry too. yourself. If you start
own hands.
Never disagree with to become angry, tell
the customer. Remem- the customer that you
ber, this is not a personal assault. Do not need to go to your service van. This will give
react with hostility. Remain calm. The idea is you a chance to calm down, decide whether
to separate the problem from the customers you can solve the problem, or if you need
emotions so you can both work together for some help from the office.
a solution.
Explain to the customer, I am sorry, but
Calm them, reassure them, apologize, if you continue to yell at me, I cant do my
and get the facts: Say to your customer, I job. Please lets both calm down so that I can
am very sorry this has happened. Let me see help you. If all your attempts to calm the
what I can do to straighten this out. Tell me customer and yourself fail, it is time to leave.
exactly what happened from the beginning. Quietly gather up your tools and leave. Do
This will get them into a rational, problem- not say anything that can make the situation
solving mind-set. worse.
Enlist their help: Ask them what you
can do to set it right. Ask them what the Never criticize
company must do to satisfy them. the work of others
Never criticize the work of anyone,
Cooling-off Period: Inserting a regardless of whether they work for your
cooling-off period in the middle of the company or another company. If the
problem solving process may be helpful. customer says something like, Gee, the
You can cool-off the situation by saying man that was here last time didnt go to this
you want to review some manuals in your much trouble, explain that everyone has
truck or discuss this with someone in the their own approach to problems, every
company who has solved a similar problem. problem is different and you are doing your
At this point, you may also decide that the best to solve this particular problem. If one
service manager should step in and help of your fellow technicians has made a
solve the problem. mistake, take the matter up with him
Investigate: Now is the time to privately so he will not make the same
thoroughly troubleshoot the situation to find mistake again.
the cause of the problem. Do not criticize your customers heating
Offer the Solutions: Explain the cause equipment. Remember, your company may
of the problem and offer the customer a have sold and installed it. If the equipment
solution. is obsolete, suggest an upgrade. Your
customer may be pleased to hear they can
Abusive customers save money and avoid more service calls.
when is it time to leave? No one in your industry can build
At some point, you will encounter an customer goodwill as well as you can.
abusive customer who may push you to the Remember, you are usually the only person
limit, make you angry, and cause you to from your company that your customer

Chapter 17
Customer Service
sees. You are the person whom the cus- draw conclusions about what kind of
tomer trusts with his familys safety, company left their sticker on it. If the unit
warmth, and comfort. Keep this in mind at is nice and clean, they will probably call
all times. you to set up an account. If the unit is a
mess, they might not want to buy from the
Image is everything company that left this mess in their nice
Surveys indicate that many people think new home.
oilheat is dirty. This is why your appear-
ance is so important. You have to focus on What do you look like
clean trucks, neat uniforms, clean shoes, to your customer?
clean toolboxes, and leaving the customers What about your image? Is your truck
homes and heating systems cleaner than clean? Remember, your truck is a rolling
you found them. Cleanliness implies a advertisement for your company.
higher level of quality in the service
What about the inside of your truck?
rendered.
Customers might look-in when you open
The airline industry has done extensive the doors. What about your tools and
customer satisfaction research and found toolbox? Customers believe if your tools
that people believe that if they find coffee are in good shape, you are probably a good
stains on the food trays, then the airline technician who will show the same respect
must not do a good job on engine mainte- to their equipment.
nance. The same applies to our industry What about your appearance? Check
customers often judge the quality of your your appearance before each call and have
service by the appearance of the system enough pride in yourself to appear as
after you have finished your work. presentable as possible. It is a good idea to
The importance of details can not be carry an extra uniform shirt in your truck in
overemphasized, especially details that are case the one you are wearing gets dirty.
crucial to creating a positive impression on You may want to have a pair of coveralls to
the customer. protect your uniform on particularly dirty
jobs.
Focus on your customers Try to avoid using your customers
heating system facilities to wash up. Keep a can of hand
Unfortunately, the condition of their cleaner in your truck, consider using
furnace and the area around it is the reason protective gloves to keep your hands clean.
so many people think that oilheat is dirty.
To insure a bright future for our industry, A word about tobacco
you have to make cleaning-up of the Never use tobacco when you are on your
heating systems a top priority. The cus- customers property.
tomer will judge the quality of the work
you have done by the appearance of his
Conclusion
heating equipment after you have left.
The extra value that you provide to your
When one of your customers sells their customers is what sets your company apart.
home, the condition of the heating system Your professionalism and dedication are
becomes your best salespersonor your the most valuable things you have to sell.
biggest sales problem. The new homebuyer You make your company unique and
will look at the condition of the system and special.

Chapter 17
Customer Service
Hot Tips
for Successful Service Calls
Be on time. Being late, without notification, is

the quickest way to get off on the wrong foot with
your customer.
Prepare... ask the dispatcher if your company
has been to the residence recently and gather
appropriate information.
Be careful where you park. Dont block the
customers car, drive on the lawn or walk through
the flowerbeds.
Set yourself up with a well-organized
toolbox. This will reduce the number of trips you
rotted fill or vent pipe. Be sure to find and fix the cause,
need to make to your truck.
not just the symptom.
Keep track of your calls with a service card
Do not discuss one customers problems, home
hanging near the system. Write the date, your
condition, or cleanliness with other customers.
initials, a brief explanation of what you did, the
parts you used and the efficiency readings. This Keep a clean, well-organized service truck
card can be a big help with troubleshooting. (photo). It will go a long way to making your day
more pleasant.
The most important service call is the
preventative maintenance tune-up. It gives you a Be sure to notify your manager about calls that
chance to look for potential problems and fix require follow-up for immediate attention.
them before they occur. This is also a great time Pay attention to your personal appearance.
to talk to your customer about the possibilities of Clean and neat projects a professional image.
investing in new energy saving heating equip-
Keep your library of service information and
ment.
literature up-to-date.
Do not let the problems of the previous call
Answer questions from customers honestly
affect your attitude on this call.
and thoughtfully.
Some customers like to watch you work. It
The easiest way to upset a person is to
helps to explain what you are doing and make
discuss controversial subjects such as politics and
recommendations. Getting the customer involved
religion, so do not do it.
may sound like trouble, but they deserve to know
what is happening. You may be able to show Never make a promise you cannot keep. Check
them how they can avoid problems in the future. first with the service manager, dispatcher or other
Involving the customer improves customer personnel before making a promise to a customer.
relations and may help avoid complaints.
Concentrate on solving the problem at hand.
If an expensive part is broken and not Do not boast of the problems you have solved in the
covered by the service plan, get the customers past.
approval before replacing it.
When you are finished, leave the areas around
Always look beyond the symptoms for the the heating system cleaner than you found them. Tell
cause of the problem. For example, a bound the customer what you did, show them the parts you
fuel unit is often a symptom of water in an oil replaced, and thank them for the opportunity to be
tank and water in the tank may be a symptom of a of service.

Glossary
AFUE (Annualized Fuel Utilization Efficiency): A measure Biofuel: A renewable, biodegradable combustible liquid
of the efficiency of the heating unit (burner and boiler/ fuel. Manufactured by processing vegetable oils such as soy
furnace) including standby losses during the off-cycles, and rapseed (canola). Also made from waste cooking oil and
given on an annual basis. See also Steady State Effi- trap grease, tallow, and animal fats such as fish oil.
ciency. Bioheat Fuel: A blend of 95% or more #2 oil and 5% or
Air: A mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and slight traces of less B100 biofuel.
other gases. For purposes of combustion analysis, we say air Boiler: A closed vessel in which steam is generated or in
is 79% Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen. which water is heated by fire.
Air Change: The number of times in an hour the air in a Boiler Efficiency: The ratio of heat absorbed per pound of
room is changed either by mechanical means or by the fuel fired, to the heat of complete combustion of one pound
infiltration of outside air leaking into the room through of fuel.
cracks around doors and windows, etc.
Boiler Heating Surface: The area of the heat transmitting
Air Cleaner: A device designed for the purpose of remov- surfaces in contact with the water (or steam) in the boiler on
ing airborne impurities such as dust, fumes and smoke. one side, and the fire or hot gases on the other.
Air Conditioning: This is the process of simultaneously Boiler Rating: The guaranteed output of a boiler in Btus
controlling temperature, humidity, cleanliness and distribu- per hour, or in square feet of radiation, as determined in a
tion of air to meet various requirements of the conditioned test laboratory such as the Institute of Boiler and Radiator
space. Manufacturers (IBR) or the American Society of Mechani-
cal Engineers (ASME).
Air Infiltration: The leakage of air into a house through
cracks and crevices, doors, windows, and other openings, British Thermal Unit (BTU): The quantity of heat required
caused by wind, pressure, and/or temperature difference. to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of water 1F. This is some-
what approximate but sufficiently accurate for any work
Alternating Current: In the case of alternating current,
discussed in this manual. Here is how the Btus of the
electrons are made to move first in one directions and then
various fuels compare:
in the other. The direction of current flow reverses periodi-
cally in cycles. No. 2 Heating Oil = 138,690 Btus per gallon
Ammeter: An instrument for measuring the amount of Natural Gas: Averages 1,027 Btus per cubic foot,
electron flow in amperes. about 135 cubic feet equals one gallon of oil.
Ampere: A measure of current flowing through a conductor Kerosene: 131,890 Btus per gallon, 1.05 gallons of
kerosene equals the heat content of one gallon of 2
having a resistance of 1 ohm and a difference of potential of
oil.
1 volt.
Propane: 91,330 Btus per gallon, 1.53 gallons of
Aquastat: A term applied to a control which may be
propane equals one gallon of 2 oil.
inserted in, or attached to, a vessel for the purpose of
controlling the temperature of water within the vessel. Electricity: 3,412 Btus per kilowatt hour (kwh), 40.6
kwh equals one gallon of No. 2 oil.
Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure of the atmosphere at a
given elevation, the atmospheric pressure at sea level is Wood: one full cord of wood has the heat value of
14.7 pounds per square inch, allowing water to boil at between 95 and 140 gallons of oil.
212F. Anthracite Coal: has 12,000 Btus per pound. About
12 pounds of coal equals the heat content of one
Atomization: The reduction of a substance to minute
gallon of No. 2 oil.
particles. In oil burning, atomization produces a fine mist of
fuel. Cad Cell Relay: See Primary Control.
Available Heat: The quantity of useful heat per unit of fuel Carbon Dioxide (CO2): A gas which, in heating practice,
available from complete combustion, after deducting dry indicates the complete combustion of carbon in the fuel and
flue gas and water vapor losses. is found through analysis of the flue gas.
00 VIIIOilheat Technicians
Customer ServiceManual
Carbon Monoxide (CO): A gas which, in heating practice, Converter: A piece of equipment for heating water with
indicates incomplete combustion of the carbon in the fuel steam without mixing the two. It may be used for supplying
and is found through analysis of the flue gas. hot water for domestic purposes or for a hot water heating
Centigrade: See Celsius. system.
Celsius: A thermometer scale at which the freezing point of Cycle (Electrical): One complete positive and one com-
water is 0 and its boiling point is 100. In the United States plete negative alternation of a current or voltage.
it is only used in scientific and laboratory work. Degree-Day (Standard): A unit which is the difference
Chimney Effect: The tendency of heated air or gas in a between 65F and the daily average temperature, when the
vertical passage to rise due to lower density compared to latter is below 65F. The degree days in any one day is
that of the surrounding air or gas. In buildings, the tendency equal to the number of degrees F that the average tempera-
of the cold, denser outside air to replace the heated air ture for that day is below 65F.
results in the chimney effect. Dew Point: The temperature below which water vapor
Circuit (Electrical): The complete path of an electric contained in flue gases turns to a liquid. This change is
current from the source through a switch to a load and back referred to as condensation. To prevent condensation, stack
to the source. temperature should range from 270F to 370F above
ambient air temperature.
Circuit Breaker: A thermal device which opens a circuit
when the current in the circuit exceeds a predetermined Dielectric: An insulator. The insulating material between
amount. the plates of a capacitor. The insulating porcelain of an
ignition electrode.
Cloud Point: The temperature at which wax crystals begin
to form in fuel, typically 10 to 20 degrees above pour point. Direct Current: An electric current that flows in one
direction only.
Combustion: Defined as the rapid reaction of combustible
material with oxygen, with the resultant generation of heat. Direct Return System (Hot water): A two-pipe hot water
For combustion to take place, the fuel must be heated to its system in which the water, after it has passed through a
ignition temperature and brought into contact with oxygen. heating unit, is returned to the boiler along a direct path, so
Combustion Chamber: The refractory or metal lined area that the total distance traveled by the water, from each
within a boiler or furnace in which the combustion of fuel radiator, is the shortest feasible.
takes place. When no chamber is present (as in wet base Direct Venting: The mechanical exhausting of the flue
boilers) the area is often referred to as combustion space. gases of a heating unit in a structure that does not have a
Comfort Zone (Average): The range of effective tempera- suitable chimney.
tures over which the majority of adults feel comfortable. Down Feed System: A heating system in which the supply
Condensate: Liquid formed by the condensation of a mains are above the level of the heating units which they
vapor,;in steam heating, water condensed from steam. serve.
Conduction: The process of diffusion or flow of heat energy Draft: In heating systems, draft refers to the pressure
through a mass, or body of matter, by particle of molecular difference which causes a current of air or gases to flow
contact from the warmer to the colder parts. through a combustion chamber, flue, chimney or space.
Conductor (Thermal): A material capable of readily Efficiency: In a heating unit, it is that percentage of the
transmitting heat by means of conduction. heat energy input which is useful energy output. The ratio
of output power to input power is generally expressed as a
Conductor (Electrical): Any material suitable for carrying
percentage.
electric current.
Electromagnet: A magnet made by passing an electrical
Convector: A concealed radiator. An enclosed heating unit
current through a wire wound on a soft iron core.
located (with enclosure) either within, adjacent to, or exterior
to, the room or space to be heated, but transferring heat to the Electromotive Force (emf): The force that produces an
room or space mainly by the process of convection. electric current in an electric circuit.
Oilheat Technicians ManualIX

Glossary
Electron: A negatively charged particle of matter. temperature to a body of lower temperature.
Energy: The ability or capacity to do work. Heat of Combustion: The heat evolved when the sub-
stance combines rapidly with oxygen.
Fahrenheit: A thermometer scale at which the freezing
point of water is 32F and its boiling point is 212F above Heat Exchanger: Any device which is used for transferring
zero. It generally used in the United States for expressing energy from one fluid or gas to another.
temperature.
Heat Unit: In the foot-pound-second system: the British
Flame Velocity (Rate of Flame Propagation): is the speed Thermal Unit (BTU): in the centimetergram-second
with which a flame travels through a given fuel-air mixture. system: the calorie (cal).
It varies with the fuel, fuel-air mixture ratio and tempera-
Heating Medium: A substance such as water, steam, or air
ture of the mixture.
used to convey heat from the boiler, furnace, or other
Flash Point: Maximum temperature at which fueloil can be source of heat to the heating units from which the heat is
safely stored and handled without serious fire hazard. dissipated.
ASTM minimum for No.1 and No.2 is 100F).
Hot Water Heating System: A heating system in which
Flue Gas: Includes all gases which leave the furnace water is used as the medium by which heat is carried
combustion chamber by way of a flue. Flue gas consists of through pipes from the boiler to the heating units.
nitrogen, gaseous products of combustion, water vapor and
Humidistat: An instrument which controls the relative
oxygen.
humidity of the air in a room.
Frequency: The number of complete cycles per second
Humidity: The amount of water vapor within a given
existing in any form of wave motion; such as the number of
space, generally measured in pounds-per-cubic foot.
cycles per second of an alternating current.
Hydronics: The science of heating and cooling with water.
Fuel: May be defined as any substance, solid, liquid or
gaseous, which may be relatively easily ignited and burned Ignition: The act of starting combustion.
to produce heat. Practically all fuels consist of carbon and Ignition Point: Lowest temperature at which rapid combus-
hydrogen. tion of a fuel will take place in air. For No.2 oil, the
Furnace: That part of a boiler or warm air heating plant in ignition point is over 500F.
which combustion takes place. Sometimes it is also the Insulation: A material which is used to minimize the heat
complete heating unit of a warm air heating system. losses from a given space.
Gauge Pressure: The pressure above that of the atmo- Kilowatt Hour: It is 1000 Watts per hour of electrical
sphere. It is the pressure indicated on an ordinary pressure energy and is equivalent to 3,412 BTU.
gauge. It is expressed as a unit pressure such as pounds per-
square inch (PSI) gauge. Latent Heat: The energy involved to change the physical
state of a substance, (from a liquid to a gas) without
Generator: A machine that converts mechanical energy changing its temperature.
into electrical energy.
Magnetic Field: The space in which a magnetic force
Grille: A perforated covering for an air inlet or outlet exists.
usually made of wire screen, cast iron or other material.
Master Control: See primary control.
Gross Heating Value: Is the total amount of heat produced
by the complete combustion of the fuel at atmospheric Milliammeter: An ammeter that measures current in
conditions. thousands of an ampere.
Ground: A metallic connection with the earth to establish Nitrogen (N2): Is present in air in a large quantity and does
ground potential. Also a common return to a point of zero not serve any purpose in the process of combustion.
potential. Ohm: The unit of electrical resistance.
Heat: That form of energy into which all other forms may Ohmmeter: An instrument for directly measuring resis-
be changed. Heat always flows from a body of higher tance in ohms.
XOilheat Technicians Manual

One-Pipe System (Hot Water): A hot water heating system Radiation, Equivalent Direct: The amount of heating
in which one pipe serves both as a supply main and also as surface expressed in square feet which will deliver 240
a return main. The heating units have separate supply and Btu/HR for steam, and 150 BTU/HR for hot water systems
return connections to the same main. operating at design conditions.
One-Pipe System (Steam): A steam heating system Radiator: Heated and exposed to view, radiator transfers
consisting of a main circuit in which the steam and heat by radiation to objects it can see and by conduction
condensate flow in the same pipe. There is but one to the surrounding air, which in turn is circulated by
connection to each heating unit, which must serve as both natural convection.
the supply and return. Recirculation: A strong, swirling air pattern that recircu-
Over Head System: A heating system in which the supply lates combustion products for more complete mixing of
main is above the heating units. fuel and air.
Oxidizing Flame: A flame produced by the burning of a Register: In heating and air conditioning, it refers to a
fuel with more than the amount of oxygen required for grille for the distribution of air which most often contains a
burning under stoichiometric conditions. built-in damper or shutter.
Oxygen (O2): The lesser quantity of air that is necessary in Relative Humidity: The amount of moisture in a given
the combustion of any fuel. When found in large quantity quantity of air compared with the maximum amount of
in flue gases, it is an indication of excess air being moisture the same quantity of air could hold at the same
introduced to the unit. temperature. It is expressed as a percentage.
Relay: An electromechanical switching device that can be
Panel Heating: A method of heating involving the
used as a remote control.
installation of the heating units (pipe coils) within the
wall, floor or ceiling of a room. Return Mains: The pipes which return the heating medium
from the heating units to the source of heat supply.
Plenum Chamber: An air compartment maintained under
pressure and connected to one or more distributing ducts. Reverse Return System: (Hot Water) A two-pipe hot water
heating system in which the water from the several heating
Pour Point: Lowest temperature at which fuel will flow.
units is returned along paths, arranged so that all radiator
The ASTM standard for untreated No. 2 oil is 17F.
circuits of the system are practically of equal length.
Primary Control: In an oil burner circuit, it is the control
Sensible Heat: Heat which only increases the temperature
responsible for the proper sequencing and safety of the
of objects as opposed to latent heat.
operation of the burner. It is often referred to as the cad cell
relay, protectorelay, stack switch or master control. Series Loop System: A hot water heating system in which
a single pipe connects from the heating unit to the first
Pressure: The force-per-unit-area measured in pounds-per- distributing unit then on to the next distributing unit,
square-inch, inches of water or millimeters of mercury. continuing this way until it returns to the heating unit. All
Pressure Reducing Valve: A piece of equipment for distributing units would then be connected in series.
changing the pressure of a gas or liquid from a higher Solenoid: An electromagnetic coil that contains a movable
pressure to a lower one. plunger.
Pressuretrol: A pressure controller often used to identify Square Foot of Heating Surface: See Radiation, equiva-
the control used to limit the pressure in a steam system. lent direct.
Proportioning: Can be applied to the maintenance of the Stack Switch: See Primary control.
ratio between fuel and air supply throughout the operating
range of the burner. Stack Temperature: The stack (flue gas) temperature is the
temperature of combustion gases leaving the appliance,
Protectorelay: See primary control. and reflects the energy that did not transfer from the fuel to
Radiant Heating: A heating system in which the heating the heat exchanger.
is by radiation only. Sometimes applied to a panel heating Static Pressure: The pressure necessary to overcome the
system. frictional resistance to flow. In an oil burner, it will refer to
Oilheat Technicians ManualXI

Glossary Oilheat Technicians Manual
the pressure within the burner tube as developed by the Vacuum Heating System (Steam): A two-pipe heating
fan. In an air distribution system, it refers to the pressure system equipped with the necessary accessory apparatus to
necessary to overcome the total resistance created by the permit the pressure in the system to go below atmospheric
duct work. pressure.
Steady State Efficiency: A measure of the carbon dioxide Vapor Heating System (Steam): A two-pipe heating
in the flue gases, expressed as a percentage, to determine system which operates at pressures at or near atmospheric
the level of completion of the chemical reaction during and which returns the condensate to the boiler or receiver
combustion taken at steady state conditions, meaning
by gravity.
there is no further change in the reaction process.
Ventilation: Air circulated through a room for ventilating
Steam: Water vapor found when water has been heated to a
purposes. It may be mechanically circulated with a blower
boiling point, corresponding to the pressure it is under.
system or it may be natural circulation through an open
Stoichiometric: Describes a condition in which the window, etc.
reactants of a chemical reaction are present in the exact
Vent Valve (Steam): A device for permitting air to be
quantities, as predetermined for the chemical equation of
forced out of a heating unit or pipe and which closes
the reaction. It describes perfect combustion when the
reactants are fuel and oxygen. against steam.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): It is present in small quantities in Vent Valve (Water): A device permitting air to be forced
fuel oil. It is the product of the combustion of sulfur. out of a pipe or heating unit, but which closes against
water.
Supply Mains: The pipes through which the heating
medium flows from the boiler, or source of supply, to the Viscosity: The measure of a liquids resistance to flow,
run-outs and risers leading to the heating units. generally measured in terms of Saybolt Universal or
Saybolt Furol Seconds.
Therm: A quantity of heat equal to 100,000 Btus.
Volt: The unit of electrical potential.
Thermistor: A resistor that is used to compensate for
temperature variations in a circuit. Voltmeter: An instrument designed to measure a difference
in electrical potential, in volts.
Thermocouple: A junction of two dissimilar metals that
produces a voltage when heated. Warm Air Heating System: A warm air heating plant
consists of a heating unit (fuel burning furnace) enclosed
Thermostat: An instrument which responds to changes in
in a casing, from which the heated air is distributed to the
temperature and which directly or indirectly controls the
various rooms of building through ducts. If the motive heat
room temperature.
producing flow depends on the difference in weight
Transformer: A device composed of two or more coils, between the heated air leaving the casing and the cooler air
linked by magnetic lines of force. In transferring energy entering the bottom of the casing, it is termed a gravity
from one source to another, it can increase or decrease system. If a fan is used to produce circulation and the
voltage. system is designed especially for fan circulation, it is
Two-Pipe System (Steam or water): A heating system in termed a forced warm air system.
which one pipe is used for the supply main and another for Watt: The unit of electrical power.
the return main. The essential feature of a two-pipe system
is that each heating unit receives a direct supply of the Wattmeter: An instrument for measuring electrical power
heating medium which cannot have served a preceding in watts.
heating unit. Wet Return (Steam): That part of a return main of a steam
Up-Feed System (Hot Water or Steam): A heating system heating system which is completely filled with water or
in which the supply mains are below the level of the condensation.
heating units which they serve.
XIIOilheat Technicians Manual

Index
Additives ........................................................................ 2-13 tests .................................................................... 16-3

Adjustable Head Burner ................................................. 1-9 zoning .................................................................. 13-14
Air Elimination ................................................................ 13-13 Booster Fuel Unit ........................................................... 4-9, 4-10
Air Flow for Combustion ................................................. 6-4 Branches ....................................................................... 13-6
Air Handling ................................................................... 7-5 Burner Control Circuit ..................................................... 12-3
Air Leaks ....................................................................... 16-7, 16-10 Burners .......................................................................... 1-3, 13-3
Ammeter ........................................................................ 8-19 - 8-22, 10-7, 12-6 air patterns ........................................................... 1-4, 5-8
Amps ............................................................................ 8-4 atomizing ............................................................. 1-3
Aquastats ...................................................................... 12-17, 12-18, 12-22 combustion .......................................................... 1-3, 7-3
immersion, mounting of ........................................ 12-19 components ......................................................... 1-6 to 1-10
wiring ................................................................... 12-17, 12-18 flame retention ..................................................... 1-4, 5-8, 16-12
Armored Cable ............................................................... 8-11, 8-28 flow rates ............................................................. 5-8
ASTM ............................................................................ 2-4 heads ................................................................... 1-9
Automatic Water Feeders ............................................... 13-17 installation, motor ................................................. 1-5
Auxiliary Tank ................................................................. 4-9 motor ................................................................... 1-5, 10-3
non-flame retention ............................................... 16-12
Back Flow Preventer ...................................................... 13-21 operation .............................................................. 1-3
Baffles ........................................................................... 13-9 recirculation .......................................................... 1-4
Baseboard ...................................................................... 13-11 short cycling ........................................................ 13-7
Bearings ......................................................................... 10-8 static pressure ..................................................... 1-10
Bioheat .......................................................................... 2-15 switch .................................................................. 12-4
Bimetal Element ............................................................ 12-5 types ................................................................... 1-3 - 1-5
Bleed Valve .................................................................... 4-11 Buss Bars ...................................................................... 9-3, 9-11
Bleeder Wrench .............................................................. 4-11 By-pass plug .................................................................. 4-7
Blowers .......................................................................... 10-14, 10-15, 16-8
Boilers ........................................................................... 13-8 Cables ........................................................................... 9-11
baffles/turbulators ................................................ 13-9 Cad Cell ......................................................................... 11-5, 11-7
cast iron ............................................................... 13-7 - 13-8 Capacitor Start Motors ................................................... 10-5, 10-6
circulators ............................................................ 13-12 Carbon Dioxide ............................................................... 7-22
cleaning ............................................................... 13-16, 16-9 Carbon Monoxide ........................................................... 7-7, 7-8, 7-22
components ......................................................... 13-11 Chimneys ....................................................................... 6-3
designs ................................................................ 13-7 caps ..................................................................... 6-13
dry base ............................................................... 13-8 combustion chimney troubles ............................... 6-11
efficiency ............................................................. 13-10 draft problems ...................................................... 6-6, 6-10, 6-12
equipment modifications ....................................... 16-4, 16-15 inspection ............................................................ 6-12, 6-14
fan-coil ................................................................. 13-11 sizing ................................................................... 6-9
fire tube ............................................................... 13-8 venting ................................................................. 6-13
hot water .............................................................. 13-7 Circuit Breakers ............................................................. 8-24
insulation .............................................................. 13-9 Circuit Wiring .................................................................. 12-4
one-pipe system ................................................... 13-15 Circulator Motor .............................................................. 10-15, 13-12
piping ................................................................... 13-10 Circulators ...................................................................... 13-12
ratings .................................................................. 13-9 Cloud Point ..................................................................... 2-5
replacement ......................................................... 13-10, 13-16, 16-9, 16-14 Color, Heating Oil ........................................................... 2-6
service procedures ............................................... 16-3, 16-4 Combination Controls ..................................................... 12-21
00 XIIIOilheat Technicians
Customer ServiceManual
Combustion .................................................................... 7-3 regulator locations ................................................ 6-8, 7-15

air ........................................................................ 7-4 - 7-13, 7-18, 7-20 regulators ............................................................. 6-7, 7-15
air setting ............................................................. 7-4 variations ............................................................. 6-6
air supply and air-oil mixing .................................. 7-5, 7-19 vent hood locations .............................................. 6-16
analyzer ............................................................... 7-23, 7-28 venting systems/alternatives ................................ 6-15
Btus ..................................................................... 7-3 vs. outdoor temperature ........................................ 6-3 - 6-4, 7-14
calculating confined space .................................... 7-19
cleanliness ........................................................... 7-5, 7-19 Efficiency ....................................................................... 7-9, 13-10, 14,8, 16-3
combustion test readings ..................................... 7-19 Electrical Control Circuit ................................................. 12-3
combustion testing ............................................... 7-9, 7-23, 7-25, 7-26 Electrical Safety ............................................................ 8-3, 8-14
efficiency testing .................................................. 7-9, 7-23 Electrical Terms .............................................................. 8-4
excess air ............................................................ 7-21 Electrically Commutated Motor (ECM) ........................... 10-14
process ................................................................ 7-4 Electricity ....................................................................... 8-3
test readings ........................................................ 7-26 circuits ................................................................. 8-6, 8-8, 8-9, 8-28
testing .................................................................. 7-9 conductors ........................................................... 8-5
testing equipment ................................................. 7-4, 7-10, 7-12, 7-20, 7-24 insulators ............................................................. 8-5
troubleshooting guide ............................................ 7-25, 7-28, 7-31 loads .................................................................... 8-6
Combustion Chambers ................................................... 5-17, 13-3, 13-8 magnetism ........................................................... 8-14, 8-17
burner installation chamber guide .......................... 5-21 measuring ............................................................ 8-18 - 8-20
design .................................................................. 5-18 safety .................................................................. 8-14, 8-22, 8-26
materials .............................................................. 5-17 shock protection ................................................... 8-24 - 8-26
refractory-type ...................................................... 5-20 switches .............................................................. 8-6, 8-11 - 8-13, 8-15
replacing .............................................................. 5-17, 13-3, 13-9 wiring ................................................................... 8-10, 8-27
shapes ................................................................. 5-18 Electrodes ...................................................................... 9-3, 9-12
sizing ................................................................... 5-18, 5-19 Electromagnets, Electrical ............................................. 8-17
Conductors ..................................................................... 8-5 Electronic Fan Timer ....................................................... 12-12
Couplings ....................................................................... 4-4, 10-13, 10-15 Electronic Thermostats ................................................... 12-7
Current, Measuring ......................................................... 8-19 Energy Conservation ...................................................... 16-3
Customer Service .......................................................... 14-9, 16-16, 17-3, 17-4 energy savings ..................................................... 16-11, 16-16
cleanliness ........................................................... 14-3 Equipment
hot tips for successful service calls ...................... 17-8 modifications ........................................................ 16-11
problem solving .................................................... 17-5 replacing .............................................................. 16-8, 16-17
Excessive Firing Rates .................................................. 16-8
Dew Point Temperature ................................................... 7-14 Exhaust Gas .................................................................. 16-6
Dielectric Fitting ............................................................. 13-21 Expansion Tank .............................................................. 13-14, 13-21
Direct Vent ..................................................................... 6-15, 6-17, 6-19
Draft ............................................................................ 6-3 - 6-4, 7-14 Fan and Limit Control ...................................................... 12-8
breech .................................................................. 6-9 Fan-coil .......................................................................... 13-11
chimney venting ................................................... 6-4, 6-12, 6-16 Fans ............................................................................ 10-7, 10-14, 12-6
controls ................................................................ 6-8 Fill Pipes ........................................................................ 3-10
inducers ............................................................... 6-13, 6-15 Filters ............................................................................ 2-10, 3-11
measuring draft .................................................... 6-8, 7-14 replacing .............................................................. 2-12
over-the-fire .......................................................... 6-9 Firing Rates ................................................................... 16-8
problems .............................................................. 6-5, 6-6
Oilheat Technicians ManualXIV

Index
Flame ............................................................................ 7-3 sensible heat loss ................................................ 16-6

detection .............................................................. 11-4, 11-7 service ................................................................. 16-4
impingement ........................................................ 7-20 stand-by loss ....................................................... 16-8
Flame Retention Burner ................................................. 16-12, 16-13 Heating Oil ..................................................................... 2-3
Flash Point ..................................................................... 2-4 atomizing ............................................................. 1-3
Flow Control Valve .......................................................... 13-13 cold oil ................................................................. 2-8
Flue Heat Loss ............................................................... 16-6 fuel quality tests ................................................... 2-9
Flue Pipe ....................................................................... 6-10, 6-12, 13-3, 14-7 properties of ......................................................... 2-4 - 2-5
Fuel De-Aerators ............................................................ 4-8 refining ................................................................. 2-3
Fuel Degradation ............................................................ 2-7 service calls, fuel related ...................................... 2-6
Fuel Units and Oil Valves ............................................... 4-3, 4-10 stability ................................................................ 2-7
components ......................................................... 4-3 Heating System ............................................................. 13-3 - 13-14
function ................................................................ 4-4 air leaks ............................................................... 16-7
noise .................................................................... 4-17 hot water .............................................................. 13-7
pressure test ........................................................ 4-12, 4-25 radiant .................................................................. 13-12
replacement ......................................................... 4-16 tune-up ................................................................ 16-15
servicing/testing ................................................... 4-10, 4-13, 4-24 High Limit Control ........................................................... 12-9
single-stage .......................................................... 4-4 Hot Water, Domestic ...................................................... 13-17
strainer/gasket ..................................................... 4-3 back flow preventer .............................................. 13-21
troubleshooting chart ............................................ 4-22 components ......................................................... 13-20
two-stage fuel unit ................................................ 4-6 direct-fired ............................................................ 13-18
vacuum test ......................................................... 4-10, 4-12 external tankless coils .......................................... 13-19
Furnaces ........................................................................... 12-22 indirect fired ......................................................... 13-18
counterflow .......................................................... 13-4 indirect storage .................................................... 13-20, 13-21
distribution system ............................................... 13-5, 13-6 piping ................................................................... 13-10
highboy ................................................................ 13-4 radiation ............................................................... 13-11
horizontal ............................................................. 13-5 radiators ............................................................... 13-11
lowboy ................................................................. 13-4 tankless coil ......................................................... 13-19
replacement ......................................................... 13-6, 16-14 Hot Water Limit Controls ................................................ 12-17
stack connections ................................................ 6-12 Hydro Air Fan Controls ................................................... 12-20, 12-21
troubleshooting ..................................................... 13-5 13-6
warm air ............................................................... 13-3 Ignition ........................................................................... 9-3, 13-3, 13-9
Fuses ............................................................................ 8-24 cables .................................................................. 9-11
delayed ignition .................................................... 9-17
Gauge Glass .................................................................. 13-17 intermittent ........................................................... 9-4, 9-6, 9-15
Heat Anticipating Principle ............................................. 12-6 interrupted ............................................................ 9-4, 9-7, 9-15
Heat Exchanger ............................................................. 7-27, 13-3, 13-9 modes .................................................................. 11-5
Heat Loss ...................................................................... 16-4 service problems/troubleshooting .......................... 9-13, 9-16
air leaks ............................................................... 16-7 solid state ............................................................ 9-3, 9-9
excessive firing rates ........................................... 16-8 testing .................................................................. 9-10, 9-12
in older units ........................................................ 16-7 transformer .......................................................... 9-3, 9-4, 9-6
off-cycle ............................................................... 16-4, 16-6 wiring ................................................................... 9-6
on-cycle ............................................................... 16-4, 16-5 Ignition Point .................................................................. 2-5
pipe and duct ....................................................... 16-9, 16-14 Ignitors ........................................................................... 9-9, 9-10
XVOilheat Technicians Manual

Immersion Aquastat ....................................................... 12-19 metering ............................................................... 5-4

Indirect Fired Water Heating ........................................... 13-18, 13-19 nozzle line pre-heater ........................................... 5-13
Intermittent Duty ............................................................ 11-5 patterning ............................................................. 5-4
Interrupted Duty ............................................................. 11-5 pressure ............................................................... 5-4, 5-10
replacement ......................................................... 5-9
Jacket Heat Loss ........................................................... 16-9 selecting the right nozzle ...................................... 5-11
Limit Controls ................................................................. 12-3, 12-8, 12-10 spray angles ........................................................ 5-7
fan and limit controls ............................................ 12-8, 12-10 spray droplets ...................................................... 5-5
fan switch ............................................................ 12-9 spray patterns ...................................................... 5-5
testing .................................................................. 12-24 thermal stability (coke) ......................................... 5-14
troubleshooting ..................................................... 12-13 tools ..................................................................... 5-10, 7-19
Lock Out Tag Out ........................................................... 8-27 viscosity .............................................................. 5-11
Low Voltage and Line Voltage Thermostats ...................... 12-6
Low Water Cutoff ........................................................... 12-16 Ohms ............................................................................ 8-4, 10-12
Ohms Law ..................................................................... 8-7
Magnetism, Electricity .................................................... 8-14 Ohmmeter ...................................................................... 8-21, 8-22, 10-12
Main Vents ..................................................................... 13-17 Oil Lines ......................................................................... 3-11
Mercury Tube Pressure Switch ....................................... 12-15 air in oil lines ........................................................ 4-14
Motors ........................................................................... 10-3 filters ................................................................... 2-10, 3-11
amperage ............................................................. 10-5 frozen oil lines ...................................................... 2-8
circuits ................................................................. 10-9 leak test ............................................................... 4-15
components ......................................................... 10-3 leaks .................................................................... 4-17
diagnosing motor troubles ..................................... 10-6 noise .................................................................... 4-17
oiling .................................................................... 10-4 replacing .............................................................. 2-12
overload, causes of .............................................. 10-5, 10-7 Oil Tanks and Piping ....................................................... 3-3
replacement ......................................................... 10-13 One Pipe System .......................................................... 4-6, 13-10, 13-16
reverse rotation .................................................... 10-7 Outdoor Air Infiltration .................................................... 16-10
testing chart ......................................................... 10-9 Outside Air Kit ............................................................... 6-12
troubleshooting ..................................................... 10-10, 10-11, 10-16 Overload Circuits ........................................................... 8-23
windings ............................................................... 10-3, 10-12 Overload/Thermal Switch ............................................... 10-6, 10-7
wiring ................................................................... 10-5, 10-7, 10-15
Multimeter ...................................................................... 8-18, 10-11, 10-12 Panel Heating Systems ................................................. 13-12
Piston ............................................................................ 4-3, 4-5
Nozzles .......................................................................... 5-3 Plenums ......................................................................... 13-5
after-drip .............................................................. 5-14 Plug or Cap .................................................................... 3-11
air-oil mixing ......................................................... 5-10 Pour Point ...................................................................... 2-5
anti-drip valve ....................................................... 5-16 Power-Venting ................................................................ 6-15, 6-17, 6-18
capacities ............................................................ 5-5 Pressure Control Siphon Loop ........................................ 12-15
care and service ................................................... 5-9 Pressure Control Wiring ................................................. 12-16
construction ......................................................... 5-3 Pressure Reducing Valve ................................................ 13-13, 13-21
double filtration ..................................................... 5-8 5-12 Pressure Relief Valve ..................................................... 13-13
droplet size vs. oil temperature ............................. 5-12 Pressuretrol ................................................................... 12-14
flow rates ............................................................. 5-6, 5-8, 5-12 Primary Air ..................................................................... 1-9
how it works ........................................................ 5-4 Primary Controls ............................................................ 11-3
Oilheat Technicians ManualXVI

Index
Primary Controlscontinued Shaft ............................................................................ 4-4

cad cell ................................................................ 11-4, 11-7,11-8, 11-11 Short-Cycling ................................................................. 13-7
Carlin ................................................................... 11-14 Sludge ........................................................................... 2-6, 2-7, 3-3
functions .............................................................. 11-3 Smoke ........................................................................... 7-6, 7-16
Honeywell ............................................................ 11-20 smoke scale ........................................................ 7-6, 7-17
intermittent ........................................................... 11-5 smoke tester pump .............................................. 7-18
interrupted ............................................................ 11-5, 11-12 smoke vs. CO2 curve ........................................... 7-17
line voltage ........................................................... 11-3 Solenoid Valve ................................................................ 8-14
lock-out ................................................................ 11-5 Solid State Ignitor .......................................................... 9-3, 9-8, 9-9
microprocessor based .......................................... 4-20, 11-13 Spring Clips ................................................................... 9-11
safety check ........................................................ 11-7, 11-11 Stack Relay/Stack Switch ............................................. 11-5, 11-6, 11-7
reset .................................................................... 11-13 Stack Temperature ......................................................... 7-12, 7-24
Riello ................................................................... 11-16 Stack Thermometer ........................................................ 7-14
terms ................................................................... 11-12 - 11-13 Start Switch ................................................................... 10-4, 10-5, 10-7
timing ................................................................... 11-7 Start Windings ............................................................... 10-3
troubleshooting ..................................................... 11-10, 11-18 Stator ............................................................................ 10-3
types ................................................................... 11-5 Steady State .................................................................. 7-12, 7-24
venting and bleeding ............................................. 4-10 Steam Boilers ................................................................ 13-15
wiring ................................................................... 11-4, 11-6, 11-8 low-water cutoff ................................................... 12-13
PSC Motor ..................................................................... 10-9, 10-11, 10-17 pressure controls ................................................. 12-12, 13-13
PSI ............................................................................ 4-4 system controls ................................................... 13-17
Pulleys ........................................................................... 10-14 Steam Heating Systems ................................................ 13-15
Pulley Belts ................................................................... 10-15 cleaning ............................................................... 13-17
Pump Noise ................................................................... 4-17 maintenance ........................................................ 14-8
Pump Strainers .............................................................. 4-16 one-pipe ............................................................... 13-16, 13-17
Pumps with Integral Solenoid Valves .............................. 4-10 piping ................................................................... 13-16
steam pressure .................................................... 13-15
Radiant Heating .............................................................. 13-12 vents ................................................................... 13-17
Radiation ........................................................................ 13-11 Strainer Screen .............................................................. 4-4
Resistance, measuring ................................................... 8-20 Static Pressure .............................................................. 1-9
Return Line ..................................................................... 4-15 Sulfur ............................................................................ 2-6, 7-6
Reverse Acting Aquastat ............................................... 12-18 Switches, Electrical ....................................................... 8-6, 8-15
Reverse Rotation of Burner Motor Wires ........................ 10-7, 10-8 Switching Relay ............................................................. 12-19, 12-20
Run Windings ................................................................. 10-4
Tanks ............................................................................ 2-14
Sales, New Equipment ................................................... 16-16, 17-3, 17-4 above ground ....................................................... 3-6
Safety ............................................................................ 14-3 cleaning ............................................................... 2-14
Secondary Air ................................................................ 1-9 corrosion .............................................................. 3-3
Series Loop .................................................................... 13-10 indoor ................................................................... 3-5
Service, Fuel Related ..................................................... 2-6 inspection ............................................................ 3-11 to 3-21
Service, Heating System ............................................... 16-15 installation ............................................................ 3-10
Service Calls, Hot Tips ................................................... 16-17 locations .............................................................. 3-5
Service Procedures ........................................................ 15-3 maintenance ........................................................ 2-14
troubleshooting ..................................................... 15-7, 15-14 noise .................................................................... 4-17
XVIIOilheat Technicians Manual

piping ................................................................... 3-10 vacuum test ......................................................... 4-14, 4-15, 4-24

replacement ......................................................... 2-14, 3-5 Vacuum Relief Valves ..................................................... 13-20
sizes .................................................................... 3-5 Valves ............................................................................ 4-10
types ................................................................... 3-8 - 3-9 anti-siphon valve .................................................. 4-20
underground ......................................................... 3-7 electric zone valves ............................................. 13-15
water problems .................................................... 3-4 flow control .......................................................... 13-13
Tanks, Evaluation Forms ................................................ 3-13 foot valve ............................................................. 4-21
Tempering/Mixing Valve .................................................. 13-21 mixing .................................................................. 13-21
Tertiary Air ..................................................................... 1-9 oil safety valve ..................................................... 4-20
Thermal-mechanical Control ........................................... 11-5 pressure reducing ................................................. 13-13, 13-21
Thermal/Motor Overload Switch ..................................... 10-6 pressure-regulating ............................................... 4-5
Thermistor ...................................................................... 12-18 pressure relief ...................................................... 13-13
Thermostats ................................................................... 12-5 relief valve ........................................................... 13-17, 13-20
3 wire vs. 2 wire ................................................... 12-5 servicing .............................................................. 4-20
connections .......................................................... 11-6 solenoid oil valves ................................................ 4-3, 4-18, 4-20, 8-14
electronic ............................................................. 12-7 tempering ............................................................. 13-21
location ................................................................ 12-7 thermal safety valve ............................................. 3-11, 4-21
low voltage/line voltage ........................................ 12.-6 vacuum relief valves ............................................ 13-20
mounting .............................................................. 12-8 Vaporstat ....................................................................... 12-14
troubleshooting ..................................................... 12-13 Vent Alarms ................................................................... 3-10
Tools ............................................................................ 14-4 Vent Pipes ..................................................................... 3-10
Total Gear Set Capacity ................................................. 4-5 Viscosity ........................................................................ 2-5, 5-12
Transformers .................................................................. 9-4 Voltage ........................................................................... 9-5, 9-8
construction ......................................................... 9-6 Voltmeter ....................................................................... 8-18, 8-22
iron core ............................................................... 8-16, 9-8 Volts ............................................................................ 8-4
replacement ......................................................... 9-6 measuring ............................................................ 8-18
testing equipment ................................................. 9-8, 9-9
wiring ................................................................... 9-6 Warm Air Systems ........................................................ 13-3
Triple Acting Aquastat Relays ........................................ 12-22 blowers ................................................................ 13-3
Trunks ............................................................................ 13-6 duct system ......................................................... 13-5 - 13-6
Tune-ups ........................................................................ 14-3 furnaces ............................................................... 13-3
cleaning ............................................................... 14-7 troubleshooting ..................................................... 13-6
procedures ........................................................... 14-5 Warm Air Circuit ............................................................ 12-11
safety .................................................................. 14-3 Warm Air Ducts ............................................................. 16-10, 16-15
tools ..................................................................... 14-4 Warm Air Fans/Blowers ................................................. 10-14
Turbulators ..................................................................... 13-9 Warm Air Motors ............................................................ 10-14
Two Pipe System ........................................................... 4-6, 13-8, 13-10 Warm Air Limit Controls ................................................. 12-8, 12-11
Underground Fill Pipes ................................................... 2-7 Water Heater
components ......................................................... 13-20
Vacuum .......................................................................... 4-4, 4-5, 4-13 stack connections ................................................ 6-12, 6-13
pump vacuum check ............................................ 4-25 Water Problems ............................................................. 2-7
vacuum gauge ...................................................... 4-5 Watts ............................................................................ 8-5
vacuum power bleed ............................................ 4-11 Zone Valves ................................................................... 13-15
vacuum reading .................................................... 4-5 Zoning ............................................................................ 13-14
Oilheat Technicians ManualXVIII

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A big thanks goes to:

II Oilheat Technicians Manual

Oilheat Technicians Manual III

Chapter 1 Introduction to Oilburners -------------------- 1-3

Chapter 2 Heating Oil and Its Properties ---------------- 2-3

Chapter 3 Oil Tanks and Piping ----------------------------- 3-3

Chapter 4 Fuel Units and Oil Valves ----------------------- 4-3

Chapter 5 Nozzles and Combustion Chambers ------ 5-3

Chapter 6 Draft and Venting --------------------------------- 6-3

Chapter 7 Combustion ---------------------------------------- 7-3

Chapter 8 Basic Electricity ----------------------------------- 8-3

Chapter 9 Ignition Systems ---------------------------------- 9-3

Chapter 10 Motors ------------------------------------------------------- 10-3

Chapter 11 Primary Controls ----------------------------------------- 11-3

Chapter 12 Limit Controls and Thermostats -------------------- 12-3

Chapter 13 Heating Systems ----------------------------------------- 13-3

Chapter 14 Preventative Maintenance Tune-Ups -------------- 14-3

Chapter 15 Service Procedures ------------------------------------- 15-3

Chapter 16 Energy Conservation ---------------------------------- 16-3

Chapter 17 Customer Service --------------------------------------- 17-3

Oilheat Technicians Manual V

The oilburner (6)6 contains a pump (7) 7

Additional chapters also cover heating

Introduction small droplets that are vaporized and

the oil vapor with the proper amount of air.

High pressure atomizing

Chapter 1Introduction to Oil Burners 1-3

area back toward it. This recirculation is

1-4 Introduction to Oil Burners

Non-flame Retention Flame Retention Figure 1-4:

Non-Flame Retention Combustion Flame Retention Combustion

Chapter 1Introduction to Oil Burners 1-5

1-6 Introduction to Oil Burners

Chapter 1Introduction to Oil Burners 1-7

1-8 Introduction to Oil Burners

Chapter 1Introduction to Oil Burners 1-9

1-10 Introduction to Oil Burners

Introduction to petroleum Refining oil

Some Petroleum Products

Chapter 2Heating Oil and Its Properties 2-3

No. 2 Distillate Heavy Light

Additive Hydro Preheater

2-4 Heating Oil and Its Properties

for No.1 and No.2 oil is

Pour point temperature decreases, viscosity increases.

Chapter 2Heating Oil and Its Properties 2-5

performance will be affected until Color

2-6 Heating Oil and Its Properties

Presence of Gels caused by 2. Broken tank gauge (outside tank)

Chapter 2Heating Oil and Its Properties 2-7

To reduce sludge formation: temperature of the oil goes down, the

2-8 Heating Oil and Its Properties

Quick tests good fuel. The purpose of this test is

Chapter 2Heating Oil and Its Properties 2-9

2-10 Heating Oil and Its Properties

nozzle. There are two approaches to

Chapter 2Heating Oil and Its Properties 2-11

an immaculately clean tank. Also, sludge is

2-12 Heating Oil and Its Properties